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who sang the original song what if god was one of us | One of Us (Joan Osborne song) - wikipedia
"One of Us '' is a song written by Eric Bazilian (of The Hooters) and originally released by Joan Osborne. Released in March 1995 on the album Relish and produced by Rick Chertoff, it became a top 40 hit in November of that year. The song is the theme song for the American television series Joan of Arcadia. The song was nominated for three Grammys and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100.
In an interview, Bazilian said, "I wrote (' One of Us ') one night -- the quickest song I ever wrote -- to impress a girl. Which worked, because we 're married and have two kids. But we were in the middle of writing Joan 's album, which was a group effort with Rick Chertoff and Joan and Rob and I, and I did a demo of ' One of Us, ' this wacky little demo which I ended up putting as a hidden track on the CD of my first solo record, and I played (it) for them. And it really had n't even occurred to me that it was something that Joan might do, but Rick, in his wisdom, asked Joan if she thought she could sing it. And I think it was better that he asked it that way rather than ' Do you want to sing it? ' Because the answer to that might not have been yes. But she definitely said she could sing it, and we did a little live demo of a guitar and her singing it. And when I got into my car and popped the cassette in, I started practicing the Grammy speech that I should 've gotten to give. ''
The song deals with various aspects of belief in God by asking questions inviting the listener to consider how they might relate to God, such as "Would you call (God 's name) to his face? '' or "Would you want to see (God 's face) if seeing meant that you would have to believe in things like heaven and in Jesus and the saints and all the prophets? ''
The album version starts off with the first four lines of a recording titled "The Aeroplane Ride '', made on October 27, 1937 by American folklorist Alan Lomax and his wife Elizabeth for the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress, with Mrs. Nell Hampton of Salyersville, Kentucky singing a variation of the 1928 John S. McConnell hymn "Heavenly Aeroplane ''.
Directed by Mark Seliger and Fred Woodward, the video was mainly shot on Coney Island, with various attractions like rollercoasters, ferris wheels and the New York Aquarium shown, interchanged with the vintage - looking shots in sepia and Joan singing in front of the camera.
Roch Parisien called the song "a simple, direct statement of faith, honest and unadorned, one framed in a near - perfect chorus and delectable Neil Young - ish guitar riff. '' In 2007, the song was ranked at number 54 on "VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s ''. and number 10 on the network 's 40 Greatest One Hit Wonders of the ' 90s.
CD single -- France
CD single -- US
CD maxi single -- Europe
The song received Grammy nominations in 1996 for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, Record of the Year, and Song of the Year.
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who is the vice president if the president dies | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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who served as chairman and ceo of pixar until it became part of disney in 2006 | Pixar - wikipedia
Pixar Animation Studios, commonly referred to as Pixar (/ ˈpɪksɑːr /), is an American computer animation film studio based in Emeryville, California that is a subsidiary of Walt Disney Studios, owned by The Walt Disney Company. Pixar began in 1979 as the Graphics Group, part of the Lucasfilm computer division, before its spin - out as a corporation in 1986, with funding by Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs, who became the majority shareholder. Disney purchased Pixar in 2006 at a valuation of $7.4 billion by converting each share of Pixar stock to 2.3 shares of Disney stock, a transaction that resulted in Jobs becoming Disney 's largest single shareholder at the time. Pixar is best known for CGI - animated feature films created with RenderMan, Pixar 's own implementation of the industry - standard RenderMan image - rendering application programming interface, used to generate high - quality images.
Pixar has produced twenty feature films, beginning with Toy Story (1995), which was the first - ever computer - animated feature film, and its most recent being Incredibles 2 (2018). All 20 of its films have debuted with CinemaScore ratings of at least an "A −, '' indicating positive receptions with audiences. The studio has also produced dozens of short films. As of August 2018, its feature films have earned approximately $13 billion at the worldwide box office, with an average worldwide gross of $634 million per film. Finding Nemo (2003), along with its sequel Finding Dory (2016), as well as Toy Story 3 (2010) and Incredibles 2 (2018) are among the 50 highest - grossing films of all time, with the latter being the third all - time highest - grossing animated film with a gross of $1.142 billion. Fifteen of Pixar 's films are also among the 50 highest - grossing animated films of all time.
The studio has earned nineteen Academy Awards, eight Golden Globe Awards, and eleven Grammy Awards, among many other awards and acknowledgments. Many of Pixar 's films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature since its inauguration in 2001, with nine winning; this includes Finding Nemo and Toy Story 3, along with The Incredibles (2004), Ratatouille (2007), WALL - E (2008), Up (2009), Brave (2012), Inside Out (2015), and Coco (2017). Monsters, Inc. (2001) and Cars (2006) are the only two films that were nominated for the award without winning it, while Cars 2 (2011), Monsters University (2013), The Good Dinosaur (2015), Finding Dory (2016), and Cars 3 (2017) were not nominated. Up and Toy Story 3 were also the respective second and third animated films to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, the first being Walt Disney Animation Studios ' Beauty and the Beast (1991). Luxo Jr., a character from the studio 's 1986 short film of the same name, is the studio 's mascot.
On September 6, 2009, Pixar executives John Lasseter, Brad Bird, Pete Docter, Andrew Stanton, and Lee Unkrich were presented with the Golden Lion award for Lifetime Achievement by the Venice Film Festival. The award was presented by Lucasfilm 's founder George Lucas.
Pixar got its start in 1974 when New York Institute of Technology 's (NYIT) founder Alexander Schure, who was also the owner of a traditional animation studio, established the Computer Graphics Lab (CGL), recruited computer scientists who shared his ambitions about creating the world 's first computer - animated film. Edwin Catmull and Malcolm Blanchard were the first to be hired and were soon joined by Alvy Ray Smith and David DiFrancesco some months later, which were the four original members of the Computer Graphics Lab. Schure kept pouring money into the computer graphics lab, an estimated $15 million, giving the group everything they desired and driving NYIT into serious financial troubles. Eventually, the group realized they needed to work in a real film studio in order to reach their goal, and when George Lucas approached them and offered them a job at his studio, six employees decided to move over to Lucasfilm. During the following months, they gradually resigned from CGL, found temporary jobs for about a year to avoid making Schure suspicious, before they joined The Graphics Group at Lucasfilm.
The Graphics Group, which was one - third of the Computer Division of Lucasfilm, was launched in 1979 with the hiring of Catmull from NYIT, where he was in charge of the Computer Graphics Lab. He was then reunited with Smith, who also made the journey from NYIT to Lucasfilm, and was made director of The Graphics Group. At NYIT, the researchers pioneered many of the CG foundation techniques -- in particular the invention of the alpha channel (by Catmull and Smith). Years later, the CGL produced a few frames of an experimental film called The Works. After moving to Lucasfilm, the team worked on creating the precursor to RenderMan, called REYES (for "renders everything you ever saw '') and developed a number of critical technologies for CG -- including "particle effects '' and various animation tools.
In 1982, the team began working on special effects film sequences with Industrial Light & Magic. After years of research, and key milestones such as the Genesis Effect in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and the Stained Glass Knight in Young Sherlock Holmes, the group, which then numbered 40 individuals, was spun out as a corporation in February 1986 by Catmull and Smith. Among the 38 remaining employees, there were also Malcolm Blanchard, David DiFrancesco, Ralph Guggenheim, and Bill Reeves, who had been part of the team since the days of NYIT. Tom Duff, also an NYIT member, would later join Pixar after its formation. With Lucas ' 1983 divorce, which coincided with the sudden dropoff in revenues from Star Wars licenses following the release of Return of the Jedi, they knew he would most likely sell the whole Graphics Group. Worried that the employees would be lost to them if that happened, which would prevent the creation of the first computer animated movie, they concluded that the best way to keep the team together was to turn the group into an independent company. But Moore 's Law also said that the first film was still some years away, and they needed to focus on a proper product while waiting for computers to become powerful enough. Eventually, they decided they should be a hardware company in the meantime, with their Pixar Image Computer as the core product, a system primarily sold to government agencies and the scientific and medical community.
In 1983, Nolan Bushnell founded a new computer - guided animation studio called Kadabrascope as a subsidiary of his Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatres company (PTT), which was founded in 1977. Only one major project was made out of the new studio, an animated Christmas movie for NBC starring Chuck E. Cheese and other PTT mascots. The animation movement would be made using tweening instead of traditional cel animation. After the North American Video Game Crash of 1983, Bushnell started selling some subsidiaries of PTT to keep the business afloat. Sente Technologies (another division, was founded to have games distributed in PTT stores) was sold to Bally Games and Kadabrascope was sold to LucasFilm. The Kadabrascope assets were combined with the Computer Division of LucasFilm. Coincidentally, one of Steve Jobs ' first jobs was under Bushnell in 1973 as a technician at his other company Atari, which Bushnell sold to Warner Communications in 1976 to focus on PTT. PTT would later go bankrupt in 1985 and be acquired by ShowBiz Pizza Place.
The newly independent Pixar (1986) was headed by Edwin Catmull as President and Alvy Ray Smith as Executive Vice President. While looking for investors, Steve Jobs showed interest, but initially Lucas found his offer too low. Yet he eventually accepted after it turned out to be impossible to find other investors. At that point Smith and Catmull had been turned down 45 times; thirty - five venture capitalists and 10 large corporations had declined. Jobs, who had recently been fired from Apple, and was now founder and CEO of the new computer company NeXT, paid $5 million of his own money to George Lucas for technology rights and invested $5 million cash as capital into the company, joining the board of directors as chairman.
In 1985, while still at Lucasfilm, they had made a deal with the Japanese publisher Shogakukan to make a computer animated movie called Monkey, based on the Monkey King. The project continued some time after they became a separate company in 1986, but in the end it became clear that the technology was simply not there yet. The computers were not powerful enough and the budget would be too high. So it was decided to focus on the computer hardware business some more years while waiting till Moore 's law made a computer animated feature possible.
At the time Walt Disney Studios was interested and eventually bought and used the Pixar Image Computer and custom software written by Pixar as part of their Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) project, to migrate the laborious ink and paint part of the 2D animation process to a more automated method.
In a bid to drive sales of the system and increase the company 's capital, Jobs suggested to make the system available to mainstream users and released the product to the market. Pixar employee John Lasseter, who had long been working on not - for - profit short demonstration animations, such as Luxo Jr. (1986) to show off the device 's capabilities, premiered his creations at SIGGRAPH, the computer graphics industry 's largest convention, to great fanfare.
However, the Image Computer never sold well. Inadequate sales threatened to put the company out of business as financial losses grew. Jobs invested more and more money in exchange for an increased stake in the company, reducing the proportion of management and employee ownership until eventually, his total investment of $50 million gave him control of the entire company. In 1989, Lasseter 's growing animation department, originally composed of just four people (Lasseter, Bill Reeves, Eben Ostby, and Sam Leffler), was turned into a division that produced computer - animated commercials for outside companies. In April 1990, Pixar sold its hardware division, including all proprietary hardware technology and imaging software, to Vicom Systems, and transferred 18 of Pixar 's approximately 100 employees. That same year, Pixar moved from San Rafael to Richmond, California to Burbank, California. Pixar released some of its software tools on the open market for Macintosh and Windows systems. RenderMan was one of the leading 3D packages of the early 1990s, and Typestry was a special - purpose 3D text renderer that competed with RayDream addDepth.
During this period Pixar continued its successful relationship with Walt Disney Feature Animation, a studio whose corporate parent would ultimately become its most important partner. As 1991 began, however, the layoff of 30 employees in the company 's computer hardware department -- including the company 's president, Chuck Kolstad, reduced the total number of employees to just 42, essentially its original number. Yet Pixar made a historic $26 million deal with Disney to produce three computer - animated feature films, the first of which was Toy Story. By then the software programmers, who were doing RenderMan and IceMan, and Lasseter 's animation department, which made television commercials (and four Luxo Jr. shorts for Sesame Street the same year), were all that remained of Pixar.
Despite the total income from these projects the company continued to lose money and Jobs, as chairman of the board and now the full owner, often considered selling it. Even as late as 1994 Jobs contemplated selling Pixar to other companies such as Hallmark Cards, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, and Oracle CEO and co-founder Larry Ellison. Only after learning from New York critics that Toy Story would probably be a hit -- and confirming that Disney would distribute it for the 1995 Christmas season -- did he decide to give Pixar another chance. For the first time, he also took an active leadership role in the company and made himself CEO. Toy Story went on to gross more than $373 million worldwide and, when Pixar held its initial public offering on November 29, 1995, it exceeded Netscape 's as the biggest IPO of the year. In only its first half - hour of trading Pixar stock shot from $22 to $45, delaying trading because of un-matched buy orders. Shares climbed to $49 before closing the day at $39.
During the 1990s and 2000s, Pixar gradually developed the "Pixar Braintrust, '' the studio 's primary creative development process, in which all directors, writers, and lead storyboard artists at the studio look at each other 's projects on a regular basis and give each other very candid "notes '' (the industry term for constructive criticism). The Braintrust operates under a philosophy of a "filmmaker - driven studio, '' in which creatives help each other move their films forward through a process somewhat like peer review, as opposed to the traditional Hollywood approach of an "executive - driven studio '' in which directors are micromanaged through "mandatory notes '' from development executives ranking above the producers. According to Catmull, it evolved out of the working relationship between Lasseter, Stanton, Docter, Unkrich, and Joe Ranft on Toy Story.
As a result of the success of Toy Story, Pixar built a new studio at the Emeryville campus which was designed by PWP Landscape Architecture and opened in November 2000.
Pixar and Disney had disagreements over the production of Toy Story 2. Originally intended as a straight - to - video release (and thus not part of Pixar 's three - picture deal), the film was eventually upgraded to a theatrical release during production. Pixar demanded that the film then be counted toward the three - picture agreement, but Disney refused. Though profitable for both, Pixar later complained that the arrangement was not equitable. Pixar was responsible for creation and production, while Disney handled marketing and distribution. Profits and production costs were split 50 - 50, but Disney exclusively owned all story, character and sequel rights and also collected a 10 - to 15 - percent distribution fee. The lack of story, character and sequel rights was perhaps the most onerous aspect to Pixar and set the stage for a contentious relationship.
The two companies attempted to reach a new agreement for ten months before it fell through in January 2004. The new deal would be only for distribution, as Pixar intended to control production and own the resulting story, character and sequel rights themselves while Disney would own the right of first refusal to distribute any sequels. Pixar also wanted to finance their films on their own and collect 100 percent of the profits, paying Disney only the 10 - to 15 - percent distribution fee. More importantly, as part of any distribution agreement with Disney, Pixar demanded control over films already in production under their old agreement, including Incredibles (2004) and Cars (2006). Disney considered these conditions unacceptable, but Pixar would not concede.
Disagreements between Steve Jobs and then - Disney chairman and CEO Michael Eisner made the negotiations more difficult than they otherwise might have been. They broke down completely in mid-2004, with Disney forming Circle 7 Animation and Jobs declaring that Pixar was actively seeking partners other than Disney. Despite this announcement, Pixar did not enter negotiations with other distributors, although a Warner Bros. spokesperson told CNN, "We would love to be in business with Pixar. They are a great company. '' After a lengthy hiatus, negotiations between the two companies resumed following the departure of Eisner from Disney in September 2005. In preparation for potential fallout between Pixar and Disney, Jobs announced in late 2004 that Pixar would no longer release movies at the Disney - dictated November time frame, but during the more lucrative early summer months. This would also allow Pixar to release DVDs for their major releases during the Christmas shopping season. An added benefit of delaying Cars from November 4, 2005, to June 9, 2006, was to extend the time frame remaining on the Pixar - Disney contract, to see how things would play out between the two companies.
Pending the Disney acquisition of Pixar, the two companies created a distribution deal for the intended 2007 release of Ratatouille, if the acquisition fell through, to ensure that this one film would still be released through Disney 's distribution channels. In contrast to the earlier Pixar deal, Ratatouille was to remain a Pixar property and Disney would have received only a distribution fee. The completion of Disney 's Pixar acquisition, however, nullified this distribution arrangement.
In 2006, Disney ultimately agreed to buy Pixar for approximately $7.4 billion in an all - stock deal. Following Pixar shareholder approval, the acquisition was completed May 5, 2006. The transaction catapulted Jobs, who owned 49.65 % of total share interest in Pixar, to Disney 's largest individual shareholder with 7 %, valued at $3.9 billion, and a new seat on its board of directors. Jobs ' new Disney holdings exceeded holdings belonging to ex-CEO Michael Eisner, the previous top shareholder, who still held 1.7 %; and Disney Director Emeritus Roy E. Disney, who held almost 1 % of the corporation 's shares. Pixar shareholders received 2.3 shares of Disney common stock for each share of Pixar common stock redeemed.
As part of the deal, John Lasseter, by then Executive Vice President, became Chief Creative Officer (reporting directly to President and CEO Robert Iger and consulting with Disney Director Roy E. Disney) of both Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios (including its division Disneytoon Studios), as well as the Principal Creative Adviser at Walt Disney Imagineering, which designs and builds the company 's theme parks. Catmull retained his position as President of Pixar, while also becoming President of Walt Disney Animation Studios, reporting to Iger and Dick Cook, chairman of The Walt Disney Studios. Jobs ' position as Pixar 's chairman and chief executive officer was abolished, and instead, he took a place on the Disney board of directors.
After the deal closed in May 2006, Lasseter revealed that Iger had realized Disney needed to buy Pixar while watching a parade at the opening of Hong Kong Disneyland in September 2005. Iger noticed that of all the Disney characters in the parade, not one was a character that Disney had created within the last ten years since all the newer ones had been created by Pixar. Upon returning to Burbank, Iger commissioned a financial analysis that confirmed that Disney had actually lost money on animation for the past decade, then presented that information to the board of directors at his first board meeting after being promoted from COO to CEO, and the board, in turn, authorized him to explore the possibility of a deal with Pixar. Lasseter and Catmull were wary when the topic of Disney buying Pixar first came up, but Jobs asked them to give Iger a chance (based on his own experience negotiating with Iger in summer 2005 for the rights to ABC shows for the fifth - generation iPod Classic), and in turn, Iger convinced them of the sincerity of his epiphany that Disney really needed to re-focus on animation.
Lasseter and Catmull 's oversight of both the Disney Animation and Pixar studios did not mean that the two studios were merging, however. In fact, additional conditions were laid out as part of the deal to ensure that Pixar remained a separate entity, a concern that analysts had expressed about the Disney deal. Some of those conditions were that Pixar HR policies would remain intact, including the lack of employment contracts. Also, the Pixar name was guaranteed to continue, and the studio would remain in its current Emeryville, California, location with the "Pixar '' sign. Finally, branding of films made post-merger would be "Disney Pixar '' (beginning with Cars).
Jim Morris, producer of WALL - E (2008), became general manager of Pixar. In this new position, Morris took charge of the day - to - day running of the studio facilities and products.
After a few years, Lasseter and Catmull were able to successfully transfer the basic principles of the Pixar Braintrust to Disney Animation, although meetings of the Disney Story Trust are reportedly "more polite '' than those of the Pixar Braintrust. Catmull later explained that after the merger, to maintain the studios ' separate identities and cultures (notwithstanding the fact of common ownership and common senior management), he and Lasseter "drew a hard line '' that each studio was solely responsible for its own projects and would not be allowed to borrow personnel from or lend tasks out to the other. That rule ensures that each studio maintains "local ownership '' of projects and can be proud of its own work. Thus, for example, when Pixar had issues with Ratatouille and Disney Animation had issues with Bolt (2008), "nobody bailed them out '' and each studio was required "to solve the problem on its own '' even when they knew there were personnel at the other studio who theoretically could have helped.
In November 2014, Morris was promoted to president of Pixar, while his counterpart at Disney Animation, general manager Andrew Millstein, was also promoted to president of that studio. Both continue to report to Catmull, who retains the title of president of both Disney Animation and Pixar.
On November 21, 2017, Lasseter announced that he was taking a six - month leave of absence after acknowledging "missteps '' in his behavior with employees in a memo to staff. According to The Hollywood Reporter and The Washington Post, Lasseter had a history of alleged sexual misconduct towards employees. On June 8, 2018, it was announced that Lasseter would leave Disney Animation and Pixar at the end of the year, but would take on a consulting role until then. Pete Docter was announced as Lasseter 's replacement as chief creative officer of Pixar on June 19, 2018.
On April 20, 2010, Pixar opened Pixar Canada in the downtown area of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The roughly 2,000 square meters studio produced seven short films based on Toy Story and Cars characters. In October 2013, the studio was closed down to refocus Pixar 's efforts at its main headquarters.
When Steve Jobs, chief executive officer of Apple Inc. and Pixar, and John Lasseter, then the executive vice president of Pixar, decided to move their studios from a leased space in Point Richmond, California, to larger quarters of their own, they chose a 20 - acre site in Emeryville, California, formerly occupied by Del Monte Foods, Inc. The first of several buildings, a high - tech structure designed by Bohlin Cywinski Jackson, has special foundations and generators to ensure continued film production, even through major earthquakes. The character of the building is intended to abstractly recall Emeryville 's industrial past. The two - story steel - and - masonry building is a collaborative space with many pathways.
The digital revolution in film making was driven by applied mathematics, including computational physics and geometry. In 2008, this led Pixar senior scientist Tony DeRose to offer to host the second Julia Robinson Mathematics Festival at the Emeryville headquarters.
While some of Pixar 's first animators were former cel animators, including John Lasseter, they also came from computer animation or were fresh college graduates. A large number of animators that make up the animation department at Pixar were hired around the time the studio released A Bug 's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001), and Finding Nemo (2003). Although Toy Story was a successful film, it was Pixar 's first feature film at the time, becoming the first major computer - animation studio to successfully produce theatrical feature films. The majority of the animation industry was (and still is) located in Los Angeles while Pixar is located 350 miles (560 km) north in the San Francisco Bay Area. Also, traditional hand - drawn animation was still the dominant medium for feature animated films.
With the scarcity of Los Angeles - based animators willing to move their families so far north, give up traditional animation, and try computer animation, Pixar 's new hires at this time either came directly from college or had worked outside feature animation. For those who had traditional animation skills, the Pixar animation software Marionette was designed so that traditional animators would require a minimum amount of training before becoming productive.
In an interview with PBS talk show host Tavis Smiley, Lasseter said that Pixar 's films follow the same theme of self - improvement as the company itself has: with the help of friends or family, a character ventures out into the real world and learns to appreciate his friends and family. At the core, Lasseter said, "it 's got ta be about the growth of the main character and how he changes. ''
As of 2018, every Pixar feature film produced for Disney has included a character voiced by John Ratzenberger, who had famously starred in the TV show Cheers. Pixar paid tribute to their "good luck charm '' in the end credits of Cars (2006) by parodying scenes from three of their earlier films, replacing all of the characters with motor vehicles. After the third scene, Mack (his character in Cars) realizes that the same actor has been voicing characters in every film.
Due to the traditions that have occurred within the film, such as anthropomorphic animals and easter egg crossovers between movies that have been spotted by fans, a blog post entitled The Pixar Theory was published in 2013 by Jon Negroni proposing that all of the characters within the Pixar universe were related.
Toy Story 2 was originally commissioned by Disney as a 60 - minute direct - to - video release. Expressing doubts about the strength of the material, John Lasseter convinced the Pixar team to start from scratch and make the sequel their third full - length feature film.
Following the release of Toy Story 2 in 1999, Pixar and Disney had a gentlemen 's agreement that Disney would not make any sequels without Pixar 's involvement, despite their own right to do so. After the two companies were unable to agree on a new deal, Disney announced in 2004 they would plan to move forward on sequels with / without Pixar, and put Toy Story 3 into pre-production at Disney 's new CGI division Circle 7 Animation. However, when Lasseter was placed in charge of all Disney and Pixar animation following the 2006 merger of the companies, he put all sequels on hold and Toy Story 3 was cancelled. In May 2006, it was announced that Toy Story 3 was back in pre-production with a new plot and under Pixar 's control. The film was released on June 18, 2010, as Pixar 's eleventh feature film.
Shortly after announcing the resurrection of Toy Story 3, Lasseter fueled speculation on further sequels by saying, "If we have a great story, we 'll do a sequel. '' Cars 2, Pixar 's first non-Toy Story sequel, was officially announced in April 2008 and released on June 24, 2011, as their twelfth. Monsters University, a prequel to Monsters, Inc. (2001), was announced in April 2010 and initially set for release in November 2012; the release date was pushed to June 21, 2013, due to Pixar 's past success with summer releases, according to a Disney executive.
In June 2011, Tom Hanks, who voiced Woody in the Toy Story series, implied that Toy Story 4 was "in the works, '' although it had not yet been confirmed by the studio. In April 2013, Finding Dory, a sequel to Finding Nemo, was announced for a June 17, 2016 release. In March 2014, Incredibles 2 and Cars 3 were announced as films in development. In November 2014, Toy Story 4 was confirmed to be in development with Lasseter serving as director. In an interview, Lasseter stated that "(a) lot of people in the industry view us doing sequels as being for the business of it, but for us, it 's pure passion... One of the things that was very important for me as an artist is to continue directing. When I direct, I get to work with the individual artists, with the animators. '' In August 2015, at the D23 Expo, Lasseter said that the film would focus on the romance between Woody and Bo Peep. Its story will be built on the fact that Bo Peep was absent in Toy Story 3, with Woody and Buzz Lightyear trying to find her and bring her back.
Toy Story was the first Pixar film to be adapted onto television, with the Buzz Lightyear of Star Command film and TV series. Cars became the second with the help of Cars Toons, a series of 3 - to - 5 - minute short films running between regular Disney Channel shows and featuring Mater (a tow truck voiced by comedian Larry the Cable Guy). Between 2013 and 2014, Pixar released its first two television specials, Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot. A television series spin - off of Monsters, Inc. was confirmed in a Disney press release in November 2017.
All Pixar films to date have been computer - animated features, but WALL - E so far has been the only Pixar film to not be completely animated, as it featured a small amount of live - action footage. 1906, the live - action film by Brad Bird based on a screenplay and novel by James Dalessandro about the 1906 earthquake, was in development but has since been abandoned by Bird and Pixar. Bird has stated that he was "interested in moving into the live - action realm with some projects '' while "staying at Pixar (because) it 's a very comfortable environment for me to work in ''.
The Toy Story Toons short Hawaiian Vacation also includes the fish and shark as live - action.
Jim Morris, general manager of Pixar, produced Disney 's John Carter (2012), which Pixar 's Andrew Stanton co-wrote and directed.
Pixar assisted in the story development of Disney 's The Jungle Book (2016), as well as providing suggestions for the film 's end credits sequence.
Pixar representatives have also assisted in the English localization of several Studio Ghibli films, mainly those from Hayao Miyazaki.
In November 2014, it was announced that John Lasseter would direct Toy Story 4, scheduled for release on June 21, 2019. However, in July 2017, it was announced that Lasseter had stepped down as director, with Josh Cooley serving as sole director.
Two untitled Pixar films have been scheduled for March 6 and June 19, 2020, which are said to be original projects.
In April 2017, another untitled upcoming film was announced and slated for a June 18, 2021 release. In July 2017, it was announced that Dan Scanlon will direct an original film about a "suburban fantasy world '' in which two teenaged brothers search for their missing father.
In March 2018, two more untitled films were announced and scheduled for March 18 and June 17, 2022.
The Pixar Co-op Program, a part of the Pixar University professional development program, allows their animators to use Pixar resources to produce independent films. The first CGI project accepted to the program was Borrowed Time (2016); all previously accepted films were live - action.
Since December 2005, Pixar has held exhibitions celebrating the art and artists of Pixar, over their first twenty years in animation.
Pixar celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2006 with the release of Pixar 's seventh feature film, Cars, and held two exhibitions, from April to June 2010, at Science Centre Singapore, in Jurong East, Singapore, and the London Science Museum, London. It was their first time holding an exhibition in Singapore.
The exhibition highlights consist of work - in - progress sketches from various Pixar productions, clay sculptures of their characters, and an autostereoscopic short showcasing a 3D version of the exhibition pieces which is projected through four projectors. Another highlight is the Zoetrope, where visitors of the exhibition are shown figurines of Toy Story characters "animated '' in real - life through the zoetrope.
Pixar celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2011 with the release of its twelfth feature film, Cars 2. Pixar had celebrated its 20th anniversary with the first Cars. The Pixar: 25 Years of Animation exhibition was held at the Oakland Museum of California from July 2010 until January 2011. The exhibition tour debuts in Hong Kong and was held at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum in Sha Tin, between March 27 and July 11, 2011. In 2013, the exhibition was held in the EXPO in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. For 6 months from July 6, 2012 until January 6, 2013 the city of Bonn (Germany) hosted the public showing, On November 16, 2013, the exhibition moved to the Art Ludique museum in Paris, France, with a scheduled run until March 2, 2014. The exhibition moved to three Spanish cities later in 2014 and 2015: Madrid (held in CaixaForum from March 21 until June 22), Barcelona (held also in Caixaforum from February until May) and Zaragoza.
Pixar: 25 Years of Animation includes all of the artwork from Pixar: 20 Years of Animation, plus art from Ratatouille, WALL - E, Up, and Toy Story 3.
The Science Behind Pixar is a travelling exhibition that first opened on June 28, 2015, at the Museum of Science in Boston, Massachusetts. It was developed by the Museum of Science in collaboration with Pixar. The exhibit features forty interactive elements that explain the production pipeline at Pixar. They are divided into eight sections, each demonstrating a step in the filmmaking process: Modeling, Rigging, Surfaces, Sets & Cameras, Animation, Simulation, Lighting, and Rendering. Before visitors enter the exhibit, they watch a short video at an introductory theater.
The exhibition closed on January 10, 2016, and moved to the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where it ran from March 12 to September 5. After that, it moved to the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California and was open from October 15, 2016 to April 9, 2017. It made another stop at the Science Museum of Minnesota in St. Paul, Minnesota from May 27 through September 4, 2017.
The exhibition opened in Canada on July 1, 2017 at the TELUS World of Science - Edmonton (TWOSE).
Pixar: The Design of Story was an exhibition held at the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City from October 8, 2015 to September 11, 2016. The museum also hosted a presentation and conversation with John Lasseter on November 12, 2015 entitled "Design By Hand: Pixar 's John Lasseter ''.
Pixar celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2016 and put together another milestone exhibition. The exhibition first appeared at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Tokyo, Japan from March 5, 2016 to May 29, 2016. It subsequently moved to the Nagasaki Prefectural Art Museum, National Museum of History, Dongdaemun Design Plaza, ending on March 5, 2018 at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum.
Coordinates: 37 ° 49 ′ 58 '' N 122 ° 17 ′ 02 '' W / 37.8327 ° N 122.2838 ° W / 37.8327; - 122.2838
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what were the effects of agriculture on stone age society | Stone Age - wikipedia
↑ before Homo (Pliocene)
Paleolithic
Epipaleolithic Mesolithic
Neolithic
The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking.
Stone Age artifacts include tools used by modern humans and by their predecessor species in the genus Homo, and possibly by the earlier partly contemporaneous genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus. Bone tools were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of stone tools in use.
The Stone Age is the first of the three - age system of archaeology, which divides human technological prehistory into three periods:
The Stone Age is contemporaneous with the evolution of the genus Homo, the only exception possibly being the early Stone Age, when species prior to Homo may have manufactured tools. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia, where it is bordered by grasslands. The closest relative among the other living primates, the genus Pan, represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest, where the primates evolved. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia.
Starting from about 4 million years ago (mya) a single biome established itself from South Africa through the rift, North Africa, and across Asia to modern China, which has been called "transcontinental ' savannahstan ' '' recently. Starting in the grasslands of the rift, Homo erectus, the predecessor of modern humans, found an ecological niche as a tool - maker and developed a dependence on it, becoming a "tool equipped savanna dweller. ''
The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks; these are 3.4 million year old and were found in the Lower Awash Valley in Ethiopia. Archaeological discoveries in Kenya in 2015, identifying possibly the oldest known evidence of hominin use of tools to date, have indicated that Kenyanthropus platyops (a 3.2 to 3.5 - million - year - old Pliocene hominin fossil discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999) may have been the earliest tool - users known.
The oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these "Lomekwian '' tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at several sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo - Awash River, which serve to date them. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, which would have been from 2.9 to 2.7 mya. The oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2.6 -- 2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, where previous to their discovery tools were thought to have evolved only in the Pleistocene. Excavators at the locality point out that:
The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown. Fragments of Australopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools.
Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age and began the Bronze Age. The first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age, or more technically the Chalcolithic, "copper - stone '' age. The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age.
The transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. The first evidence of human metallurgy dates to between the 5th and 6th millennium BCE in the archaeological sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac, and Pločnik in modern - day Serbia (a copper axe from 5500 BCE belonging to the Vinca culture), though not conventionally considered part of the Chalcolithic or "Copper Age '', this provides the earliest known example of copper metallurgy. Note the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia. Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife.
In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post -- Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE. The proto - Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance. The Americas notably did not develop a widespread behavior of smelting Bronze or Iron after the Stone Age period, although the technology existed. Stone tool manufacture continued even after the Stone Age ended in a given area. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until well into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.
The terms "Stone Age '', "Bronze Age '', and "Iron Age '' were never meant to suggest that advancement and time periods in prehistory are only measured by the type of tool material, rather than, for example, social organization, food sources exploited, adaptation to climate, adoption of agriculture, cooking, settlement and religion. Like pottery, the typology of the stone tools combined with the relative sequence of the types in various regions provide a chronological framework for the evolution of man and society. They serve as diagnostics of date, rather than characterizing the people or the society.
Lithic analysis is a major and specialised form of archaeological investigation. It involves the measurement of the stone tools to determine their typology, function and the technology involved. It includes scientific study of the lithic reduction of the raw materials, examining how the artifacts were made. Much of this study takes place in the laboratory in the presence of various specialists. In experimental archaeology, researchers attempt to create replica tools, to understand how they were made. Flintknappers are craftsmen who use sharp tools to reduce flintstone to flint tool.
In addition to lithic analysis, the field prehistorian utilizes a wide range of techniques derived from multiple fields. The work of the archaeologist in determining the paleocontext and relative sequence of the layers is supplemented by the efforts of the geologic specialist in identifying layers of rock over geologic time, of the paleontological specialist in identifying bones and animals, of the palynologist in discovering and identifying plant species, of the physicist and chemist in laboratories determining dates by the carbon - 14, potassium - argon and other methods. Study of the Stone Age has never been mainly about stone tools and archaeology, which are only one form of evidence. The chief focus has always been on the society and the physical people who belonged to it.
Useful as it has been, the concept of the Stone Age has its limitations. The date range of this period is ambiguous, disputed, and variable according to the region in question. While it is possible to speak of a general ' stone age ' period for the whole of humanity, some groups never developed metal - smelting technology, so remained in a ' stone age ' until they encountered technologically developed cultures. The term was innovated to describe the archaeological cultures of Europe. It may not always be the best in relation to regions such as some parts of the Indies and Oceania, where farmers or hunter - gatherers used stone for tools until European colonisation began.
The archaeologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries CE, who adapted the three - age system to their ideas, hoped to combine cultural anthropology and archaeology in such a way that a specific contemporaneous tribe can be used to illustrate the way of life and beliefs of the people exercising a specific Stone - Age technology. As a description of people living today, the term stone age is controversial. The Association of Social Anthropologists discourages this use, asserting:
"To describe any living group as ' primitive ' or ' Stone Age ' inevitably implies that they are living representatives of some earlier stage of human development that the majority of humankind has left behind. ''
In the 1920s, South African archaeologists organizing the stone tool collections of that country observed that they did not fit the newly detailed Three - Age System. In the words of J. Desmond Clark,
"It was early realized that the threefold division of culture into Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages adopted in the nineteenth century for Europe had no validity in Africa outside the Nile valley. ''
Consequently, they proposed a new system for Africa, the Three - stage System. Clark regarded the Three - age System as valid for North Africa; in sub-Saharan Africa, the Three - stage System was best. In practice, the failure of African archaeologists either to keep this distinction in mind, or to explain which one they mean, contributes to the considerable equivocation already present in the literature. There are in effect two Stone Ages, one part of the Three - age and the other constituting the Three - stage. They refer to one and the same artifacts and the same technologies, but vary by locality and time.
The three - stage system was proposed in 1929 by Astley John Hilary Goodwin, a professional archaeologist, and Clarence van Riet Lowe, a civil engineer and amateur archaeologist, in an article titled "Stone Age Cultures of South Africa '' in the journal Annals of the South African Museum. By then, the dates of the Early Stone Age, or Paleolithic, and Late Stone Age, or Neolithic (neo = new), were fairly solid and were regarded by Goodwin as absolute. He therefore proposed a relative chronology of periods with floating dates, to be called the Earlier and Later Stone Age. The Middle Stone Age would not change its name, but it would not mean Mesolithic.
The duo thus reinvented the Stone Age. In Sub-Saharan Africa, however, iron - working technologies were either invented independently or came across the Sahara from the north (see iron metallurgy in Africa). The Neolithic was characterized primarily by herding societies rather than large agricultural societies, and although there was copper metallurgy in Africa as well as bronze smelting, archaeologists do not currently recognize a separate Copper Age or Bronze Age. Moreover, the technologies included in those ' stages ', as Goodwin called them, were not exactly the same. Since then, the original relative terms have become identified with the technologies of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, so that they are no longer relative. Moreover, there has been a tendency to drop the comparative degree in favor of the positive: resulting in two sets of Early, Middle and Late Stone Ages of quite different content and chronologies.
By voluntary agreement, archaeologists respect the decisions of the Pan-African Congress of Prehistory, which meets every four years to resolve archaeological business brought before it. Delegates are actually international; the organization takes its name from the topic. Louis Leakey hosted the first one in Nairobi in 1947. It adopted Goodwin and Lowe 's 3 - stage system at that time, the stages to be called Early, Middle and Later.
The problem of the transitions in archaeology is a branch of the general philosophic continuity problem, which examines how discrete objects of any sort that are contiguous in any way can be presumed to have a relationship of any sort. In archaeology, the relationship is one of causality. If Period B can be presumed to descend from Period A, there must be a boundary between A and B, the A -- B boundary. The problem is in the nature of this boundary. If there is no distinct boundary, then the population of A suddenly stopped using the customs characteristic of A and suddenly started using those of B, an unlikely scenario in the process of evolution. More realistically, a distinct border period, the A / B transition, existed, in which the customs of A were gradually dropped and those of B acquired. If transitions do not exist, then there is no proof of any continuity between A and B.
The Stone Age of Europe is characteristically in deficit of known transitions. The 19th and early 20th - century innovators of the modern three - age system recognized the problem of the initial transition, the "gap '' between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. Louis Leakey provided something of an answer by proving that man evolved in Africa. The Stone Age must have begun there to be carried repeatedly to Europe by migrant populations. The different phases of the Stone Age thus could appear there without transitions. The burden on African archaeologists became all the greater, because now they must find the missing transitions in Africa. The problem is difficult and ongoing.
After its adoption by the First Pan African Congress in 1947, the Three - Stage Chronology was amended by the Third Congress in 1955 to include a First Intermediate Period between Early and Middle, to encompass the Fauresmith and Sangoan technologies, and the Second Intermediate Period between Middle and Later, to encompass the Magosian technology and others. The chronologic basis for definition was entirely relative. With the arrival of scientific means of finding an absolute chronology, the two intermediates turned out to be will - of - the - wisps. They were in fact Middle and Lower Paleolithic. Fauresmith is now considered to be a facies of Acheulean, while Sangoan is a facies of Lupemban. Magosian is "an artificial mix of two different periods. ''
Once seriously questioned, the intermediates did not wait for the next Pan African Congress two years hence, but were officially rejected in 1965 (again on an advisory basis) by Burg Wartenstein Conference # 29, Systematic Investigation of the African Later Tertiary and Quaternary, a conference in anthropology held by the Wenner - Gren Foundation, at Burg Wartenstein Castle, which it then owned in Austria, attended by the same scholars that attended the Pan African Congress, including Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey, who was delivering a pilot presentation of her typological analysis of Early Stone Age tools, to be included in her 1971 contribution to Olduvai Gorge, "Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960 -- 1963. ''
However, although the intermediate periods were gone, the search for the transitions continued.
In 1859 Jens Jacob Worsaae first proposed a division of the Stone Age into older and younger parts based on his work with Danish kitchen middens that began in 1851. In the subsequent decades this simple distinction developed into the archaeological periods of today. The major subdivisions of the Three - age Stone Age cross two epoch boundaries on the geologic time scale:
The succession of these phases varies enormously from one region (and culture) to another.
The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "old ''; and λίθος, lithos, "stone '' lit. "old stone '', coined by archaeologist John Lubbock and published in 1865) is the earliest division of the Stone Age. It covers the greatest portion of humanity 's time (roughly 99 % of "human technological history '', where "human '' and "humanity '' are interpreted to mean the genus Homo), extending from 2.5 or 2.6 million years ago, with the first documented use of stone tools by hominans such as Homo habilis, to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BCE. The Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic, or in areas with an early neolithisation, the Epipaleolithic.
At sites dating from the Lower Paleolithic Period (about 2,500,000 to 200,000 years ago), simple pebble tools have been found in association with the remains of what may have been the earliest human ancestors. A somewhat more sophisticated Lower Paleolithic tradition, known as the Chopper chopping - tool industry, is widely distributed in the Eastern Hemisphere. This tradition is thought to have been the work of the hominin species named Homo erectus. Although no such fossil tools have yet been found, it is believed that H. erectus probably made tools of wood and bone as well as stone. About 700,000 years ago, a new Lower Paleolithic tool, the hand ax, appeared. The earliest European hand axes are assigned to the Abbevillian industry, which developed in northern France in the valley of the Somme River; a later, more refined hand - ax tradition is seen in the Acheulian industry, evidence of which has been found in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Some of the earliest known hand axes were found at Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in association with remains of H. erectus. Alongside the hand - axe tradition there developed a distinct and very different stone - tool industry, based on flakes of stone: special tools were made from worked (carefully shaped) flakes of flint. In Europe, the Clactonian industry is one example of a flake tradition. The early flake industries probably contributed to the development of the Middle Paleolithic flake tools of the Mousterian industry, which is associated with the remains of Neanderthal man.
The earliest documented stone tools have been found in eastern Africa, manufacturers unknown, at the 3.3 million year old site of Lomekwi 3 in Kenya. Better known are the later tools belonging to an industry known as Oldowan, after the type site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
The tools were formed by knocking pieces off a river pebble, or stones like it, with a hammerstone to obtain large and small pieces with one or more sharp edges. The original stone is called a core; the resultant pieces, flakes. Typically, but not necessarily, small pieces are detached from a larger piece, in which case the larger piece may be called the core and the smaller pieces the flakes. The prevalent usage, however, is to call all the results flakes, which can be confusing. A split in half is called bipolar flaking.
Consequently, the method is often called "core - and - flake ''. More recently, the tradition has been called "small flake '' since the flakes were small compared to subsequent Acheulean tools.
"The essence of the Oldowan is the making and often immediate use of small flakes. ''
Another naming scheme is "Pebble Core Technology (PBC) '':
"Pebble cores are... artifacts that have been shaped by varying amounts of hard - hammer percussion. ''
Various refinements in the shape have been called choppers, discoids, polyhedrons, subspheroid, etc. To date no reasons for the variants have been ascertained:
"From a functional standpoint, pebble cores seem designed for no specific purpose. ''
However, they would not have been manufactured for no purpose:
"Pebble cores can be useful in many cutting, scraping or chopping tasks, but... they are not particularly more efficient in such tasks than a sharp - edged rock... ''
The whole point of their utility is that each is a "sharp - edged rock '' in locations where nature has not provided any. There is additional evidence that Oldowan, or Mode 1, tools were utilized in "percussion technology ''; that is, they were designed to be gripped at the blunt end and strike something with the edge, from which use they were given the name of choppers. Modern science has been able to detect mammalian blood cells on Mode 1 tools at Sterkfontein, Member 5 East, in South Africa. As the blood must have come from a fresh kill, the tool users are likely to have done the killing and used the tools for butchering. Plant residues bonded to the silicon of some tools confirm the use to chop plants.
Although the exact species authoring the tools remains unknown, Mode 1 tools in Africa were manufactured and used predominantly by Homo habilis. They can not be said to have developed these tools or to have contributed the tradition to technology. They continued a tradition of yet unknown origin. As chimpanzees sometimes naturally use percussion to extract or prepare food in the wild, and may use either unmodified stones or stones that they have split, creating an Oldowan tool, the tradition may well be far older than its current record.
Towards the end of Oldowan in Africa a new species appeared over the range of Homo habilis: Homo erectus. The earliest "unambiguous '' evidence is a whole cranium, KNM - ER 3733 (a find identifier) from Koobi Fora in Kenya, dated to 1.78 mya. An early skull fragment, KNM - ER 2598, dated to 1.9 mya, is considered a good candidate also. Transitions in paleoanthropology are always hard to find, if not impossible, but based on the "long - legged '' limb morphology shared by H. habilis and H. rudolfensis in East Africa, an evolution from one of those two has been suggested.
The most immediate cause of the new adjustments appears to have been an increasing aridity in the region and consequent contraction of parkland savanna, interspersed with trees and groves, in favor of open grassland, dated 1.8 -- 1.7 mya. During that transitional period the percentage of grazers among the fossil species increased from 15 -- 25 % to 45 %, dispersing the food supply and requiring a facility among the hunters to travel longer distances comfortably, which H. erectus obviously had. The ultimate proof is the "dispersal '' of H. erectus "across much of Africa and Asia, substantially before the development of the Mode 2 technology and use of fire... '' H. erectus carried Mode 1 tools over Eurasia.
According to the current evidence (which may change at any time) Mode 1 tools are documented from about 2.6 mya to about 1.5 mya in Africa, and to 0.5 mya outside of it. The genus Homo is known from H. habilis and H. rudolfensis from 2.3 to 2.0 mya, with the latest habilis being an upper jaw from Koobi Fora, Kenya, from 1.4 mya. H. erectus is dated 1.8 -- 0.6 mya.
According to this chronology Mode 1 was inherited by Homo from unknown Hominans, probably Australopithecus and Paranthropus, who must have continued on with Mode 1 and then with Mode 2 until their extinction no later than 1.1 mya. Meanwhile, living contemporaneously in the same regions H. habilis inherited the tools around 2.3 mya. At about 1.9 mya H. erectus came on stage and lived contemporaneously with the others. Mode 1 was now being shared by a number of Hominans over the same ranges, presumably subsisting in different niches, but the archaeology is not precise enough to say which.
Tools of the Oldowan tradition first came to archaeological attention in Europe, where, being intrusive and not well defined, compared to the Acheulean, they were puzzling to archaeologists. The mystery would be elucidated by African archaeology at Olduvai, but meanwhile, in the early 20th century, the term "Pre-Acheulean '' came into use in climatology. C.E.P, Brooks, a British climatologist working in the United States, used the term to describe a "chalky boulder clay '' underlying a layer of gravel at Hoxne, central England, where Acheulean tools had been found. Whether any tools would be found in it and what type was not known. Hugo Obermaier, a contemporary German archaeologist working in Spain, quipped:
"Unfortunately, the stage of human industry which corresponds to these deposits can not be positively identified. All we can say is that it is pre-Acheulean... ''
This uncertainty was clarified by the subsequent excavations at Olduvai; nevertheless, the term is still in use for pre-Acheulean contexts, mainly across Eurasia, that are yet unspecified or uncertain but with the understanding that they are or will turn out to be pebble - tool.
There are ample associations of Mode 2 with H. erectus in Eurasia. H. erectus -- Mode 1 associations are scantier but they do exist, especially in the Far East. One strong piece of evidence prevents the conclusion that only H. erectus reached Eurasia: at Yiron, Israel, Mode 1 tools have been found dating to 2.4 mya, about 0.5 my earlier than the known H. erectus finds. If the date is correct, either another Hominan preceded H. erectus out of Africa or the earliest H. erectus has yet to be found.
After the initial appearance at Gona in Ethiopia at 2.7 mya, pebble tools date from 2.0 mya at Sterkfontein, Member 5, South Africa, and from 1.8 mya at El Kherba, Algeria, North Africa. The manufacturers had already left pebble tools at Yiron, Israel, at 2.4 mya, Riwat, Pakistan, at 2.0 mya, and Renzidong, South China, at over 2 mya. The identification of a fossil skull at Mojokerta, Pernung Peninsula on Java, dated to 1.8 mya, as H. erectus, suggests that the African finds are not the earliest to be found in Africa, or that, in fact, erectus did not originate in Africa after all but on the plains of Asia. The outcome of the issue waits for more substantial evidence. Erectus was found also at Dmanisi, Georgia, from 1.75 mya in association with pebble tools.
Pebble tools are found the latest first in southern Europe and then in northern. They begin in the open areas of Italy and Spain, the earliest dated to 1.6 mya at Pirro Nord, Italy. The mountains of Italy are rising at a rapid rate in the framework of geologic time; at 1.6 mya they were lower and covered with grassland (as much of the highlands still are). Europe was otherwise mountainous and covered over with dense forest, a formidable terrain for warm - weather savanna dwellers. Similarly there is no evidence that the Mediterranean was passable at Gibraltar or anywhere else to H. erectus or earlier hominans. They might have reached Italy and Spain along the coasts.
In northern Europe pebble tools are found earliest at Happisburgh, United Kingdom, from 0.8 mya. The last traces are from Kent 's Cavern, dated 0.5 mya. By that time H. erectus is regarded as having been extinct; however, a more modern version apparently had evolved, Homo heidelbergensis, who must have inherited the tools. He also explains the last of the Acheulean in Germany at 0.4 mya.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries archaeologists worked on the assumptions that a succession of Hominans and cultures prevailed, that one replaced another. Today the presence of multiple hominans living contemporaneously near each other for long periods is accepted as proved true; moreover, by the time the previously assumed "earliest '' culture arrived in northern Europe, the rest of Africa and Eurasia had progressed to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, so that across the earth all three were for a time contemporaneous. In any given region there was a progression from Oldowan to Acheulean, Lower to Upper, no doubt.
The end of Oldowan in Africa was brought on by the appearance of Acheulean, or Mode 2, stone tools. The earliest known instances are in the 1.7 -- 1.6 mya layer at Kokiselei, West Turkana, Kenya. At Sterkfontein, South Africa, they are in Member 5 West, 1.7 -- 1.4 mya. The 1.7 is a fairly certain, fairly standard date. Mode 2 is often found in association with H. erectus. It makes sense that the most advanced tools should have been innovated by the most advanced Hominan; consequently, they are typically given credit for the innovation.
A Mode 2 tool is a biface consisting of two concave surfaces intersecting to form a cutting edge all the way around, except in the case of tools intended to feature a point. More work and planning go into the manufacture of a Mode 2 tool. The manufacturer hits a slab off a larger rock to use as a blank. Then large flakes are struck off the blank and worked into bifaces by hard - hammer percussion on an anvil stone. Finally the edge is retouched: small flakes are hit off with a bone or wood soft hammer to sharpen or resharpen it. The core can be either the blank or another flake. Blanks are ported for manufacturing supply in places where nature has provided no suitable stone.
Although most Mode 2 tools are easily distinguished from Mode 1, there is a close similarity of some Oldowan and some Acheulean, which can lead to confusion. Some Oldowan tools are more carefully prepared to form a more regular edge. One distinguishing criterion is the size of the flakes. In contrast to the Oldowan "small flake '' tradition, Acheulean is "large flake: '' "The primary technological distinction remaining between Oldowan and the Acheulean is the preference for large flakes (> 10 cm) as blanks for making large cutting tools (handaxes and cleavers) in the Acheulean. '' "Large Cutting Tool (LCT) '' has become part of the standard terminology as well.
In North Africa, the presence of Mode 2 remains a mystery, as the oldest finds are from Thomas Quarry in Morocco at 0.9 mya. Archaeological attention, however, shifts to the Jordan Rift Valley, an extension of the East African Rift Valley (the east bank of the Jordan is slowly sliding northward as East Africa is thrust away from Africa). Evidence of use of the Nile Valley is in deficit, but Hominans could easily have reached the palaeo - Jordan river from Ethiopia along the shores of the Red Sea, one side or the other. A crossing would not have been necessary, but it is more likely there than over a theoretical but unproven land bridge through either Gibraltar or Sicily.
Meanwhile, Acheulean went on in Africa past the 1.0 mya mark and also past the extinction of H. erectus there. The last Acheulean in East Africa is at Olorgesailie, Kenya, dated to about 0.9 mya. Its owner was still H. erectus, but in South Africa, Acheulean at Elandsfontein, 1.0 -- 0.6 mya, is associated with Saldanha man, classified as H. heidelbergensis, a more advanced, but not yet modern, descendant most likely of H. erectus. The Thoman Quarry Hominans in Morocco similarly are most likely Homo rhodesiensis, in the same evolutionary status as H. heidelbergensis.
Mode 2 is first known out of Africa at ' Ubeidiya, Israel, a site now on the Jordan River, then frequented over the long term (hundreds of thousands of years) by Homo on the shore of a variable - level palaeo - lake, long since vanished. The geology was created by successive "transgression and regression '' of the lake resulting in four cycles of layers. The tools are located in the first two, Cycles Li (Limnic Inferior) and Fi (Fluviatile Inferior), but mostly in Fi. The cycles represent different ecologies and therefore different cross-sections of fauna, which makes it possible to date them. They appear to be the same faunal assemblages as the Ferenta Faunal Unit in Italy, known from excavations at Selvella and Pieterfitta, dated to 1.6 -- 1.2 mya.
At ' Ubeidiya the marks on the bones of the animal species found there indicate that the manufacturers of the tools butchered the kills of large predators, an activity that has been termed "scavenging ''. There are no living floors, nor did they process bones to obtain the marrow. These activities can not be understood therefore as the only or even the typical economic activity of Hominans. Their interests were selective: they were primarily harvesting the meat of Cervids, which is estimated to have been available without spoiling for up to four days after the kill.
The majority of the animals at the site were of "Palaearctic biogeographic origin ''. However, these overlapped in range on 30 -- 60 % of "African biogeographic origin ''. The biome was Mediterranean, not savanna. The animals were not passing through; there was simply an overlap of normal ranges. Of the Hominans, H. erectus left several cranial fragments. Teeth of undetermined species may have been H. ergaster. The tools are classified as "Lower Acheulean '' and "Developed Oldowan ''. The latter is a disputed classification created by Mary Leakey to describe an Acheulean - like tradition in Bed II at Olduvai. It is dated 1.53 -- 1.27 mya. The date of the tools therefore probably does not exceed 1.5 mya; 1.4 is often given as a date. This chronology, which is definitely later than in Kenya, supports the "out of Africa '' hypothesis for Acheulean, if not for the Hominans.
From Southwest Asia, as the Levant is now called, the Acheulean extended itself more slowly eastward, arriving at Isampur, India, about 1.2 mya. It does not appear in China and Korea until after 1mya and not at all in Indonesia. There is a discernible boundary marking the furthest extent of the Acheulean eastward before 1 mya, called the Movius Line, after its proposer, Hallam L. Movius. On the east side of the line the small flake tradition continues, but the tools are additionally worked Mode 1, with flaking down the sides. In Athirampakkam at Chennai in Tamil Nadu the Acheulean age started at 1.51 mya and it is also prior than North India and Europe.
The cause of the Movius Line remains speculative, whether it represents a real change in technology or a limitation of archeology, but after 1 mya evidence not available to Movius indicates the prevalence of Acheulean. For example, the Acheulean site at Bose, China, is dated 0.803 ± 3K mya. The authors of this chronologically later East Asian Acheulean remain unknown, as does whether it evolved in the region or was brought in.
There is no named boundary line between Mode 1 and Mode 2 on the west; nevertheless, Mode 2 is equally late in Europe as it is in the Far East. The earliest comes from a rock shelter at Estrecho de Quípar in Spain, dated to greater than 0.9 mya. Teeth from an undetermined Hominan were found there also. The last Mode 2 in Southern Europe is from a deposit at Fontana Ranuccio near Anagni in Italy dated to 0.45 mya, which is generally linked to Homo cepranensis, a "late variant of H. erectus '', a fragment of whose skull was found at Ceprano nearby, dated 0.46 mya.
This period is best known as the era during which the Neanderthals lived in Europe and the Near East (c. 300,000 -- 28,000 years ago). Their technology is mainly the Mousterian, but Neanderthal physical characteristics have been found also in ambiguous association with the more recent Châtelperronian archeological culture in Western Europe and several local industries like the Szeletian in Eastern Europe / Eurasia. There is no evidence for Neanderthals in Africa, Australia or the Americas.
Neanderthals nursed their elderly and practised ritual burial indicating an organised society. The earliest evidence (Mungo Man) of settlement in Australia dates to around 40,000 years ago when modern humans likely crossed from Asia by island - hopping. Evidence for symbolic behavior such as body ornamentation and burial is ambiguous for the Middle Paleolithic and still subject to debate. The Bhimbetka rock shelters exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India, some of which are approximately 30,000 years old.
From 50,000 to 10,000 years ago in Europe, the Upper Paleolithic ends with the end of the Pleistocene and onset of the Holocene era (the end of the last ice age). Modern humans spread out further across the Earth during the period known as the Upper Paleolithic.
The Upper Paleolithic is marked by a relatively rapid succession of often complex stone artifact technologies and a large increase in the creation of art and personal ornaments. During period between 35 and 10 kya evolved: from 38 to 30 kya Châtelperronian, 40 -- 28 Aurignacian, 28 -- 22 Gravettian, 22 -- 17 Solutrean, and 18 -- 10 Magdalenian. All of these industries except the Châtelperronian are associated with anatomically modern humans. Authorship of the Châtelperronian is still the subject of much debate.
Most scholars date the arrival of humans in Australia at 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, with a possible range of up to 125,000 years ago. The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of Africa) are those of Mungo Man; they have been dated at 42,000 years old.
The Americas were colonised via the Bering land bridge which was exposed during this period by lower sea levels. These people are called the Paleo - Indians, and the earliest accepted dates are those of the Clovis culture sites, some 13,500 years ago. Globally, societies were hunter - gatherers but evidence of regional identities begins to appear in the wide variety of stone tool types being developed to suit very different environments.
The period starting from the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago, to around 6,000 years ago was characterized by rising sea levels and a need to adapt to a changing environment and find new food sources. The development of Mode 5 (microlith) tools began in response to these changes. They were derived from the previous Paleolithic tools, hence the term Epipaleolithic, or were intermediate between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, hence the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). The choice of a word depends on exact circumstances and the inclination of the archaeologists excavating the site. Microliths were used in the manufacture of more efficient composite tools, resulting in an intensification of hunting and fishing and with increasing social activity the development of more complex settlements, such as Lepenski Vir. Domestication of the dog as a hunting companion probably dates to this period.
The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Egypt known as Cemetery 117.
The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, was approximately characterized by the adoption of agriculture. The shift from food gathering to food producing, in itself one of the most revolutionary changes in human history, was accompanied by the so - called Neolithic Revolution: the development of pottery, polished stone tools, and construction of more complex, larger settlements such as Göbekli Tepe and Çatal Hüyük. Some of these features began in certain localities even earlier, in the transitional Mesolithic. The first Neolithic cultures started around 7000 BCE in the fertile crescent and spread concentrically to other areas of the world; however, the Near East was probably not the only nucleus of agriculture, the cultivation of maize in Meso - America and of rice in the Far East being others.
Due to the increased need to harvest and process plants, ground stone and polished stone artifacts became much more widespread, including tools for grinding, cutting, and chopping. Skara Brae located on Orkney island off Scotland is one of Europe 's best examples of a Neolithic village. The community contains stone beds, shelves and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream. The first large - scale constructions were built, including settlement towers and walls, e.g., Jericho and ceremonial sites, e.g.: Stonehenge. The Ġgantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest surviving free standing structures in the world, erected c. 3600 -- 2500 BCE. The earliest evidence for established trade exists in the Neolithic with newly settled people importing exotic goods over distances of many hundreds of miles.
These facts show that there were sufficient resources and co-operation to enable large groups to work on these projects. To what extent this was a basis for the development of elites and social hierarchies is a matter of ongoing debate. Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, based on the societies of modern tribesmen at an equivalent technological level, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian. A comparison of art in the two ages leads some theorists to conclude that Neolithic cultures were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them.
This period is not to be identified with "Old Stone Age '', a translation of Paleolithic, or with Paleolithic, or with the "Earlier Stone Age '' that originally meant what became the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. In the initial decades of its definition by the Pan-African Congress of Prehistory, it was parallel in Africa to the Upper and Middle Paleolithic. However, since then Radiocarbon dating has shown that the Middle Stone Age is in fact contemporaneous with the Middle Paleolithic. The Early Stone Age therefore is contemporaneous with the Lower Paleolithic and happens to include the same main technologies, Oldowan and Acheulean, which produced Mode 1 and Mode 2 stone tools respectively. A distinct regional term is warranted, however, by the location and chronology of the sites and the exact typology.
The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between Early Stone Age and Late Stone Age. It began around 300,000 years ago and ended around 50,000 years ago. It is considered as an equivalent of European Middle Paleolithic. It is associated with anatomically modern or almost modern Homo sapiens. Early physical evidence comes from Omo and Herto, both in Ethiopia and dated respectively at c. 195 ka and at c. 160 ka.
The Later Stone Age (LSA, sometimes also called the Late Stone Age) refers to a period in African prehistory. Its beginnings are roughly contemporaneous with the European Upper Paleolithic. It lasts until historical times and this includes cultures corresponding to Mesolithic and Neolithic in other regions.
Stone tools were made from a variety of stones. For example, flint and chert were shaped (or chipped) for use as cutting tools and weapons, while basalt and sandstone were used for ground stone tools, such as quern - stones. Wood, bone, shell, antler (deer) and other materials were widely used, as well. During the most recent part of the period, sediments (such as clay) were used to make pottery. Agriculture was developed and certain animals were domesticated as well.
Some species of non-primates are able to use stone tools, such as the sea otter, which breaks abalone shells with them. Primates can both use and manufacture stone tools. This combination of abilities is more marked in apes and men, but only men, or more generally Hominans, depend on tool use for survival. The key anatomical and behavioral features required for tool manufacture, which are possessed only by Hominans, are the larger thumb and the ability to hold by means of an assortment of grips.
Food sources of the Palaeolithic hunter - gatherers were wild plants and animals harvested from the environment. They liked animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and brains. Large seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the agricultural revolution, as is evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of Kebara Cave, in Israel. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic.
Near the end of the Wisconsin glaciation, 15,000 to 9,000 years ago, mass extinction of Megafauna such as the Wooly mammoth occurred in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. This was the first Holocene extinction event. It possibly forced modification in the dietary habits of the humans of that age and with the emergence of agricultural practices, plant - based foods also became a regular part of the diet. A number of factors have been suggested for the extinction: certainly over-hunting, but also deforestation and climate change. The net effect was to fragment the vast ranges required by the large animals and extinguish them piecemeal in each fragment.
Around 2 million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed the first man - made structure in East Africa, consisting of simple arrangements of stones to hold branches of trees in position. A similar stone circular arrangement believed to be around 380,000 years old was discovered at Terra Amata, near Nice, France. (Concerns about the dating have been raised, see Terra Amata). Several human habitats dating back to the Stone Age have been discovered around the globe, including:
Prehistoric art is visible in the artifacts. Prehistoric music is inferred from found instruments, while parietal art can be found on rocks of any kind. The latter are petroglyphs and rock paintings. The art may or may not have had a religious function.
Petroglyphs appeared in the Neolithic. A Petroglyph is an intaglio abstract or symbolic image engraved on natural stone by various methods, usually by prehistoric peoples. They were a dominant form of pre-writing symbols. Petroglyphs have been discovered in different parts of the world, including Asia (Bhimbetka, India), North America (Death Valley National Park), South America (Cumbe Mayo, Peru), and Europe (Finnmark, Norway).
In paleolithic times, mostly animals were painted, in theory ones that were used as food or represented strength, such as the rhinoceros or large cats (as in the Chauvet Cave). Signs such as dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include handprints and half - human / half - animal figures. The Cave of Chauvet in the Ardèche département, France, contains the most important cave paintings of the paleolithic era, dating from about 36,000 BCE. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BCE and show, among others, bisons. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, dates from about 15,000 to 10,000 BCE.
The meaning of many of these paintings remains unknown. They may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs that suggest a possible magic use. Arrow - like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as calendar or almanac use, but the evidence remains interpretative.
Some scenes of the Mesolithic, however, can be typed and therefore, judging from their various modifications, are fairly clear. One of these is the battle scene between organized bands of archers. For example, "the marching Warriors '', a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón in Spain, dated to about 7,000 -- 4,000 BCE, depicts about 50 bowmen in two groups marching or running in step toward each other, each man carrying a bow in one hand and a fistful of arrows in the other. A file of five men leads one band, one of whom is a figure with a "high crowned hat ''. In other scenes elsewhere, the men wear head - dresses and knee ornaments but otherwise fight nude. Some scenes depict the dead and wounded, bristling with arrows. One is reminded of Ötzi the Iceman, a Copper Age mummy revealed by an Alpine melting glacier, who collapsed from loss of blood due to an arrow wound in the back.
Modern studies and the in - depth analysis of finds dating from the Stone Age indicate certain rituals and beliefs of the people in those prehistoric times. It is now believed that activities of the Stone Age humans went beyond the immediate requirements of procuring food, body coverings, and shelters. Specific rites relating to death and burial were practiced, though certainly differing in style and execution between cultures.
The image of the caveman is commonly associated with the Stone Age. For example, a 2003 documentary series showing the evolution of humans through the Stone Age was called Walking with Cavemen, but only the last programme showed humans living in caves. While the idea that human beings and dinosaurs coexisted is sometimes portrayed in popular culture in cartoons, films and computer games, such as The Flintstones, One Million Years B.C. and Chuck Rock, the notion of hominids and non-avian dinosaurs co-existing is not supported by any scientific evidence.
Other depictions of the Stone Age include the best - selling Earth 's Children series of books by Jean M. Auel, which are set in the Paleolithic and are loosely based on archaeological and anthropological findings.
The 1981 film Quest for Fire by Jean - Jacques Annaud tells the story of a group of early homo sapiens searching for their lost fire. A 21st - century series, Chronicles of Ancient Darkness by Michelle Paver tells of two New Stone Age children fighting to fulfil a prophecy and save their clan.
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game of thrones season 7 is it out | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 % approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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what is the meaning of drag and drop | Drag and drop - wikipedia
In computer graphical user interfaces, drag and drop is a pointing device gesture in which the user selects a virtual object by "grabbing '' it and dragging it to a different location or onto another virtual object. In general, it can be used to invoke many kinds of actions, or create various types of associations between two abstract objects.
As a feature, drag - and - drop support is not found in all software, though it is sometimes a fast and easy - to - learn technique. However, it is not always clear to users that an item can be dragged and dropped, or what is the command performed by the drag and drop, which can decrease usability.
The basic sequence involved in drag and drop is:
Dragging requires more physical effort than moving the same pointing device without holding down any buttons. Because of this, a user can not move as quickly and precisely while dragging (see Fitts ' law). However, drag - and - drop operations have the advantage of thoughtfully chunking together two operands (the object to drag, and the drop location) into a single action. Extended dragging and dropping (as in graphic design) can stress the mousing hand.
A design problem appears when the same button selects and drags items. Imprecise movement can cause a dragging when the user just wants to select.
Another problem is that the target of the dropping can be hidden under other objects. The user would have to stop the dragging, make both the source and the target visible and start again. In classic Mac OS the top - of - screen menu bar served as a universal "drag cancel '' target. This issue has been dealt with in Mac OS X with the introduction of Exposé.
Drag and drop, called click and drag at the time, was used in the original Macintosh to manipulate files (for example, copying them between disks or folders.). System 7 added the ability to open a document in an application by dropping the document icon onto the application 's icon.
In System 7.5, drag and drop was extended to common clipboard operations like copying or moving textual content within a document. Content could also be dragged into the filesystem to create a "clipping file '' which could then be stored and reused.
For most of its history Mac OS has used a single button mouse with the button covering a large portion of the top surface of the mouse. This may mitigate the ergonomic concerns of keeping the button pressed while dragging.
The Workplace Shell of OS / 2 uses dragging and dropping extensively with the secondary mouse button, leaving the primary one for selection and clicking. Its use like that of other advanced Common User Access features distinguished native OS / 2 applications from platform - independent ports.
The HTML5 working draft specification includes support for drag and drop. HTML5 supports different kinds of dragging and dropping features including:
Based on needed action, one of the above types can be used. Note that when an HTML element is dragged for moving its current position, its ID is sent to the destination parent element; so it sends a text and can be considered as the first group.
Google 's web - based e-mail application Gmail supports drag - and - drop of images and attachments in the latest Google Chrome browser and Apple 's Safari (5. x). And Google Image search supports drag & drop.
Touch screen interfaces also include drag and drop, or more precisely, long press, and then drag, e.g. on the iPhone or Android home screens.
iOS 11 implements a drag - and - drop feature which allows the user to touch items (and tap with other fingers to drag more) within an app or between apps on IPads. On iPhones, the functionality is only available within the same app that the user started the drag.
Drag and drop is considered an important program construction approach in many end - user development systems. In contrast to more traditional, text - based programming languages, many end - user programming languages are based on visual components such as tiles or icons that are manipulated by end users through drag - and - drop interfaces. Drag and drop is also featured in many shader editing programs for graphics tools, such as Blender. Drag and drop also features in some video game engines, including Unreal Engine, GameMaker: Studio, Construct 2 and, with expansion, Unity (game engine).
A common example is dragging an icon on a virtual desktop to a special trashcan icon to delete a file.
Further examples include:
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in what way is this shard of pottery evidence of democracy in ancient greece | Ostracism - wikipedia
Ostracism (Greek: ὀστρακισμός, ostrakismos) was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which any citizen could be expelled from the city - state of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the citizen, ostracism was often used preemptively. It was used as a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or potential tyrant. It has been called an "honourable exile '' by scholar P.J. Rhodes. The word "ostracism '' continues to be used for various cases of social shunning.
The name is derived from the ostraka (singular ostrakon, ὄστρακον), referring to the pottery shards that were used as voting tokens. Broken pottery, abundant and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap paper (in contrast to papyrus, which was imported from Egypt as a high - quality writing surface, and was thus too costly to be disposable).
Each year the Athenians were asked in the assembly whether they wished to hold an ostracism. The question was put in the sixth of the ten months used for state business under the democracy (January or February in the modern Gregorian Calendar). If they voted "yes '', then an ostracism would be held two months later. In a section of the agora set off and suitably barriered, citizens gave the name of those they wished to be ostracised to a scribe, as many of them were illiterate, and they then scratched the name on pottery shards, and deposited them in urns. The presiding officials counted the ostraka submitted and sorted the names into separate piles. The person whose pile contained the most ostraka would be banished, provided that an additional criterion of a quorum was met, about which there are two principal sources:
Plutarch 's evidence for a quorum of 6,000, on a priori grounds a necessity for ostracism also per the account of Philochorus, accords with the number required for grants of citizenship in the following century and is generally preferred.
The person nominated had ten days to leave the city. If he attempted to return, the penalty was death. Notably, the property of the man banished was not confiscated and there was no loss of status. After the ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma. It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracised person ahead of time; before the Persian invasion of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders -- Pericles ' father Xanthippus and Aristides ' the Just ' -- are known to have returned. Similarly, Cimon, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency.
Ostracism was crucially different from Athenian law at the time; there was no charge, and no defence could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the reverse order from that used under almost any trial system -- here it is as if a jury are first asked "Do you want to find someone guilty? '', and subsequently asked "Whom do you wish to accuse? ''. Equally out of place in a judicial framework is perhaps the institution 's most peculiar feature: that it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. In this it resembles the Greek pharmakos or scapegoat -- though in contrast, pharmakos generally ejected a lowly member of the community.
A further distinction between these two modes (and one not obvious from a modern perspective) is that ostracism was an automatic procedure that required no initiative from any individual, with the vote simply occurring on the wish of the electorate -- a diffuse exercise of power. By contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen - prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack (or was a counterattack itself), no such response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it.
Although ten years of exile would have been difficult for an Athenian to face, it was relatively mild in comparison to the kind of sentences inflicted by courts; when dealing with politicians held to be acting against the interests of the people, Athenian juries could inflict very severe penalties such as death, unpayably large fines, confiscation of property, permanent exile and loss of citizens ' rights through atimia. Further, the elite Athenians who suffered ostracism were rich or noble men who had connections or xenoi in the wider Greek world and who, unlike genuine exiles, were able to access their income in Attica from abroad. In Plutarch, following as he does the anti-democratic line common in elite sources, the fact that people might be recalled early appears to be another example of the inconsistency of majoritarianism that was characteristic of Athenian democracy. However, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was simply a pragmatic measure; the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventative measure, not a punitive one.
One curious window on the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 ostraka discovered dumped in a well next to the acropolis. From the handwriting they appear to have been written by fourteen individuals and bear the name of Themistocles, ostracised before 471 BC and were evidently meant for distribution to voters. This was not necessarily evidence of electoral fraud (being no worse than modern voting instruction cards), but their being dumped in the well may suggest that their creators wished to hide them. If so, these ostraka provide an example of organized groups attempting to influence the outcome of ostracisms. The two - month gap between the first and second phases would have easily allowed for such a campaign.
There is another interpretation, however, according to which these ostraka were prepared beforehand by enterprising businessmen who offered to them for sale to citizens who could not easily inscribe the desired names for themselves or who simply wished to save time.
The two - month gap is a key feature in the institution, much as in elections under modern liberal democracies. It first prevented the candidate for expulsion being chosen out of immediate anger, although an Athenian general such as Cimon would have not wanted to lose a battle the week before such a second vote. Secondly, it opened up a period for discussion (or perhaps agitation), whether informally in daily talk or public speeches before the Athenian assembly or Athenian courts. In this process a consensus, or rival consensuses, might emerge. Further, in that time of waiting, ordinary Athenian citizens must have felt a certain power over the greatest members of their city; conversely, the most prominent citizens had an incentive to worry how their social inferiors regarded them.
Ostracism was not in use throughout the whole period of Athenian democracy (circa 506 -- 322 BC), but only occurred in the fifth century BC. The standard account, found in Aristotle 's Constitution of the Athenians 22.3, attributes the establishment to Cleisthenes, a pivotal reformer in the creation of the democracy. In that case ostracism would have been in place from around 506 BC. The first victim of the practice, however, was not expelled until 487 BC -- nearly twenty years later. Over the course of the next sixty years some twelve or more individuals followed him. The list may not be complete, but there is good reason to believe the Athenians did not feel the need to eject someone in this way every year. The list of known ostracisms runs as follows:
Around twelve thousand political ostraka have been excavated in the Athenian agora and in the Kerameikos. The second victim, Cleisthenes ' nephew Megacles, is named by 4647 of these, but for a second undated ostracism not listed above. The known ostracisms seem to fall into three distinct phases: the 480s BC, mid-century 461 -- 443 BC and finally the years 417 -- 415: this matches fairly well with the clustering of known expulsions, although Themistocles before 471 may count as an exception. This suggests that ostracism fell in and out of fashion.
The last known ostracism was that of Hyperbolos in circa 417 BC. There is no sign of its use after the Peloponnesian War, when democracy was restored after the oligarchic coup of the Thirty had collapsed in 403 BC. However, while ostracism was not an active feature of the 4th - century version of democracy, it remained; the question was put to the assembly each year, but they did not wish to hold one.
Because ostracism was carried out by thousands of people over many decades of an evolving political situation and culture, it did not serve a single monolithic purpose. Observations can be made about the outcomes, as well as the initial purpose for which it was created.
The first rash of people ostracised in the decade after the defeat of the first Persian invasion at Marathon in 490 BC were all related or connected to the tyrant Peisistratos, who had controlled Athens for 36 years up to 527 BC. After his son Hippias was deposed with Spartan help in 510 BC, the family sought refuge with the Persians, and nearly twenty years later Hippias landed with their invasion force at Marathon. Tyranny and Persian aggression were paired threats facing the new democratic regime at Athens, and ostracism was used against both.
Tyranny and democracy had arisen at Athens out of clashes between regional and factional groups organised around politicians, including Cleisthenes. As a reaction, in many of its features the democracy strove to reduce the role of factions as the focus of citizen loyalties. Ostracism, too, may have been intended to work in the same direction: by temporarily decapitating a faction, it could help to defuse confrontations that threatened the order of the State.
In later decades when the threat of tyranny was remote, ostracism seems to have been used as a way to decide between radically opposed policies. For instance, in 443 BC Thucydides, son of Melesias (not to be confused with the historian of the same name) was ostracised. He led an aristocratic opposition to Athenian imperialism and in particular to Pericles ' building program on the acropolis, which was funded by taxes created for the wars against the Achaemenid Empire. By expelling Thucydides the Athenian people sent a clear message about the direction of Athenian policy. Similar but more controversial claims have been made about the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC.
The motives of individual voting citizens can not, of course, be known. Many of the surviving ostraka name people otherwise unattested. They may well be just someone the submitter disliked, and voted for in moment of private spite. As such, it may be seen as a secular, civic variant of Athenian curse tablets, studied in scholarly literature under the Latin name defixiones, where small dolls were wrapped in lead sheets written with curses and then buried, sometimes stuck through with nails for good measure.
In one anecdote about Aristides, known as "the Just '', who was ostracised in 482, an illiterate citizen, not recognising him, came up to ask him to write the name Aristides on his ostrakon. When Aristides asked why, the man replied it was because he was sick of hearing him being called "the Just ''. Perhaps merely the sense that someone had become too arrogant or prominent was enough to get someone 's name onto an ostrakon. Ostracism rituals could have also been an attempt to dissuade people from covertly committing murder or assassination for intolerable or emerging individuals of power so as to create an open arena or outlet for those harboring primal frustrations and urges or political motivations. The solution for murder, in Gregory H. Padowitz 's theory, would then be "ostracism '' which would ultimately be beneficial for all parties -- the unfortunate individual would live and get a second chance and society would be spared the ugliness of feuds, civil war, political jams and murder.
The last ostracism, that of Hyperbolos in or near 417 BC, is elaborately narrated by Plutarch in three separate lives: Hyperbolos is pictured urging the people to expel one of his rivals, but they, Nicias and Alcibiades, laying aside their own hostility for a moment, use their combined influence to have him ostracised instead. According to Plutarch, the people then become disgusted with ostracism and abandoned the procedure forever.
In part ostracism lapsed as a procedure at the end of the fifth century because it was replaced by the graphe paranomon, a regular court action under which a much larger number of politicians might be targeted, instead of just one a year as with ostracism, and with greater severity. But it may already have come to seem like an anachronism as factional alliances organised around important men became increasingly less significant in the later period, and power was more specifically located in the interaction of the individual speaker with the power of the assembly and the courts. The threat to the democratic system in the late 5th century came not from tyranny but from oligarchic coups, threats of which became prominent after two brief seizures of power, in 411 BC by "the Four Hundred '' and in 404 BC by "the Thirty '', which were not dependent on single powerful individuals. Ostracism was not an effective defence against the oligarchic threat and it was not so used.
Other cities are known to have set up forms of ostracism on the Athenian model, namely Megara, Miletos, Argos and Syracuse, Sicily. In the last of these it was referred to as petalismos, because the names were written on olive leaves. Little is known about these institutions. Furthermore, pottery shards identified as ostraka have been found in Chersonesos Taurica, leading historians to the conclusion that a similar institution existed there as well, in spite of the silence of the ancient records on that count.
A similar modern practice is the recall election, in which the electoral body removes its representation from an elected officer. Unlike under modern voting procedures, the Athenians did not have to adhere to a strict format for the inscribing of ostraka. Many extant ostraka show that it was possible to write expletives, short epigrams or cryptic injunctions beside the name of the candidate without invalidating the vote. For example:
The social psychologist Kipling Williams has written extensively on ostracism as a modern phenomenon. Williams defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group ''. Williams suggests that the most common form of ostracism in a modern context is refusing to communicate with a person. By refusing to communicate with a person, that person is effectively ignored and excluded. The advent of the internet has made ostracism much easier to engage in, and conversely much more difficult to detect, with Williams and others describing this online ostracism as "cyberostracism ''. In email communication, in particular, it is relatively easy for a person or organization to ignore and exclude a specific person, through simply refusing to communicate with the person. Karen Douglas thus describes "unanswered emails '' as constituting a form of cyberostracism, and similarly Eric Wesselmann and Kipling Williams describe "ignored emails '' as a form of cyberostracism.
Williams and his colleagues have charted responses to ostracism in some five thousand cases, and found two distinctive patterns of response. The first is increased group - conformity, in a quest for re-admittance; the second is to become more provocative and hostile to the group, seeking attention rather than acceptance.
As it researched as well by many social psychologists, (Williams, 2007) research has demonstrated that being rejected from groups can have profound effects on a person (Smith, E.R., Macki, D.M., & Claypool, H.M., (2014) social psychoogy. Psychology Press. p. 409)
Research suggests that ostracism is a common reprisal strategy used by organizations in response to whistleblowing. Kipling Williams, in a survey on US whistleblowers, found that 100 % reported post-whistleblowing ostracism. Alexander Brown similarly found that post-whistleblowing ostracism is a common response, and indeed describes ostracism as form of "covert '' reprisal, as it is normally so difficult to identify and investigate.
Qahr and Ashti is a culture - specific Iranian form of personal shunning, most frequently of another family member. Qahr and ashti are described by Dr. Kambiz Behzadi as:
Qahr (to not be on speaking terms with someone) and ashti (to make up) represent a complex culture - specific fusion of emotional dynamics, cognitive evaluations, and behavioral tendencies, which codes both negative and ' distancing ' emotions and initiates a set of social actions and gestures that lead to amelioration of that emotional state.
While modern Western concepts of ostracism are based upon enforcing conformity within a societally - recognized group, Iranian Qahr is a private (batin), family - oriented affair of conflict or display of anger that is never disclosed to the public at large, as to do would be a breach of social etiquette.
In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the husband only has the right to show qahr towards his wife, the wife does not have this right to show qahr towards her husband, as the husband 's family rank is that of Head of Household while the wife has a much lower family ranking. She may practice qahr only towards others of equal or lower status.
Qahr is avoidance of a lower - ranking family member who has committed a perceived insult. It is one of several ritualized social customs of Iranian culture.
Gozasht, an Iranian word meaning ' tolerance, understanding and a desire or willingness to forgive ' is an essential componant of Qahr and Ashti for both psychological needs of closure and cognition, as well as a culturally accepted source for practicing necessary religious requirements of tawbah (repentance, see Koran 2: 222) and du'a (supplication).
^ Oration IV of Andocides purports itself to be speech urging the ostracism of Alcibiades in 415 BC, but it is probably not authentic.
^ The second ostracisms of Megacles and of Alcibiades son of Kleinias are reported only by Lysias in the quoted passage -- no other ancient author refers to them. Thus, Lysias 's report is regarded as probably spurious by many modern historians.
From Aristotle Constitution of the Athenians:
From Philochorus, Atthis
From Plutarch 's ' Lives ':
Note that the ancient sources on ostracism are mostly 4th century or much later and often limited to brief descriptions such as notes by lexicographers. Most of the narrative and analytical passages of any length come from Plutarch writing five centuries later and with little sympathy for democratic practices. There are no contemporary accounts that can take one into the experiences of participants: a dense account of Athenian democracy can only be made on the basis of the much fuller sources available in the 4th century, especially the Attic orators, after ostracism had fallen into disuse. Most of such references are a 4th - century memory of the institution.
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top goal scorer in premier league history in one season | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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what was the objective of the first continental congress | First Continental Congress - wikipedia
The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies who met from September 5 to October 26, 1774, at Carpenters ' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American Revolution. It was called in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament, which the British referred to as the Coercive Acts, with which the British intended to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party.
The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade and drawing up a list of rights and grievances; in the end, they petitioned King George III for redress of those grievances.
The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War. The delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia.
The Congress met from September 5 to October 26, 1774. Peyton Randolph presided over the proceedings; Henry Middleton took over as President of the Congress from October 22 to 26. Charles Thomson, leader of Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, was selected to be Secretary of the Continental Congress.
The delegates who attended were not of one mind concerning why they were there. Conservatives such as Joseph Galloway, John Dickinson, John Jay, and Edward Rutledge believed their task to be forging policies to pressure Parliament to rescind its unreasonable acts. Their ultimate goal was to develop a reasonable solution to the difficulties and bring about reconciliation between the Colonies and Great Britain. Others such as Patrick Henry, Roger Sherman, Samuel Adams, and John Adams believed their task to be developing a decisive statement of the rights and liberties of the Colonies. Their ultimate goal was to end what they felt to be the abuses of parliamentary authority, and to retain their rights which had been guaranteed under both Colonial charters and the English constitution.
Roger Sherman denied the legislative authority of Parliament, and Patrick Henry believed that the Congress needed to develop a completely new system of government, independent from Great Britain, for the existing Colonial governments were already dissolved. In contrast to these ideas, Joseph Galloway put forward a "Plan of Union '' which suggested that an American legislative body be formed with some authority, whose consent would be required for imperial measures.
In the end, the voices of compromise carried the day. Rather than calling for independence, the First Continental Congress passed and signed the Continental Association in its Declaration and Resolves, which called for a boycott of British goods to take effect in December 1774. It requested that local Committees of Safety enforce the boycott and regulate local prices for goods. These resolutions adopted by the Congress did not endorse any legal power of Parliament to regulate trade, but consented, nonetheless, to the operation of acts for that purpose. Furthermore, they did not repudiate control by the royal prerogative, which was explicitly acknowledged in the Petition to the King a few days later.
The Congress had two primary accomplishments. The first was a compact among the Colonies to boycott British goods beginning on December 1, 1774. The West Indies were threatened with a boycott unless the islands agreed to non-importation of British goods. Imports from Britain dropped by 97 percent in 1775, compared with the previous year. Committees of observation and inspection were to be formed in each Colony to ensure compliance with the boycott. All of the Colonial Houses of Assembly approved the proceedings of the Congress, with the exception of New York.
If the Intolerable Acts were not repealed, the Colonies would also cease exports to Britain after September 10, 1775. The boycott was successfully implemented, but its potential for altering British colonial policy was cut off by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.
The second accomplishment of the Congress was to provide for a Second Continental Congress to meet on May 10, 1775. In addition to the Colonies which had sent delegates to the First Continental Congress, the Congress resolved on October 21, 1774, to send letters of invitation to Quebec, Saint John 's Island (now Prince Edward Island), Nova Scotia, Georgia, East Florida, and West Florida. However, letters appear to have been sent only to Quebec (three letters in all). None of these other colonies sent delegates to the opening of the Second Congress, though a delegation from Georgia arrived the following July.
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who wrote the pirates of the carribean theme | Pirates of the Caribbean - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean is a Disney media franchise encompassing numerous theme park attractions, a series of films, and spin - off novels, as well as a number of related video games and other media publications. The franchise originated with the Pirates of the Caribbean theme ride attraction, which opened at Disneyland in 1967 and was one of the last Disney theme park attractions overseen by Walt Disney. Disney based the ride on pirate legends and folklore. As of October 2016, Pirates of the Caribbean attractions can be found at five Disney theme parks. Their related films have grossed over US $ 3.7 billion worldwide as of January 2015, putting the film franchise 11th in the list of all - time highest grossing franchises and film series.
Two series of young reader books have been made as prequels to the first film:
In addition there is a novel written for adults:
Several additional works have been derived from the franchise:
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a place to call home season 6 episode 6 youtube | A Place to Call Home (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the Seven Network television series A Place to Call Home premiered on Showcase on 8 October 2017. The series was produced by Chris Martin - Jones, and executive produced by Penny Win and Julie McGauran.
On 16 November 2016, Foxtel announced that A Place to Call Home had been renewed for a fifth season. Of the renewal, Foxtel CEO, Peter Tonagh stated "(The show) goes way beyond just being a piece of content that appears on the screen. It 's a passion for hundreds of thousands of people who watch it every week. ''
Production on the fifth season began in February 2017.
Of the show 's return, Foxtel 's Head of Drama, Penny Win stated, "A Place to Call Home has continued to build very strong audiences and passionate fans throughout its time on Foxtel. We are thrilled with the success of the series both here and around the world, and series five promises to be more of what our audience loves. The incredible cast, whose performances are exemplary, and the creative team, led by Julie McGauran and Chris Martin - Jones, have brought Foxtel a wonderful piece of dramatic television that we are all very proud of. '' Seven 's Head of Drama, Julie McGauran stated, "All of us at Seven Productions are delighted to continue the hugely successful collaboration with Foxtel on A Place To Call Home. This series is testament to how great storytelling, the talents of a truly gifted cast and a superb production can align to create extraordinary television and Seven are proud to be a part of an industry here in Australia that continues to deliver world class drama. ''
Season five will time jump to 1958, where four years have passed since we left Sarah and the Bligh family. Those four years have seen ever increasing changes in Australian society. The world of wealth and privilege is being eroded, moral values are fraying and a new young generation is rising, full of disaffection with the world of their elders. To them the War is a matter of the dead past, bringing conflict with those who suffered its pain and deprivation. Economic change and the devious actions of unseen enemies threaten Ash Park. While friends become bitter rivals and former enemies become unlikely allies. And in the midst of the turmoil, love becomes the only sure place anyone can call home.
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who scored many goals in the world cup 2018 | 2018 FIFA World Cup statistics - wikipedia
These are the statistics for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018.
Goals scored from penalty shoot - outs are not counted, and matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
2 assists
1 assist
Source: FIFA
Bold numbers indicate the maximum values in each column.
Team (s) rendered in italics represent (s) the host nation (s). The competition 's winning team is rendered in bold. -- Total games lost not counted in total games played (total games lost = total games won) -- Total number of games drawn (tied) for all teams = Total number of games drawn (tied) ÷ 2 (both teams involved) -- As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
Host nation (s) are situated in the region (s) rendered in italics. -- Total games lost not counted in total games played (total games lost = total games won) -- Total number of games drawn (tied) for all teams = Total number of games drawn (tied) ÷ 2 (both teams involved) -- As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
Top 10 highest attendances.
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what section of the declaration of independence talks about taxation without representation | No taxation without representation - wikipedia
"No Taxation Without Representation '' is a slogan originating during the 1750s and 1760s that summarized a primary grievance of the American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies, which was one of the major causes of the American Revolution. In short, many in those colonies believed that, as they were not directly represented in the distant British Parliament, any laws it passed affecting the colonists (such as the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act) were illegal under the Bill of Rights 1689, and were a denial of their rights as Englishmen.
Jonathan Mayhew, Old West Church 's second Congregational pastor, used the phrase, "No Taxation Without Representation '' in a sermon in 1750. The phrase revives a sentiment central to the cause of the English Civil War following the refusal of parliamentarian John Hampden to pay ship money tax. "No Taxation Without Representation, '' in the context of British American Colonial taxation, appeared for the first time in the February 1768 London Magazine headline, on page 89, in the printing of Lord Camden 's "Speech on the Declaratory Bill of the Sovereignty of Great Britain over the Colonies. ''
The English Parliament had controlled colonial trade and taxed imports and exports since 1660. By the 1760s, the Americans were being deprived of a historic right. The English Bill of Rights 1689 had forbidden the imposition of taxes without the consent of Parliament. Since the colonists had no representation in Parliament, the taxes violated the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. Parliament initially contended that the colonists had virtual representation, but the idea "found little support on either side of the Atlantic ''. John Dunmore Lang wrote in 1852, "The person who first suggested the idea (of Parliamentary representation for the colonies) appears to have been Oldmixon, an American annalist of the era of Queen Anne or George I. It was afterwards put forward with approbation by the celebrated Dr. Adam Smith, and advocated for a time, but afterwards rejected and strongly opposed, by Dr. Benjamin Franklin. ''
The eloquent 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance objecting to taxation, written by the Virginia House of Burgesses and endorsed by every other Colony, was sent to the British Government, which seems to have ignored it.
The phrase had been used for more than a generation in Ireland. By 1765, the term was in use in Boston, and local politician James Otis was most famously associated with the phrase, "taxation without representation is tyranny. '' In the course of the Revolutionary era (1750 -- 1783), many arguments were pursued that sought to resolve the dispute surrounding Parliamentary sovereignty, taxation, self - governance and representation.
In the course of the 1760s and 1770s, William Pitt the Elder, Sir William Pulteney, and George Grenville, amongst other prominent Britons and colonial Americans, such as Joseph Galloway, James Otis Jr., Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, the London Quaker Thomas Crowley, Royal Governors such as Thomas Pownall M.P., William Franklin, Sir Francis Bernard, and the Attorney - General of Quebec, Francis Maseres, debated and circulated plans for the creation of colonial seats in London, imperial union with Great Britain, or a federally representative British Parliament with powers of taxation that was to consist of American, West Indian, Irish and British Members of Parliament. Despite the fact that these ideas were considered and discussed seriously on both sides of the Atlantic, it appears that neither the American Congress, nor the colonial Assemblies, nor the British Government in Westminster, at least prior to the Carlisle Peace Commission of 1778, officially proposed such constitutional developments. It must be noted, however, that Governor Thomas Hutchinson apparently referred to a colonial representational proposal when he wrote that,
The Assembly of Massachusetts Bay... was the first which ever took exception to the right of Parliament to impose Duties or Taxes on the Colonies, whilst they had no representatives in the House of Commons. This they did in a letter to their Agent in the summer of 1764... And in this letter they recommend to him a pamphlet, wrote by one of their members, in which there are proposals for admitting representatives from the Colonies to fit in the House of Commons... an American representation is thrown out as an expedient which might obviate the objections to Taxes upon the Colonies, yet... it was renounced... by the Assembly of the Colony which first proposed it, as utterly impracticable.
Jared Ingersoll Snr., colonial agent for Connecticut, wrote to his American colleague, the Royal Governor of Connecticut Thomas Fitch, that following Isaac Barre 's famous Parliamentary speech against the Stamp Act in 1764, Richard Jackson, M.P., supported Barre and other pro-American M.P.s by producing before the House copies of earlier Acts of Parliament that had admitted Durham and Chester seats upon their petitions for representation. The argument was put forward in Parliament that America ought to have representatives on these grounds too. Richard Jackson supposed that Parliament had a right to tax America, but he much doubted the expediency of the Stamp act. He said if it was necessary, as ministers claimed, to tax the colonies, the latter should be permitted to elect some part of the Parliament, "otherwise the liberties of America, I do not say will be lost, but will be in danger. ''
William Knox, an aide of George Grenville, pamphleteer and subsequent Irish Under - Secretary of State for the Colonies, received an appointment in 1756 to the American provinces, and after his return to London in 1761, he recommended the creation of a colonial aristocracy and colonial representation in the British Parliament. He was shortly afterwards appointed agent for Georgia and East Florida, a post which he forfeited by writing in favour of the Stamp Act. In his Grenville - backed pamphlet of 1769, The Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies Reviewed, Knox suggested that colonial representatives might have been offered seats in the British Parliament if they had sought such representation. Knox submitted that,
whilst (the radical colonists) exclaim against Parliament for taxing them when they are not represented, they candidly declare they will not have representatives (in Parliament) lest they should be taxed... The truth... is that they are determined to get rid of the jurisdiction of Parliament... and they therefore refuse to send members to that assembly lest they should preclude themselves of (the) plea (that Parliament 's) legislative acts... are done without their consent; which, it must be confessed, holds equally good against all laws, as against taxes... The colony advocates... tell us, that by refusing to accept our offer of representatives they... mean to avoid giving Parliament a pretence for taxing them.
Edmund Burke responded to Knox, who had drawn up The Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies Reviewed as well as The Present State of the Nation (1768) under the supervision of George Grenville, by opining in his political tract Observations on a Late State of the Nation (1769),
NOW comes (Knox 's) American representation... Is not the reader a little astonished at the proposal of an American representation from that quarter (of Grenville 's)? It is proposed merely as a project of speculative improvement; not from the necessity in the case, not to add any thing to the authority of parliament: but that we may afford a greater attention to the concerns of the Americans, and give them a better opportunity of stating their grievances, and of obtaining redress. I am glad to find the author has at length discovered that we have not given a sufficient attention to their concerns, or a proper redress to their grievances. His great friend (Grenville) would once have been exceedingly displeased with any person, who should tell him, that he did not attend sufficiently to those concerns. He thought he did so, when he regulated the colonies over and over again: he thought he did so, when he formed two general systems of revenue; one of port - duties, and the other of internal taxation. These systems supposed, or ought to suppose, the greatest attention to, and the most detailed information of, all their affairs. However, by contending for the American representation, he seems at last driven virtually to admit, that great caution ought to be used in the exercise of all our legislative rights over an object so remote from our eye, and so little connected with our immediate feelings; that in prudence we ought not to be quite so ready with our taxes, until we can secure the desired representation in parliament. Perhaps it may be some time before this hopeful scheme can be brought to perfect maturity; although the author seems to be no wise aware of any obstructions that lie in the way of it.
While Knox, Grenville and Burke were not necessarily opposed in principle to direct colonial representation in Parliament, Grenville nonetheless conjectured that Parliament retained a constitutional right to virtually represent the colonial subjects.
Burke supported the doctrine of virtual representation in Britain. Yet in his Parliamentary speech of 1774, entitled On American Taxation, Burke responded to the suggestion that America was virtually represented in Parliament by remarking,
What! does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the Atlantic than pervade Wales, which lies in your neighborhood? or than Chester and Durham, surrounded by abundance of representation that is actual and palpable? But, Sir, your ancestors thought this sort of virtual representation, however ample, to be totally insufficient for the freedom of the inhabitants of territories that are so near, and comparatively so inconsiderable. How, then, can I think it sufficient for those which are infinitely greater, and infinitely more remote? You will now, Sir, perhaps imagine that I am on the point of proposing to you a scheme for a representation of the colonies in Parliament. Perhaps I might be inclined to entertain some such thought; but a great flood stops me in my course. Opposuit Natura. I can not remove the eternal barriers of the creation. The thing, in that mode, I do not know to be possible. As I meddle with no theory, I do not absolutely assert the impracticability of such a representation; but I do not see my way to it; and those who have been more confident have not been more successful... My resolutions, therefore, mean to establish the equity and justice of a taxation of America by grant, and not by imposition; to mark the legal competency of the colony assemblies for the support of their government in peace, and for public aids in time of war; to acknowledge that this legal competency has had a dutiful and beneficial exercise, and that experience has shown the benefit of their grants, and the futility of Parliamentary taxation, as a method of supply.
However, Burke apparently qualified such remarks concerning America by stating in the same speech that,
The Parliament of Great Britain... is never to intrude into the place of the (provincial legislatures), whilst they are equal to the common ends of their institution. But in order to enable (Parliamentary)... superintendence, her powers must be boundless. The gentlemen who think the powers of Parliament limited may please themselves to talk of requisitions. But suppose the requisitions are not obeyed? What! shall there be no reserved power in the empire, to supply a deficiency which may weaken, divide, and dissipate the whole? We are engaged in war, -- the Secretary of State calls upon the colonies to contribute, -- some would do it, I think most would cheerfully furnish whatever is demanded, -- one or two, suppose, hang back, and, easing themselves, let the stress of the draft lie on the others, -- surely it is proper that some authority might legally say, "Tax yourselves for the common Supply, or Parliament will do it for you. '' This backwardness was, as I am told, actually the case of Pennsylvania for some short time towards the beginning of the last war, owing to some internal dissensions in that colony. But whether the fact were so or otherwise, the case is equally to be provided for by a competent sovereign power. But then this ought to be no ordinary power, nor ever used in the first instance. This is what I meant, when I have said, at various times, that I consider the power of taxing in Parliament as an instrument of empire, and not as a means of supply.
The views of Knox, Grenville and Burke did not go unchallenged: William Pitt was amongst those who disputed that a Parliamentary right or power existed to levy "internal '' taxes "for the purposes of raising a revenue '' without the consent of actual representatives of the "Commons of America ''. "It is my opinion, '' Pitt said, "that this kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies. ''
In 1764, the Massachusetts politician James Otis, Jr., said that,
When the parliament shall think fit to allow the colonists a representation in the house of commons, the equity of their taxing the colonies, will be as clear as their power is at present of doing it without, if they please... But if it was thought hard that charter privileges should be taken away by act of parliament, is it not much harder to be in part, or in whole, disfranchised of rights, that have been always thought inherent to a British subject, namely, to be free from all taxes, but what he consents to in person, or by his representative? This right, if it could be traced no higher than Magna Charta, is part of the common law, part of a British subjects birthright, and as inherent and perpetual, as the duty of allegiance; both which have been brought to these colonies, and have been hitherto held sacred and inviolable, and I hope and trust ever will. It is humbly conceived, that the British colonists (except only the conquered, if any) are, by Magna Charta, as well entitled to have a voice in their taxes, as the subjects within the realm. Are we not as really deprived of that right, by the parliament assessing us before we are represented in the house of commons, as if the King should do it by his prerogative? Can it be said with any colour of truth or justice, that we are represented in parliament?
Otis, Jr., attended the Continental Congress of 1765 along with other colonial delegates. The resolutions of the Congress stated that the Stamp Act had "a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists '' and that "the only Representatives of the People of these Colonies, are Persons chosen therein by themselves, and that no Taxes ever have been, or can be Constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective Legislature. '' Furthermore, it was declared that, "it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the Principles and Spirit of the British Constitution, for the People of Great - Britain, to grant to his Majesty the Property of the Colonists. ''
Daniel Dulany, Jr., of Maryland, wrote in 1765 that, "the Impropriety of a Taxation by the British Parliament... (is proven by) the Fact, that not one inhabitant in any Colony is, or can be actually or virtually represented by the British House of Commons. '' Dulany, Jr., denied that Parliament had a right "to impose an internal Tax upon the Colonies, without their consent for the single Purpose of Revenue. ''
In 1766, Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that, "an internal tax is forced from the people without their consent if not laid by their own representatives. The Stamp Act says we shall have no commerce, make no exchange of property with each other, neither purchase nor grant, nor recover debts; we shall neither marry nor make our wills, unless we pay such and such sums; and thus it is intended to extort our money from us or ruin us by the consequence of refusing to pay it. ''
For those sympathetic to republicanism, such as James Burgh, Catherine Macauley, and Richard Price, any tax revenue measures that were voted into effect without the direct representation of Americans were "unconstitutional '' and "pernicious ''. Burgh felt that virtual representation was "subversive of liberty '' and "unjust in its principles '' and that the House of Commons must include colonial representatives when it voted on colonial matters, or operate by using the consent of the colonial Assemblies.
The Americans rejected the Stamp Act of 1765 brought in by British Prime Minister George Grenville, and violently rejected the remaining tax on tea imports, under the Tea Act passed in May 1773, at the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. The Parliament considered this an illegal act because they believed it undermined the authority of the Crown - in - Parliament. When the British then used the military to enforce laws that the colonists believed Parliament had passed illegally, the colonists responded by forming militias and seized political control of each colony, ousting the royal governors -- with the exception of the American - born Royal Governor of Connecticut, John Trumbull, who was allowed to remain as the new Patriot Governor.
The complaint was never officially over the amount of taxation (the taxes were quite low, though ubiquitous), but always on the political decision - making process by which taxes were decided in London, i.e. without representation for the colonists in British Parliament.
Patrick Henry 's resolution in the Virginia legislature implied that Americans possessed all the rights of Englishmen, that the principle of no taxation without representation was an essential part of the British Constitution, and that Virginia alone had the right to tax Virginians.
This offer of actual imperial representation was likewise re-stated to the delegates of the colonies via the colonial agents in 1774, according to Connecticut - born Reverend Thomas Bradbury Chandler, in his publication A Friendly Address to All Reasonable Americans. In February 1775, Britain passed the Conciliatory Resolution which ended taxation for any colony which satisfactorily provided for the imperial defence and the upkeep of imperial officers.
James Macpherson, a colonial secretary of British West Florida, defended the North administration in an officially sponsored polemic in 1776 named The Rights of Great Britain Asserted. This work replied to the Continental Congress ' July 6, 1775 Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms by proposing that,
Had the Americans, instead of flying to arms, submitted the same supposed grievance (as the taxed though unrepresented Palatine counties in England had), in a peaceable and dutiful manner, to the Legislature, I can perceive no reason why their request should be refused. Had they, like the County and City of Chester, represented, that "for lack of Knights and Burgesses to represent them in the High Court of Parliament, they had been oftentimes TOUCHED and GRIEVED with Acts and Statutes made within the said Court, derogatory to their most ancient jurisdictions, liberties and privileges, and prejudicial to their quietness, rest and peace; '' this Country (of Britain) would, I am persuaded, have no objection to their being represented in her Parliament... If they are not madly bent on independence, let them propose the conditions on which they wish to continue as subjects... The Legislature of this Kingdom can not possibly depart from any part of its supremacy over the Colonies; but it is in the power of the Colonies to share in that supremacy. If they complain of being taxed without having the privilege of sending Members to Parliament, let them be represented. Nay, more: Let their representation increase in proportion to the Revenue they shall furnish. If they wish rather to vote their QUOTA towards the general supply, through their own General Courts and Assemblies, the resolution of Parliament on that subject is still open to their choice. But, as long as they assume the language of a Sovereign State, this Kingdom can enter into no negociation (sic), can meet no compromise. ''
The noted economist Adam Smith seconded this view in his famous 1776 publication Wealth of Nations when he recommended the Americans "to send fifty or sixty new representatives to Parliament '' on the basis of the amount of taxes they would contribute to the Imperial coffers. Writing in October 1776 to Lord North in Strictures upon the Declaration of the Congress of the recent Declaration of Independence, and particularly of James Otis, Jr. 's pamphlet Rights of the British Colonies and its endorsement by the Massachusetts Assembly, Governor Thomas Hutchinson said,
The Assembly of Massachusetts Bay, therefore, was the first that took any publick of the (Sugar) Act, and the first which ever took exception to the right of Parliament to impose Duties or Taxes on the Colonies, whilst they had no representatives in the House of Commons. This they did in a letter to their Agent in the summer of 1764, which they took care to print and publish before it was possible for him to receive it. And in this letter they recommend to him a pamphlet, wrote by one of their members, in which there are proposals for admitting representatives from the Colonies to fit in the House of Commons. I have this special reason, my Lord, for taking notice of this Act of the Massachusetts Assembly; that though an American representation is thrown out as an expedient which might obviate the objections to Taxes upon the Colonies, yet it was only intended to amuse the authority in England; and as soon as it was known to have its advocates here (in London), it was renounced by the colonies, and even by the Assembly of the Colony which first proposed it, as utterly impracticable. ''
Indeed, the resolves of the Continental Congresses of both 1765 and 1774 declared that imperial representation was too impractical on the footing that "local and other circumstances, can not properly be represented in the British parliament ''. The British Government, similarly, does not appear to have formally requested discussions with the Americans concerning the issue of Parliamentary seats until 1778. In that year "the commissioners of the king of Great Britain, '' known as the Carlisle Peace Commission of 1778, made an offer to the Congress of "a reciprocal deputation of an agent or agents from the different states, who shall have the privilege of a seat and voice in the parliament of Great Britain ''.
In Britain, representation was highly limited due to unequally distributed voting constituencies and property requirements; only 3 % of the population could vote and they were often controlled by local gentry. This meant that spurious arguments had come to be employed in Britain to try to explain away and cover up the iniquities in its political life. Therefore the British government tried to argue that the colonists had virtual representation in their interests. In the winter of 1764 -- 65, George Grenville, and his secretary Thomas Whately, invented the doctrine of ' virtual representation ' in an attempt extend the scope of such unjust arguments to America, and thereby attempt to legitimise the pernicious policies of the Stamp Act. In English history, "no taxation without representation '' was an old principle and meant that Parliament had to pass all taxes. At first, the "representation '' was held to be one of land, but, by 1700, this had shifted to the notion that, in Parliament, all British subjects had a "virtual representation. '' "We virtually and implicitly allow the institutions of any government of which we enjoy the benefit and solicit the protection, '' declared Samuel Johnson in his political pamphlet Taxation No Tyranny. He rejected the plea that the colonists, who had no vote, were unrepresented. "They are represented, '' he said, "by the same virtual representation as the greater part of England. '' However, the tradition of greater democracy amongst Americans gave impetus to the well - founded charge, voiced by Britons and colonists alike, that virtual representation was "sophistry '' and "a mere Cob - web, spread to catch the unwary, and intangle (sic) the weak. '' The colonial insistence on direct representation as opposed to virtual representation has thus been seen by later commentators to have "usher (ed) in a profound political and social revolution, which rooted out most of the remaining traces of monarchic rule and feudalism inherited from the only partially complete English bourgeois revolution. The Americans carried through the bourgeois democratic revolution on a scale never before seen in history. ''
Virtual representation was wholly rejected in the colonies, who said the "virtual '' was a cover for political corruption and was irreconcilable with their belief that government derives its just powers from the consent of the governed. In 1765, the American lawyer and politician James Otis, Jr., responded to Soame Jenyns ' The Objections to the Taxation of Our American Colonies, by the Legislature of Great Britain, Briefly Considered. Otis ' own publication was entitled Considerations on Behalf of the Colonists, in a Letter to a Noble Lord. He wrote in it, "To what purpose is it to ring everlasting changes to the colonists on the cases of Manchester, Birmingham and Sheffield, who return no members? If those now so considerable places are not represented, they ought to be. '' Writing in his 1763 publication The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, Otis declared that,
Every British subject born on the continent of America, or in any other of the British dominions, is by the law of God and nature, by the common law, and by act of parliament, (exclusive of all charters from the Crown) entitled to all the natural, essential, inherent and inseparable rights of our fellow subjects in Great Britain. Among those rights... which it is humbly conceived no man or body of men, not excepting the parliament, justly, equitably and consistently with their own rights and the constitution, can take away... (are that the) supreme and subordinate powers of the legislation should be free and sacred in the hands where the community have once rightfully placed them... (that the) supreme national legislative can not be altered justly ' till the commonwealth is dissolved, nor a subordinate legislative taken away without forfeiture or other good cause. Nor then can the subjects in the subordinate government be reduced to a state of slavery, and subject to the despotic rule of others... Even when the subordinate right of legislature is forfeited, and so declared, this can not affect the natural persons either of those who were invested with it, or the inhabitants, so far as to deprive them of the rights of subjects and of men -- The colonists will have an equitable right notwithstanding any such forfeiture of charter, to be represented in Parliament, or to have some new subordinate legislature among themselves. It would be best if they had both... (Furthermore, the right of every British subject is that the) supreme power can not take from any man any part of his property, without his consent in person, or by representation.
Otis simultaneously refuted, in The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, a contemporary argument that attempted to rationalise virtual representation on the basis of the colonial agents ' alleged influence on British policy. "As to the colonists being represented by the provincial agents, '' he wrote,
I know of no power ever given them but to appear before his Majesty, and his ministry. Sometimes they have been directed to petition the parliament: But they none of them have, and I hope never will have, a power given them, by the colonists, to act as representatives, and to consent to taxes; and if they should make any concessions to the ministry, especially without order, the provinces could not by that be considered as represented in parliament.
Colonists said no man was represented if he were not allowed to vote. Moreover, even "If every inhabitant of America had the requisite freehold, '' said Daniel Dulany, "not one could vote, but upon the supposition of his ceasing to become an inhabitant of America, and becoming a resident of Great Britain. '' The colonists and like - minded Britons insisted that representation was achieved only through an assembly of men actually elected by the persons they were intended to represent.
The argument between the colonies and Parliament sought to resolve how the British ' commoners ' of the various part of the Empire were represented most constitutionally -- as Daniel Dulaney, an American Loyalist and lawyer, put it "(the) constitutional authority (of Parliament 's rights to bind American subjects) depends upon the single question, Whether the Commons of Great - Britain are virtually the representatives of the Commons of America, or not.
The theory of virtual representation was attacked in Britain by Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, and his ally William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. William Pitt argued in 1766 that the Commons of Britain ought not to tax the ' "Commons of America '' without gaining consent of their representatives in stating, "even under former arbitrary reigns, Parliaments were ashamed of taxing a people without their consent, and allowed them representatives. Why did (Grenville) confine himself to Chester and Durham? He might have taken a higher example in Wales -- Wales, that never was taxed by Parliament till it was incorporated. '' He then said,
I am no courtier of America. I stand up for this kingdom. I maintain that the Parliament has a right to bind, to restrain America. Our legislative power over the colonies is sovereign and supreme. When it ceases to be sovereign and supreme, I would advise every gentleman to sell his lands, if he can, and embark for that country. When two countries are connected together like England and her colonies, without being incorporated, the one must necessarily govern. The greater must rule the less. But she must so rule it as not to contradict the fundamental principles that are common to both... let the sovereign authority of this country over the colonies be asserted in as strong terms as can be devised, and be made to extend to every point of legislation whatsoever; that we may bind their trade, confine their manufactures, and exercise every power whatsoever, except that of taking their money out of their pockets without their consent. ''
In his first speeches in Parliament, Lord Camden vigorously attacked the declaratory act which was proposed to mollify the crown on the repeal of the Stamp Tax. After his first affirmation of "no taxation without representation '' Camden was attacked by British PM Grenville, Chief Justice James Mansfield, Robert Henley, 1st Earl of Northington, and others. He responded:
(T) he British Parliament have no right to tax the Americans. I shall not consider the Declaratory Bill now lying on your table; for to what purpose, but loss of time, to consider the particulars of a Bill, the very existence of which is illegal, absolutely illegal, contrary to the fundamental laws of nature, contrary to the fundamental laws of this constitution? A constitution grounded on the eternal and immutable laws of nature; a constitution whose foundation and centre is liberty, which sends liberty to every individual who may happen to be within any part of its ample circumference. Nor, my Lords, is the doctrine new, it is as old as the constitution; it grew up with it; indeed it is its support; taxation and representation are inseparably united; God hath joined them, no British parliament can separate them; to endeavour to do it, is to stab our very vitals.... My position is this -- I repeat it -- I will maintain it to my last hour, -- taxation and representation are inseparable; this position is founded on the laws of nature; it is more, it is itself an eternal law of nature; for whatever is a man 's own, is absolutely his own; no man has a right to take it from him without his consent, either expressed by himself or representative; whoever attempts to do it, attempts an injury; whoever does it, commits a robbery; he throws down and destroys the distinction between liberty and slavery. Taxation and representation are coeval with and essential to the constitution.... (T) here is not a blade of grass growing in the most obscure corner of this kingdom, which is not, which was not ever, represented since the constitution began; there is not a blade of grass, which when taxed, was not taxed by the consent of the proprietor.... I can never give my assent to any bill for taxing the American colonies, while they remain unrepresented; for as to the distinction of a virtual representation, it is so absurd as not to deserve an answer; I therefore pass it over with contempt. The forefathers of the Americans did not leave their native country, and subject themselves to every danger and distress, to be reduced to a state of slavery: they did not give up their rights; they looked for protection, and not for chains, from their mother country; by her they expected to be defended in the possession of their property, and not to be deprived of it: for, should the present power continue, there is nothing which they can call their own; or, to use the words of Mr. Locke, ' What property have they in that, which another may, by right, take, when he pleases, to himself? ' ''
In an appearance before Parliament in January, 1766, former Prime Minister William Pitt stated:
The idea of a virtual representation of America in this House is the most contemptible that ever entered into the head of a man. It does not deserve a serious refutation. The Commons of America, represented in their several assemblies, have ever been in possession of the exercise of this their constitutional right, of giving and granting their own money. They would have been slaves if they had not enjoyed it.
Grenville responded to Pitt, saying the disturbances in America "border on open rebellion; and if the doctrine I have heard this day be confirmed, nothing can tend more directly to produce a revolution. '' External and internal taxes are the same, argued Grenville.
In the 1860s, suffragette Sarah E. Wall of Worcester, Massachusetts invoked the principle of "no taxation without representation '', initiating an anti-tax protest in which she encouraged women not to pay taxes until they were granted the right to vote. Soon after she began this movement, the Worcester city tax collector sued Wall for refusing to pay taxes, and the case reached the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1863. In "Wheeler v. Wall, '' the court ruled against Wall and held that despite not having the right to vote, women are still obligated to meet their tax burden. Even still, Wall refused to cooperate with the collector, and as a result, officers seized and sold her property in order to raise the money necessary to meet her tax obligation. After several years, Wall 's inexorability eventually prevailed, as the collector began to ignore Wall and allow her to abstain from paying taxes. In 1884, Susan B. Anthony cited Wall 's audacity and willingness to stand up for women 's suffrage, stating, "for the last twenty - five years, (she) has resisted the tax gatherer when he came around. I want you to look at her. She looks very harmless, but she will not pay a dollar of tax. She says when the Commonwealth of Massachusetts will give her the right of representation she will pay her taxes. ''
The phrase is also used by other groups in America who pay various types of taxes (sales, income, property) but lack the ability to vote, such as felons (who are, in many states, barred from voting), people who work in one state and live in another (thus having to pay income tax to a state they do n't live in), or people under 18.
To become citizens of the United States, immigrants most often must be permanent residents for a period of time (usually 5 years). Permanent residents must pay taxes on their worldwide income and, in most cases, can not vote. However, throughout the 19th century, many states did allow immigrants to vote after they had declared their intention to become citizens. This was primarily because these new states were populated in large part by immigrants who had not yet attained citizenship. Throughout U.S. history, non-citizens have been allowed to vote in 40 U.S. states and territories. As of 2005, non-citizens are allowed to vote in seven jurisdictions in the United States: Chicago and six towns in Montgomery County, Maryland.
In 2009, the phrase "taxation without representation '' was also used in the Tea Party protests, where protesters were upset over increased government spending and taxes, and specifically regarding a growing concern amongst the group that the U.S. government is increasingly relying upon a form of taxation without representation through increased regulatory levies and fees which are allegedly passed via unelected government employees who have no direct responsibility to voters and can not be held accountable by the public through elections.
A modified version of the phrase, "no tuition without representation '', is sometimes used in disputes over governance in higher education in the United States to emphasize student 's rights to a voice in institutional decisions. The term first emerged in a 1977 dispute at Union County College in New Jersey. It has been used more recently in disputes at Dartmouth College, UC Berkeley School of Law, and elsewhere.
In the United States, the phrase is used in Washington, D.C. as part of the campaign for a vote in Congress, to publicize the fact that Washington residents pay Federal taxes, but do not have representation in Congress. In November 2000, the D.C. Department of Motor Vehicles began issuing license plates bearing the slogan "Taxation without representation ''. In a show of support for the city, President Bill Clinton used the "Taxation Without Representation '' plates on the presidential limousine; however, President George W. Bush had the tags replaced to those without the motto shortly after taking office. President Barack Obama announced his intention to use the plates with the motto beginning at his second inauguration. President Donald Trump continued usage of the plates with the protest motto after he was elected, though he has stated he has "no position '' on the issue of granting D.C. statehood.
In 2002, the Council of the District of Columbia authorized adding the slogan to the D.C. flag, but no new flag design was approved. In 2007, the District of Columbia and United States Territories Quarters program was created based on the successful 50 State Quarters program. DC submitted designs containing the slogan, but they were rejected by the U.S. Mint.
British Prime Minister John Major used a modified version of the quote, with the order reversed, in October 1995, when at the United Nations 's 50th Anniversary celebrations he said, "It is not sustainable for states to enjoy representation without taxation, '' in order to criticize the billion - dollar arrears of the United States ' payments to the UN, echoing a statement made the previous month at the opening session of the UN General Assembly by UK Foreign Secretary Malcolm Rifkind.
In Canada, Québec politician Gilles Duceppe, former leader of the Bloc Québécois, has repeatedly cited this phrase in defending the presence of his party in Ottawa. The Bloc is a Québec sovereigntist party solely running candidates in Canadian Federal elections in the province of Québec. Duceppe 's evocation of the phrase implies that the proponents of Quebec 's sovereigntist movement have the right to be represented in the body (which they are), the Canadian Parliament, which levies taxes upon them. He will usually cite the sentence in its original English.
The first government of South Australia was by a Legislative Council, whose members were chosen by the Crown and from which office - bearers "Official Members '' were selected by the Governor. John Stephens and his South Australian Register were among those who campaigned for democratic reform. Partial reform took place in 1851, when a majority of Members of the South Australian Legislative Council, 1851 -- 1855 were elected.
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when does elena get back her memories of damon | Do You Remember the First Time? (The Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' is the 7th episode of the sixth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 118th episode overall. "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was originally aired on November 13, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Rebecca Sonnenshine and directed by Darren Genet.
Elena, after everyone continues to convince her that she had once loved damon decides to run through the magic free, mystic falls border. So she does, and she gets glimpses of her and Damon but never fully remembers yet that she loves him. Damon pulls her back across the line and she asks about a kiss in the rain. He continues to try to get her to remember.
In the episode "Do You Remember the First Time? '' we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was watched by 1.54 million; slightly down by 0.05 from the previous episode.
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' received positive reviews.
Stephanie Flasher from TV After Dark gave a B+ rating to the episode saying that it was a nice one, especially for the fans of Damon and Elena. "Bittersweet trip down the couple 's history and an epic rain kiss. Finally, Caroline and Stefan have the feelings conversation and Alaric gets his groove back now that he 's a human again. And the music was good. ''
Rebecca Jane Stokes of Den of Geek rated the episode with 4 / 5 saying that it was a sweet episode and that Stefan finally found out about Caroline 's feelings. "The show did what it does best this week. It married romance and longing with the deliberate if piecemeal doling out of key plot points. ''
Ashley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation rated the episode with 7.9 / 10 saying that the episode "forced Damon and Elena to explore the new status of their relationship in another slow drawn out episode. However, it was made interesting by not relying on flashbacks, but let them be in the moment. ''
Sara Ditta of Next Projection rated the episode with 7.2 / 10 saying that the episode "satisfied because of its tempered tone. The drama was n't taken overboard, and viewers could relate to each of our main characters who tried to grasp on to friendships and relationships that had already fallen apart. ''
Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with 3.5. "All in all, a decent episode, with minor developments but not enough. ''
Caroline Preece of Den of Geek gave a good review to the episode saying that the show has improved greatly since it stopped paying attention only to Damon and Elena 's relationship. "The Damon / Elena storyline is still a frustrating mess, but it 's also not the only thing on the show anymore -- and that gives viewers no longer interested in Elena 's love life a reason to come back. Just that simple thing is what fans have been asking for and, now that we have it, it 's glorious. ''
Lindsay Sperling from We Got This Covered gave a mixed review to the episode saying that this episode was the first filler one for season six. "This season of The Vampire Diaries is arguably already better than the last two combined, but there 's a limit to the amount of Elena and Damon drama that fans should have to endure. Either let them be together, or let them move on. (...) There were a few notable plot twists in (the episode) despite the overwhelming feeling that nothing really happened to move the story along. ''
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meaning of song love me like you do in hindi | Love Me Like You Do - wikipedia
"Love Me like You Do '' is a song recorded by English singer Ellie Goulding for the soundtrack to the film Fifty Shades of Grey (2015). The song was written by Savan Kotecha, Ilya Salmanzadeh, Tove Lo, Max Martin and Ali Payami; the latter two also produced it. Goulding was selected to sing the track. It was released on 7 January 2015 as the second single from the soundtrack. The song was also included on Goulding 's third studio album, Delirium (2015).
"Love Me like You Do '' is a mid-tempo electropop power ballad, with instrumentation consisting of massive synths and crushing drums. Lyrically, similar to the film 's theme, the song talks about the uncontrollable feeling of falling in love and being seduced by someone whose touch leaves her begging for more, even when it hurts. It received acclaim from music critics, who praised Goulding 's soft vocals and the song for being sultry and grandiose. The song earned Goulding her first Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance, while the songwriters were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song.
"Love Me like You Do '' was a global success, becoming Goulding 's most successful single as well as becoming her first number - one in various countries, topping the charts of over 25 territories, including Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, it spent four weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart, while holding the record for the most - streamed track in a single week in the United Kingdom at the time. In the United States, it peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was her first number - one on the Adult Top 40 and second on the Mainstream Top 40. Its accompanying music video, which features scenes of the film and Goulding dancing with her partner in a ballroom, became the 21st video to receive one billion views on YouTube and received a nomination at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Female Video.
While seeking material for the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack, Republic Records contacted various artists, managers and music publishers to create a compilation that would appropriately represent the film 's tone. "Love Me like You Do '' was the result of Republic executive Tom Mackay contacting Max Martin 's manager about writing a song for the film. Ilya started writing the chorus, while Ali Payami and Martin came next, with Martin "tweaking '' the song and Savan Kotecha and Tove Lo also contributing with lyrics. According to Kotecha, "Love Me like You Do '' was already being developed by both him and Martin prior to Fifty Shades of Grey, and he had considered giving the song to American singer Demi Lovato. However, after being shown a scene from the film during a meeting for the film 's soundtrack, Martin thought "Love Me like You Do '' could work, and began reworking the song for inclusion. After that, the film director Sam Taylor - Johnson asked Ellie Goulding to sing the song. Goulding, who previously contributed songs to the soundtracks to The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and Divergent, initially thought about declining the invitation to record another song for a soundtrack to focus on her then - upcoming third studio album. However, after meeting the film crew and hearing the ballad she accepted. She commented:
"I was n't going to get involved in that soundtrack because I 've done a lot of soundtracks and we kind of thought we 've done a bit too much film stuff. So we should probably just chill and write that third album, which is what I should be focusing on. And then I met the director (Sam Taylor - Johnson) and everyone involved and I was like, ' This is a pretty cool thing to be involved in. ' Then I heard the song and I was like, ' Woah, this is a pretty awesome song. ' I did n't know that it was going to be this big, genuinely. I thought (maybe) it would do well. ''
A slightly reworked version of the song was included on the soundtrack to the 2018 film Fifty Shades Freed, the third and final installment in the series.
"Love Me like You Do '' was written by Max Martin, Savan Kotecha, Ilya Salmanzadeh, Ali Payami and Tove Lo, with production being done by Martin and Payami; they were also responsible for programming, drums, percussion, keys and bass. Strings were arranged by Mattias Bylund, violin was played by Mattias Johansson and cello by David Bukovinsky. Peter Carlsson was responsible for vocal editing, as well as background vocals, along with Martin, Payami, Ilya, Kotecha, Oscar Holter, Robin Fredriksson and Ludvig Soderberg. It was recorded in Los Angeles and Stockholm. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Group, the song is written in the key of A ♭ major, with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. Goulding 's vocal range spans from the low note of Ab3 to the high note of Eb5.
"Love Me like You Do '' is a tender electropop power ballad, with a "synth - filled, ' 80s - sounding '' production. Its instrumentation consists of massive synthesisers and crushing drums, while Goulding delivers a "soft, understated vocals ''. In the opening seconds she sings, "You 're the cure / you 're the pain / you 're the only thing I want to touch / Never knew that it / could mean so much / You 're the fear / I do n't care / ' Cause I 've never been so high. '' Lyrically, "Love Me like You Do '' contrasts "innocent romantic longing '' and "brooding, addictive, pain - laced sensuality '', which according to Plugged In 's Adam R. Holz, "mirrors the story arc of Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey '' in both the book and the film. He went on to explain its lyrical content: "(It) tells the tale of a woman entranced and seduced by someone whose touch leaves her begging for more, even when -- or perhaps especially when -- it hurts. ''
"Love Me like You Do '' was acclaimed by music critics. Samantha Grossman of Time called the song "sultry '' and dubbed it a "solid addition to the Fifty Shades soundtrack. '' Christina Garibaldi of MTV News also called it "sultry '' and "soft '', adding that "we can totally picture it being played during any steamy scene. '' Ryan Reed of Rolling Stone opined that its "results are grandiose, considering the film 's sensual subject matter. '' Jim Farber of the NY Daily News praised her "little - girl - lost voice '', noting that "Goulding sounds sweet even when she 's courting danger. The music, likewise, goes for a high gloss take on romance, recalling the heavily echoed beats and dense synthesizers of a Phil Collins ballad from the ' 80s. '' Robbie Daw of Idolator described "Love Me like You Do '' as "a sweeping power ballad that finds Goulding delivering soft, understated vocals over producer Max Martin 's swelling bed of synths. '' Lucas Villa of AXS commended Goulding for "masterfully tread (ing) between delicacy and power in her performance '', calling the song "intimately magnificent ''. Glenn Gamboa of Newsday called it "sweet, catchy, near - perfect rom - com fare ''.
Carolyn Menyes of Music Times complimented the song for being "sweet and dreamy, like the majority of Goulding 's discography '', also observing that "(t) he crawling pace works well as Goulding rolls her way through the melody, all at once being enchanting and loving. Her breathy vocals, as always, complete the atmospheric sensibility of the track. '' While reviewing the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack, Dave Holmes wrote for Esquire that the song was "(t) he closest thing to a single we 've heard so far '', adding that the song has "a touch of longing, a little bit of a beat '' and "Goulding 's voice is the sound of heavy petting. '' Mikael Wood, writing for Los Angeles Times, said that Goulding "put across a tender sensuality (...) even as super-producer Max Martin jacks the stadium - rave beat. '' Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic, in his soundtrack analysis, wrote that "it moves into the area of background romantic music, a vibe that 's sometimes pierced by those overly familiar oldies that surely play a bigger role onscreen than they do on album. '' In a less favourable review, Jason Lipshutz of Billboard gave the song two and a half stars out of five, complimenting Goulding 's voice as "one of pop 's more distinct voices '' and the tune 's "colossal chorus '', but panning its "cliched lyrics ''.
"Love Me like You Do '' was first nominated for a 2015 Teen Choice Award in the category "Song from a Movie or TV Show '', but eventually lost to Furious 7 's "See You Again '', performed by Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth. It was also nominated for a 2015 MTV Europe Music Award for "Best Song '', but lost to Taylor Swift 's "Bad Blood ''. At the 2015 BBC Music Awards, the song was nominated for "Song of the Year ''. It won the award of ' Best International Song '' at the 2015 Los Premios 40 Principales. The song is also nominated for "Favorite Song of the Year '' at the 42nd People 's Choice Awards and received two nominations at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards: Best Pop Solo Performance and Best Song Written for Visual Media, becoming the first time Goulding was nominated. The song received a Golden Globe nomination in its upcoming 73rd edition on the Best Original Song category.
"Love Me like You Do '' debuted atop the UK Singles Chart with first - week sales of 172,368 units, becoming Goulding 's second number - one hit in the United Kingdom after "Burn '' (2013). The single remained at number one for a second week with chart sales of 118,225 copies and 2.25 million streams, and then a third consecutive week selling a further 118,000 copies. In its third week at number one, "Love Me like You Do '' broke the streaming record in the United Kingdom at the time, with 2.58 million streams over seven days, surpassing Mark Ronson 's "Uptown Funk '' previous record. At the same time, the song was streamed almost 15.5 million times globally. It spent a total of four weeks at the top, becoming her longest number - one single in the UK. Elsewhere in Europe, "Love Me like You Do '' topped the charts in Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland.
In the United States, "Love Me like You Do '' debuted at number 45 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated 24 January 2015, with first - week sales of 79,000 copies. The following week, the song climbed to number 36, and then to number 20 in its third week. On the issue dated 14 February 2015, it rose to number 14. "Love Me like You Do '' reached number nine the following week, becoming Goulding 's second top - 10 hit on the chart. In its seventh week, the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her highest charting - single since "Lights '' (2011). On the Pop Songs chart, it was her second single to top the charts, and on the Adult Top 40 it was her first number - one. "Love Me like You Do '' debuted at number 38 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the week ending 24 January 2015, later peaking at number three. The track entered at number eight on the Australian Singles Chart and at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart. In its fourth week, "Love Me like You Do '' reached number one on both charts, becoming Goulding 's first number - one hit in both countries. In France, the song was not only her highest - charting single, reaching number five, but also her second top - 10 single. In Netherlands, the song was her first solo single to reach the top 10, peaking at number two.
The music video for "Love Me like You Do '' was directed by Georgia Hudson and premiered on 22 January 2015. It stars Goulding and her on - screen partner ballroom dancing in a mansion, as well as scenes from Fifty Shades of Grey. Regarding the dance in the video, she commented: "I am in it. That 's me! I 'm dancing in it!. (...) I basically have become fascinated with ballroom dancing so I was like, ' Can I please do some dancing in it? '. So they let me do that. There 's a guy in it, Charlie, and there 's some really sensual moments in it, and it 's in a really beautiful house. I think it 's one of my favorite videos. '' The video received a nomination for Best Female Video at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. With over 1.7 billion views, the video is the 33rd most viewed YouTube video of all time; it surpassed one billion views on 29 February 2016, becoming the 21st video in the site 's history to do so.
Goulding performed "Love Me like You Do '' in March 2015 at a Nike app launch. On 17 October 2015, Goulding was invited by Taylor Swift on her 1989 Tour as a surprise guest to sing a duet with her. On 25 October 2015, Goulding delivered a performance at the 2015 MTV Europe Music Awards, which Billboard called "sexy '' and "straightforward ''. On 7 November 2015, she sang it at the NRJ Music Awards. In the same month, she was also part of the American Express Unstaged, directed by Scarlett Johansson. On 20 November 2015, Goulding 's performance at Idol Sweden included the song. On 24 November 2015, she and James Corden sang it in several genres during The Late Late Show with James Corden, including rock, hip hop, country, rave, reggae, folk, and gospel. Goulding performed it during Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show, which aired on 8 December 2015. On 6 December 2015, she appeared at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball. On 10 December 2015, she gave another rendition of the song at the 2015 BBC Music Awards with the BBC Concert Orchestra.
In March 2015, Circa Waves performed a rock cover at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. That same month, James Arthur covered the song for MTV. In May 2015, Ella Henderson delivered an acoustic cover at Spin 1038 Live Room. In September 2015, Rhodes covered the song at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Fifty Shades of Grey: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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cathedral of st. mary & st anne cork city | Cathedral of st Mary and st Anne - Wikipedia
The Cathedral of Saint Mary and Saint Anne (Irish: Ardeaglais Naomh Muire agus Naomh Áine), also known as Saint Mary 's Cathedral, The North Cathedral or The North Chapel, is a Roman Catholic cathedral located in Cork, Ireland. It is the seat of the Bishop of Cork and Ross, and the mother church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cork and Ross.
The cathedral was dedicated in 1808, but was extensively damaged by an act of arson in 1820. George Richard Pain undertook the restoration of the cathedral. In 1964, the sanctuary of the cathedral was extended, a sanctuary tower added, and the internal layout reorganised.
The most recent large - scale works were undertaken at the cathedral in 1996. The tower and sanctuary were renovated and refurbished, the roof was re-slated and the gothic ceiling was repaired. External stonework of the cathedral was also repointed. The cathedral closed for the duration of the works.
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where did the name madison square garden come from | Madison Square Garden - Wikipedia
Penn Station:
New York City Subway:
Madison Square Garden, often called "MSG '' or simply "The Garden '', is a multi-purpose indoor arena in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Located in Midtown Manhattan between 7th and 8th Avenues from 31st to 33rd Streets, it is situated atop Pennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name "Madison Square Garden '', the first two (1879 and 1890) of which were located on Madison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with the third Madison Square Garden further uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden is used for professional basketball and ice hockey, as well as boxing, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including the Empire State Building, Koreatown, and Macy 's at Herald Square. It is home to the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL), the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association (NBA), and since 1997, the New York Liberty (WNBA).
The Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in the New York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the National Hockey League and the second - oldest arena in the National Basketball Association. In 2015, MSG was the fourth - busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales, behind The O2 Arena, the Manchester Arena and The SSE Hydro in the United Kingdom. Including two major renovations, its total construction cost is approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensive stadium venues ever built. It is part of the Pennsylvania Plaza office and retail complex. Several other operating entities related to the Garden share its name.
Madison Square is formed by the intersection of 5th Avenue and Broadway at 23rd Street in Manhattan. It was named after James Madison, fourth President of the United States.
Two venues called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square, the first from 1879 to 1890, and the second from 1890 to 1925. The first Garden, leased to P.T. Barnum, had no roof and was inconvenient to use during inclement weather, so it was demolished after 11 years. Madison Square Garden II was designed by noted architect Stanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate which included J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, P.T. Barnum, Darius Mills, James Stillman and W.W. Astor. White gave them a Beaux - Arts structure with a Moorish feel, including a minaret - like tower modeled after Giralda, the bell tower of the Cathedral of Seville -- soaring 32 stories -- the city 's second tallest building at the time -- dominating Madison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m), with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200 - seat theatre, a concert hall with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city and a roof garden cabaret. The building cost $3 million. Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden, and the New York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmark Cass Gilbert - designed New York Life Building.
A third Madison Square Garden opened in a new location, on 8th Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925. Designed by the noted theater architect Thomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoter Tex Rickard; the arena was dubbed "The House That Tex Built. '' The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden. It finished up in early 1969, and the site is now where One Worldwide Plaza is located.
The fourth and current Madison Square Garden opened on February 11, 1968, after Irving Mitchell Felt, who purchased the air rights from the Pennsylvania Railroad, tore down the above - ground portions of the original Pennsylvania Station. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed by Robert E. McKee of El Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure -- an outstanding example of Beaux - Arts architecture -- led to the creation of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The Garden is located in the office and entertainment complex formally addressed as Pennsylvania Plaza and commonly known as Penn Plaza, named for the railroad station.
In 1972, Felt proposed moving the Knicks and Rangers to a then incomplete venue in the New Jersey Meadowlands, the Meadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for the NY Raiders / NY Golden Blades of the World Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, the New Jersey Nets and the New Jersey Devils, respectively. The New York Giants and Jets of the National Football League (NFL) also relocated there. Felt 's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax - free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption.
Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper - tier seats. The project was designed by Ellerbe Becket. In 2004 -- 2005, Cablevision battled with the City of New York over the proposed West Side Stadium, which was cancelled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high - rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of the James Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for the Rangers and Knicks ' 2011 -- 12 seasons, though the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, the New York Liberty played at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey during the renovation.
Madison Square Garden is the last of the NBA and NHL arenas to not be named after a corporate sponsor.
In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxer Joe Louis, who made eight successful title defenses in the previous Madison Square Garden.
Madison Square Garden 's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three offseasons. It was set to begin after the 2009 -- 10 hockey / basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010 -- 11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced, the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season at Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey during the renovation.
New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate - controlled space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the 6th floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the 8th floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The 7th floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden.
Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed for the 2011 -- 2012 NHL season and the 2011 -- 12 NBA lockout shortened season. An extended off - season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in time for the 2012 -- 2013 NBA season and the 2012 -- 13 NHL lockout - shortened NHL season. This advance work included the West Balcony on the 10th floor, taking the place of sky - boxes, and new end - ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012 -- 2013 NHL and NBA seasons. The construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, along with the Chase Bridges and the new scoreboard (Phase 3) were completed for the 2013 -- 2014 NHL and NBA seasons.
Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion of Penn Station, which is already expanding through the James Farley Post Office, and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013, Manhattan Community Board 5 voted 36 -- 0 against granting a renewal to MSG 's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10 - year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough president Scott Stringer said, "Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station. '' The Madison Square Garden Company responded by saying that "(i) t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving. ''
In May 2013, four architecture firms -- SHoP Architects, SOM, H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, and Diller Scofidio + Renfro -- submitted proposals for a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing 2 Penn Plaza and redeveloping other towers, and an extension of the High Line to Penn Station. Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of the James Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as a mixed - use development with commercial, residential, and recreational space. H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west of Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station / arena. Then, according to H3 's plan, four skyscrapers at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with a roof garden on top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center. Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed - use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS + F also proposed high - tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, and apps that would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains. Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans "pie - in - the - sky ''.
In June 2013, the New York City Council Committee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten - year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate, or go back through the permission process. On July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10 - year operating permit by a vote of 47 to 1. "This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century '', said City Council speaker Christine Quinn. "This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world - class transportation destination. ''
In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the most ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed. Then, in January 2016, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo announced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal of The Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact.
Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League, the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association, and the New York Liberty of the Women 's National Basketball Association. The New York Rangers, New York Knicks, New York Liberty, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself are all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The arena is also host to the Big East Men 's Basketball Conference Tournament and the finals of the National Invitation Tournament. It also hosts selected home games for the St. John 's men 's Red Storm (college basketball), the annual pre - and postseason NIT tournaments, the Millrose Games track and field meet, and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show and the 2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden is the former home of the NBA Draft and the former New York City home of the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus and Disney on Ice; all three events are now held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn. It served the New York Cosmos for half of their home games during the 1983 -- 84 NASL Indoor season.
Many of boxing 's biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including the Roberto Durán -- Ken Buchanan affair, and the first Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier bout. Before promoters such as Don King and Bob Arum moved boxing to Las Vegas, Nevada Madison Square Garden was considered the mecca of boxing. The original 181⁄2 ' × 181⁄2 ' (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to the International Boxing Hall of Fame after 82 years of service. A 20 ' × 20 ' (6 m × 6 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.
Madison Square Garden hosts more high - profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue for George Harrison 's The Concert for Bangladesh, The Concert for New York City following the September 11 attacks, John Lennon 's final concert appearance (during an Elton John concert on Thanksgiving Night, 1974) before his murder in 1980, and Elvis Presley, who gave four sold out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City. Parliament - Funkadelic headlined numerous sold out shows in 1977 and 1978. Led Zeppelin 's 3 night stand in July 1973 was recorded and released as both a film and album titled The Song Remains The Same. The Police played their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008.
At one point, Elton John held the all - time record for greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying "Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I 've had playing the venue. '' Billy Joel, who broke the record, stated "Madison Square Garden is the center of the universe as far as I 'm concerned. It has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts and, being a New Yorker, it holds a special significance to me. ''
Madonna performed at this venue a total of 31 concerts, the first two being during her 1985 Virgin Tour, on June 10 and 11, and the most recent being the two - nights stay during her Rebel Heart Tour on September 16 and 17, 2015.
U2 performed at the arena 25 times: the first one was on April 1, 1985 during their Unforgettable Fire Tour, in front of a crowd of 19,000 people. The second and the third were on September 28 and 29, 1987 during their Joshua Tree Tour, in front of 39,510 people. The fourth was on March 20, 1992 during their Zoo TV Tour, in front of a crowd of 18,179 people. The fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth was on June 17 and 19 and October 24, 25 and 27, 2001 during their Elevation Tour, in front of 91,787 people. The 10th, the 11th, the 12th, the 13th, the 14th, the 15th, the 16th and the 17th were on May 21, October 7, 8, 10, 11 and 14 and November 21 and 22, 2005 during their Vertigo Tour, in front of a total sold out crowd of 149,004 people. The band performed their following eight performances at the arena on July 18, 19, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30 and 31, 2015 as part of their Innocence + Experience Tour.
In the summer of 2017, Phish performed 13 consecutive concerts at the venue, which the Garden commemorated by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.
The Garden usually hosts a concert each New Year 's Eve, while the Knicks and Rangers play on the road.
It has previously hosted the 1976 Democratic National Convention, 1980 Democratic National Convention, 1992 Democratic National Convention, and the 2004 Republican National Convention, and hosted the NFL Draft for many years (now held at Garden - leased Radio City Music Hall). In 1982 the Church of God in Christ in New York under the leadership of Bishop F.D. Washington used Madison Square Garden for its Annual Holy Convocation.
The New York Police Academy, Baruch College / CUNY and Yeshiva University also hold their annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted the Grammy Awards in 1972, 1997 and 2003 (which are normally held in Los Angeles) as well as the Latin Grammy Awards of 2006.
The group and Best in Show competitions of the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show are held every February for two days at MSG.
The Garden hosted the Stanley Cup Finals and NBA Finals simultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994.
MSG has hosted the following All - Star Games:
In 1985, the Garden hosted the inaugural WrestleMania presented by the World Wrestling Federation. In 1988 it hosted the WWF 's inaugural SummerSlam PPV.
Seating in Madison Square Garden was initially arranged in six ascending levels, each with its own color. The first level, which was available only for basketball games, boxing and concerts, and not for hockey games and ice shows, was known as the "Rotunda '' ("ringside '' for boxing and "courtside '' for basketball), had beige seats, and bore section numbers of 29 and lower (the lowest number varying with the different venues, in some cases with the very lowest sections denoted by letters rather than numbers). Next above this was the "Orchestra '' (red) seating, sections 31 through 97, followed by the 100 - level "First Promenade '' (orange) and 200 - level "Second Promenade '' (yellow), the 300 - level (green) "First Balcony '', and the 400 - level (blue) "Second Balcony. '' The rainbow - colored seats were replaced with fuchsia and teal seats during the 1990s renovation (in part because the blue seats had acquired an unsavory reputation, especially during games in which the New York Rangers hosted their cross-town rivals, the New York Islanders) which installed the 10th floor sky - boxes around the entire arena and the 9th floor sky - boxes on the 7th avenue end of the arena, taking out 400 - level seating on the 7th Avenue end in the process.
Because all of the seats, except the 400 level, were in one monolithic grandstand, horizontal distance from the arena floor was significant from the ends of the arena. Also, the rows rose much more gradually than other North American arenas, which caused impaired sight lines, especially when sitting behind tall spectators or one of the concourses. This arrangement, however, created an advantage over newer arenas in that seats had a significantly lower vertical distance from the arena floor.
As part of the 2011 -- 2013 renovation, the club sections, 100 - level and 200 - level have been combined to make a new 100 - level lower bowl. The 300 - level and 400 - level were combined and raised 17 feet closer, forming a new 200 - level upper bowl. All skyboxes but those on the 7th Avenue end were removed and replaced with balcony seating (8th Avenue) and Chase Bridge Seating (31st Street and 33rd Street). The sky - boxes on the 9th floor were remodeled and are now called the Signature Suites. The sky - boxes on the 7th Avenue end of the 10th Floor are now known as the Lounges. One small section of the 400 - level remains near the west end of the arena, and features blue seats. The media booths have been relocated to the 31st Street Chase Bridge.
The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of the NFL Draft until 2005, when it moved to the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center after MSG management opposed a new stadium for the New York Jets. It also hosted the NBA Draft from 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches on nights when the main arena is unavailable. The fall 1999 Jeopardy! Teen Tournament as well as a Celebrity Jeopardy! competition were held at the theater. Wheel of Fortune did tapings at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of the Survivor: All - Stars finale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30 ' × 64 ' stage. The theatre has a relatively low 20 - foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage level and all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000 - square - foot (740 m) lobby at the theater.
Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub in Pennsylvania Station, featuring access to commuter rail service from the Long Island Rail Road and New Jersey Transit, as well as Amtrak. The Garden is also accessible via the New York City Subway. The A C E trains stop at 8th Avenue and the 1 2 3 trains at 7th Avenue in Penn Station. The Garden can also be reached from nearby Herald Square with the B D F M N Q R W trains at the 34th Street -- Herald Square station as well as PATH train service from the 33rd Street station.
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old time rock & roll bob seger & the silver bullet band | Old Time rock and Roll - wikipedia
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' is a song written by George Jackson and Thomas E. Jones III, and recorded by Bob Seger on his 1978 album Stranger in Town. It was also released as a single in 1979. It is a sentimentalized look back at the music of the original rock ' n ' roll era. The song gained substantial popularity after being featured in the 1983 film Risky Business. It has since become a standard in popular music and was ranked number two on the Amusement & Music Operators Association 's survey of the Top 40 Jukebox Singles of All Time in 1996. It was also listed as one of the Songs of the Century in 2001 and ranked # 100 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs poll in 2004 of the top songs in American cinema. The song was recorded at the Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama and Sound Suite Studios in Detroit, Michigan.
The Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, who often backed Seger in his studio recordings, sent Seger a demo of the song during the recording of Stranger in Town. He said in 2006 (and also on the "Stranger in Town '' episode of the US radio show In the Studio with Redbeard a few years earlier):
All I kept from the original was: "Old time rock and roll, that kind of music just soothes the soul, I reminisce about the days of old with that old time rock and roll ''. I rewrote the verses and I never took credit. That was the dumbest thing I ever did. And Tom Jones (Thomas E. Jones) and George Jackson know it, too. But I just wanted to finish the record (Stranger in Town). I rewrote every verse you hear except for the choruses. I did n't ask for credit. My manager said: "You should ask for a third of the credit. '' And I said: "Nah. Nobody 's gon na like it. '' I 'm not credited on it so I could n't control the copyright either. Meanwhile it got into a Hardee 's commercial because I could n't control it. Oh my God, it was awful! ''
However, George Stephenson of Malaco Records claimed:
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' is truly (George) Jackson 's song, and he has the tapes to prove it, despite Seger 's claims that he altered it. Bob had pretty much finished his recording at Muscle Shoals and he asked them if they had any other songs he could listen to for the future... ''
Originally, the Silver Bullet Band was displeased with its inclusion on Stranger in Town, claiming, according to Seger, that the song was not "Silver Bullety ''. However, upon hearing audience reactions to it during their tour in Europe, the band grew to like the song.
In 1990, Seger joined Billy Joel on one occasion and Don Henley on another to play the song during their concerts in Auburn Hills, Michigan. He also performed the song at his Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony.
The song was featured in the 1983 film Risky Business, starring Tom Cruise. Cruise 's character, Joel Goodson, famously lip - syncs and dances in his underwear as this song plays after his parents leave him home alone. Activision created a series of Guitar Hero: World Tour television commercials directed by Brett Ratner based on the scene, each featuring a different set of celebrities lip - sync to the lyrics while using the new instrument controllers. The first ad included athletes Kobe Bryant, Tony Hawk, Alex Rodriguez, and Michael Phelps. Part of the song is sung by character Steve Harrington in season one of the Netflix series Stranger Things.
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' achieved substantial album - oriented rock radio airplay and as the fourth single from Stranger in Town, it reached number 28 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1979. It was re-released in 1983 after its inclusion in the film Risky Business and reached number 48 on the Billboard chart. The song remains a staple on classic rock radio.
In Australia, the song was released twice and charted for a total of 55 weeks. The first run was in 1983 after its use in the film Risky Business, reaching number 53 on the charts. The second run saw it reach # 3 in late 1987.
In 2000 the british rock band Status Quo recorded a version of this song on their album Famous in the Last Century. They played it at Top of the Pops and published it as a single which charted in UK and Norway.
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why do we have to have leap years | Leap year - wikipedia
A leap year (also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year) is a calendar year containing one additional day (or, in the case of lunisolar calendars, a month) added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. Because seasons and astronomical events do not repeat in a whole number of days, calendars that have the same number of days in each year drift over time with respect to the event that the year is supposed to track. By inserting (also called intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. A year that is not a leap year is called a common year.
For example, in the Gregorian calendar, each leap year has 366 days instead of the usual 365, by extending February to 29 days rather than the common 28. These extra days occur in years which are multiples of four (with the exception of years divisible by 100 but not by 400). Similarly, in the lunisolar Hebrew calendar, Adar Aleph, a 13th lunar month, is added seven times every 19 years to the twelve lunar months in its common years to keep its calendar year from drifting through the seasons. In the Bahá'í Calendar, a leap day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the vernal equinox.
The name "leap year '' probably comes from the fact that while a fixed date in the Gregorian calendar normally advances one day of the week from one year to the next, the day of the week in the 12 months following the leap day (from March 1 through February 28 of the following year) will advance two days due to the extra day (thus "leaping over '' one of the days in the week). For example, Christmas Day (December 25) fell on a Monday in 2017, then it will fall on Tuesday in 2018, and Wednesday in 2019 but then "leaps '' over Thursday to fall on a Friday in 2020.
The length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), owing to the variability of Earth 's rotational period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule, since the variability in the length of the day is not entirely predictable.
In the Gregorian calendar, the standard calendar in most of the world, most years that are multiples of 4 are leap years. In each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28. Adding one extra day in the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a tropical year by almost 6 hours. Some exceptions to this basic rule are required since the duration of a tropical year is slightly less than 365.25 days. The Gregorian reform modified the Julian calendar 's scheme of leap years as follows:
Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400. For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 were not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 were.
Over a period of four centuries, the accumulated error of adding a leap day every four years amounts to about three extra days. The Gregorian calendar therefore removes three leap days every 400 years, which is the length of its leap cycle. This is done by removing February 29 in the three century years (multiples of 100) that can not be exactly divided by 400. The years 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 and 2300 are common years. By this rule, the average number of days per year is 365 + ⁄ − ⁄ + ⁄ = 365.2425. The rule can be applied to years before the Gregorian reform (the proleptic Gregorian calendar), if astronomical year numbering is used.
The Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that falls on or after March 21) remains close to the vernal equinox. The "Accuracy '' section of the "Gregorian calendar '' article discusses how well the Gregorian calendar achieves this design goal, and how well it approximates the tropical year.
The following pseudocode determines whether a year is a leap year or a common year in the Gregorian calendar (and in the proleptic Gregorian calendar before 1582). The year variable being tested is the integer representing the number of the year in the Gregorian calendar, and the tests are arranged to dispatch the most common cases first. Care should be taken in translating mathematical integer divisibility into specific programming languages.
if (year is not divisible by 4) then (it is a common year) else if (year is not divisible by 100) then (it is a leap year) else if (year is not divisible by 400) then (it is a common year) else (it is a leap year)
The algorithm applies to proleptic Gregorian calendar years before 1, but only if the year is expressed with astronomical year numbering. It is not valid for the BC or BCE notation. The algorithm is not necessarily valid for years in the Julian calendar, such as years before 1752 in the British Empire. The year 1700 was a leap year in the Julian calendar, but not in the Gregorian calendar.
February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure, because the Earth does not orbit the sun in precisely 365 days.
The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunisolar calendar and named many of its days after the syzygies of the moon: the new moon (Kalendae or calends, hence "calendar '') and the full moon (Idus or ides). The Nonae or nones was not the first quarter moon but was exactly one nundina or Roman market week of nine days before the ides, inclusively counting the ides as the first of those nine days. This is what we would call a period of eight days. In 1825, Ideler believed that the lunisolar calendar was abandoned about 450 BC by the decemvirs, who implemented the Roman Republican calendar, used until 46 BC. The days of these calendars were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so February 24 was ante diem sextum Kalendas Martias ("the sixth day before the calends of March '') often abbreviated a.d. VI Kal. Mart. The Romans counted days inclusively in their calendars, so this was actually the fifth day before March 1 when counted in the modern exclusive manner (not including the starting day).
The Republican calendar 's intercalary month was inserted on the first or second day after the Terminalia (a.d. VII Kal. Mar., February 23). The remaining days of Februarius were dropped. This intercalary month, named Intercalaris or Mercedonius, contained 27 days. The religious festivals that were normally celebrated in the last five days of February were moved to the last five days of Intercalaris. Because only 22 or 23 days were effectively added, not a full lunation, the calends and ides of the Roman Republican calendar were no longer associated with the new moon and full moon.
The Julian calendar, which was developed in 46 BC by Julius Caesar, and became effective in 45 BC, distributed an extra ten days among the months of the Roman Republican calendar. Caesar also replaced the intercalary month by a single intercalary day, located where the intercalary month used to be. To create the intercalary day, the existing ante diem sextum Kalendas Martias (February 24) was doubled, producing ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias. Hence, the year containing the doubled day was a bissextile (bis sextum, "twice sixth '') year. For legal purposes, the two days of the bis sextum were considered to be a single day, with the second half being intercalated; but in common practice by 238, when Censorinus wrote, the intercalary day was followed by the last five days of February, a.d. VI, V, IV, III and pridie Kal. Mart. (the days numbered 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 from the beginning of February in a common year), so that the intercalated day was the first half of the doubled day. Thus the intercalated day was effectively inserted between the 23rd and 24th days of February. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter), continued to state that the bissextum (bissextile day) occurred before the last five days of February.
Until 1970, the Roman Catholic Church always celebrated the feast of Saint Matthias on a.d. VI Kal. Mart., so if the days were numbered from the beginning of the month, it was named February 24 in common years, but the presence of the bissextum in a bissextile year immediately before a.d. VI Kal. Mart. shifted the latter day to February 25 in leap years, with the Vigil of St. Matthias shifting from February 23 to the leap day of February 24. This shift did not take place in pre-Reformation Norway and Iceland; Pope Alexander III ruled that either practice was lawful (Liber Extra, 5. 40. 14. 1). Other feasts normally falling on February 25 -- 28 in common years are also shifted to the following day in a leap year (although they would be on the same day according to the Roman notation). The practice is still observed by those who use the older calendars.
The Revised Bengali Calendar of Bangladesh and the Indian National Calendar organise their leap years so that the every leap day is close to a February 29 in the Gregorian calendar and vice versa. This makes it easy to convert dates to or from Gregorian.
The Thai solar calendar uses the Buddhist Era (BE), but has been synchronized with the Gregorian since AD 1941.
From AD 8 the Julian calendar received an extra day added to February in years that are multiples of 4.
The Coptic calendar and Ethiopian calendar also add an extra day to the end of the year once every four years before a Julian 29 - day February.
This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. However, it is 11 minutes longer than a tropical year. This means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar about every 131 years.
The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years that are multiples of four, except for years that are multiples of 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar.
This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222 days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar for the time being does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar at keeping the vernal equinox on or close to March 21.
The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a rule which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month (二 月) then it is simply called "leap second month '' i.e. simplified Chinese: 闰 二 月; traditional Chinese: 閏 二 月; pinyin: rùn'èryuè.
The Hebrew calendar is lunisolar with an embolismic month. This extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Bet (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years (specifically, in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19). This is to ensure that Passover (Pesah) is always in the spring as required by the Torah (Pentateuch) in many verses relating to Passover.
In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting days of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath. In particular, the first day of the Hebrew year can never be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This rule is known in Hebrew as "lo adu rosh '' (לא אד "ו ראש), i.e., "Rosh (ha - Shanah, first day of the year) is not Sunday, Wednesday or Friday '' (as the Hebrew word adu is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Sunday, Wednesday and Friday). Accordingly, the first day of Passover is never Monday, Wednesday or Friday. This rule is known in Hebrew as "lo badu Pesah '' (לא בד "ו פסח), which has a double meaning -- "Passover is not a legend '', but also "Passover is not Monday, Wednesday or Friday '' (as the Hebrew word badu is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Monday, Wednesday and Friday).
One reason for this rule is that Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Hebrew calendar and the tenth day of the Hebrew year, now must never be adjacent to the weekly Sabbath (which is Saturday), i.e., it must never fall on Friday or Sunday, in order not to have two adjacent Sabbath days. However, Yom Kippur can still be on Saturday. These rules for the Feasts do not apply to the years from the Creation to the deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses. It was at that time (cf. Exodus 13) that the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob gave the Hebrews their "Law '' including the days to be kept holy and the feast days and Sabbaths.
Years consisting of 12 months have between 353 and 355 days. In a k'sidra ("in order '') 354 - day year, months have alternating 30 and 29 day lengths. In a chaser ("lacking '') year, the month of Kislev is reduced to 29 days. In a malei ("filled '') year, the month of Marcheshvan is increased to 30 days. 13 - month years follow the same pattern, with the addition of the 30 - day Adar Alef, giving them between 383 and 385 days.
The observed and calculated versions of the Islamic calendar do not have regular leap days, even though both have lunar months containing 29 or 30 days, generally in alternating order. However, the tabular Islamic calendar used by Islamic astronomers during the Middle Ages and still used by some Muslims does have a regular leap day added to the last month of the lunar year in 11 years of a 30 - year cycle. This additional day is found at the end of the last month, Dhu ' l - Hijja, which is also the month of the Hajj.
The Hijri - Shamsi calendar, also adopted by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, is based on solar calculations and is similar to the Gregorian calendar in its structure with the exception that the first year starts with Hijra.
In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons. Adhika maas occurs once every 33 to 34 months, compensating for the approximately eleven fewer days per year in twelve lunar months than the solar calendar. Thus, Hindu festivals tend to occur within a given span of the Gregorian calendar. For example: the No Moon during Diwali festival occurs between mid - October and mid - November. Buddhist calendars in several related forms (each a simplified version of the Hindu calendar) are used on mainland Southeast Asia in the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Sri Lanka.
The Hindu Calendar also known as Vikram Samvat is used in Nepal as the national calendar. All the official work is done based on this calendar.
The calendar followed in some parts of South India (mainly in Tamil Nadu) is solar. It has a leap year every four years.
The Bahá'í calendar is a solar calendar composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days). Years begin at Naw - Rúz, on the vernal equinox, on or about March 21. A period of "Intercalary Days '', called Ayyam - i - Ha, are inserted before the 19th month. This period normally has 4 days, but an extra day is added when needed to ensure that the following year starts on the vernal equinox. This is calculated and known years in advance.
The Iranian calendar is an observational calendar that starts on the spring equinox and adds a single intercalated day to the last month (Esfand) once every four or five years; the first leap year occurs as the fifth year of the typical 33 - year cycle and the remaining leap years occur every four years through the remainder of the 33 - year cycle. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Tehran. The 33 - year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33 - year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 years.
In Ireland and Britain, it is a tradition that women may propose marriage only in leap years. While it has been claimed that the tradition was initiated by Saint Patrick or Brigid of Kildare in 5th century Ireland, this is dubious, as the tradition has not been attested before the 19th century. Supposedly, a 1288 law by Queen Margaret of Scotland (then age five and living in Norway), required that fines be levied if a marriage proposal was refused by the man; compensation was deemed to be a pair of leather gloves, a single rose, £ 1 and a kiss. In some places the tradition was tightened to restricting female proposals to the modern leap day, February 29, or to the medieval (bissextile) leap day, February 24.
According to Felten: "A play from the turn of the 17th century, ' The Maydes Metamorphosis, ' has it that ' this is leape year / women wear breeches. ' A few hundred years later, breeches would n't do at all: Women looking to take advantage of their opportunity to pitch woo were expected to wear a scarlet petticoat -- fair warning, if you will. ''
In Finland, the tradition is that if a man refuses a woman 's proposal on leap day, he should buy her the fabrics for a skirt.
In France, since 1980, a satirical newspaper entitled La Bougie du Sapeur is published only on leap year, on February 29.
In Greece, marriage in a leap year is considered unlucky. One in five engaged couples in Greece will plan to avoid getting married in a leap year.
In February 1988 the town of Anthony in Texas, declared itself "leap year capital of the world '', and an international leapling birthday club was started.
A person born on February 29 may be called a "leapling '' or a "leaper ''. In common years, they usually celebrate their birthdays on February 28. In some situations, March 1 is used as the birthday in a non-leap year, since it is the day following February 28.
Technically, a leapling will have fewer birthday anniversaries than their age in years. This phenomenon is exploited when a person claims to be only a quarter of their actual age, by counting their leap - year birthday anniversaries only. In Gilbert and Sullivan 's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance, Frederic the pirate apprentice discovers that he is bound to serve the pirates until his 21st birthday (that is, when he turns 88 years old - 1900 not being a Leap Year), rather than until his 21st year.
For legal purposes, legal birthdays depend on how local laws count time intervals.
The Civil Code of the Republic of China since October 10, 1929, implies that the legal birthday of a leapling is February 28 in common years:
If a period fixed by weeks, months, and years does not commence from the beginning of a week, month, or year, it ends with the ending of the day which precedes the day of the last week, month, or year which corresponds to that on which it began to commence. But if there is no corresponding day in the last month, the period ends with the ending of the last day of the last month.
Since 1990 non-retroactively, Hong Kong considers the legal birthday of a leapling March 1 in common years:
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why are there no taxes in the cayman islands | Cayman Islands - wikipedia
Coordinates: 19 ° 30 ′ N 80 ° 30 ′ W / 19.500 ° N 80.500 ° W / 19.500; - 80.500
The Cayman Islands (/ ˈkeɪmən / or / keɪˈmæn /) is an autonomous British Overseas Territory in the western Caribbean Sea. The 264 - square - kilometre (102 - square - mile) territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman located south of Cuba, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama, east of Mexico and northwest of Jamaica. Its population is approximately 60,765, and its capital is George Town.
The Cayman Islands is considered to be part of the geographic Western Caribbean Zone as well as the Greater Antilles. The territory is often considered a major world offshore financial haven for international businesses and many wealthy individuals.
The Cayman Islands remained largely uninhabited until the 17th century. While there is no archaeological evidence for an indigenous people on the islands, a variety of settlers from various backgrounds made their home on the islands, including pirates, shipwrecked sailors, and deserters from Oliver Cromwell 's army in Jamaica.
The first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1661. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden who was probably one of Oliver Cromwell 's soldiers at the taking of Jamaica in 1655.
England took formal control of the Cayman Islands, along with Jamaica, as a result of the Treaty of Madrid of 1670. Following several unsuccessful attempts at settlement, a permanent English - speaking population in the islands dates from the 1730s. With settlement, after the first royal land grant by the Governor of Jamaica in 1734, came the perceived need for slaves. Many were brought to the islands from Africa; this is evident today with the majority of native Caymanians being of African and English descent. The results of the first census taken in the islands in 1802 showed the population on Grand Cayman to be 933 with 545 of those inhabitants being enslaved. Slavery was abolished in the Cayman Islands in 1833. At the time of abolition, there were over 950 Blacks of African ancestry enslaved by 116 white families of English ancestry.
The islands continued to be governed as part of the Colony of Jamaica until 1962, when they became a separate Crown colony while Jamaica became an independent Commonwealth realm.
On 8 February 1794, the Caymanians rescued the crews of a group of ten merchant ships, including HMS Convert, an incident that has since become known as the Wreck of the Ten Sail. The ships had struck a reef and run aground during rough seas. Legend has it that King George III rewarded the island with a promise never to introduce taxes as compensation for their generosity, as one of the ships carried a member of the King 's own family. While this remains a popular legend, the story is not true.
The Cayman Islands historically has been a tax - exempt destination. The government of the Cayman Islands has always relied on indirect and not direct taxes. The territory has never levied income tax, capital gains tax, or any wealth tax, making them a popular tax haven.
On 11 September 2004 the island of Grand Cayman, which lies largely unprotected at sea level, was hit by Hurricane Ivan, creating an 8 - ft (2.4 m) storm surge which flooded many areas of Grand Cayman. An estimated 83 % of the dwellings on the island were damaged including 4 % requiring complete reconstruction. A reported 70 % of all dwellings suffered severe damage from flooding or wind. Another 26 % sustained minor damage from partial roof removal, low levels of flooding, or impact with floating or wind driven hurricane debris. Power, water and communications were disrupted for months in some areas as Ivan was the worst hurricane to hit the islands in 86 years. Grand Cayman began a major rebuilding process and within two years its infrastructure was nearly returned to pre-hurricane status. Due to the tropical location of the islands, more hurricanes or tropical systems have affected the Cayman Islands than any other region in the Atlantic basin; it has been brushed or directly hit, on average, every 2.23 years.
The islands are in the western Caribbean Sea and are the peaks of a massive underwater ridge, known as the Cayman Ridge (or Cayman Rise). This ridge flanks the Cayman Trough, 6,000 m (20,000 ft) deep which lies 6 km (3.7 mi) to the south. The islands lie in the northwest of the Caribbean Sea, east of Quintana Roo, Mexico and Yucatán State, Mexico, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama, south of Cuba and west of Jamaica. They are situated about 700 km (430 mi) south of Miami, 750 km (470 mi) east of Mexico, 366 km (227 mi) south of Cuba, and about 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Jamaica. Grand Cayman is by far the largest, with an area of 197 km (76 sq mi). Grand Cayman 's two "sister islands '', Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, are about 120 km (75 mi) east north - east of Grand Cayman and have areas of 38 and 28.5 km (14.7 and 11.0 sq mi) respectively.
All three islands were formed by large coral heads covering submerged ice age peaks of western extensions of the Cuban Sierra Maestra range and are mostly flat. One notable exception to this is The Bluff on Cayman Brac 's eastern part, which rises to 43 m (141 ft) above sea level, the highest point on the islands.
Terrain is mostly a low - lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs.
The mammalian species in the islands include the introduced Central American agouti and eight species of bats. At least three now extinct native rodent species were present up until the discovery of the islands by Europeans. A number of cetaceans are found in offshore waters.
Cayman avian fauna includes two endemic subspecies of Amazona parrots: A. l. hesterna Bangs, 1916 or Cuban amazon, now restricted to the island of Cayman Brac, but formerly also on Little Cayman, and Amazona leucocephala caymanensis or Grand Cayman parrot, which is native to the Cayman Islands, forested areas of Cuba, and the Isla de la Juventud. Little Cayman and Cayman Brac are also home to red - footed and brown boobies. There are five endemic subspecies of butterflies on the islands.
Among other notable fauna is the endangered blue iguana, which is endemic to Grand Cayman.
The Cayman Islands has a tropical wet and dry climate, with a wet season from May to October, and a dry season that runs from November to April. Seasonally, there is little temperature change.
A major natural hazard is the tropical cyclones that form during the Atlantic hurricane season from June to November.
On 11 and 12 September 2004, Hurricane Ivan struck the Cayman Islands. The storm resulted in two deaths and caused great damage to the infrastructure on the islands. The total economic impact of the storms was estimated to be $3.4 billion.
The Cayman Islands have more registered businesses than people. In 2016 the Cayman Islands had an estimated population of about 60,765, representing a mix of more than 100 nationalities. Out of that number, about half are of Caymanian descent. About 60 % of the population is of mixed race (mostly mixed African - Caucasian). The islands are almost exclusively Christian, with large numbers of Baptists, Presbyterians and Catholics, but also hosts Jewish, Muslim and Hindu communities. The vast majority of the population resides on Grand Cayman, followed by Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, respectively. The population is projected to rise to 60,000 by 2020. The capital of the Cayman Islands is George Town, on the southwest coast of Grand Cayman.
According to the Cayman Islands 2016 Compendium of Statistics released by the Economics and Statistics Office (ESO) the estimated resident population is above 61,000 people, broken down as follows:
Sir Vassel Johnson, who became the only Caymanian ever knighted, was a pioneer of Cayman 's financial services industry. Cayman Islands Past Governor Stuart Jack said ' As one of the architects of modern Cayman, especially the financial industry, Sir Vassel guided the steady growth of these Islands as the first financial secretary. His remarkable vision set the foundation for the prosperity and economic stability of these islands. Without his input, Cayman might well have remained the islands that time forgot. '
With an average income of around KYD $47,000, Caymanians have the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Cayman Islands GDP per capita is the 14th highest in the world. The territory prints its own currency, the Cayman Islands dollar (KYD), which is pegged to the US dollar 1.227 USD to 1 KYD. However, in many retail stores throughout the islands, the KYD is typically traded at 1.25 USD. The government has established a Needs Assessment Unit to relieve poverty in the islands.
The government 's primary source of income is indirect taxation: there is no income tax, capital gains tax, or corporation tax. An import duty of 5 % to 22 % (automobiles 29.5 % to 100 %) is levied against goods imported into the islands. Few goods are exempt; notable exemptions include books, cameras, and infant formula.
On 15 July 2012 one of the Cayman Islands ' former Premiers McKeeva Bush announced the intended introduction of a "community enhancement fee '' in the form of a payroll tax to be paid solely by expatriate workers. Caymanians themselves were to remain exempt from this tax. This would have been the first direct tax on income in the Cayman Islands ' history. Bush also announced a five percent fee on "certain categories of employment '' to be payable by businesses. However, the payroll tax was scrapped before it had been implemented.
One of Grand Cayman 's main attractions is Seven Mile Beach, site of a number of the island 's hotels and resorts. Named one of the Ultimate Beaches by Caribbean Travel and Life, Seven Mile Beach is on the western shore of Grand Cayman Island. It is a public property and possible to walk the full length of the beach, past all the hotels, resorts, and public beach bars. Historical sites in Grand Cayman, such as Pedro St James Castle in Savannah, also attract visitors. Tourists also visit the "sister islands '', Little Cayman and Cayman Brac.
All three islands offer scuba diving, and the Cayman Islands is home to several snorkelling locations where tourists can swim with stingrays. The most popular area to do this is Stingray City, Grand Cayman. Stingray City is a top attraction in Grand Cayman and originally started in the 1980s, when divers started feeding squid to stingrays. The stingrays started to associate the sound of the boat motors with food, and thus visit this area year round.
There are two shipwrecks off the shores of Cayman Brac, including the MV Captain Keith Tibbetts; Grand Cayman also has several shipwrecks off its shores, including one deliberate one. On 30 September 1994 the USS Kittiwake was decommissioned and struck from the Naval Vessel Register. In November 2008 her ownership was transferred for an undisclosed amount to the government of the Cayman Islands, which had decided to sink the Kittiwake in June 2009 to form a new artificial reef off Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman. Following several delays, the ship was finally scuttled according to plan on 5 January 2011. The Kittiwake has become a dynamic environment for marine life. While visitors are not allowed to take anything, there are endless sights. Each of the five decks of the ship offers squirrelfish, rare sponges, Goliath groupers, urchins, and more. Experienced and beginner divers are invited to swim around the Kittiwake. Pirates Week, an annual 11 - day November festival, was started in 1977 by Jim Bodden, then Minister of Tourism, to boost tourism during the country 's tourism slow season.
Other Grand Cayman tourist attractions include the Ironshore landscape of Hell, the 23 - acre (93,000 m) marine theme park Boatswain 's Beach, also home of the Cayman Turtle Farm, the production of gourmet sea salt, and the Mastic Trail, a hiking trail through the forests in the centre of the island. The National Trust for the Cayman Islands provides guided tours weekly on the Mastic Trail and other locations.
Another attraction to visit on Grand Cayman is the Observation Tower, located in Camana Bay. The Observation Tower is 75 feet tall and provides 360 - degree views across Seven Mile Beach, George Town, the North Sound, and beyond. It is free to the public and climbing the tower has become a popular thing to do in the Cayman Islands.
Points of interest include the East End Light (sometimes called Gorling Bluff Light), a lighthouse at the east end of Grand Cayman island. The lighthouse is the centrepiece of East End Lighthouse Park, managed by the National Trust for the Cayman Islands; the first navigational aid on the site was the first lighthouse in the Cayman Islands.
The merchant marine total is 123 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 2,402,058 GRT / 3,792,094 metric tons deadweight (DWT). The fleet includes 22 bulk carriers, 5 cargo ships, 31 chemical tankers, 2 container ships, 1 liquefied gas transport, 21 petroleum tankers, 35 refrigerated cargo ships, 5 roll - on / roll - off vessels and 1 specialised tanker. (Note: some foreign ships register in the Cayman Islands as a flag of convenience. In 2002 ships from eleven countries took advantage of this option, including 15 from Greece, 5 from the United States, 5 from the United Kingdom, 2 from Cyprus, 2 from Denmark and 3 from Norway.)
The Cayman Islands is a major international financial centre. The largest sectors are "banking, hedge fund formation and investment, structured finance and securitisation, captive insurance, and general corporate activities ''. Regulation and supervision of the financial services industry is the responsibility of the Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (CIMA). Sir Vassel Johnson was a pioneer of Cayman 's financial services industry.
Sir Vassel, who became the only Caymanian ever knighted in 1994, served as the Cayman Islands financial secretary from 1965 through 1982 and then as an Executive Council member from 1984 through 1988. In his government roles, Sir Vassel was a driving force in shaping the Cayman Islands financial services industry.
The Cayman Islands is the fifth - largest banking centre in the world, with $1.5 trillion in banking liabilities as of June 2007. In March 2017 there were 158 banks, 11 of which were licensed to conduct banking activities with domestic (Cayman - based) and international clients, and the remaining 147 were licensed to operate on an international basis with only limited domestic activity. Financial services generated KYD $1.2 billion of GDP in 2007 (55 % of the total economy), 36 % of all employment and 40 % of all government revenue. In 2010, the country ranked fifth internationally in terms of value of liabilities booked and sixth in terms of assets booked. It has branches of 40 of the world 's 50 largest banks. The Cayman Islands is the second largest captive domicile (Bermuda is largest) in the world with more than 700 captives, writing more than US $7.7 billion of premiums and with US $36.8 billion of assets under management.
There are a number of service providers. These include global financial institutions including HSBC, Deutsche Bank, UBS, and Goldman Sachs; over 80 administrators, leading accountancy practices (incl. the Big Four auditors), and offshore law practices including Maples & Calder. They also include wealth management such as Rothschilds private banking and financial advice.
Since the introduction of the Mutual Funds Law in 1993, which has been copied by jurisdictions around the world, the Cayman Islands has grown to be the world 's leading offshore hedge fund jurisdiction. In June 2008, it passed 10,000 hedge fund registrations, and over the year ending June 2008 CIMA reported a net growth rate of 12 % for hedge funds.
Starting in the mid-late 1990s, offshore financial centres, such as the Cayman Islands, came under increasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedly harmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low - tax regimes from having an advantage in the global marketplace. The OECD threatened to place the Cayman Islands and other financial centres on a "black list '' and impose sanctions against them. However, the Cayman Islands successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list in 2000 by committing to regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchange with OECD member countries about their citizens.
In 2004, under pressure from the UK, the Cayman Islands agreed in principle to implement the European Union Savings Directive (EUSD), but only after securing some important benefits for the financial services industry in the Cayman Islands. As the Cayman Islands is not subject to EU laws, the implementation of the EUSD is by way of bilateral agreements between each EU member state and the Cayman Islands. The government of the Cayman Islands agreed on a model agreement, which set out how the EUSD would be implemented with the Cayman Islands.
A report published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in March 2005, assessing supervision and regulation in the Cayman Islands ' banking, insurance and securities industries, as well as its money laundering regime, recognised the jurisdiction 's comprehensive regulatory and compliance frameworks. "An extensive program of legislative, rule and guideline development has introduced an increasingly effective system of regulation, both formalizing earlier practices and introducing enhanced procedures '', noted IMF assessors. The report further stated that "the supervisory system benefits from a well - developed banking infrastructure with an internationally experienced and qualified workforce as well as experienced lawyers, accountants and auditors '', adding that, "the overall compliance culture within Cayman is very strong, including the compliance culture related to AML (anti-money laundering) obligations ''.
On 4 May 2009, the United States President, Barack Obama, declared his intentions to curb the use of financial centres by multinational corporations. In his speech, he singled out the Cayman Islands as a tax shelter. The next day, the Cayman Island Financial Services Association submitted an open letter to the president detailing the Cayman Islands ' role in international finance and its value to the US financial system.
The Cayman Islands was ranked as the world 's second most significant tax haven on the Tax Justice Network 's "Financial Secrecy Index '' from 2011, scoring slightly higher than Luxembourg and falling behind only Switzerland. In 2013, the Cayman Islands was ranked by the Financial Secrecy Index as the fourth safest tax haven in the world, behind Hong Kong but ahead of Singapore. In the first conviction of a non-Swiss financial institution for US tax evasion conspiracy, two Cayman Islands financial institutions pleaded guilty in Manhattan Federal Court in 2016 to conspiring to hide more than $130 million in Cayman Islands bank accounts. The companies admitted to helping US clients hide assets in offshore accounts, and agreed to produce account files of non-compliant US taxpayers.
On 30 June 2014, the tax jurisdiction of the Cayman Islands was deemed to have an inter-governmental agreement (IGA) with the United States of America with respect to the "Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act '' of the United States of America.
The Model 1 Agreement recognizes:
On 26 March 2017, the US Treasury site disclosed that the Model 1 agreement and related agreement were "In Force '' on 1 July 2014.
The Cayman Islands has a small population and therefore a limited workforce. Work permits may, therefore, be granted to foreigners. On average, there have been more than 21,000 foreigners holding valid work permits.
To work in the Cayman Islands as a non-citizen, a work permit is required. This involves passing a police background check and a health check. A prospective immigrant worker will not be granted a permit unless certain medical conditions are present which include testing negative for syphilis and HIV. A permit may be granted to individuals on special work.
A foreigner must first have a job to move to the Cayman Islands. The employer applies and pays for the work permit. Work permits are not granted to foreigners who are in the Cayman Islands (unless it is a renewal). The Cayman Islands Immigration Department requires foreigners to remain out of the country until their work permit has been approved.
The Cayman Islands presently imposes a controversial "rollover '' in relation to expatriate workers who require a work permit. Non-Caymanians are only permitted to reside and work within the territory for a maximum of nine years unless they satisfy the criteria of key employees. Non-Caymanians who are "rolled over '' may return to work additional nine - year periods, subject to a one - year gap between their periods of work. The policy has been the subject of some controversy within the press. Law firms have been particularly upset by the recruitment difficulties that it has caused. Other less well - remunerated employment sectors have been affected as well. Concerns about safety have been expressed by diving instructors, and realtors have also expressed concerns. Others support the rollover as necessary to protect Caymanian identity in the face of immigration of large numbers of expatriate workers.
Concerns have been expressed that in the long term, the policy may damage the preeminence of the Cayman Islands as an offshore financial centre by making it difficult to recruit and retain experienced staff from onshore financial centres. Government employees are no longer exempt from this "rollover '' policy, according to this report in a local newspaper. The governor has used his constitutional powers, which give him absolute control over the disposition of civil service employees, to determine which expatriate civil servants are dismissed after seven years service and which are not.
This policy is incorporated in the Immigration Law (2003 revision), written by the United Democratic Party government, and subsequently enforced by the People 's Progressive Movement Party government. Both governments agree to the term limits on foreign workers, and the majority of Caymanians also agree it is necessary to protect local culture and heritage from being eroded by a large number of foreigners gaining residency and citizenship.
In recognition of the CARICOM (Free Movement) Skilled Persons Act which came into effect in July 1997 in some of the CARICOM countries such as Jamaica and which has been adopted in other CARICOM countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago it is possible that CARICOM nationals who hold the "A Certificate of Recognition of Caribbean Community Skilled Person '' may be allowed to work in the Cayman Islands under normal working conditions.
The Cayman Islands is a British overseas territory, listed by the UN Special Committee of 24 as one of the 16 non-self - governing territories. The current Constitution, incorporating a Bill of Rights, was ordained by a statutory instrument of the United Kingdom in 2009. A 19 - seat (not including two non-voting members appointed by the Governor which brings the total to 21 members) Legislative Assembly is elected by the people every four years to handle domestic affairs. Of the elected Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), seven are chosen to serve as government Ministers in a Cabinet headed by the Governor. The Premier is appointed by the Governor.
A Governor is appointed by the Queen of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Government to represent the monarch. Governors can exercise complete legislative and executive authority if they wish through blanket powers reserved to them in the constitution. Bills which have passed the Legislative Assembly require royal assent before becoming effective. The Constitution empowers the Governor to withhold royal assent in cases where the legislation appears to him or her to be repugnant to or inconsistent with the Constitution or affects the rights and privileges of the Legislative Assembly or the Royal Prerogative, or matters reserved to the Governor by article 55. The executive authority of the Cayman Islands is vested in the Queen and is exercised by the Government, consisting of the Governor and the Cabinet. There is an office of the Deputy Governor, who must be a Caymanian and have served in a senior public office. The Deputy Governor is the acting Governor when the office of Governor is vacant, or the Governor is not able to discharge his or her duties or is absent from the Cayman Islands. The current Governor of the Cayman Islands is Anwar Choudhury.
The Cabinet is composed of two official members and seven elected members, called Ministers; one of whom is designated Premier. The Premier can serve for two consecutive terms after which he is barred from attaining the office again. Although an MLA can only be Premier twice any person who meets the qualifications and requirements for a seat in the Legislative Assembly can be elected to the Legislative Assembly indefinitely.
There are two official members of the Legislative Assembly, the Deputy Governor and the Attorney General. They are appointed by the Governor in accordance with Her Majesty 's instructions, and although they have seats in the Legislative Assembly, under the 2009 Constitution, they do not vote. They serve in a professional and advisory role to the MLAs, the Deputy Governor represents the Governor who is a representative of the Queen and the British Government. While the Attorney General serves to advise on legal matters and has special responsibilities in the LA, he is generally responsible for changes to the Penal code among other things.
The seven Ministers are voted into office by the 19 elected members of the Legislative Assembly of the Cayman Islands. One of the Ministers, the leader of the majority political party, is appointed Premier by the Governor.
After consulting the Premier, the Governor allocates a portfolio of responsibilities to each Cabinet Minister. Under the principle of collective responsibility, all Ministers are obliged to support in the Assembly any measures approved by Cabinet.
Almost 80 departments, sections and units carry out the business of government, joined by a number of statutory boards and authorities set up for specific purposes, such as the Port Authority, the Civil Aviation Authority, the Immigration Board, the Water Authority, the University College Board of Governors, the National Pensions Board and the Health Insurance Commission.
Since 2000, there have been two official major political parties: The Cayman Democratic Party (CDP) and the People 's Progressive Movement (PPM). While there has been a shift to political parties, many contending for office still run as independents. The two parties are notably similar, though they consider each other rivals in most cases, their differences are generally in personality and implementation rather than actual policy. The Cayman Islands currently lacks any real liberal or progressive representation in the Legislative Assembly or in the form of organized political parties.
The defence of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Law enforcement in the country is provided chiefly by the Royal Cayman Islands Police Service and the Cayman Islands Customs Department. These two agencies co-operate in aspects of law enforcement, including their joint marine unit. The Cayman Islands Cadet Corps was formed in March 2001 and carries out military - type training with teenage citizens of the country. As of 2017 the PPM led Coalition government have pledged to form a Coast Guard to protect the interests of the Islands, especially in terms of illegal immigration and illegal drug importation.
No direct taxation is imposed on residents and Cayman Islands companies. The government receives the majority of its income from indirect taxation. Duty is levied against most imported goods, which is typically in the range of 22 % to 25 %. Some items are exempted, such as baby formula, books, cameras and certain items are taxed at 5 %. Duty on automobiles depends on their value. The duty can amount to 29.5 % up to $20,000.00 KYD CIF (cost, insurance and freight) and up to 42 % over $30,000.00 KYD CIF for expensive models. The government charges flat licensing fees on financial institutions that operate in the islands and there are work permit fees on foreign labour. A 13 % government tax is placed on all tourist accommodations in addition to US $37.50 airport departure tax which is built into the cost of an airline ticket. There are no taxes on corporate profits, capital gains, or personal income. There are no estate or death inheritance taxes payable on Cayman Islands real estate or other assets held in the Cayman Islands.
Foreign policy is controlled by the United Kingdom, as the islands remain an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands ' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, as a result of economic dependence, a relationship with the United States has developed.
Though the Cayman Islands is involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to co-operate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands has no representation either in the United Nations or in most other international organisations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a sub-bureau of Interpol.
George Town is the port capital of Grand Cayman. There are no berthing facilities for cruise ships, but up to 4 cruise ships can anchor in designated anchorages. There are three cruise terminals in George Town, the North, South, and Royal Watler Terminals. The ride from the ship to the terminal is about 5 minutes.
The Cayman Islands Education Department operates state schools. Caymanian children are entitled to free primary and secondary education. There are two public high schools on Grand Cayman, John Gray High School and Clifton Hunter High School, and one on Cayman Brac, Layman E. Scott High School. Various churches and private foundations operate several private schools.
The University College of the Cayman Islands has campuses on Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac and is the only government - run university on the Cayman Islands. A hall at the University College of the Cayman Islands is named after Sir Vassel Johnson, who The Cayman Islands Financial Services Association credited as one of the founding fathers of the financial services sector in the Cayman Islands. Sir Vassel is also the only person to ever be knighted in any British Dependent Territory. http://www.gov.ky/portal/page/portal/cighome/pressroom/archive/200811/governorstributetosirvassel
The International College of the Cayman Islands is a private college in Grand Cayman. The college was established in 1970 and offers associate 's, bachelor 's and master 's degree programmes. Grand Cayman is also home to St. Matthew 's University, which includes a medical school and a school of veterinary medicine. The Cayman Islands Law School, a branch of the University of Liverpool, is based on Grand Cayman.
The Cayman Islands Civil Service College, a unit of Cayman Islands government organised under the Portfolio of the Civil Service, is in Grand Cayman. Co-situated with University College of the Cayman Islands, it offers both degree programs and continuing education units of various sorts. The college opened in 2007 and is also used as a government research centre.
There are four hospitals in the Cayman Islands. Grand Cayman is home to the private Health City Cayman Islands as well as the Chrissie Tomlinson Memorial Hospital. The public hospitals include the Cayman Islands Hospital (commonly known as the George Town Hospital); and Faith Hospital on Cayman Brac.
In 2007, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) unit was installed at the Chrissie Tomlinson Memorial Hospital, replacing the one destroyed by Hurricane Ivan in 2004. In 2009, a stand - alone open MRI facility was opened. This centre provides MRI, CT, X-ray and DEXA (bone density) scanning. Also housed in this building is the Heart Health Centre, which provides ultrasound, nuclear medicine, echocardiography and cardiac stress testing.
For divers and others in need of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, there is a two - person recompression chamber at the Cayman Islands Hospital on Grand Cayman, run by Cayman Hyperbaric Services. Hyperbaric Services has also built a hyperbaric unit at Faith Hospital in Cayman Brac.
In 2003, the Cayman Islands became the first country in the world to mandate health insurance for all residents.
The Royal Cayman Islands Police Service (RCIPS) provides law enforcement for the three islands. Regular off - shore marine and air patrols are conducted by the RCIP using a small fleet of vessels and a helicopter. Grand Cayman is a port of call for Britain 's Royal Navy and the United States Coast Guard who often assist with sea rescues when their resources are in the Cayman Islands area. The Cayman Islands Fire Service provides fire prevention, fire fighting and rescue. Its headquarters are in George Town and has substations in Frank Sound, West Bay, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Emergency Medical Services are provided by paramedics and Emergency Medical Technicians using ambulances based in George Town, West Bay and North Side in Grand Cayman and in Cayman Brac. EMS is managed by the Government 's Health Services Authority.
Access to Emergency Services is available using 9 - 1 - 1, the Emergency telephone number, the same number as is used in Canada and the United States. The Cayman Islands Department of Public Safety 's Communications Centre processes 9 - 1 - 1 and non-emergency law enforcement, EMS, fire, and Search and Rescue calls for all three islands. The Communications Centre dispatches RCIP and EMS units directly, however, the Cayman Islands Fire Service maintains their own dispatch room at the airport fire station.
Truman Bodden Sports Complex is a multi-use complex in George Town. The complex is separated into an outdoor, six - lane 25 - metre (82 ft) swimming pool, full purpose track and field and basketball / netball courts. The field surrounded by the track is used for association football matches as well as other field sports. The track stadium holds 3,000 people.
Association football is the national and most popular sport, with the Cayman Islands national football team representing the Cayman Islands in FIFA.
The Cayman Islands Basketball Federation joined the international basketball governing body FIBA in 1976. The country 's national team showed up at the official 2011 Caribbean Basketball Championship for the first time.
Rugby union is a developing sport, and has its own national men 's team, women 's team, and Sevens team. The Cayman Men 's Rugby 7s team is second in the region after the 2011 NACRA 7s Championship.
The Cayman Islands is a member of FIFA, the International Olympic Committee and the Pan American Sports Organisation, and also competes in the biennial Island Games.
The Cayman Islands is a member of the International Cricket Council which they joined in 1997 as an Affiliate, before coming an Associate member in 2002. The Cayman Islands national cricket team represents the islands in international cricket. The team has previously played the sport at first - class, List A and Twenty20 level. It competes in Division Five of the World Cricket League.
Squash is popular in the Cayman Islands with a vibrant community of mostly ex-pats playing out of the 7 court South Sound Squash Club. In addition, the women 's professional squash association hosts one of their major events each year in an all glass court being set up in Camana Bay. In December 2012, the former Cayman Open will be replaced by the Women 's World Championships, the largest tournament in the world. The top Cayman men 's player, Cameron Stafford is No. 2 in the Caribbean and ranked top 200 on the men 's professional circuit.
Flag football (CIFFA) has men 's, women 's and co-ed leagues.
Other organised sports leagues include softball, beach volleyball, Gaelic football and ultimate frisbee.
The Cayman Islands Olympic Committee was founded in 1973 and was recognised by the IOC (International Olympic Committee) in 1976.
In the 21st century, skateboarding has become popular among the youth.
In February 2010, the first purpose built track for kart racing in the Cayman Islands was opened. Corporate karting Leagues at the track have involved widespread participation with 20 local companies and 227 drivers taking part in the 2010 Summer Corporate Karting League.
The Cayman National Cultural Foundation manages the F.J. Harquail Cultural Centre and the US $4 million Harquail Theatre. The Cayman National Cultural Foundation, established in 1984, helps to preserve and promote Cayman folk music, including the organisation of festivals such as Cayman Islands International Storytelling Festival, the Cayman JazzFest, Seafarers Festival and Cayfest.
There is one print newspaper currently in circulation throughout the islands: the Cayman Compass. There are numerous online news services including Cayman News Service and the Cayman Compass online edition. A local television station, CITN -- Cayman 27, shows Cayman Islands news. Local radio stations are broadcast throughout the islands.
Feature films that have been filmed in the Cayman Islands include: The Firm, Haven, Cayman Went and Zombie Driftwood.
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what is the function of the electron transport chain in photosynthesis | Electron transport chain - wikipedia
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions. If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP, which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
In Complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH - CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6. 5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier, ubiquinone (Q). The reduced product, ubiquinol (QH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster, from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase; EC 1.3. 5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron - sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
In Complex III (cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10. 2.2), the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H + 2e -) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone (2H + 2e -) at the Q site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9. 3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain. The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits. The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix. This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex. Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production. Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2, 4 - dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock - eater ''). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.
Quinones are mobile, lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid - state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher - energy molecule.
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard '' conditions.
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid - soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water - soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction.
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
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what is the beats name in beauty and the beast | Beast (Disney) - wikipedia
The Beast is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). He also appears in the film 's two direct - to - video followups Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas and Belle 's Magical World. Based on the hero of the French fairy tale by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont, the Beast was created by screenwriter Linda Woolverton and animated by Glen Keane.
A pampered prince transformed into a hideous beast as punishment for his cold - hearted and selfish ways, the Beast must, in order to return to his former self, earn the love of a beautiful young woman named Belle who he imprisons in his castle. All this must be done before the last petal falls from the enchanted rose on his twenty - first birthday. In all animated film appearances, the Beast is voiced by American actor Robby Benson. The 1991 animated film was adapted into a Broadway musical in 1994, with the role being originated by American actor Terrence Mann. Dan Stevens portrays the character in a 2017 live - action adaptation of the original 1991 film.
Determining a suitable appearance for the Beast proved challenging. Although entirely fictional, supervising animator Glen Keane felt it essential for the Beast to resemble a creature that could possibly be found on Earth as opposed to an alien. The initial designs had the Beast as humanoid but with an animal head attached as per the original fairy tale, but soon shifted towards more unconventional forms. The earlier sketches of the Beast 's character design are seen as gargoyles and sculptures in the Beast 's castle.
Inspired by a buffalo head that he purchased from a taxidermy, Keane decided to base the Beast 's appearance on a variety of wild animals, drawing inspiration from the mane of a lion, head of a buffalo, brow of a gorilla, tusks of a wild boar, legs and tail of a wolf, and body of a bear. However, he felt it important that the Beast 's eyes remain human. In fear that Glen Keane would design the Beast to resemble voice actor Robby Benson, Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg did not allow Keane to see Benson during production of the film.
The Beast is not of any one species of animal, but a chimera (a mixture of several animals), who would probably be classified as a carnivore overall. He has the head structure and horns of a buffalo, the arms and body of a bear, the eyebrows of a gorilla, the jaws, teeth, and mane of a lion, the tusks of a wild boar and the legs and tail of a wolf. He also bears resemblance to mythical monsters like the Minotaur or a werewolf. He also has blue eyes, the one physical feature that does not change whether he is a beast or a human.
As opposed to his original counterpart, Disney gave him a more primal nature to his personality and mannerisms, which truly exploited his character as an untamed animal (i.e. alternating between walking and crawling, animal growls). Producer Don Hahn envisioned that the Beast 's psychological state has become increasing feral the longer he was under the curse, such that he would eventually lose his last vestiges of humanity and become completely wild if the spell could not be broken. Hahn 's idea does n't manifest prominently in the finished 1991 animated film, since the Beast is only seen in a brief scene some time after his transformation while much of the narrative starts during the later period of the curse.
In the original tale, the Beast is seen to be kind - hearted for the most part, and gentleman - like, with only an occasional tendency to be hot - tempered. Disney 's interpretation of the Beast made him more constantly angry and depressed, due to the shame from his unkind actions which led to his transformation, and particularly his struggle of reconciling his hideous appearance with his inner humanity which made him feel hopeless about breaking the curse. Supervising animator Glen Keane describes The Beast as "a twenty - one - year - old guy who 's insecure, wants to be loved, wants to love, but has this ugly exterior and has to overcome this. '' Upon his reform under his love interest Belle, his personality changes to refined and more even - tempered, while naive about the world at the same time.
To reflect his early personality, the Beast is seen shirtless, with ragged, dark gray breeches, and a ragged reddish - colored cape with a golden colored circular - shaped clasp. Despite the actual color of his cape being a dark reddish color, the Beast 's cape is more often referenced to be purple (and in most of the Beast 's subsequent appearances after the film, such as Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas or the Kingdom Hearts games, his cape is colored purple). The reason for this change in color is unknown, although the most likely reason is that the color purple is often associated with royalty. After the Beast saves Belle from a pack of wolves, his dress - style changes to become more formal and disciplined, reflecting a more refined personality as he attempts to win Belle 's friendship and love. His most referenced form of dress is his ballroom outfit, which consisted of a golden vest over a white dress shirt with a white kerchief, black dress pants trimmed with gold, and a royal blue ballroom tail coat trimmed with gold, worn during the film 's ballroom dance sequence.
The blue tail coat outfit is retained after he was restored back to human, which is meant to be a stark contrast to the royal regalia and armor he was depicted in before his curse. His human form is that of a tall and slender young man with auburn hair and soft cream colored skin while also retaining his bright blue eyes. As human he is simply known as the "Prince '', as supervising animator Glen Keane stated that everyone on the production was too busy to give him an alternative name, however some licensed works such as the trivia video game The D Show (1998) have named him "Prince Adam ''. Disney has come to embrace the name, as seen in multiple pieces of merchandise as well as a plaque hung up in 2012 (and still hangs there as of 2017) in Walt Disney World 's Port Orleans Riverside Royal Rooms that clearly states his name as "Prince Adam. ''
A handsome young prince lives in a luxurious castle in France. He has everything he ever wanted, and as a result, he is spoiled, selfish and unkind. One night, his kindness is put to the test when a beggar woman comes to the castle and asks for shelter from the freezing cold, with a single rose as payment. When he shuns the beggar for her repulsive appearance, she then reveals her true form as a beautiful enchantress. Seeing her beauty and realizing her power, the Prince tries to apologize but she transforms him into a terrifying beast - like creature for his arrogance. She also casts a spell on the entire castle, transforming it into a dark, foreboding place, its lush green grounds into dangerous immortal wolf - infested woods, and the good - natured servants into anthropomorphic household objects to reflect their different personalities. Ashamed of his new appearance, the Beast conceals himself inside his castle with a magic mirror as his only window to the outside world, and an enchanted rose that would act as the curse 's timer which would bloom until he turns 21. If the Beast could learn to love a woman and earn her love in return before the final petal fell off the rose, the curse would be broken, but if not he would remain a beast forever. The Beast turns to despair as the years pass by, with little hope of achieving this.
As the enchanted rose reaches late bloom and slowly wilts, the first outsider is an old man named Maurice who accidentally stumbles upon the castle, being allowed inside by the servants for shelter. However, the Beast detains Maurice in the tower as a prisoner for trespassing and stealing a rose. Maurice 's horse returns back to the village, and then takes Maurice 's daughter Belle back to the castle. In the tower Belle confronts Beast and pleads with him to let her father go, offering herself as a prisoner instead, to which the Beast agrees in return for her promise never to leave. Being prodded by his servants into believing that she is the key to breaking the spell, the Beast shows flashes of compassion for the first time despite his overall gruff manner. For instance, he feels some remorse for ejecting her father without a proper farewell, and as an atonement he lets her stay in a furnished room rather than the tower dungeon and places the servants at her disposal. When she enters the castle 's forbidden west wing and nearly touches the rose, he frightens her into fleeing the castle via the woods, which he regrets upon realizing that he lost his temper, then he saves her from being killed by wild wolves. The Beast and Belle come to appreciate each other when she brings him back to the castle and tends to his wounds. He strikes up a friendship with her, by giving her the castle library and learns kindness and manners from her. Eventually, the Beast falls in love with Belle, and placing her happiness before his own, he releases her to tend to her sick father, a decision that disheartens him upon realizing that she had not yet returned his love which means that the curse remains unbroken.
A mob from the village comes to storm the castle and kill the Beast, led by a rival suitor named Gaston. Beast is too miserable from Belle 's departure to respond to a challenge from Gaston, although his servants manage to beat back the villagers. Upon seeing Belle 's return to the castle, the Beast 's mood is roused and he duels Gaston upon the castle rooftops. The Beast uses guile to make up for his lack of weaponry, and remains unfazed by frequent taunts from Gaston, who proclaims that handsome appearance is the entitlement to Belle. The Beast eventually overpowers Gaston and intends to drop him until the hunter begs him not to. Not wanting to sink to Gaston 's level of behavior, the Beast decides to show mercy and spare Gaston on the condition that he immediately leave the castle. Belle then shows up on the balcony and the Beast climbs up to meet her; however Gaston refuses to accept defeat and stabs the Beast from behind. Gaston loses his balance and falls from the castle roof to his death, but Belle manages to grab the Beast and pull him up. The Beast, knowing he is mortally wounded, expresses his appreciation to Belle for returning and being able to see her one last time, before falling unconscious and apparently succumbing to his injuries. Belle is able to tell the Beast that she loves him before the final petal falls. Then, Belle 's declaration of love for the Beast breaks the spell and transforms him back into the prince.
In this film, which takes place not long after the Beast rescued Belle from the wolves, much to Beast 's frustration, Belle wants to celebrate Christmas and throw a real Christmas party. Beast hates the idea of Christmas, for it was the very day almost ten years ago when the Enchantress cast the spell on him and the entire castle. (In contrast to the 1991 animated film where the Prince is depicted in stained - glass windows wearing royal regalia and armor before being cursed, the Prince in Enchanted Christmas is dressed simply in a white shirt and black breeches prior to his transformation.) While Beast sits most of the preparations out, a treacherous servant plots to have Belle thrown out of the castle: Forte the Pipe Organ, since he is far more appreciated by the Beast while under the spell.
Unknown to Beast, Belle writes him a special book which he does n't see until later on. She also meets Forte later on in a chance meeting. Forte tells her that Beast 's favorite Christmas tradition was the Christmas tree. Belle becomes frustrated, for no tree she has seen on the grounds has been tall enough to hang ornaments. Forte lies to Belle, saying that a perfect tree can be found in the woods beyond the castle. Reluctant to go against Beast 's orders that she never leave the castle, Belle leaves nonetheless in order to find the perfect tree. When Belle does not arrive to see Beast 's Christmas present to her, he begins to suspect that she is n't there at all. When Cogsworth, having been ordered to retrieve Belle, explains that the household can not find her, Beast becomes enraged. He goes to Forte to ask for advice, and Forte lies that Belle has abandoned him. Beast manages to find Belle and saves her in time from drowning after she fell through thin ice.
Still believing that Belle disobeyed him by breaking her promise not to leave, Beast locks her into the dungeons to rot. But when Forte goads him into destroying the rose to end his suffering, Beast finds Belle 's book in the West Wing and reads it, coming to his senses and realizing that all Belle wants is for him to be happy. Releasing Belle from the dungeon and asking for her forgiveness, Beast prepares to join in the Christmas festivities. But Forte does n't give up and even goes as far as to attempt to destroy the entire castle with Beethoven 's 5th. Fortunately, Beast finds him in time and destroys his keyboard with Franz Schubert 's Symphony No 8. Losing his balance (and his pipes), Forte falls from the wall he is leaned up against and is silenced forever. Later, the castle and servants are arrayed in Christmas decorations when Belle and the Beast do their famous ballroom dance from the first film.
The story flashes forward to the first Christmas after the spell is broken. The Prince and Belle give Chip, Mrs. Potts ' son, a book to read, which he loves. As the Prince and Belle come out to the balcony, he gives her something: a rose.
In the final entry of the franchise, made up of four segments from a presumably failed television series, Belle teaches the Beast a thing or two about life itself, consideration and manners. He appears only in the first and fourth segments, and in a cameo in the third. In the first part, The Perfect Word, Beast and Belle have a bitter falling out at dinner when the Beast demands that Cogsworth open the windows to cool him down, despite the fact that he is the only one hot and there is a cold wind, and angrily strikes his servant, Webster, a long - tongued dictionary. Despite Lumiere and Cogsworth 's pleas, Beast refuses to apologise for his behaviour, until Webster, Crane and LePlume forge a letter of apology from the Beast to Belle. All is settled, until the Beast realises that it was a forgery. He furiously banishes Webster, Crane and LePlume from the castle, but Belle brings them back from the woods, and the Beast soon learns to forgive them, as their intentions were good.
In the fourth part, The Broken Wing, the Beast loses his temper with Belle again when she brings an injured bird into the castle, as he dislikes birds. As he tries to chase the bird out, however, he falls over on the stairs and hits his head hard, stripping him of his hatred for birds. However, his selfishness still remains, and he locks the bird in a cage in his room, demanding that it sing for him whenever he demands it. The bird, terrified, refuses, until Belle teaches the Beast that the bird will only sing when happy. The Beast lets the bird out, and learns to consider others before himself.
Earlier on, in the third segment, Mrs. Potts ' Party, the Beast makes several cameos sleeping in his bed in the West Wing. Dialogue between Lumiere and Cogsworth shows that he had spent the entire previous night mending leaks in the castle roof, and is still resting. An argument between Lumiere and Cogsworth about Mrs. Potts ' favourite flowers lead to them having to hide several bunches of flowers around the Beast 's bed. At one point, the Beast begins to smell one of the flowers and almost wakes up, but it is removed just in time, and he falls asleep again.
Beast appears as a major Disney character in the bestselling video game series Kingdom Hearts.
In the first Kingdom Hearts, during a time in which the spell had not yet broken, Beast 's home is attacked by the Heartless, led by Maleficent, who take Belle captive. Determined to rescue Belle, Beast goes as far as to exploit the power of darkness and risk his own life to transport himself to Hollow Bastion, where Belle is being held captive with the other six Princesses of Heart. Upon arriving in Hollow Bastion, Beast is confronted by Riku, who challenges him to a duel and easily defeats him. Beast is saved at the last minute by Sora, Donald and Goofy, who are looking for Kairi. Allying himself with Sora, since Donald and Goofy have temporarily joined Riku, Beast fights the Heartless and protects Sora while they work their way into the Hollow Baston castle. Entering the castle, Beast, Sora, Donald and Goofy fight their way through until they encounter and defeat Maleficent, who transforms into her dragon form and challenges them once again, only to be defeated once more. The four heroes find Kairi, but the circumstances cause Sora, Donald, Goofy and Kairi to leave Hollow Bastion, and Beast states that he will not leave without Belle. Later on, Beast encounters Sora once again when he returns to Hollow Bastion to lock the Keyhole. During their second search, Beast and Sora find Belle, who embraces Beast and presents Sora with the Divine Rose Keychain. In the Final Mix version of the game, Beast allies himself with Sora once again to fight and defeat Xemnas (then known as "Unknown '').
In Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, Beast is merely a figment of Sora 's memories. He is once again separated from Belle, courtesy of Maleficent, but once more, Beast defeats Maleficent with Sora 's help and rescues Belle.
After Sora defeats Ansem, all the previously attacked worlds are restored, including Beast 's Castle. Afterwards, Beast and Belle return to their home to carry on with their lives. However, the peace is shattered once again when Beast is approached by Xaldin of Organization XIII to do his bidding. Xaldin is determined to manipulate Beast into becoming a Heartless. If that happens, Beast will not only become a strong Heartless which Sora would have to destroy and feed to Kingdom Hearts, but also leave behind a powerful Nobody for Xaldin to use as he wishes (just like what happened to Xehanort). Manipulated and controlled, Beast is forced to allow the Heartless into the castle and lock the entire servant staff in the dungeons, with Belle too scared to intervene. Beast starts mistreating Belle. When Sora, Donald and Goofy arrive, they are encountered by Beast, who attacks them without hesitation. Sora wins the battle, and Beast comes back to his senses thanks to his servants who were released by Sora. Xaldin appears to flee. Later on, during a ball, Xaldin returns and steals the rose, throwing Beast into a depression and causing him to ask Belle and Sora to leave his castle. However a pep talk from Sora spurs him back into action. Xaldin confronts them and sends his Nobodies at them. They fight the Nobodies off, but Xaldin escapes to the castle drawbridge with Belle and the rose. Belle manages to escape from Xaldin 's clutches with the rose, and Xaldin is then killed by Beast, Sora, Donald and Goofy. Belle gives Beast the rose but he is more relieved that she was n't hurt. Beast then bids a grateful farewell to Sora, and returns to a normal life with Belle, until the spell is finally broken and Beast turns back into a human at the end of the game (a scene witnessed during the game 's credits following completion). Beast 's Limit attack for Kingdom Hearts II is Twin Howl, where he and Sora violently roar together and slash at enemies furiously.
In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days, Beast appears along with his homeworld again. The missions in Beast 's Castle chronicle some of the events that occurred between Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, such as Belle and Beast attempting to resume their normal lives and Beast 's first encounter with Xaldin.
The Beast appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast, originally portrayed by Terrence Mann. Other actors who have taken on the role include Chuck Wagner (1997), James Barbour (1998), Jeff McCarthy (2004), and Steve Blanchard.
The movie and others never made mention of his real name. A CD - ROM game said "The Prince 's name is Adam. ''
In the 2011 ABC series Once Upon a Time, the show 's version of "the Beast '' is actually another fairy tale character, Rumplestiltskin (played by Robert Carlyle), who gains possession of Belle as part of a deal to save Belle 's kingdom from losing a war.
Indian actor Vikram portrayed Beast for sequences in a dreamy song "Ennodu Nee Irundhal '' in the 2015 Tamil language film "I '' opposite Amy Jackson who portrayed Belle. The original prosthetic make - up for the characters were provided by Sean Foot (Shaun) and Davina Lamont and additional works were done by National Film Award winners -- Christien Tinsley and Dominie Till.
In March 2015, English actor Dan Stevens was cast as the Beast in a live - action adaptation of the film, which was released on March 17, 2017. The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. ''
The live - action portrayal closely follows the animated version, but with some differences. The backstory is expanded and reveals that the Prince 's mother died of an illness when he was a boy, leaving his father to raise him. He eventually grew up to be as vain, self - centered and arrogant as his father, and he taxed the villagers of his kingdom harshly.
The Prince was hosting a debutante ball at his castle when a beggar woman appeared at his castle and offered a single rose as payment for shelter from an oncoming storm. The Prince turned her away twice, prompting the beggar to reveal herself to be an enchantress. The Enchantress placed a powerful spell upon the kingdom, turning the Prince into a beast and the servants into animated household objects, while also wiping all memory of the castle from the nearby village 's inhabitants. If the Beast was unable to love another and earn that person 's love in return, by the time the last petal on the enchanted rose fell, he would remain a beast forever, and in addition his servants would become inanimate antiques.
The live - action version of the Beast is quite civilized in personality and mannerisms, in contrast to the Beast in the animated film which was originally quite primal in behavior. Although the Beast does not seem to have become increasing feral the longer the enchantment runs, in contrast to his animated counterpart from 1991 (reflecting Don Hahn 's original intent for the Beast eventually grow wild if he never met Belle), it is his transformed servants who are gradually losing their remaining humanity while the castle deteriorates.
The last rose petal falls before the curse is broken; however, upon seeing Belle profess her love for the Beast, the enchantress reveals herself and lifts the spell on the castle and its inhabitants. Afterward, Prince and Belle host a ball for all the villagers.
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where did the name presidents cup come from | Presidents Cup - wikipedia
The Presidents Cup is a series of men 's golf matches between a team representing the United States and an International Team representing the rest of the world minus Europe (i.e. Asia, Africa, Central and South America, Oceania, Mexico and Canada). Europe competes against the United States in a similar but considerably older event, the Ryder Cup.
The Presidents Cup has been held biennially since 1994. Initially it was held in even numbered years, with the Ryder Cup being held in odd numbered years. However, the cancellation of the 2001 Ryder Cup due to the September 11 attacks pushed both tournaments back a year, and the Presidents Cup is now held in odd numbered years. It is hosted alternately in the United States and in countries represented by the International Team.
The scoring system of the event is match play. The format is drawn from the Ryder Cup and consists of 12 players per side. Each team has a non-playing captain, usually a highly respected golf figure, who is responsible for choosing the pairs in the doubles events, which consist of both alternate shot and best ball formats (also known as "foursome '' and "fourball '' matches respectively). Each match, whether it be a doubles or singles match, is worth one point with a half - point awarded to each team in the event of a halved match.
There have been frequent small changes to the format, although the final day has always consisted of 12 singles matches. The contest was extended from three days to four in 2000. In 2015, there were a total of 9 foursome doubles matches, 9 fourball doubles matches, and 12 singles matches. With a total of 30 points, a team needed to get 15.5 points to win the Cup.
Until the 2005 event, prior to the start of the final day matches, the captains selected one player to play in a tie - breaker in the event of a tie at the end of the final match. Upon a tie, the captains would reveal the players who would play a sudden - death match to determine the winner. In 2003, however, the tiebreaker match ended after three holes because of darkness, and the captains, Gary Player and Jack Nicklaus, agreed that the Cup would be shared by both teams.
From 2005 to 2013, singles matches ending level at the end of the regulation 18 holes were to be extended to extra holes until the match was won outright. All singles matches would continue in this format until one team reaches the required point total to win the Presidents Cup. Remaining singles matches were only to be played to the regulation 18 holes and could be halved. Although this rule was in force for five Presidents Cup contests, no matches actually went beyond 18 holes.
The event was created and is organized by the PGA Tour.
Each contest has an Honorary Chairman. These have been 1994: Gerald Ford, 38th United States President, 1996: George H.W. Bush, 41st United States President, 1998: John Howard, Prime Minister of Australia, 2000: Bill Clinton, 42nd United States President, 2003: Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa, 2005: George W. Bush, 43rd United States President, 2007: Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada, 2009: Barack Obama, 44th United States President, 2011: Julia Gillard, Prime Minister of Australia, 2013: Barack Obama, 44th United States President, 2015: Park Geun - hye, President of South Korea, 2017: Donald Trump, 45th United States President.
There is no prize money awarded at the Presidents Cup. The net proceeds are distributed to charities nominated by the players, captains, and captains ' assistants. The first ten Presidents Cups raised over US $ 32 million for charities around the world.
Of the 12 matches, the United States team has won 10, the International Team has won 1, with 1 match tied.
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what stores are these products sold in blue bell | Blue Bell Creameries - wikipedia
Blue Bell Creameries is an American food company that manufactures ice cream. It was founded in 1907 in Brenham, Texas. For much of its early history, the company manufactured both ice cream and butter locally. In the mid-20th century, it abandoned butter production and expanded to the entire state of Texas and soon much of the Southern United States. The company 's corporate headquarters are located at the "Little Creamery '' in Brenham, Texas. Since 1919, it has been in the hands of the Kruse family. Despite being sold in a limited number of states, as of 2015 Blue Bell is the fourth highest - selling ice cream brand in the United States as a whole.
The company has its roots in the Brenham Creamery Company, which opened in 1907 to purchase excess cream from local dairy farmers and sell butter to people in Brenham, Texas, a town situated approximately 70 miles northwest of Houston. In 1911, the creamery began to produce small quantities of ice cream.
By 1919, the Creamery was in financial trouble and considered closing its doors. The board of directors hired E.F. Kruse, a 23 - year - old former schoolteacher, to take over the company on April 1, 1919. Kruse refused to accept a salary for his first few months in the position so that the company would not be placed in further debt. Under his leadership, the company expanded its production of ice cream to the surrounding Brenham area and soon became profitable. At his suggestion, the company was renamed Blue Bell Creameries in 1930 after the Texas Bluebell, a wildflower native to Texas, and which like ice cream thrives during the summer.
Until 1936, the creamery made ice cream by the batch. It could create a 10 - US - gallon (38 L) batch of ice cream every 20 minutes. That same year, in 1936, the company purchased its first continuous ice cream freezer, which could make 80 US gallons (300 L) of ice cream per hour. The ice cream would run through a spigot, allowing it to be poured into any size container.
Kruse was diagnosed with cancer in 1951 and died within 8 weeks. His sons Ed and Howard took over leadership of the company. By the 1960s, the company completely abandoned the production of butter and began focusing solely on ice cream. After many years of selling ice cream only in Brenham, the company began selling its ice cream in the Houston area, eventually expanding throughout most of Texas including the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex and the state capital of Austin. By the end of the 1970s, sales had quadrupled, and by 1980 the creamery was producing over 10 million gallons (37,850,000 liters) of ice cream per year, earning $30 million annually.
In 1989, Blue Bell began selling its ice cream in Oklahoma, and throughout the 1990s expansion pushed throughout the South Central and Southern United States, eventually expanding out to New Orleans and Jackson, Mississippi. In 1992, Blue Bell built a new manufacturing facility in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma. Four years later, in 1996, Blue Bell opened a third manufacturing facility opened in Sylacauga, Alabama, east of Birmingham, and eventually expanded into Atlanta and Miami. Once Blue Bell establishes itself within a market, word - of - mouth usually ensures that consumers in adjacent areas become aware of the brand. Blue Bell has been slow to expand: company executives say they thoroughly research each new market and ensure that all employees in the new markets are fully trained in Blue Bell practices so that product quality can be upheld. Blue Bell often tends to expand to markets during March each year, expanding to Colorado on March 14, 2011, followed by the Richmond and Hampton Roads areas of Virginia in 2013, and Las Vegas in 2014. These expansions are accompanied with the purchase and / or construction of distribution centers in new markets that serve areas within a 75 - mile radius.
In 2015, Blue Bell issued a series of recalls that eventually shut down production and led to all of its products being recalled on April 20, culminating in job cuts and furloughs (as well as the reduction of its 23 - state sales territory) resulting from the shutdown the following May. In conjunction with factory cleanup procedures and agreements with state and federal authorities, the company returned to production three months later on a limited basis, returning its products to the market on August 31 in portions of Texas and Alabama as part of a five - phase plan to return to much of its pre-recall distribution territory, which has been reduced to 20 states based on Blue Bell 's limited distribution capabilities in the near term.
As of 2015, the company operated three manufacturing facilities, with the largest facility in Brenham, and auxiliary facilities in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma, and Sylacauga, Alabama. Before the 2015 recalls, there were 50 sales and distribution centers, known as branches, spread throughout its 23 - state market. These facilities employed a combined 2,800 employees, with 850 of the employees working out of Brenham. In 2006, annual sales exceeded $400 million.
Blue Bell retains control over all aspects of its business, primarily to ensure quality control and the use of the freshest ingredients available. The Kruses claim "the milk we use is so fresh it was grass only a year ago. '' The company uses milk from approximately 60,000 cows each day, and the cream used during each day 's production run is always less than 24 hours old. All production and packaging takes place within Blue Bell facilities, which are able to produce over 100 pints per minute. Drivers of delivery vehicles personally stock store shelves so they can ensure it is handled properly.
According to figures gathered by Statista, a market data and statistics portal, while combined private labels sold more, in 2014 Blue Bell was the best - selling ice cream brand in the United States. The sales area is primarily concentrated in the Southern United States, and has been sold as far west as Las Vegas, as far north as Indianapolis and Denver, and as far east as Richmond, Virginia. Overall, this area comprises only 20 % of the United States. By comparison, each of Blue Bell 's top four competitors sells its products in 100 % of the United States. To become one of the three biggest ice cream manufacturers, Blue Bell has consistently been the top seller in the majority of the markets the company has entered. For example, in its home state of Texas, the company has a 52 % market share. Within five months of its entry into Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the company had garnered 35 % of the ice cream market. People living outside the sales area can have the ice cream shipped to them (although this has temporarily been halted while the company is ramping up production after the recalls), and former President George W. Bush (a former Governor of Texas) often had the ice cream shipped to Camp David during his administration. In 2006 and 2012, astronauts aboard the International Space Station were also treated to Blue Bell ice cream "to help out (the crew 's) happiness quotient. ''
Blue Bell produces over 250 different frozen products. Of these, 66 are flavors of ice cream. Twenty of the flavors are offered year - round, while an additional two to three dozen are offered seasonally. In addition to ice cream, the company produces frozen yogurt, sherbet, and an array of frozen treats on a stick. Unlike competitors which have reduced their standard containers to 48 - 56 fluid ounces (1.42 - 1.66 L), Blue Bell continues to sell true half - gallon (64 fl oz / 1.89 L) containers, a fact it mentions prominently in its advertising.
Blue Bell introduced its flagship flavor, Homemade Vanilla, in 1969 and was the first company to mass - produce the flavor Cookies ' n Cream. Although the company at one time made Cookies ' n Cream from Nabisco 's Oreo cookies, buying ordinary retail packages, today it bakes its own cookies. As of 1997, Blue Bell Homemade Vanilla was the best - selling single flavor of ice cream in the United States, and in 2001, Forbes named Blue Bell the best ice cream in the country.
R.W. Apple, Jr., of The New York Times claimed in 2006 that "(w) ith clean, vibrant flavors and a rich, luxuriant consistency achieved despite a butterfat content a little lower than some competitors, it hooks you from the first spoonful. Entirely and blessedly absent are the cloying sweetness, chalky texture, and oily, gummy aftertaste that afflict many mass - manufactured ice creams. ''
Occasionally, when Blue Bell enters a market the company marks the occasion with the introduction of a regional flavor within that market. For example, when it entered Colorado on March 14, 2011, Blue Bell introduced a new flavor exclusive to Colorado, Rocky Mountain Road, made with more premium ingredients (including chocolate - covered nuts and a marshmallow swirl) compared to its year - round Rocky Road. While the test market was in the Denver metropolitan area, there was speculation that the rest of the state would soon see Blue Bell on store shelves. Eventually, this flavor would be distributed to Blue Bell 's entire sales territory.
In 2018, children of an interracial family posted an open letter on Facebook addressed to Blue Bell asking that the flavor "The Great Divide '' (equal halves of chocolate and vanilla) be changed to "Better Together ''. While Blue Bell spokespersons reacted positively to the name change proposal, the post became controversial among some Facebook users who dismissed the original name as inoffensive.
In 2015, Blue Bell issued its first recall in its 108 - year history. The recall was issued on an assortment of items produced at its creameries, due to the discovery of five cases of listeriosis in Kansas believed to be caused by products produced at its creamery in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma. Three of the five patients with listeria died.
Despite a series of subsequent recalls, and the temporary shutdown of its Broken Arrow plant, "an enhanced sampling program '' launched by Blue Bell produced "several positive tests for Listeria in different places and plants '', including three further cases in Texas. As a result, on the evening of April 20, 2015 the company took precautionary measures and expanded its recall to cover all of its products -- a recall of over eight million gallons, to be disposed of in a sanitary landfill.
At the same time, the company shut down production and commenced cleanup and repair operations at its manufacturing facilities. The FDA found that the company failed to follow standard practices to prevent contamination; two years prior to the recalls, the company "repeatedly found listeria '' in its Broken Arrow facility. At its main production facility in Brenham, one of its production machines (which produced most of the recalled products) was so contaminated that Blue Bell announced it would permanently stop using the machine, and condensation was also reported in parts of the Brenham facility.
Although a spokeswoman for Blue Bell had previously demurred on the subject of job losses, on May 15, Blue Bell announced a series of job cuts and furloughs. 1,450 (or 37 percent) of the company 's employees would be laid off, while another 1,400 employees were furloughed until cleanup / repair operations concluded, and the remaining 1,050 involved in essential operations and cleanup / repair operations had wage reductions imposed on them.
In addition, due to limited supply and distribution capabilities expected in the near term, Blue Bell announced it would suspend operations at 15 of its over 50 distribution centers indefinitely, though it has not ruled out returning to these markets eventually. The affected distribution centers included:
The recalls were so severe that they threatened to shut down the company; executives warned shareholders that they faced a "capital crisis. '' On July 14, 2015, Sid Bass, a prominent Texas investor, became a partner and investor with the company; Blue Bell secured a $125 million loan to continue operations. Around the same time, Blue Bell 's plant in Sylacauga, Alabama resumed production, creating test batches as part of a "test and hold '' procedure in which ice cream is not packaged for sale until the batch tests negative for all strains of bacteria including the strain of listeria responsible for the aforementioned recalls.
On August 17, 2015, Blue Bell announced a five - phase plan to return to store shelves:
Even in those states where Blue Bell plans to return, it will not necessarily return to all of its pre-recall markets by the final phase. Those markets, including Charlotte, Kansas City, Louisville & Phoenix, were added based on the fact that Blue Bell will effectively service those areas. For now, Wichita, KS, Las Vegas, NV, and Richmond & Suffolk, VA have yet to return.
Phase 1 began on August 31, 2015. Phase 2 began in November, 2015. A month later phases 3 and 4 began.
The day following its initial rollout, September 1, Blue Bell resumed production at its Broken Arrow, Oklahoma facility.
On January 28, 2016, the company resumed distribution to large portions of the Southeastern US.
In March 2018, the company began distribution to much of Indiana, midsection of Kentucky & northern New Mexico.
In December 2015, CBS Evening News reported that the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) had launched a federal criminal investigation into Blue Bell Creameries, to determine "what exactly Blue Bell executives knew about the contaminations and unsanitary conditions, when they knew, and what they did in response ''. The investigation, by the DOJ 's Consumer Protection Branch, is reportedly led by trial attorney Patrick Hearn, who successfully prosecuted executives of the Peanut Corporation of America in 2015. Mark Abueg, a DOJ spokesman, told the Houston Press: "As a matter of policy, the Justice Department generally neither confirms nor denies whether a matter is under investigation. ''
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whats the difference between sandles and flip flops | Sandal - wikipedia
Sandals are an open type of footwear, consisting of a sole held to the wearer 's foot by straps going over the instep and, sometimes, around the ankle. Sandals can also have a heel. While the distinction between sandals and other types of footwear can sometimes be blurry (as in the case of huaraches -- the woven leather footwear seen in Mexico, and peep - toe pumps), the common understanding is that a sandal leaves all or most of the foot exposed. People may choose to wear sandals for several reasons, among them comfort in warm weather, economy (sandals tend to require less material than shoes and are usually easier to construct), and as a fashion choice.
Usually, people wear sandals in warmer climates or during warmer parts of the year in order to keep their feet cool and dry. The risk of developing athlete 's foot is lower than with enclosed shoes, and the wearing of sandals may be part of the treatment regimen for such an infection.
The oldest known sandals (and the oldest known footwear of any type) were discovered in Fort Rock Cave in the U.S. state of Oregon; radiocarbon dating of the sagebrush bark from which they were woven indicates an age of at least 10,000 years.
The word sandal is of Greek origin. The ancient Greeks distinguished between baxeae (sing. baxea), a sandal made of willow leaves, twigs, or fibres worn by comic actors and philosophers; and the cothurnus, a boot sandal that rose above the middle of the leg, worn principally by tragic actors, horsemen, hunters, and by men of rank and authority. The sole of the latter was sometimes made much thicker than usual by the insertion of slices of cork, so as to add to the stature of the wearer.
The ancient Egyptians wore sandals made of palm - leaves and papyrus. They are sometimes observable on the feet of Egyptian statues and in reliefs, being carried by sandal - bearers. According to Herodotus, sandals of papyrus were a part of the required and characteristic dress of the Egyptian priests.
In ancient Greece sandals were the most common type of footwear that women wore and spent most of their time at home. The Greek sandals featured a multitude of straps with which they securely fastened to the foot. The top of the sandals were usually of colored leather. The soles were made of cattle skin, of even better quality and made up of several layers. In ancient Rome residents used to carve their boots and sandals with elaborate designs.
In Ancient Levant sandals ("Biblical sandals '') were made from non-processed leather and dry grass, and had strings or ropes made of simple, cheap materials. Though, sometimes golden or silver beads and even gems were added.
A sandal may have a sole made from rubber, leather, wood, tatami or rope. It may be held to the foot by a narrow thong that generally passes between the first and second toe, or by a strap or lace, variously called a latchet, sabot strap or sandal, that passes over the arch of the foot or around the ankle. A sandal may or may not have a heel (either low or high) or heel strap.
Among the many kinds of sandals are:
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when is one piece ep 820 coming out | List of ONE PIECE episodes (seasons 15 -- current) - wikipedia
One Piece is an anime series from the manga of the same title written by Eiichiro Oda. Produced by Toei Animation, and directed by Konosuke Uda, Munehisa Sakai and Hiroaki Miyamoto, it began broadcasting on Fuji Television on October 20, 1999. One Piece follows the adventures of Monkey D. Luffy, a 17 - year - old boy, whose body has gained the properties of rubber from accidentally eating a supernatural fruit, and his crew of diverse pirates, named the Straw Hat Pirates. Luffy 's greatest ambition is to obtain the world 's ultimate treasure, One Piece, and thereby become the next King of the Pirates. The series uses 37 different pieces of theme music: 19 opening themes and 18 closing themes. Several CDs that contain the theme music and other tracks have been released by Toei Animation. The first DVD compilation was released on February 21, 2001, with individual volumes releasing monthly. The Singaporean company Odex released part of the series locally in English and Japanese in the form of dual audio Video CDs.
In 2004, 4Kids Entertainment licensed the series for an English - language broadcast in North America. This dub was heavily edited for content, as well as length, reducing the first 143 episodes to 104, and thus receiving large amounts of controversy and fan backlash. One Piece made its U.S. premiere on September 18, 2004, on the Fox network 's Fox Box programming block, and also began airing on the Cartoon Network 's Toonami block in April 2005. In December 2006, 4Kids cancelled production due to financial reasons.
In April 2007, Funimation acquired the license of One Piece from 4Kids and would use their in - house voice cast in preparation for the series ' DVD releases. The Funimation dubbed episodes aired on Cartoon Network 's Toonami block from September 2007 until the block 's cancellation in March 2008. In Australia, Cartoon Network resumed airing new One Piece episodes in November 2008, starting with episode 170, lasting until January 2009 following episode 195. The first unedited, bilingual DVD box set, containing 13 episodes, was released on May 27, 2008. Similarly sized sets followed with 31 sets released as of July 2015. Episodes began streaming on August 29, 2009. Funimation 's uncut dub later resumed airing on Adult Swim 's revived Toonami block from episode 207 onwards from May 18, 2013 to March 18, 2017.
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why was there more movement on the eastern rather than on the western front of wwi | Eastern Front (World War I) - wikipedia
Central Powers victory
Russian Empire (1914 -- 17) Russian Republic (1917) Romania (1916 -- 17) Belgium (1915 -- 17) British Empire (1916 -- 17)
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The Eastern Front or Eastern Theater of World War I (Russian: Восточный фронт, Vostochnıy front, sometimes called the Second Fatherland War or Second Patriotic War (Russian: Вторая Отечественная война, Vtoraya Otechestvennaya voyna) in Russian sources) was a theatre of operations that encompassed at its greatest extent the entire frontier between the Russian Empire and Romania on one side and the Austro - Hungarian Empire, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire on the other. It stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, included most of Eastern Europe and stretched deep into Central Europe as well. The term contrasts with "Western Front '', which was being fought in Belgium and France.
During 1910, Russian General Yuri Danilov developed "Plan 19 '' under which four armies would invade East Prussia. This plan was criticised as Austria - Hungary could be a greater threat than the German Empire. So instead of four armies invading East Prussia, the Russians planned to send two armies to East Prussia, and two Armies to defend against Austro - Hungarian forces invading from Galicia. In the opening months of the war, the Imperial Russian Army attempted an invasion of eastern Prussia in the northwestern theater, only to be beaten back by the Germans after some initial success. At the same time, in the south, they successfully invaded Galicia, defeating the Austro - Hungarian forces there. In Russian Poland, the Germans failed to take Warsaw. But by 1915, the German and Austro - Hungarian armies were on the advance, dealing the Russians heavy casualties in Galicia and in Poland, forcing it to retreat. Grand Duke Nicholas was sacked from his position as the commander - in - chief and replaced by the Tsar himself. Several offensives against the Germans in 1916 failed, including Lake Naroch Offensive and the Baranovichi Offensive. However, General Aleksei Brusilov oversaw a highly successful operation against Austria - Hungary that became known as the Brusilov Offensive, which saw the Russian Army make large gains.
The Kingdom of Romania entered the war in August 1916. The Entente promised the region of Transylvania (which was part of Austria - Hungary) in return for Romanian support. The Romanian Army invaded Transylvania and had initial successes, but was forced to stop and was pushed back by the Germans and Austro - Hungarians when Bulgaria attacked them in the south. Meanwhile, a revolution occurred in Russia in February 1917 (one of the several causes being the hardships of the war). Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate and a Russian Provisional Government was founded, with Georgy Lvov as its first leader, who was eventually replaced by Alexander Kerensky.
The newly formed Russian Republic continued to fight the war alongside Romania and the rest of the Entente until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October 1917. Kerensky oversaw the July Offensive, which was largely a failure and caused a collapse in the Russian Army. The new government established by the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with the Central Powers, taking it out of the war and making large territorial concessions. Romania was also forced to surrender and signed a similar treaty, though both of the treaties were nullified with the surrender of the Central Powers in November 1918.
The front in the east was much longer than that in the west. The theater of war was roughly delimited by the Baltic Sea in the west and Minsk in the east, and Saint Petersburg in the north and the Black Sea in the south, a distance of more than 1,600 kilometres (990 mi). This had a drastic effect on the nature of the warfare.
While World War I on the Western Front developed into trench warfare, the battle lines on the Eastern Front were much more fluid and trenches never truly developed. This was because the greater length of the front ensured that the density of soldiers in the line was lower so the line was easier to break. Once broken, the sparse communication networks made it difficult for the defender to rush reinforcements to the rupture in the line, mounting rapid counteroffensives to seal off any breakthrough.
Propaganda was a key component of the culture of World War I. It was most commonly deployed through the state - controlled media to glorify the homeland and demonize the enemy. Propaganda often took the form of images which portrayed stereotypes from folklore about the enemy or from glorified moments from the nation 's history. On the Eastern Front, propaganda took many forms such as opera, film, spy fiction, theater, spectacle, war novels and graphic art. Across the Eastern Front the amount of propaganda used in each country varied from state to state. Propaganda took many forms within each country and was distributed by many different groups. Most commonly the state produced propaganda, but other groups, such as anti-war organizations, also generated propaganda.
Prior to the outbreak of war, German strategy was based almost entirely on the Schlieffen Plan. With the Franco - Russian Agreement in place, Germany knew that war with either of these combatants would result in war with the other, which meant that there would be war in both the west and the east. Therefore, the German General Staff, Alfred von Schlieffen, planned a quick, all - out ground war on the Western Front to take France and, upon victory, Germany would turn its attention to Russia in the east. Von Schlieffen believed Russia would not be ready or willing to move against and attack Germany due to the huge losses of military equipment that Russia suffered in the Russo - Japanese war, her low population density and lack of railroads.
Conversely, the German Navy believed it could be victorious over Britain with Russian neutrality, something which von Moltke knew would not be possible.
In the immediate years preceding the First World War, the kingdom of Romania was involved in the Second Balkan War on the side of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and the Ottoman Empire against Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on August 10, 1913, ended the Balkan conflict and added 6,960 square kilometers to Romania 's territory. Although militarized, Romania decided upon a policy of neutrality at the start of the First World War, mainly due to having territorial interests in both Austria - Hungary (Transylvania and Bukovina) and in Russia (Bessarabia). Strong cultural influences also affected Romanian leanings, however. King Carol I, as a Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen, favoured his Germanic roots, while the Romanian people, influenced by their Orthodox church and Latin - based language, were inclined to join France. Perhaps King Carol 's attempts at joining the war on the side of the Central powers would have been fruitful had he not died in 1914, but Romanian disenchantment with Austria - Hungary had already influenced public and political opinion. French endorsement of Romanian action against Bulgaria, and support of the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest was particularly effective at inclining Romania towards the Entente. Furthermore, Russian courting of Romanian sympathies, exemplified by the visit of the Tsar to Constanta on June 14, 1914, signaled in a new era of positive relations between the two countries. Nevertheless, King Ferdinand I of Romania maintained a policy of neutrality, intending to gain the most for Romania by negotiating between competing powers. According to historian John Keegan, the enticements offered by the Allies were never concrete, for in secret, Russia and France agreed not to honor any conventions when the end of the war came.
The immediate reason for Russia 's involvement in the First World War was a direct result of the decisions made by the statesmen and generals during July 1914. The July crisis was the culmination of a series of diplomatic conflicts that took place in the decades prior to 1914, and this is fundamental to an understanding of Russia 's position immediately prior to the War. According to D.C. Lieven, Russia was formidable and was able to back up her diplomatic policies with force. In 1870 -- 1914, the four leading powers in Europe were Russia, Prussia, Austria and France, each of whom exercised a similar proportion of power at the time. One of the most significant factors in bringing Russia to the brink of war was the downfall of her economy. The 20 percent jump in defense expenditure during 1866 -- 77 and in 1871 - 5 forced them to change their position within Europe and shift the balance of power out of her favour. At the time, Russian infrastructure was backward and the Russian government had to invest far more than its European rivals in structural changes. In addition there were overwhelming burdens of defense, which would ultimately result in an economic downfall for the Russians. This was a major strain on the Russian population, but also served as a direct threat to military expenditure. Thus the only way the Russians could sustain the strains of European war would be to place more emphasis on foreign investment from the French who essentially came to Russia 's aid for industrial change. The Franco - Russian Alliance allowed for the Russian defense to grow and aid the European balance of power during the growth of the German Empire 's might. In 1914, Germany was the most powerful state in all of Europe. Nevertheless, one of the key factors was that of the Russian foreign policy between 1890 and 1914.
In order for the Russians to legitimise their war efforts the government constructed an image of the enemy through state instituted propaganda. Their main aim was to help overcome the legend of the "invincible '' German war machine, in order to boost the morale of civilians and soldiers. Russian propaganda often took the form of showing the Germans as a civilised nation, with barbaric "inhuman '' traits. Russian propaganda also exploited the image of the Russian POWs who were in the German camps, again in order to boost the morale of their troops, serving as encouragement to defeat the enemy and to get their fellow soldiers out of the "inhuman '' German POW camps.
An element of the Russian propaganda was the Investigate Commission formed in April 1915. It was led by Aleksei Krivtsov and the study was tasked with the job of studying the legal violations committed by of the Central Powers and then getting this information to the Russian public. This commission published photographs of letters that were allegedly found on fallen German soldiers. These letters document the German correspondents saying to "take no prisoners. '' A museum was also set up in Petrograd, which displayed pictures that showed how "inhumanly '' the Germans were treating prisoners of war.
Austria - Hungary 's participation in the outbreak of World War I has been neglected by historians, as emphasis has traditionally been placed on Germany 's role as the prime instigator. However, the "spark '' that ignited the First World War is attributed to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, which took place on June 28, 1914. Approximately a month later, on July 28, 1914, Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia. This act led to a series of events that would quickly expand into the First World War; thus, the Habsburg government in Vienna initiated the pivotal decision that would begin the conflict.
The causes of the Great War have generally been defined in diplomatic terms, but certain deep - seated issues in Austria - Hungary undoubtedly contributed to the beginnings of the First World War. The Austro - Hungarian situation in the Balkans pre-1914 is a primary factor in its involvement in the war. The movement towards South Slav unity was a major problem for the Habsburg Empire, which was facing increasing nationalist pressure from its multinational populace. As Europe 's third largest state, the Austro - Hungarian monarchy was hardly homogeneous; comprising over fifty million people and eleven nationalities, the Empire was a conglomeration of a number of diverse cultures, languages, and peoples.
Specifically, the South Slavic people of Austria - Hungary desired to amalgamate with Serbia in an effort to officially solidify their shared cultural heritage. Over seven million South Slavs lived inside the Empire, while three million lived outside it. With the growing emergence of nationalism in the twentieth century, unity of all South Slavs looked promising. This tension is exemplified by Conrad von Hötzendorf 's letter to Franz Ferdinand:
The unification of the South Slav race is one of the powerful national movements which can neither be ignored nor kept down. The question can only be, whether unification will take place within the boundaries of the Monarchy -- that is at the expense of Serbia 's independence -- or under Serbia 's leadership at the expense of the Monarchy. The cost to the Monarchy would be the loss of its South Slav provinces and thus of almost its entire coastline. The loss of territory and prestige would relegate the Monarchy to the status of a small power.
The annexation of Bosnia - Herzegovina in 1908 by Austrian foreign minister Baron von Aehrenthal in an effort to assert domination over the Balkans inflamed Slavic nationalism and angered Serbia. Bosnia - Herzegovina became a "rallying cry '' for South Slavs, with hostilities between Austria - Hungary and Serbia steadily increasing. The situation was ripe for conflict, and when the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Austrian imperial heir, Franz Ferdinand, these longstanding hostilities culminated into an all - out war.
The Allied Powers wholeheartedly supported the Slavs ' nationalistic fight. George Macaulay Trevelyan, a British historian, saw Serbia 's war against Austria - Hungary as a "war of liberation '' that would "free South Slavs from tyranny. '' In his own words: "If ever there was a battle for freedom, there is such a battle now going on in Southeastern Europe against Austrian and Magyar. If this war ends in the overthrow of the Magyar tyranny, an immense step forward will have been taken toward racial liberty and European peace. ''
Prior to 1914, the Russian 's lack of success in war and diplomacy in the six decades before 1914 sapped the country 's moral strength. The triumphs of Britain and Germany in the martial, diplomatic and economic spheres put these countries in the front rank of the world 's leading nations. This was a source of national pride, self - confidence and unity. It helped reconcile the worker to the state and the Bavarian or Scotsman to rule from Berlin or London. In the years prior to 1914, Austro - Russian co-operation was both crucial for European peace and difficult to maintain. Old suspicions exacerbated by the Bosnian crisis stood in the way of agreement between the two empires, as did ethnic sensitivities. Russia 's historical role as liberator of the Balkans was difficult to square with Austria 's determination to control adjacent territories. In 1913 -- 1914 Saint Petersburg was too concerned with its own weakness and what it saw as threats to vital Russian interests, to spare much thought for Vienna 's feelings. The Russians were, with some justice, indignant that the concessions they had made after the First Balkan War in the interest of European peace had not been reciprocated by the Central Powers.
This was doubly dangerous given the growing evidence flowing into Petersburg about Germany 's aggressive intentions. Both Bazarov and the agents of the Russian secret political police in Germany reported the concern aroused in public opinion by the press war against Russia, which raged in the spring of 1914.
The Russian military was the largest in the world consisting of 1.4 million men prior to the war. They could also mobilize up to 5 million men, but only had 4.6 million rifles to give them. It also had poor leadership.
The war in the east began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia on 17 August 1914 and the Austro - Hungarian province of Galicia. The first effort quickly turned to a defeat following the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. A second Russian incursion into Galicia was completely successful, with the Russians controlling almost all of that region by the end of 1914, routing four Austrian armies in the process. Under the command of Nikolai Ivanov and Aleksei Brusilov, the Russians won the Battle of Galicia in September and began the Siege of Przemyśl, the next fortress on the road towards Kraków.
This early Russian success in 1914 on the Austro - Russian border was a reason for concern to the Central Powers and caused considerable German forces to be transferred to the East to take pressure off the Austrians, leading to the creation of the new German Ninth Army. At the end of 1914, the main focus of the fighting shifted to central part of Russian Poland, west of the river Vistula. The October Battle of the Vistula River and the November Battle of Łódź brought little advancement for the Germans, but at least kept the Russians at a safe distance.
The Russian and Austro - Hungarian armies continued to clash in and near the Carpathian Mountains throughout the winter of 1914 -- 1915. Przemysl fortress managed to hold out deep behind enemy lines throughout this period, with the Russians bypassing it in order to attack the Austro - Hungarian troops further to the west. They made some progress, crossing the Carpathians in February and March 1915, but then the German relief helped the Austrians stop further Russian advances. In the meantime, Przemysl was almost entirely destroyed and the Siege of Przemysl ended in a defeat for the Austrians.
In 1915 the German command decided to make its main effort on the Eastern Front, and accordingly transferred considerable forces there. To eliminate the Russian threat the Central Powers began the campaign season of 1915 with the successful Gorlice - Tarnow Offensive in Galicia in May 1915.
After the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the German and Austro - Hungarian troops in the Eastern Front functioned under a unified command. The offensive soon turned into a general advance and a corresponding strategic retreat by the Russian Army. The cause of the reverses suffered by the Russian Army was not so much errors in the tactical sphere, as the deficiency in technical equipment, particularly in artillery and ammunition as well as the corruption and incompetence of the Russian officers. Only by 1916 did the buildup of Russian war industries increase production of war material and improve the supply situation.
By mid-1915, the Russians had been expelled from Russian Poland and hence pushed hundreds of kilometers away from the borders of the Central Powers, removing the threat of Russian invasion of Germany or Austria - Hungary. At the end of 1915 German - Austrian advance was stopped on the line Riga -- Jakobstadt -- Dünaburg -- Baranovichi -- Pinsk -- Dubno -- Ternopil. The general outline of this front line did not change until the Russian collapse in 1917.
After the Battle of Sarikamish, the Russo - Turkish front quickly turned in favor of Russian forces. The Turks were concerned with reorganizing their army and committing the Armenian Genocide. Meanwhile, Russia was preoccupied with other armies on the Eastern Front. However, the appointment of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich as Viceroy and Commander in the Caucasus in September 1915 revived the situation of the Russo - Turkish front.
When the Allies withdrew from Gallipoli in December, the Caucasus Army 's Chief of Staff General Nikolai Yudenich believed Turkish forces would take action against his army. This concern was legitimate: Bulgaria 's entry into the war as Germany 's ally in October caused serious alarm, as a land route from Germany to Turkey was now open and would allow for an unrestricted flow of German weapons to the Turks. A "window of opportunity '' appeared that would allow the Russians to destroy the Turkish Third Army, as the British required assistance in Mesopotamia (now modern day Iraq). Britain 's efforts to besiege Baghdad had been halted at Ctesiphon, and they were forced to retreat. This led to an increasing number of attacks by Turkish forces. The British requested the Russians to attack in an attempt to distract the Turks, and Yudenich agreed. The resulting offensive began on January 10, 1916.
This offensive was unanticipated by the Turks, as it was in the middle of winter. The Turkish situation was exacerbated by the Third Army 's commander Kamil Pasha and Chief of Staff Major Guse absence. Coupled with an imbalance of forces -- the Russians had 325 000 troops, while the Turks only 78 000 -- the situation appeared grim for the Central Powers. After three months of fighting, the Russians captured the city of Trabzon on April 18, 1916.
Allied operations in 1916 were dictated by an urgent need to force Germany to transfer forces from its Western to Eastern fronts, to relieve the pressure on the French at the Battle of Verdun. This was to be accomplished by a series of Russian offensives which would force the Germans to deploy additional forces to counter them. The first such operation was the Lake Naroch Offensive in March -- April 1916, which ended in failure.
The Italian operations during 1916 had one extraordinarily positive result: Austrian divisions were pulled away from the Russian southern front. This allowed the Russian forces to organize a counter-offensive. The Brusilov Offensive was a large tactical assault carried out by Russian forces against Austro - Hungarian forces in Galicia. General Aleksei Brusilov believed victory against the Central Powers was possible if close attention was paid to preparation. Brusilov suggested that the Russians should attack on a wide front, and to position their trenches a mere seventy - five yard away from Austrian trenches.
Brusilov 's plan worked impeccably. The Russians outnumbered the Austrians 200,000 to 150,000, and held a considerable advantage in guns, with 904 large guns to 600. Most importantly innovative new tactics similar to those independently invented by Erwin Rommel were used to perform quick and effective close - range surprise attacks that allowed a steady advance. The Russian Eighth Army overwhelmed the Austrian Fourth and pushed on to Lutsk, advancing forty miles beyond the starting position. Over a million Austrians were lost, with over 500,000 men killed or taken prisoner by mid-June.
Although the Brusilov Offensive was initially successful, it slowed down considerably. An inadequate number of troops and poorly maintained supply lines hindered Brusilov 's ability to follow up on the initial victories in June. The Brusilov Offensive is considered to be the greatest Russian victory of the First World War. Although it cost the Russians half a million casualties, the offensive successfully diverted substantial forces of the Central Powers from the Western front, and persuaded Romania to join the war, diverting even more Central Powers forces to the East.
Romania may be the turning point of the campaign. If the Germans fail there it will be the greatest disaster inflicted upon them. Afterwards it will only be a question of time. But should Germany succeed, I hesitate to think what the effect will be on the fortunes of our campaign.... and yet no one seems to have thought it his particular duty to prepare a plan.
Up until 1916, the Romanians followed the tides of war with interest, while attempting to situate themselves in the most advantageous position. French and Russian diplomats had begun courting the Romanians early on, but persuasion tactics gradually intensified. For King Ferdinand to commit his force of half a million men, he expected the Allies to offer a substantial incentive. Playing on Romanian anti-Hungarian sentiment the Allies promised the Austria - Hungarian territory of Ardeal (Transylvania) to Romania. Transylvanian demographics strongly favoured the Romanians. Romania succumbed to Allied enticement on August 18, 1916. Nine days later, on August 27, Romanian troops marched into Transylvania.
Romania 's entry into the war provoked major strategic changes for the Germans. In September 1916, German troops were mobilized to the Eastern Front. Additionally, the German Chief of the General Staff, General Erich Von Falkenhayn was forced to resign from office in order to command the combined Central Powers forces against Romania, along with General August von Mackensen. Kaiser Wilhelm II immediately replaced Falkenhayn with Paul von Hindenburg. Von Hindenburg 's deputy, the more adept Erich Ludendorff, was given effective control of the army and ordered to advance on Romania. On September 3, the first troops of the Central Powers marched into Romanian territory. Simultaneously, the Bulgarian Air Force commenced an incessant bombing of Bucharest. In an attempt to relieve some pressure, French and British forces launched a new offensive known as the Battle of the Somme, while the Brusilov Offensive continued in the East.
It is certain that so relatively small a state as Rumania had never before been given a role so important, and, indeed, so decisive for the history of the world at so favorable a moment. Never before had two Great Powers like Germany and Austria found themselves so much at the mercy of the military resources of a country which had scarcely one twentieth of the population of the two great states. Judging by the military situation, it was to be expected that Rumania had only to advance where she wished to decide the world war in favor of those Powers which had been hurling themselves at us in vain for years. Thus everything seemed to depend on whether Rumania was ready to make any sort of use of her momentary advantage.
The entrance of Romania into the war was disconcerting for von Hindenburg. On September 15, Paul von Hindenburg issued the following order, stating that: "The main task of the Armies is now to hold fast all positions on the Western, Eastern, Italian and Macedonian Fronts, and to employ all other available forces against Rumania. '' Fortunately for the Central Powers, the quantity and quality of the Romanian Army was overestimated. Although numbering half a million men, the Romanian Army suffered from poor training and a lack of appropriate equipment.
The initial success of the Romanian Army in Austria - Hungarian territory was quickly undermined by the Central Powers. German and Austro - Hungarian troops advanced from the north, while Bulgarian - Turkish - German forces marched into Romania from the south. Although thought to be a tactical blunder by contemporaries, the Romanians opted to mount operations in both directions. By the middle of November the German force passed through the Carpathians, suffering significant casualties due to determined Romanian resistance. By December 5, Bulgarian troops had crossed the Danube and were approaching the capital, Bucharest. At the same time as the Austro - Hungarian troops moved east, and as the Bulgarians marched north, the Turks had sent in two army divisions by sea to the Dobruja from the east. Eventually, the Romanian forces were pushed back behind the Siret in northern Moldavia.
By January 1917, the ranks of the Romanian army had been significantly thinned. Roughly 150,000 Romanian soldiers had been taken prisoner, 200,000 men were dead or wounded, and lost two thirds of their country, including the capital. Importantly, the Ploiești oilfields, the only significant source of oil in Europe west of the Black Sea, had been destroyed before they were abandoned to the Central Powers.
The Russian February Revolution aimed to topple the Russian monarchy and resulted in the creation of the Provisional Government. The revolution was a turning point in Russian history, and its significance and influence can still be felt in many countries today. Although many Russians wanted a revolution, no one had expected it to happen when it did -- let alone how it did.
On International Women 's Day, Thursday, February 23, 1917 / March 8, 1917, as many as 90,000 female workers in the city of Petrograd left their factory jobs and marched through the streets, shouting "Bread '', "Down with the autocracy! '' and "Stop the War! '' These women were tired, hungry, and angry, after working long hours in miserable conditions to feed their families because their menfolk were fighting at the front. They were not alone in demanding change; more than 150,000 men and women took to the streets to protest the next day.
By Saturday, February 25, the city of Petrograd was essentially shut down. No one was allowed to work or wanted to work. Even though there were a few incidents of police and soldiers firing into the crowds, those groups soon mutinied and joined the protesters. Tsar Nicholas II, who was not in Petrograd during the revolution, heard reports of the protests but chose not to take them seriously. By March 1, it was obvious to everyone except the czar himself, that his rule was over. On March 2 it was made official.
In early July 1917, on the Romanian front, a relatively small area, there was one of the largest concentrations of combat forces and means known during the conflagration: nine armies, 80 infantry divisions with 974 battalions, 19 cavalry divisions with 550 squadrons and 923 artillery batteries, whose effectives numbered some 800,000 men, with about one million in their immediate reserve. The three great battles, decisive for the Romanian nation 's destiny, delivered at Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz represented a turning point in the world war on the Eastern front. These battles, named by the localities and zones where they took place, were fought approximately on the front alignment stabilized in early 1917, which the conflicting sides had thoroughly consolidated for half a year.
Between late July and early September, the Romanian Army fought the battles of Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, managing to stop the German - Austro - Hungarian advance, inflicting heavy losses in the process and winning the most important Allied victories on the Eastern Front in 1917.
As a result of these operations, the remaining Romanian territories remained unoccupied, tying down nearly 1,000,000 Central Powers troops and prompting The Times to describe the Romanian front as "The only point of light in the East ''.
On May 7, 1918, in light of the existing politico - military situation, Romania was forced to conclude the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, imposing harsh conditions on the country but recognizing its union with Bessarabia. Alexandru Marghiloman became the new German - sponsored Prime Minister. King Ferdinand, however, refused to sign the treaty.
The Germans were able to repair the oil fields around Ploiești and by the end of the war had pumped a million tons of oil. They also requisitioned two million tons of grain from Romanian farmers. These materials were vital in keeping Germany in the war to the end of 1918.
By September 1917, just months after the February Revolution, Lenin believed the Russian people were ready for another revolution, this time on Marxist principles. On October 10, at a secret meeting of the Bolshevik party leaders, Lenin used all his power to convince the others that it was time for armed insurrection. Troops who were loyal to the Bolsheviks took control of the telegraph stations, power stations, strategic bridges, post offices, train stations, and state banks.
Petrograd was officially in the hands of the Bolsheviks, who greatly increased their organization in factory groups and in many barracks throughout Petrograd. They concentrated on devising a plan for overturning the Provisional Government, with a coup d'état. On October 24, Lenin emerged from hiding in a suburb, entered the city, set up his headquarters at the Smolny Institute and worked to complete his three - phase plan. With the main bridges and the main railways secured, only the Winter Palace, and with it the Provisional Government, remained to be taken. On the evening of November 7, the troops that were loyal to the Bolsheviks infiltrated the Winter Palace. After an almost bloodless coup, the Bolsheviks were the new leaders of Russia. Lenin announced that the new regime would end the war, abolish all private land ownership, and create a system for workers ' control over the factories.
On 7 November 1917, the Communist Bolsheviks took power under their leader Vladimir Lenin. Lenin 's new Bolshevik government tried to end the war, with a ceasefire being declared on December 15, 1917 along lines agreed in November. At the same time Bolsheviks launched a full - scale military offensive against its opponents: Ukraine and separatist governments in the Don region. During the peace negotiations between Soviets and Central Powers, the Germans demanded enormous concessions, eventually resulting in the failure of the long - drawn - out peace negotiations on February 17, 1918. At the same time the Central Powers concluded a military treaty with Ukraine which was losing ground in the fight with invading Bolshevik forces. The Russian Civil War, which started just after November 1917, would tear apart Russia for three years. As a result of the events during 1917, many groups opposed to Lenin 's Bolsheviks had formed. With the fall of Nicholas II, many parts of the Russian Empire took the opportunity to declare their independence, one of which was Finland, which did so in December 1917; however, Finland too collapsed into a civil war. Finland declared itself independent Dec. 6th 1917, and this was accepted by Lenin a month later. The Finnish Parliament elected a German prince as King of Finland. However, the Socialists (The Reds) and the Whites in Finland fell into war with each other in January 1918. The Reds wanted Finland to be a Soviet republic, and was aided by Russian forces still in Finland. The Whites of Finland were led by General Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, a Finnish baron who had been in the Tsars service since he was 15 years old. The Whites were also offered help by a German Expeditionary Corps led by the German General Goltz. Mannerheim never approved this. The German corps landed in Finland in April 1918.
After the disintegration of the Russian imperial army and navy in 1917, the Council of People 's Commissars headed by Leon Trotsky set about creating a new army. By a decree on January 28, 1918 the council created the Workers ' and Peoples ' Red Army; it began recruitment on a voluntary basis, but on April 22, the Soviet government made serving in the army compulsory for anyone who did not employ hired labor. While the majority of the army was made up of workers and peasants, many of the Red Army 's officers had served a similar function in the imperial army before its collapse.
With the German Army just 85 miles (137 km) from the Russian capital Petrograd (St. Petersburg) on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed and the Eastern Front ceased to be a war zone. While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year, it did provide some relief to the Bolsheviks, who were embroiled in a civil war, and affirmed the independence of Ukraine. However, Estonia and Latvia were intended to become a United Baltic Duchy to be ruled by German princes and German nobility as fiefdoms under the German Kaiser. Finland 's sovereignty had already been declared in December 1917, and accepted by most nations, including France and the Soviet Union, but not by the United Kingdom and the United States. The Germans were able to transfer substantial forces to the west in order to mount an offensive in France in the spring of 1918.
This offensive on the Western Front failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough, and the arrival of more and more American units in Europe was sufficient to offset the German advantage. Even after the Russian collapse, about a million German soldiers remained tied up in the east until the end of the war, attempting to run a short - lived addition to the German Empire in Europe. In the end, Germany and Austria lost all their captured lands, and more, under various treaties (such as the Treaty of Versailles) signed after the armistice in 1918.
In comparison to the attention directed to the role played by women on the Western Front during the First World War, the role of women in the east has garnered limited scholarly focus. It is estimated that 20 percent of the Russian industrial working class was conscripted into the army; therefore, women 's share of industrial jobs increased dramatically. There were percentage increases in every industry, but the most noticeable increase happened in industrial labour, which increased from 31.4 percent in 1913 to 45 percent in 1918.
Women also fought on the Eastern Front. In the later stages of Russia 's participation in the war, Russia began forming all - woman combat units, the Women 's Battalions, in part to fight plummeting morale among male soldiers by demonstrating Russian women 's willingness to fight. In Romania, Ecaterina Teodoroiu actively fought in the Romanian Army and is remembered today as a national hero.
British nursing efforts were not limited to the Western Front. Nicknamed the "Gray partridges '' in reference to their dark gray overcoats, Scottish volunteer nurses arrived in Romania in 1916 under the leadership of Elsie Inglis. In addition to nursing injured personnel, Scottish nurses manned transport vehicles and acted as regimental cooks. The "Gray Partridges '' were well respected by Romanian, Serbian and Russian troops and as a result, the Romanian press went as far as to characterize them as "healthy, masculine, and tanned women. '' As a testament to her abilities, Elsie Inglis and her volunteers were entrusted to turn an abandoned building in the city of Galati into an operational hospital, which they did in a little more than a day. Yvonne Fitzroy 's published journal, "With the Scottish Nurses in Roumania, '' provides an excellent first hand account Scottish nursing activities in the Eastern Front.
During World War I, approximately 200,000 German soldiers and 2.5 million soldiers from the Austro - Hungarian army entered Russian captivity. During the 1914 Russian campaign the Russians began taking thousands of Austrian prisoners. As a result, the Russian authorities made emergency facilities in Kiev, Penza, Kazan, and later Turkestan to hold the Austrian prisoners of war. As the war continued Russia began to detain soldiers from Germany as well as a growing number from the Austro - Hungarian army. The Tsarist state saw the large population of POWs as a workforce that could benefit the war economy in Russia. Many POWs were employed as farm laborers and miners in Donbas and Krivoi Rog. However, the majority of POWs were employed as laborers constructing canals and building railroads. The living and working environments for these POWs was bleak. There was a shortage of food, clean drinking water and proper medical care. During the summer months malaria was a major problem, and the malnutrition among the POWs led to many cases of scurvy. While working on the Murmansk rail building project over 25,000 POWs died. Information about the bleak conditions of the labor camps reached the German and Austro - Hungarian governments. They began to complain about the treatment of POWs. The Tsarist authorities initially refused to acknowledge the German and Habsburg governments. They rejected their claims because Russian POWs were working on railway construction in Serbia. However, they slowly agreed to stop using prison labor. Life in the camps was extremely rough for the men who resided in them. The Tsarist government could not provide adequate supplies for the men living in their POW camps. The Russian government 's inability to supply the POWs in their camps with supplies was due to inadequate resources and bureaucratic rivalries. However, the conditions in the POW camps varied; some were more bearable than others.
Disease played a critical role in the loss of life on the Eastern Front. In the East, disease accounted for approximately four times the number of deaths caused by direct combat, in contrast to the three to one ratio in the West. Malaria, cholera, and dysentery contributed to the epidemiological crisis on the Eastern Front; however, typhoid spotted fever, transmitted by pathogenic lice and previously unknown to German medical officers before the outbreak of the war, was the most deadly. There was a direct correlation between the environmental conditions of the East and the prevalence of disease. With cities excessively crowded by refugees fleeing their native countries, unsanitary medical conditions created a suitable environment for diseases to spread. Primitive hygienic conditions, along with general lack of knowledge about proper medical care was evident in the German occupied Ober Ost.
Ultimately, a large scale sanitation program was put into effect. This program, named Santitätswesen (Medical Affairs), was responsible for ensuring proper hygienic procedures were being carried out in Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Quarantine centers were built, and diseased neighbourhoods were isolated from the rest of the population. Delousing stations were prevalent in the countryside and in cities to prevent the spread of typhoid spotted fever, with mass numbers of natives being forced to take part in this process at military bathhouses. A "sanitary police '' was also introduced to confirm the cleanliness of homes, and any home deemed unfit would be boarded up with a warning sign. Dogs and cats were also killed for fear of possible infection.
To avoid the spread of disease, prostitution became regulated. Prostitutes were required to register for a permit, and authorities demanded mandatory medical examinations for all prostitutes, estimating that seventy percent of prostitutes carried a venereal disease. Military brothels were introduced to combat disease; the city of Kowno emphasized proper educational use of contraceptives such as condoms, encouraged proper cleansing of the genital area after intercourse, and gave instructions on treatment in the case of infection.
The Russian casualties in the First World War are difficult to estimate, due to the poor quality of available statistics.
Cornish gives a total of 2,006,000 military dead (700,000 killed in action, 970,000 died of wounds, 155,000 died of disease and 181,000 died while POWs). This measure of Russian losses is similar to that of the British Empire, 5 % of the male population in the 15 to 49 age group. He says civilian casualties were five to six hundred thousand in the first two years, and were then not kept, so a total of over 1,500,000 is not unlikely. He has over five million men passing into captivity, the majority during 1915.
When Russia withdrew from the war, 2,500,000 Russian POWs were in German and Austrian hands. This by far exceeded the total number of prisoners of war (1,880,000) lost by the armies of Britain, France and Germany combined. Only the Austro - Hungarian Army, with 2,200,000 POWs, came even close.
The empire of Austria lost approximately 60 % of its territory as a result of the war, and evolved into a smaller state with a small homogeneous population of 6.5 million people. With the loss Vienna was now an imperial capital without an empire to support it. The states that were formed around Austria feared the return of the Austro - Hungarian Empire and put measures into place to prevent it from re-forming.
Czechoslovakia was created through the merging of the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, previously under Austrian rule, united with Slovakia and Ruthenia, which were part of Hungary. Although these groups had many differences between them, they believed that together they would create a stronger state. The new country was a multi-ethnic state. The population consisted of Czechs (51 %), Slovaks (16 %), Germans (22 %), Hungarians (5 %) and Rusyns (4 %), with other ethnic groups making up 2 %. Many of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles and some Slovaks, felt oppressed because the political elite did not generally allow political autonomy for minority ethnic groups. The state proclaimed the official ideology that there are no Czechs and Slovaks, but only one nation of Czechoslovaks (see Czechoslovakism), to the disagreement of Slovaks and other ethnic groups. Once a unified Czechoslovakia was restored after World War II the conflict between the Czechs and the Slovaks surfaced again.
After the war Hungary was severely disrupted by the loss of 72 % of its territory, 64 % of its population and most of its natural resources. The loss of territory was similar to that of Austria after the breaking up the Austria - Hungary territory. They lost the territories of Transylvania, Slovakia, Croatia, Slavonia, Syrmia, and Banat.
Italy incorporated the regions of Trieste and Tyrol from Austria.
The creation of a free and Independent Poland was one of Wilson 's fourteen points. At the end of the 18th century the state of Poland was broken apart by Prussia, Russia, and Austria. During the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, the Commission on Polish Affairs was created which recommended there be a passageway across West Prussia and Posen, in order to give Poland access to the Baltic through the port of Danzig at the mouth of the Vistula River. The creation of the state of Poland would cut off 1.5 million Germans in East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Poland also received Upper Silesia. British Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon proposed Poland 's eastern border with Russia. Neither the Soviet Russians nor the Polish were happy with the demarcation of the border.
The state of Romania was enlarged greatly after the war. As a result of the Paris peace conference Romania kept the Dobrudja and Transylvania. Between the states of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Romania an alliance named the Little Entente was formed. They worked together on matters of foreign policy in order to prevent a Habsburg restoration.
Initially Yugoslavia began as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. The State secured its territory at the Paris peace talks after the end of the war. The state suffered from many internal problems because of the many diverse cultures and languages within the state. Yugoslavia was divided on national, linguistic, economic, and religious lines.
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when was the last time minnesota won miss usa | List of Miss USA titleholders - Wikipedia
This is a list of women who have won the Miss USA beauty pageant. Eight Miss USA winners have gone on to become Miss Universe and are indicated in bold face. From 1967 on, a runner - up was selected to replace any Miss USA titleholder who won the Miss Universe pageant.
Miss USA 2016 Deshauna Barber, District of Columbia
Miss USA 2014 Nia Sanchez, Nevada.
Miss USA 2013 Erin Brady, Connecticut.
Miss USA 2012 Nana Meriwether, Maryland (Became Miss USA after Olivia Culpo became Miss Universe 2012).
Miss Universe 2012 Olivia Culpo, Rhode Island.
Miss USA 2011 Alyssa Campanella, California
Miss USA 2010 Rima Fakih, Michigan
Miss USA 2009 Kristen Dalton, North Carolina
Miss USA 2008 Crystle Stewart, Texas
Miss USA 2007 Rachel Smith, Tennessee
Miss USA 2006 Tara Conner, Kentucky
Miss USA 2005 Chelsea Cooley, North Carolina
Miss USA 2004 Shandi Finnessey, Missouri
Miss USA 2003 Susie Castillo, Massachusetts
Miss USA 2002 Shauntay Hinton, District of Columbia
Miss USA 2001 Kandace Krueger, Texas
Miss Universe 1997 Brook Lee, Hawaii
Miss USA 1996 Ali Landry, Louisiana
Miss USA 1995 Shanna Moakler, New York (Became Miss USA after Chelsi Smith became Miss Universe 1995).
Miss USA 1987 Michelle Royer, Texas
Miss USA 1986 Christy Fichtner, Texas
Miss USA 1985 Laura Harring, Texas
Miss USA 1983 Julie Hayek, California
Won Miss Universe title.
Since 1961, the first runner - up takes over the Miss USA title if the reigning Miss USA wins Miss Universe. There was an exception in 1967, when the first - runner up refused the crown and the second runner - up became Miss USA.
Miss USA winner dethroned.
Replaced the dethroned Miss USA.
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who is girl in cherry pie video warrant | Bobbie Brown - wikipedia
Bobbie Jean Brown (born October 7, 1969), sometimes credited as Bobbie Brown - Lane, is an American actress, model and former beauty pageant contestant. She appeared in the video for Warrant 's glam metal anthem "Cherry Pie '' and the cover of the album of the same name.
Brown was born October 7, 1969 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. She is the oldest child of Bobby Gene and Judy Ann Brown (née Faul). Brown has three siblings: a brother, a half brother, and a half sister. Her parents divorced when she was a freshman in high school and her mother later remarried. Brown attended high school at Starkey Academy in Central Louisiana.
Brown won the Miss Louisiana Teen USA 1987 title and represented Louisiana in the Miss Teen USA 1987 pageant broadcast live from El Paso, Texas in July 1987. Brown won the spokesperson competition on Star Search a record thirteen times. In 1990, she hosted the syndicated fashion series Preview: The Best of the New. Brown also appeared in TV shows such as Married... with Children (three episodes) and films such as 1993 's Last Action Hero in which fellow Miss Teen USA Bridgette Wilson portrayed Arnold Schwarzenegger 's daughter.
Brown worked as a model for Budweiser and other companies. She also appeared in music videos, including Great White 's "Once Bitten, Twice Shy '' and "House of Broken Love '' and Hurricane 's "I 'm On To You. '' She is best remembered as the girl in Warrant 's sexually suggestive "Cherry Pie '' video released in 1990.
In the late 1990s, she hosted a TV infomercial that advertised the eight - CD set called "Big Rock: The 80s Generation. '' In 1998, she sued Penthouse for featuring a model also named Bobbie Brown. In 2009, Brown wrote and hosted the VH1 documentary series, "Do It For the Band: Women of the Sunset Strip ''.
In 2012, Brown joined the cast of the reality show Ex-Wives of Rock, airing on the Fuse network. In November 2013, Brown 's memoir co-written with Caroline Ryder and titled Dirty Rocker Boys: Love and Lust on the Sunset Strip, was published by Gallery Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. Brown currently runs an online clothing store bobbiejeanbrown.net.
In 2016, Brown appeared as Lexxi 's mother in Live From Lexxi 's Mom 's Garage, an acoustic live DVD by Steel Panther, and also appeared in their music video for She 's Tight.
In her 2013 memoirs, Brown admitted that she was a cocaine and methamphetamine addict for a decade. Brown used the latter to drop weight quickly before modeling shoots. She completed several stints in rehab before finally becoming sober in the 2000s. Brown also revealed that she suffers from trichotillomania, which she developed in 2005 while she was involved in what she called, "the worst relationship of my entire life ''.
During the shooting of Warrant 's "Cherry Pie '' video, Brown met lead singer Jani Lane. Lane and Brown married on July 15, 1991. They had a daughter, Taylar Jayne Lane, in 1992, and divorced in 1993. After her divorce from Lane, Brown was engaged to Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee. They broke up in February 1995. Four days later, Lee married Pamela Anderson. Brown has been in a relationship with rocker Joshua Bissell of the band Joy Island since 2014.
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lying from you - linkin park (meteora) | Lying from You - wikipedia
"Lying from You '' is a song by American rock band Linkin Park, released on March 16, 2004. It was released as an airplay - only single from their second album, Meteora, which was released on March 25, 2003.
The song opens up with a viola - influenced keyboard sample that leads into it being looped throughout certain verses. It also contains a sample of a car burning out. The song was one of seven Linkin Park songs used in the collaboration between the band and rapper Jay - Z ("Dirt off Your Shoulder / Lying from You '') on the mash - up album Collision Course released in November 2004.
In live shows of 2008, "Lying from You '' used a new intro, removing all samples from the intro and first half of the first verse.
Interview with Mike Shinoda, March 2003 ShoutWeb:
Lying from You is about pushing someone away. The title means, making up lies to make another person angry so that they do n't want to be around you; which is something that some people do subconsciously in relationships. That 's not what my part of the song is about but I know that in a broader sense, when people start feeling negative feelings toward somebody else, just naturally they start doing things to make that person not want to be around them. It 's a subliminal reaction. That works with friends. That works with relationships - either way, people do that.
Live footage of the song from Linkin Park 's live album Live in Texas has been used as the music video. The live version of the song was used in internet versions of the video. This live video is available on iTunes, along with "Points of Authority ''. A video featuring clips from the band 's later songs, "From the Inside '' and "In the End 's '' music videos can be seen on YouTube.
"Lying from You '' was released as an airplay - only single from the album. It was released only in the United States in 2004, and in Canada as a live music video with footage from Live in Texas. It reached number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, giving the band their fourth consecutive number one from the Meteora album. On the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, it spent five weeks at number two and peaked at number 58 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
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nickelback i want to be a rockstar video | Rockstar (Nickelback song) - wikipedia
"Rockstar '' is the fifth U.S. single by the Canadian alternative rock band Nickelback from their fifth album, All the Right Reasons (2005). It was initially only released in the United States and Canada, and has since been re-released worldwide. The lyrics feature the pretentious, materialistic desires of a wannabe rockstar, who craves money, cars and women. Spoken - word vocals between each verse are provided by Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top.
"Rockstar '' is Nickelback 's most popular single, peaking at number two in the United Kingdom and being certified Platinum. It has also sold 4.5 million copies in the United States.
Rolling Stone ranked "Rockstar '' at number 100 in their list of the 100 best songs of 2007. Aside from its praise from Rolling Stone and popularity, some have even labeled it one of the worst songs of all time. "Rockstar '' was listed at number 2 in BuzzFeed 's list of the 30 worst songs ever written stating that "If aliens came to earth and asked why everyone hates Nickelback so much, this song would be a perfect explanation. '' A 2008 Popjustice poll voted "Rockstar '' as the worst single of the year. The Guardian 's Peter Robinson claimed that the song was "... a Smack the Pony skit without the laughter track; ironic, given that Rockstar is one of the most unintentionally hilarious songs of the last few years. It is also one of most confusing. '' He concluded his review by stating, "In summary, this song makes literally no sense and is the worst thing of all time. ''
The song was used to mock the band. The first panel of a 2008 Cyanide and Happiness webcomic shows Kroger performing the chorus, only for one of the strip 's characters to come in in the second panel and say "yes you do, Chad Kroeger. Yes you do '' to Kroger 's apparent dejection. In August of that year, the song appeared in a "banned '' commercial for British sofa retailer DFS in the United Kingdom featuring actors miming it while playing air guitar in front of sofas. Four months later, the advert was recognized as one of the worst of all time by a Scottish newspaper.
During the song 's original release "Far Away '' was more successful on the Billboard Hot 100 and U.S. Pop charts, while "Rockstar '' instead found moderate success on the rock charts. It peaked at # 4 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and # 37 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. It entered the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at # 54, during its original run.
The song was re-shipped to radio for ads on 5 June 2007, and a video was made to accompany the re-release. After its re-release, became active on most charts again, reaching new peaks on numerous charts like The Hot 100, the Adult Top 40, and Pop 100. It re-entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number forty - seven on week ending date July 7, 2007. It also registered on charts it had previously failed to do on first release, such as the Pop 100 Airplay. "Rockstar '' is now the band 's best selling digital single to date in the United States, with digital sales there at 4,229,000 as of July 2013. On 12 September 2007, "Rockstar '' reached a new peak of # 6 on the Billboard Hot 100, faring better than "Far Away ''; becoming Nickelback 's third Top 10 hit from All the Right Reasons, and their fifth career Top Ten on the Hot 100 overall. "Rockstar '' reached its 3,000,000 downloads mark in the U.S. in May 2009 and became the best selling rock single of the 21st century before "How You Remind Me ''. It reached 4 million in sales in the U.S. in June 2012, making it the band 's best selling hit in that country. As of January 2015, the song has sold 4.5 million copies in the US.
"Rockstar '' was a major success in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart and number one on the UK Singles Downloads Chart, becoming the most successful single overall of Nickelback 's career in Britain. The song was released in physical form there after becoming popular online and climbing into the top 50 on downloads alone. Over two years after the release of All the Right Reasons, it became the band 's biggest hit in the country, selling 587,000 copies. "Rockstar '' debuted on the UK Singles Chart on October 21, 2007 ― week ending date October 27, 2007 ― and lasted almost nine months on the chart. On August 10, 2008 ― week ending date August 16, 2008 ― the song re-entered the chart. The release of "Rockstar '' also helped All the Right Reasons achieve a top 10 position in the UK Albums Chart for the first time, becoming their third top 10 album there. It also pushed sales of the album there from under 200,000 to over half a million. It became the United Kingdom 's fifth biggest selling single of 2008. In August 2008, the song re-entered the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart at number 27, and stayed there for an extra four weeks, taking its total of weeks in the top 40 up to 35. The song remained on the chart for 50 consecutive weeks, before falling off in October 2008.
When the song was first released in August 2006, a music video was not made for the single. Dori Oskowitz, who directed the band 's "If Everyone Cared '' video, returned to direct the music video for the song 's re-release.
The video features celebrities and anonymous people lip synching to the lyrics. The non-celebrities are filmed around the world, in front of iconic landmarks, such as Times Square in New York, Millennium Park in Chicago, Playboy Mansion in Los Angeles, St Pauls and Tower Bridge in London, the Opera House and Harbour Bridge in Sydney, and the Brandenburger Tor and Reichstag in Berlin. On screen celebrities include multiple shots of Billy Gibbons (who voices his lines in the song), Chuck "The Iceman '' Liddell, Dale Earnhardt, Jr., Eliza Dushku, Dominique Swain, Gene Simmons, Wayne Gretzky, Erik Rowan, Big & Rich 's John Rich, the cast of The Girls Next Door, Kid Rock, Lupe Fiasco, Twista, Nelly Furtado, the crew from American Chopper, Paul Wall, Ted Nugent, Grant Hill, Taryn Manning, Tom Petkos, Lindsey Shaw, Riki Lindhome and numerous others. Sometimes the lyric they are lip synching relates to themselves. At the end of the video Nickelback is shown playing live on stage; this shot was filmed on July 13, 2007 at the Comcast Center for the Performing Arts in Mansfield, Massachusetts.
Maxi - single
The song makes several references to American popular culture: MTV Cribs (Chad Kroeger, the band 's frontman, appeared on an episode of the show), the Playboy Mansion and Playmates, and a spot between James Dean and Cher on Hollywood 's Walk of Fame (Nickelback is already on Canada 's Walk of Fame). The lyrics can be taken as generalization of the stereotypical rockstar lifestyle celebrating material success at the expense of artistic integrity. The material desires of the rockstar are listed, but the practice needed to become proficient at rock music is never mentioned. For example:
I want a new tour bus full of old guitars My own star on Hollywood Boulevard
The song has been compared to earlier satirical odes to the rockstar lifestyle, including Dire Straits ' "Money for Nothing '' (1985), Joe Walsh 's "Life 's Been Good '' (1978), Dr. Hook 's "Cover of the Rolling Stone '' (1973), The Jam 's "To Be Someone '' from their album All Mod Cons (1978), The Byrds ' "So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star '' (1967), AC / DC 's "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' (1975), Cypress Hill 's "(Rock) '' and "(Rap) Superstar '' (2000) and most recently Weezer 's "Beverly Hills '' (2005).
shipments figures based on certification alone
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the picture of dorian gray best movie adaptation | Adaptations of the Picture of Dorian Gray - wikipedia
Oscar Wilde 's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) has inspired many cinematic, literary, and artistic adaptations.
Listed in chronological order of release or broadcast.
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the link between the first messenger and the second messenger is | Second messenger system - wikipedia
Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell to trigger physiological changes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, survival, and apoptosis. Secondary messengers are therefore one of the initiating components of intracellular signal transduction cascades. Examples of second messenger molecules include cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, inositol trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and calcium. The cell releases second messenger molecules in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules -- the first messengers. First messengers are extracellular factors, often hormones or neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine, growth hormone, and serotonin. Because peptide hormones and neurotransmitters typically are biochemically hydrophilic molecules, these first messengers may not physically cross the phospholipid bilayer to initiate changes within the cell directly -- unlike steroid hormones, which usually do. This functional limitation necessitates the cell to devise signal transduction mechanisms to transduce first messenger into second messengers, so that the extracellular signal may be propagated intracellularly. An important feature of the second messenger signaling system is that second messengers may be coupled downstream to multi-cyclic kinase cascades to greatly amplify the strength of the original first messenger signal. For example, RasGTP signals link with the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) cascade to amplify the allosteric activation of proliferative transcription factors such as Myc and CREB.
Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr., discovered second messengers, for which he won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sutherland saw that epinephrine would stimulate the liver to convert glycogen to glucose (sugar) in liver cells, but epinephrine alone would not convert glycogen to glucose. He found that epinephrine had to trigger a second messenger, cyclic AMP, for the liver to convert glycogen to glucose. The mechanisms were worked out in detail by Martin Rodbell and Alfred G. Gilman, who won the 1994 Nobel Prize.
Secondary messenger systems can be synthesized and activated by enzymes, for example, the cyclases that synthesize cyclic nucleotides, or by opening of ion channels to allow influx of metal ions, for example Ca signaling. These small molecules bind and activate protein kinases, ion channels, and other proteins, thus continuing the signaling cascade.
There are three basic types of secondary messenger molecules:
These intracellular messengers have some properties in common:
There are several different secondary messenger systems (cAMP system, phosphoinositol system, and arachidonic acid system), but they all are quite similar in overall mechanism, although the substances involved and overall effects can vary.
In most cases, a ligand binds to a membrane - spanning receptor protein molecule. The binding of a ligand to the receptor causes a conformation change in the receptor. This conformation change can affect the activity of the receptor and result in the production of active second messages.
In the case of G protein - coupled receptors, the conformation change exposes a binding site for a G - protein. The G - protein (named for the GDP and GTP molecules that bind to it) is bound to the inner membrane of the cell and consists of three subunits: alpha, beta and gamma. The G - protein is known as the "transducer. ''
When the G - protein binds with the receptor, it becomes able to exchange a GDP (guanosine diphosphate) molecule on its alpha subunit for a GTP (guanosine triphosphate) molecule. Once this exchange takes place, the alpha subunit of the G - protein transducer breaks free from the beta and gamma subunits, all parts remaining membrane - bound. The alpha subunit, now free to move along the inner membrane, eventually contacts another membrane - bound protein - the "primary effector. ''
The primary effector then has an action, which creates a signal that can diffuse within the cell. This signal is called the "second (or secondary) messenger. '' The secondary messenger may then activate a "secondary effector '' whose effects depend on the particular secondary messenger system.
Calcium ions are one type of second messengers and are responsible for many important physiological functions including muscle contraction, fertilization and neurotransmitter release. The ions are normally bound or stored in intracellular components (such as the endoplasmic reticulum) and can be released during signal transduction. The enzyme phospholipase C produces diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate, which increases calcium ion permeability into the membrane. Active G - protein open up calcium channels to let calcium ions enter the plasma membrane. The other product of phospholipase C, diacylglycerol, activates protein kinase C, which assists in the activation of cAMP (another second messenger).
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4. describe the architecture of ciudad de méxico of the past—tenochtitlan | Mexico City - Wikipedia
Mexico City, or the City of Mexico (Spanish: Ciudad de México, American Spanish: (sjuˈða (ð) ðe ˈmeçiko) (listen); abbreviated as CDMX), is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen municipalities.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Greater Mexico City population is 21.3 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area of the Western Hemisphere, the tenth - largest agglomeration, and the largest Spanish - speaking city in the world.
Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $411 billion in 2011, making Mexico City urban agglomeration one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. The city was responsible for generating 15.8 % of Mexico 's GDP and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22 % of total national GDP. As a stand - alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth - largest economy in Latin America -- five times as large as Costa Rica and about the same size as Peru.
Mexico 's capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Native Americans, the other being Quito, Ecuador. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan, and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585 it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.
After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were given the right to directly elect a Head of Government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by popular vote in 1997. Ever since, the left - wing Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) has controlled both of them. In recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no - fault divorce, and same - sex marriage. On January 29, 2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.). The former "Distrito Federal '' is now officially known as "Ciudad de México '' (or "CDMX ''). Mexico City is now in transition to become the country 's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, unless the capital of the country is relocated elsewhere.
The city of Mexico - Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. The old Mexica city that is now simply referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which it shared with a smaller city - state called Tlatelolco. According to legend, the Mexicas ' principal god, Huitzilopochtli, indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a nopal cactus with a snake in its beak.
Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city - states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.
After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on November 8, 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa, and the city 's ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him.
Tensions increased until, on the night of June 30, 1520 -- during a struggle known as "La Noche Triste '' -- the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc.
Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city. Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.
Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city - state, having power that extended far beyond its borders.
Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan 's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico '' because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.
The city had been the capital of the Aztec empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain. The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo. The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop 's palace, and across from it the building housing the City Council or ayuntamiento of the city.
A famous late seventeenth - century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central place of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central place of the nation.
The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period:
The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem. The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones.
Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor.
Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza, in orderly, well laid - out streets. Indian residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located.
Spaniards sought to keep Indians separate from Spaniards but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Indians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced. At intervals Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692.
The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake 's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of Indians over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city 's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for Indian cultivation close to the capital.
The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center. Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.
The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one 's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City 's nickname of "The city of palaces '' given by Alexander Von Humboldt.
The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores ''), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence ''), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico 's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on September 27, 1821. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico.
The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution. Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco and then Toluca became the capital of the state of Mexico.
The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from September 8 to 15, 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on August 8 where the Saint Patrick 's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants, but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, fought for the Mexican cause repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick 's Battalion, the Mexican -- American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army 's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.
During this battle, on September 13, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes ''). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.
Events such as the Mexican -- American War, the French Intervention and the Reform War left the city relatively untouched and it continued to grow, especially during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz. During this time the city developed a modern infrastructure, such as roads, schools, transportation systems and communication systems. However the regime concentrated resources and wealth into the city while the rest of the country languished in poverty.
Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation. Díaz 's goal was to create a city which could rival the great European cities. He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements. This style of Mexican - French fusion architecture became colloquially known as Porfirian Architecture. Porfirian architecture became very influenced by Paris ' Haussmannization.
During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization. Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas and sewage utilities by 1908. While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works, perhaps the most long - lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue. Many of Mexico City 's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.
Diaz 's plans called for the entire city to eventually be modernized or rebuilt in the Porfirian / French style of the Colonia Roma; but the Mexican Revolution began soon afterward and the plans never came to fruition, with many projects being left half - completed. One of the best examples of this is the Monument to the Mexican Revolution. Originally the monument was to be the main dome of Diaz 's new senate hall, but when the revolution erupted only the dome of the senate hall and its supporting pillars were completed, this was subsequently seen as a symbol by many Mexicans that the Porfirian era was over once and for all and as such, it was turned into a monument to victory over Diaz.
The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten - year conflict of the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the February 1913 la Decena Trágica ("The Ten Tragic Days ''), when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison. Huerta 's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza 's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.
The history of the rest of the 20th century to the present focuses on the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city 's first skyscraper. The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities.
In 1969 the Metro system was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started from the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring state of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city 's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.
In 1980 half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city 's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles. This caused serious air pollution in Mexico City and water pollution problems, as well as subsidence due to overextraction of groundwater. Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation.
The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco.
Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called "Los Halcones '', composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the U.S.
On Thursday, September 19, 1985, at 7: 19 am CST, Mexico City was struck by an earthquake of magnitude 8.1 on the Richter magnitude scale. Although this earthquake was not as deadly or destructive as many similar events in Asia and other parts of Latin America, it proved to be a disaster politically for the one - party government. The government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well.
However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year, the presidency was set between the P.R.I. 's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left - wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas. The counting system "fell '' because coincidentally the light went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand.
As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency.
Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south - central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 metres (16,000 feet). This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century.
Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco. Seismic activity is frequent here. Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed 's heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater - related subsidence. Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine metres (30 feet) in some areas. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the rainy season. The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city 's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco.
Mexico City has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification Cwb), due to its tropical location but high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa, Iztacalco, Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta, a mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco.
The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 ° C (54 to 61 ° F), depending on the altitude of the borough. The temperature is rarely below 3 ° C (37 ° F) or above 30 ° C (86 ° F). At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was − 4.4 ° C (24.1 ° F) on February 13, 1960, and the highest temperature on record was 33.9 ° C (93.0 ° F) on May 9, 1998.
Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail. The Central Valley of Mexico rarely gets snow during winter; the two last recorded instances of such an event were on March 5, 1940 and January 12, 1967.
The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems. The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around the metropolitan area.
The area receives about 820 millimetres (32.3 in) of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from June through September / October with little or no precipitation the remainder of the year. The area has two main seasons. The rainy season runs from June to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, which the wettest month is July. The dry season runs from November to May, when the air is relatively drier, which the driest month is December. This dry season subdivides into a cold period and a warm period. The cold period spans from November to February when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry. The warm period extends from March to May when tropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain.
Originally much of the valley laid beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco, a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside the Federal District, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico.
Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for Recovering the City of Lakes. If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico, the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning.
By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world 's most polluted cities; however, the city has become a model for dramatically lowering pollution levels. By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped dramatically, while levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were nearly three times lower than in 1992. The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles. Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone - polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO - defined safe limits.
To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides. When the levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week. The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels. The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and the Ecobici bike - sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation.
The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of January 31, 1824, and the Federal Constitution of October 4, 1824, fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.
Due in large part to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country 's population and history, even though Querétaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on November 18, 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state 's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.
In 1854 president Antonio López de Santa Anna enlarged the area of the Federal District almost eightfold from the original 220 to 1,700 km (80 to 660 sq mi), annexing the rural and mountainous areas to secure the strategic mountain passes to the south and southwest to protect the city in event of a foreign invasion. (The Mexican -- American War had just been fought.) The last changes to the limits of the Federal District were made between 1898 and 1902, reducing the area to the current 1,479 km (571 sq mi) by adjusting the southern border with the state of Morelos. By that time, the total number of municipalities within the Federal District was twenty - two.
While the Federal District was ruled by the federal government through an appointed governor, the municipalities within it were autonomous, and this duality of powers created tension between the municipalities and the federal government for more than a century. In 1903, Porfirio Díaz largely reduced the powers of the municipalities within the Federal District. Eventually, in December 1928, the federal government decided to abolish all the municipalities of the Federal District. In place of the municipalities, the Federal District was divided into one "Central Department '' and 13 delegaciones (boroughs) administered directly by the government of the Federal District. The Central Department was integrated by the former municipalities of Mexico City, Tacuba, Tacubaya and Mixcoac.
In 1941, the General Anaya borough was merged to the Central Department, which was then renamed "Mexico City '' (thus reviving the name, but not the autonomous municipality). From 1941 to 1970, the Federal District comprised twelve delegaciones and Mexico City. In 1970 Mexico City was split into four different delegaciones: Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo, Venustiano Carranza and Benito Juárez, increasing the number of delegaciones to sixteen. Since then, in a de facto manner, the whole Federal District, whose delegaciones had by then almost formed a single urban area, began to be considered a synonym of Mexico City.
The lack of a de jure stipulation left a legal vacuum that led to a number of sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other or if the latter had ceased to exist altogether. In 1993 this situation was solved by an amendment to the 44th article of the Constitution whereby Mexico City and the Federal District were set to be the same entity. This amendment was later introduced into the second article of the Statute of Government of the Federal District.
On January 29, 2016, Mexico City ceased to be called the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.). The former "Distrito Federal '' is now officially known as "Ciudad de México '' (or "CDMX ''). Mexico City is now in transition to become the country 's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, unless the capital of the country is relocated elsewhere.
Mexico City, being the seat of the powers of the Union, did not belong to any particular state but to all. Therefore, it was the president, representing the federation, who used to designate the head of government of the Federal District, a position which is sometimes presented outside Mexico as the "Mayor '' of Mexico City. In the 1980s, given the dramatic increase in population of the previous decades, the inherent political inconsistencies of the system, as well as the dissatisfaction with the inadequate response of the federal government after the 1985 earthquake, residents began to request political and administrative autonomy to manage their local affairs. Some political groups even proposed that the Federal District be converted into the 32nd state of the federation.
In response to the demands, in 1987 the Federal District received a greater degree of autonomy, with the elaboration the first Statute of Government (Estatuto de Gobierno), and the creation of an Assembly of Representatives. In the 1990s, this autonomy was further expanded and, starting from 1997, residents can directly elect the head of government of the Federal District and the representatives of a unicameral Legislative Assembly (which succeeded the previous Assembly) by popular vote.
The first elected head of government was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. Cárdenas resigned in 1999 to run in the 2000 presidential elections and designated Rosario Robles to succeed him, who became the first woman (elected or otherwise) to govern Mexico City. In 2000 Andrés Manuel López Obrador was elected, and resigned in 2005 to run in the 2006 presidential elections, Alejandro Encinas being designated by the Legislative Assembly to finish the term. In 2006, Marcelo Ebrard was elected for the 2006 -- 2012 period.
The Federal District does not have a constitution, like the states of the Union, but rather a Statute of Government. As part of its recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally; it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly. Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the Federal District.
According to the 44th article of the Mexican Constitution, in case the powers of the Union move to another city, the Federal District will be transformed into a new state, which will be called "State of the Valley of Mexico '', with the new limits set by the Congress of the Union.
In 2012, elections were held for the post of head of government and the representatives of the Legislative Assembly. Heads of government are elected for a 6 - year period without the possibility of reelection. Traditionally, this position has been considered as the second most important executive office in the country.
The Legislative Assembly of the Federal District is formed, as it is the case in all legislatures in Mexico, by both single - seat and proportional seats, making it a system of parallel voting. The Federal District is divided into 40 electoral constituencies of similar population which elect one representative by first - past - the - post plurality (FPP), locally called "uninominal deputies ''. The Federal District as a whole constitutes a single constituency for the parallel election of 26 representatives by proportionality (PR) with open - party lists, locally called "plurinominal deputies ''.
Even though proportionality is confined to the proportional seats to prevent a part from being overrepresented, several restrictions apply in the assignation of the seats; namely, that no party can have more than 63 % of all seats, both uninominal and plurinominal. In the 2006 elections leftist PRD got the absolute majority in the direct uninominal elections, securing 34 of the 40 FPP seats. As such, the PRD was not assigned any plurinominal seat to comply with the law that prevents over-representation. The overall composition of the Legislative Assembly is:
The politics pursued by the administrations of heads of government in Mexico City since the second half of the 20th century have usually been more liberal than those of the rest of the country, whether with the support of the federal government -- as was the case with the approval of several comprehensive environmental laws in the 1980s -- or through laws recently approved by the Legislative Assembly. In April of the same year, the Legislative Assembly expanded provisions on abortions, becoming the first federal entity to expand abortion in Mexico beyond cases of rape and economic reasons, to permit it regardless of the reason should the mother request it before the twelfth week of pregnancy. In December 2009, the Federal District became the first city in Latin America, and one of very few in the world, to legalize same - sex marriage.
For administrative purposes, the Federal District is divided into 16 "delegaciones '' or boroughs. While not fully equivalent to a municipality, the 16 boroughs have gained significant autonomy, and since 2000 their heads of government are elected directly by plurality (they were previously appointed by the head of government of the Federal District). Given that Mexico City is organized entirely as a Federal District, most of the city services are provided or organized by the Government of the Federal District and not by the boroughs themselves, while in the constituent states these services would be provided by the municipalities. The 16 boroughs of the Federal District with their 2010 populations are:
1. Álvaro Obregón (pop. 727,034) 2. Azcapotzalco (pop. 414,711) 3. Benito Juárez (pop. 385,439) 4. Coyoacán (pop. 620,416) 5. Cuajimalpa (pop. 186,391) 6. Cuauhtémoc (pop. 531,831) 7. Gustavo A. Madero (pop. 1,185,772) 8. Iztacalco (pop. 384,326)
9. Iztapalapa (pop. 1,815,786) 10. Magdalena Contreras (pop. 239,086) 11. Miguel Hidalgo (pop. 372,889) 12. Milpa Alta (pop. 130,582) 13. Tláhuac (pop. 360,265) 14. Tlalpan (pop. 650,567) 15. Venustiano Carranza (pop. 430,978) 16. Xochimilco (pop. 415,007)
The boroughs are composed by hundreds of colonias or neighborhoods, which have no jurisdictional autonomy or representation. The Historic Center is the oldest part of the city (along with some other, formerly separate colonial towns such as Coyoacán and San Ángel), some of the buildings dating back to the 16th century. Other well - known central neighborhoods include Condesa, known for its Art Deco architecture and its restaurant scene; Colonia Roma, a beaux arts neighborhood and artistic and culinary hot - spot, the Zona Rosa, formerly the center of nightlife and restaurants, now reborn as the center of the LGBT and Korean - Mexican communities; and Tepito and La Lagunilla, known for their local working - class foklore and large flea markets. Santa María la Ribera and San Rafael are the latest neighborhoods of magnificent Porfiriato architecture seeing the first signs of gentrification.
West of the Historic Center (Centro Histórico) along Paseo de la Reforma are many of the city 's wealthiest neighborhoods such as Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Bosques de las Lomas, Santa Fe, and (in the State of Mexico) Interlomas, which are also the city 's most important areas of class A office space, corporate headquarters, skyscrapers and shopping malls. Nevertheless, areas of lower income colonias exist in some cases cheek - by - jowl with rich neighborhoods, particularly in the case of Santa Fe.
The south of the city is home to some other high - income neighborhoods such as Colonia del Valle and Jardines del Pedregal, and the formerly separate colonial towns of Coyoacán, San Ángel, and San Jerónimo. Along Avenida Insurgentes from Paseo de la Reforma, near the center, south past the World Trade Center and UNAM university towards the Periférico ring road, is another important corridor of corporate office space. The far southern boroughs of Xochimilco and Tláhuac have a significant rural population with Milpa Alta being entirely rural.
East of the center are mostly lower - income areas with some middle - class neighborhoods such as Jardín Balbuena. Urban sprawl continues further east for many miles into the State of Mexico, including Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl, now increasingly middle - class, but once full of informal settlements. These kind of slums are now found on the eastern edges of the metropolitan area in the Chalco area.
North of the Historic Center, Azcapotzalco and Gustavo A. Madero have important industrial centers and neighborhoods that range from established middle - class colonias such as Claveria and Lindavista to huge low - income housing areas that share hillsides with adjacent municipalities in the State of Mexico. In recent years much of northern Mexico City 's industry has moved to nearby municipalities in the State of Mexico. Northwest of Mexico City itself is Ciudad Satélite, a vast middle to upper - middle - class residential and business area.
The Human Development Index report of 2005 shows that there were three boroughs with a very high Human Development Index, 12 with a high HDI value (9 above. 85) and one with a medium HDI value (almost high). Benito Juárez borough had the highest HDI of the country (. 9510) followed by Miguel Hidalgo which came up 4th nationally with a HDI of (. 9189) and Coyoacán (5th nationally) with a HDI value of (. 9169). Cuajimalpa, Cuauhtémoc and Azcapotzalco had very high values; respectively. 8994 (15th nationally),. 8922 (23rd) and. 8915 (25th).
In contrast, the boroughs of Xochimilco (172th), Tláhuac (177th) and Iztapalapa (183th) presented the lowest HDI values of the Federal District with values of. 8481,. 8473 and. 8464 respectively -- values still in the global high - HDI range. The only borough that did not present a high HDI was that of rural Milpa Alta which presented a "medium '' HDI of. 7984, far below all other boroughs (627th nationally while the rest stood in the top 200). Mexico City 's HDI for the 2005 report was of. 9012 (very high), and its 2010 value of. 9225 (very high) or (by newer methodology). 8307, and Mexico 's highest.
Greater Mexico City is formed by the Federal District, 60 municipalities from the State of Mexico and one from the state of Hidalgo. Greater Mexico City is the largest metropolitan area in Mexico and the area with the highest population density. As of 2009, 21,163,226 people live in this urban agglomeration, of which 8,841,916 live in Mexico City proper. In terms of population, the biggest municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City (excluding Mexico City proper) are:
The above municipalities are located in the state of Mexico but are part of the Greater Mexico City area. Approximately 75 % (10 million) of the state of México 's population live in municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City 's conurbation.
Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country until the late 1980s. Since then, and through a policy of decentralization in order to reduce the environmental pollutants of the growing conurbation, the annual rate of growth of the agglomeration has decreased, and it is lower than that of the other four largest metropolitan areas (namely Greater Guadalajara, Greater Monterrey, Greater Puebla and Greater Toluca) even though it is still positive.
The net migration rate of Mexico City proper from 1995 to 2000 was negative, which implies that residents are moving to the suburbs of the metropolitan area, or to other states of Mexico. In addition, some inner suburbs are losing population to outer suburbs, indicating the continuing expansion of Greater Mexico City.
Mexico City is home to some of the best private hospitals in the country; Hospital Ángeles, Hospital ABC and Médica Sur to name a few. The national public healthcare institution for private - sector employees, IMSS, has its largest facilities in Mexico City -- including the National Medical Center and the La Raza Medical Center -- and has an annual budget of over 6 billion pesos. The IMSS and other public health institutions, including the ISSSTE (Public Sector Employees ' Social Security Institute) and the National Health Ministry (SSA) maintain large specialty facilities in the city. These include the National Institutes of Cardiology, Nutrition, Psychiatry, Oncology, Pediatrics, Rehabilitation, among others.
The World Bank has sponsored a project to curb air pollution through public transport improvements and the Mexican government has started shutting down polluting factories. They have phased out diesel buses and mandated new emission controls on new cars; since 1993 all new cars must be fitted with a catalytic converter, which reduces the emissions released. Trucks must use only liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Also construction of an underground rail system was begun in 1968 in order to help curb air pollution problems and alleviate traffic congestion. Today it has over 201 km (125 mi) of track and carries over 5 million people every day. Fees are kept low to encourage use of the system and during rush hours the crush is so great, that authorities have reserved a special carriage specifically for women. Due to these initiatives and others, the air quality in Mexico City has begun to improve, with the air becoming cleaner since 1991, when the air quality was declared to be a public health risk for 355 days of the year.
Mexico City is one of the most important economic hubs in Latin America. The city proper produces 15.8 % of the country 's gross domestic product. According to a study conducted by PwC, Mexico City had a GDP of $390 billion, ranking it as the eighth richest city in the world and the richest in Latin America. Mexico City alone would rank as the 30th largest economy in the world. Mexico City is the greatest contributor to the country 's industrial GDP (15.8 %) and also the greatest contributor to the country 's GDP in the service sector (25.3 %). Due to the limited non-urbanized space at the south -- most of which is protected through environmental laws -- the contribution of the Federal District in agriculture is the smallest of all federal entities in the country. Mexico City has one of the world 's fastest - growing economies and its GDP is set to double by 2020.
In 2002, Mexico City had a Human Development Index score of 0.915, identical to that of South Korea.
The top twelve percent of GDP per capita holders in the city had a mean disposable income of US $ 98,517 in 2007. The high spending power of Mexico City inhabitants makes the city attractive for companies offering prestige and luxury goods.
The economic reforms of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari had a tremendous effect on the city, as a number of businesses, including banks and airlines, were privatized. He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This led to decentralization and a shift in Mexico City 's economic base, from manufacturing to services, as most factories moved away to either the State of Mexico, or more commonly to the northern border. By contrast, corporate office buildings set their base in the city.
Historically, and since Pre-Columbian times, the Valley of Anahuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico. When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today 's Cuauhtémoc borough. At the beginning of the 20th century, the elites began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation. According to the 1921 census, 54.78 % of the city 's population was considered Mestizo (Indigenous mixed with European), 22.79 % considered European, and 18.74 % considered Indigenous. This was the last Mexican Census which asked people to self - identify with an heritage other than Amerindian. However, the census had the particularity that, unlike racial / ethnic census in other countries, it was focused in the perception of cultural heritage rather than in a racial perception, leading to a good number of white people to identify with "Mixed heritage '' due cultural influence. In 1921, Mexico City had less than one million inhabitants.
Up to the 1990s, the Federal District was the most populous federal entity in Mexico, but since then its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million. The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the Federal District to 59 municipalities of the state of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo. With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008), it is one of the most populous conurbations in the world. Nonetheless, the annual rate of growth of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City is much lower than that of other large urban agglomerations in Mexico, a phenomenon most likely attributable to the environmental policy of decentralization. The net migration rate of the Federal District from 1995 to 2000 was negative.
Representing around 18.74 % of the city 's population, indigenous peoples from different areas of Mexico have migrated to the capital in search of better economic opportunities. Nahuatl, Otomi, Mixtec, Zapotec and Mazahua are the indigenous languages with the greatest number of speakers in Mexico City.
According to a genetic study done in 2011, the average genetic composition of people from Mexico city is 65 % Native American, 31 % European, and 3 % African.
On the other hand, Mexico City is also home to large communities of expatriates and immigrants, most notably from the rest of North America (U.S. and Canada), from South America (mainly from Argentina and Colombia, but also from Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela), from Central America and the Caribbean (mainly from Cuba, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti and Honduras); from Europe (mainly from Spain, Germany and Switzerland, but also from Czech Republic, Hungary, France, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and Romania), from the Middle East (mainly from Egypt, Lebanon and Syria); and recently from Asia - Pacific (mainly from China and South Korea). Historically since the era of New Spain, many Filipinos settled in the city and have become integrated in Mexican society. While no official figures have been reported, population estimates of each of these communities are quite significant.
Mexico City is home to the largest population of U.S. Americans living outside the United States. Current estimates are as high as 700,000 U.S. Americans living in Mexico City, while in 1999 the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs estimated over 440,000 Americans lived in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.
The majority (82 %) of the residents in Mexico City are Roman Catholic, higher than the national percentage, though it has been decreasing over the last decades. Many other religions and philosophies are also practiced in the city: many different types of Protestant groups, different types of Jewish communities, Buddhist, Islamic and other spiritual and philosophical groups. There are also growing numbers of irreligious people, whether agnostic or atheist.
Mexico City has many modes of public transportation, from the metro (subway) system, to suburban rail, light rail, regular buses, BRT (bus rapid transit), ' pesero ' minibuses, and trolleybuses, to bike share.
Mexico City is served by the Sistema de Transporte Colectivo, a 225.9 km (140 mi) metro system, which is the largest in Latin America. The first portions were opened in 1969 and it has expanded to 12 lines with 195 stations. The metro transports 4.4 million people every day. It is the 8th busiest metro system in the world, behind Tokyo (10.0 million), Beijing (9.3 million), Shanghai (7.8 million), Seoul (7.3 million), Moscow (6.7 million), Guangzhou (6.2 million), and New York City (4.9 million). It is heavily subsidized, and has some of the lowest fares in the world, each trip costing 5.00 pesos (roughly 0.27 USD) from 05: 00 am to midnight. Several stations display pre-Columbian artifacts and architecture that were discovered during the metro 's construction. However, the metro covers less than half of the total urban area. The Metro stations are also differentiated by the use of icons and glyphs which were created for the illiterate, a unique system that has become iconic characteristic of Mexico City. Each icon was developed based on historical (characters, sites, pre-Hispanic motifs), linguistic, symbolic (glyphs) or geographic references. A complementary system of icons was used for the Metrobús (BRT) stops.
A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the reach of the metro, currently with only one line serving to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, but with future lines planned to serve e.g. Chalco and La Paz.
Peseros are typically half - length passenger buses (known as microbús) that sit 22 passengers and stand up to 28. As of 2007, the approximately 28,000 peseros carried up to 60 percent of the city 's passengers. In August 2016, Mayor Mancera announced that new pesero vehicle and concessions would be eliminated completely unless they were ecologically friendly vehicles, and in October 2011 the city 's Secretary of Mobility Héctor Serrano states that by the end of the current administration (2018) there would no longer by any peseros / microbuses circulating at all, and that new full - sized buses would take over the routes.
In 2014, the city launched so - called "Bus Rapid Service '', with mid-sized Mercedes - Benz Boxer buses carrying 75 - 85 passengers painted purple - on - white, replacing ' peseros ' on certain groups of routes. Operation is a concession to the private firms (SAUSA, COTOBUSA, TREPSA) instead of to individual vehicle operators.
City agency M1, formerly Red de Transporte de Pasajeros (RTP), operates various networks of large buses including regular, Ecobús, Circuito Bicentenario, Atenea, Express, school and night routes. In 2016, more bus routes were added to replace pesero routes.
In 2016, the SVBUS express bus service was launched, with limited stops and utilizing the city 's toll roads on the second - level of the Periférico ring road and Supervía Poniente and connecting Toreo / Cuatro Caminos with Santa Fe, San Jerónimo Lídice and Tepepan near Xochimilco in the southeast.
Suburban buses also leave from the city 's main intercity bus stations.
The city 's first bus rapid transit line, the Metrobús, began operation in June 2005, along Avenida Insurgentes. More and more lines opened and as of mid-2017 there are 6 routes with a 7th planned along Paseo de la Reforma to connect Santa Fe with the city center and points north. As each line opened, the ' pesero ' minibuses were removed from each route, in order to reduce pollution and commute times. As of mid-2017, there were 568 Metrobús buses. In late 2016 they transported an average of 1.1 million passengers daily.
Mexibús provides 3 bus rapid transit lines connecting Metro Ciudad Azteca and Metro Pantitlán with Cuautitlán, Ecatepec and other suburban areas in the State of Mexico.
Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of several Mexico City trolleybus routes and the Xochimilco Light Rail line, both of which are operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos. The central area 's last streetcar line (tramway, or tranvía) closed in 1979.
In the late 1970s many arterial roads were redesigned as ejes viales; high - volume one - way roads that cross, in theory, Mexico City proper from side to side. The eje vial network is based on a quasi-Cartesian grid, with the ejes themselves being called Eje 1 Poniente, Eje Central, and Eje 1 Oriente, for example, for the north - south roads, and Eje 2 Sur and Eje 3 Norte, for example, for east - west roads. Ring roads are the Circuito Interior (inner ring), Anillo Periférico; the Circuito Exterior Mexiquense ("State of Mexico outer loop '') toll road skirting the northeastern and eastern edges of the metropolitan area, the Chamapa - La Venta toll road skirting the northwestern edge, and the Arco Norte completely bypassing the metropolitan area in an arc from northwest (Atlacomulco) to north (Tula, Hidalgo) to east (Puebla). A second level (where tolls are charged) of the Periférico, colloquially called the segundo piso ("second floor ''), was officially opened in 2012, with sections still being completed. The Viaducto Miguel Alemán crosses the city east - west from Observatorio to the airport. In 2013 the Supervía Poniente opened, a toll road linking the new Santa Fe business district with southwestern Mexico City.
There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula ("Today Does Not Run '', or "One Day without a Car ''), whereby vehicles that have not passed emissions testing are restricted from circulating on certain days according to the ending digit of their license plates; this in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion. While in 2003, the program still restricted 40 % of vehicles in the metropolitan area, with the adoption of stricter emissions standards in 2001 and 2006, in practice, these days most vehicles are exempt from the circulation restrictions as long as they pass regular emissions tests.
Street parking in urban neighborhoods is mostly controlled by the franeleros a.k.a. "viene vienes '' (lit. "come on, come on ''), who ask drivers for a fee to park, in theory to guard the car, but with the implicit threat that the franelero will damage the car if the fee is not paid. Double parking is common (with franeleros moving the cars as required), impeding on the available lanes for traffic to pass. In order to mitigate that and other problems and to raise revenue, 721 parking meters (as of October 2013), have been installed in the west - central neighborhoods Lomas de Chapultepec, Condesa, Roma, Polanco and Anzures, in operation from 8 AM to 8 PM on weekdays and charging a rate of 2 pesos per 15 minutes, with offenders ' cars booted, costing about 500 pesos to remove. 30 percent of the monthly 16 million - peso (as of October 2013) income from the parking - meter system (named "ecoParq '') is earmarked for neighborhood improvements. The granting of the license for all zones exclusively to a new company without experience in operating parking meters, Operadora de Estacionamientos Bicentenario, has generated controversy.
The local government continuously strives for a reduction of massive traffic congestion, and has increased incentives for making a bicycle - friendly city. This includes North America 's second - largest bicycle sharing system, EcoBici, launched in 2010, in which registered residents can get bicycles for 45 minutes with a pre-paid subscription of 300 pesos a year. There are, as of September 2013, 276 stations with 4,000 bicycles across an area stretching from the Historic center to Polanco. within 300 metres (980 feet) of one another and are fully automatic using a transponder based card. Bicycle - service users have access to several permanent Ciclovías (dedicated bike paths / lanes / streets), including ones along Paseo de la Reforma and Avenida Chapultepec as well as one running 59 kilometres (37 miles) from Polanco to Fierro del Toro, which is located south of Cumbres del Ajusco National Park, near the Morelos state line. The city 's initiative is inspired by forward thinking examples, such as Denmark 's Copenhagenization.
The city has four major bus stations (North, South, Observatorio, TAPO), which comprise one of the world 's largest transportation agglomerations, with bus service to many cities across the country and international connections. There are some intercity buses that leave directly from the Mexico City International Airport.
Mexico City is served by Mexico City International Airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX). This airport is Latin America 's busiest, with daily flights to United States and Canada, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Asia. Aeroméxico (Skyteam) is based at this airport, and provide codeshare agreements with non-Mexican airlines that span the entire globe. The airport is also a hub for Volaris, Interjet and Aeromar.
In 2016, the airport handled almost 42 million passengers, about 3.3 million more than the year before. This traffic exceeds the current capacity of the airport, which has historically centralized the majority of air traffic in the country. An alternate option is Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport (IATA Airport Code: TLC) in nearby Toluca, State of Mexico, although due to several airlines ' decisions to terminate service to TLC, the airport has seen a passenger drop to just over 700,000 passengers in 2014 from over 2.1 million passengers just four years prior.
In the Mexico City airport, the government engaged in an extensive restructuring program that includes the addition of a new second terminal, which began operations in 2007, and the enlargement of four other airports (at the nearby cities of Toluca, Querétaro, Puebla and Cuernavaca) that, along with Mexico City 's airport, comprise the Grupo Aeroportuario del Valle de México, distributing traffic to different regions in Mexico. The city of Pachuca will also provide additional expansion to central Mexico 's airport network.
During his annual state - of - the - nation address on September 2, 2014, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto unveiled plans for a new international airport to ease the city 's notorious air traffic congestion, tentatively slated for a 2018 opening. The new airport, which would have six runways, will cost $9.15 billion and would be built on vacant federal land east of Mexico City International Airport. Goals are to eventually handle 120 million passengers a year, which would make it the busiest airport in the world.
Mexico City is a destination for many foreign tourists. Wikipedia 's sister project Wikivoyage has useful information on tourism in Mexico City. The Historic center of Mexico City (Centro Histórico) and the "floating gardens '' of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Famous landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square with its epoch - contrasting Spanish - era Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor ("Major Temple '') and modern structures, all within a few steps of one another. (The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables).
The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs - Élysées in Paris. This avenue was designed over the Americas ' oldest known major roadway in the 19th century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence. Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange and several corporate headquarters are located. Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends 28.8 km (17.9 mi) and is one of the longest single avenues in the world.
Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone). Another piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a white marble theatre / museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s. The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighbourhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double - decker bus, known as the "Turibus '', that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.
In addition, the city has about 160 museums -- the world 's greatest single metropolitan concentration -- over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year. It has either the third or fourth - highest number of theatres in the world after New York, London and perhaps Toronto. Many areas (e.g. Palacio Nacional and the National Institute of Cardiology) have murals painted by Diego Rivera. He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public. The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán.
In addition, there are several restored haciendas that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan and the Hacienda de los Morales.
Having been capital of a vast pre-Hispanic empire, and also the capital of richest viceroyalty within the Spanish Empire (ruling over a vast territory in the Americas and Spanish West Indies), and, finally, the capital of the United Mexican States, Mexico City has a rich history of artistic expression. Since the mesoamerican pre-Classical period the inhabitants of the settlements around Lake Texcoco produced many works of art and complex craftsmanship, some of which are today displayed at the world - renowned National Museum of Anthropology and the Templo Mayor museum. While many pieces of pottery and stone - engraving have survived, the great majority of the Amerindian iconography was destroyed during the Conquest of Mexico.
Much of the early colonial art stemmed from the codices (Aztec illustrated books), aiming to recover and preserve some Aztec and other Amerindian iconography and history. From then, artistic expressions in Mexico were mostly religious in theme. The Metropolitan Cathedral still displays works by Juan de Rojas, Juan Correa and an oil painting whose authorship has been attributed to Murillo. Secular works of art of this period include the equestrian sculpture of Charles IV of Spain, locally known as El Caballito ("The little horse ''). This piece, in bronze, was the work of Manuel Tolsá and it has been placed at the Plaza Tolsá, in front of the Palacio de Mineria (Mining Palace). Directly in front of this building is the beautiful Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) (the National Museum of Art).
During the 19th century, an important producer of art was the Academia de San Carlos (San Carlos Art Academy), founded during colonial times, and which later became the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (the National School of Arts) including painting, sculpture and graphic design, one of UNAM 's art schools. Many of the works produced by the students and faculty of that time are now displayed in the Museo Nacional de San Carlos (National Museum of San Carlos). One of the students, José María Velasco, is considered one of the greatest Mexican landscape painters of the 19th century. Porfirio Díaz 's regime sponsored arts, especially those that followed the French school. Popular arts in the form of cartoons and illustrations flourished, e.g. those of José Guadalupe Posada and Manuel Manilla. The permanent collection of the San Carlos Museum also includes paintings by European masters such as Rembrandt, Velázquez, Murillo, and Rubens.
After the Mexican Revolution, an avant - garde artistic movement originated in Mexico City: muralism. Many of the works of muralists José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera are displayed in numerous buildings in the city, most notably at the National Palace and the Palacio de Bellas Artes. Frida Kahlo, wife of Rivera, with a strong nationalist expression, was also one of the most renowned of Mexican painters. Her house has become a museum that displays many of her works.
The former home of Rivera muse Dolores Olmedo houses the namesake museum. The facility is in Xochimilco borough in southern Mexico City and includes several buildings surrounded by sprawling manicured lawns. It houses a large collection of Rivera and Kahlo paintings and drawings, as well as living Xoloizcuintles (Mexican Hairless Dog). It also regularly hosts small but important temporary exhibits of classical and modern art (e.g. Venetian Masters and Contemporary New York artists).
During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, such as Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue - collar workers find a venue to express their art. Other painters came from abroad, such as Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles. It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme. José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics.
Mexico City has numerous museums dedicated to art, including Mexican colonial, modern and contemporary art, and international art. The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by famed Mexican (born in the state of Oaxaca) painter Rufino Tamayo. The collection includes pieces by Picasso, Klee, Kandinsky, Warhol and many others, though most of the collection is stored while visiting exhibits are shown. The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, including Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros, Kahlo, Gerzso, Carrington, Tamayo, among others, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art. In southern Mexico City, the Museo Carrillo Gil (Carrillo Gil Museum) showcases avant - garde artists, as does the University Museum / Contemporary Art (Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo -- or MUAC), designed by famed Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008.
The Museo Soumaya, named after the wife of Mexican magnate Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside Paris. It also has a large collection of Dalí sculptures, and recently began showing pieces in its masters collection including El Greco, Velázquez, Picasso and Canaletto. The museum inaugurated a new futuristic - design facility in 2011 just north of Polanco, while maintaining a smaller facility in Plaza de Loreto in southern Mexico City. The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum located on the sprawling grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec. It is said to have the largest private contemporary art collection in Latin America and hosts pieces from its permanent collection as well as traveling exhibits by leading contemporary artists. The new Museo Júmex in Nuevo Polanco was slated to open in November 2013. The Museo de San Ildefonso, housed in the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso in Mexico City 's historic downtown district is a 17th - century colonnaded palace housing an art museum that regularly hosts world - class exhibits of Mexican and international art. Recent exhibits have included those on David LaChapelle, Antony Gormley and Ron Mueck. The National Museum of Art (Museo Nacional de Arte) is also located in a former palace in the historic center. It houses a large collection of pieces by all major Mexican artists of the last 400 years and also hosts visiting exhibits.
Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city, and wrote his masterpiece volume of poetry Mexico City Blues here. Another American author, William S. Burroughs, also lived in the Colonia Roma neighborhood of the city for some time. It was here that he accidentally shot his wife.
Most of Mexico City 's more than 150 museums can be visited from Tuesday to Sunday from 10 am to 5 pm, although some of them have extended schedules, such as the Museum of Anthropology and History, which is open to 7 pm. In addition to this, entrance to most museums are free on Sunday. In some cases a modest fee may be charged.
Another major addition to the city 's museum scene is the Museum of Remembrance and Tolerance (Museo de la Memoria y Tolerancia), inaugurated in early 2011. The brainchild of two young Mexican women as a Holocaust museum, the idea morphed into a unique museum dedicated to showcasing all major historical events of discrimination and genocide. Permanent exhibits include those on the Holocaust and other large - scale atrocities. It also houses temporary exhibits; one on Tibet was inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in September 2011.
Mexico City is home to a number of orchestras offering season programs. These include the Mexico City Philharmonic, which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli; the National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts), a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles; the Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM), and the Minería Symphony Orchestra, both of which perform at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap - around concert hall of the world 's western hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976. There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city 's musical scene, including the Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the Cuarteto Latinoamericano, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo), the National Polytechnical Symphony and the Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes).
The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music. There are a multitude of venues hosting Spanish and foreign - language performers. These include the 10,000 - seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules the Spanish and English - language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world 's leading performing arts ensembles, the auditorium also broadcasts Grand Opera performances from New York 's Metropolitan Opera on giant, high definition screens. In 2007 National Auditorium was selected world 's best venue by multiple genre media.
Other popular sites for pop - artist performances include the 3,000 - seat Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000 - seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger 50,000 - seat Foro Sol Stadium, where popular international artists perform on a regular basis. The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city. There are numerous venues for smaller musical ensembles and solo performers. These include the Hard Rock Live, Bataclán, Foro Scotiabank, Lunario, Circo Volador and Voilá Acoustique. Recent additions include the 20,000 - seat Arena Ciudad de México, the 3,000 - seat Pepsi Center World Trade Center, and the 2,500 - seat Auditorio Blackberry.
The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts has several venues for music, theatre, dance. UNAM 's main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU). The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias, the Sala Nezahualcóyotl concert hall, several theatres and cinemas, and the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC). A branch of the National University 's CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north - central Mexico City.
The José Vasconcelos Library, a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city.
The Papalote children 's museum, which houses the world 's largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria amusement park. The theme park Six Flags México (the largest amusement park in Latin America) is located in the Ajusco neighborhood, in Tlalpan borough, southern Mexico City. During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow 's Red Square.
The Cineteca Nacional (the Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema, to Jewish and LGBT - themed films. Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies. Mexico City tops the world in number of IMAX theatres, providing residents and visitors access to films ranging from documentaries to popular blockbusters on these especially large, dramatic screens.
Mexico City offers a variety of cuisines. Restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico 's 31 states are available in the city. Also available are an array of international cuisines, including Canadian, French, Italian, Croatian, Spanish (including many regional variations), Jewish, Lebanese, Chinese (again with regional variations), Indian, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Vietnamese; and of course fellow Latin American cuisines such as Argentine, Brazilian, and Peruvian. Haute, fusion, kosher, vegetarian and vegan cuisines are also available, as are restaurants solely based on the concepts of local food and slow Food.
Mexico City is known for having some of the freshest fish and seafood in Mexico 's interior. La Nueva Viga Market is the second largest seafood market in the world after the Tsukiji fish market in Japan.
The city also has several branches of renowned international restaurants and chefs. These include Paris ' Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow); Nobu, Morimoto; Pámpano, owned by Mexican - raised opera legend Plácido Domingo. There are branches of the exclusive Japanese restaurant Suntory, Rome 's famed Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton 's and The Palm, and Monte Carlo 's BeefBar. Three of the most famous Lima - based Haute Peruvian restaurants, La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón have locations in Mexico City.
For the 2014 list of World 's 50 Best Restaurants as named by the British magazine Restaurant, Mexico City ranked with the Mexican avant - garde restaurant Pujol (owned by Mexican chef Enrique Olvera) at 20th best. Also notable is the Basque - Mexican fusion restaurant Biko (run and co-owned by Bruno Oteiza and Mikel Alonso), which placed outside the list at 59th, but in previous years has ranked within the top 50.
Mexico 's award - winning wines are offered at many restaurants, and the city offers unique experiences for tasting the regional spirits, with broad selections of tequila and mezcal.
At the other end of the scale are working class pulque bars known as pulquerías, a challenge for tourists to locate and experience.
Association football is the country 's most popular and most televised franchised sport. Its important venues in Mexico City include the Azteca Stadium, home to the Mexico national football team and giants América, which can seat 91,653 fans, making it the biggest stadium in Latin America. The Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria is home to the football club giants Universidad Nacional, with a seating capacity of over 52,000. The Estadio Azul, which seats 33,042 fans, is near the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Nochebuena neighborhood, and is home to the giants Cruz Azul. The three teams are based in Mexico City and play in the First Division; they are also part, with Guadalajara - based giants Club Deportivo Guadalajara, of Mexico 's traditional "Big Four '' (though recent years have tended to erode the teams ' leading status at least in standings). The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and Azteca Stadium is the first stadium in World Cup history to host the final twice.
Mexico City is the first Latin American city to host the Olympic Games, having held the Summer Olympics in 1968, winning bids against Buenos Aires, Lyon and Detroit. The city hosted the 1955 and 1975 Pan American Games, the last after Santiago and São Paulo withdrew. The ICF Flatwater Racing World Championships were hosted here in 1974 and 1994. Lucha libre is a Mexican style of wrestling, and is one of the more popular sports throughout the country. The main venues in the city are Arena México and Arena Coliseo.
The Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez is the main venue for motorsport, and hosts the Formula 1 Mexican Grand Prix since its return to the sport in 2015, the event being held in the past from 1962 to 1970, and again from 1986 to 1992. From 1980 to 1981 and again from 2002 to 2007, the circuit hosted the Champ Car World Series Gran Premio de México. Beginning in 2005, the NASCAR Nationwide Series ran the Telcel - Motorola México 200. 2005 also marked the first running of the Mexico City 250 by the Grand - Am Rolex Sports Car Series. Both races were removed from their series ' schedules for 2009.
Baseball is another sport played professionally in the city. Mexico City is currently home of the Mexico City Red Devils of the Mexican League, which is considered a Triple - A league by Major League Baseball. The Devils play their home games at the Fray Nano Stadium, a temporary venue until their new ballpark is completed. Mexico City has some 10 Little Leagues for young baseball players.
In 2005, Mexico City became the first city to host an NFL regular season game outside of the United States, at the Azteca Stadium. The crowd of 103,467 people attending this game was the largest ever for a regular season game in NFL history until 2009. The city has also hosted several NBA pre-season games and has hosted international basketball 's FIBA Americas Championship, along with north - of - the - border Major League Baseball exhibition games at Foro Sol.
Other sports facilities in Mexico City are the Palacio de los Deportes indoor arena, Francisco Márquez Olympic Swimming Pool, the Hipódromo de Las Américas, the Agustin Melgar Olympic Velodrome, and venues for equestrianism and horse racing, ice hockey, rugby, American - style football, baseball, and basketball.
Bullfighting takes place every Sunday during bullfighting season at the 50,000 - seat Plaza México, the world 's largest bullring.
Mexico City 's golf courses have hosted Women 's LPGA action, and two Men 's Golf World Cups. Courses throughout the city are available as private as well as public venues.
The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), located in Mexico City, is the largest university on the continent, with more than 300,000 students from all backgrounds. Three Nobel laureates, several Mexican entrepreneurs and most of Mexico 's modern - day presidents are among its former students. UNAM conducts 50 % of Mexico 's scientific research and has presence all across the country with satellite campuses, observatories and research centres. UNAM ranked 74th in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by Times Higher Education (then called Times Higher Education Supplement) in 2006, making it the highest ranked Spanish - speaking university in the world. The sprawling main campus of the university, known as Ciudad Universitaria, was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.
The second largest higher - education institution is the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), which includes among many other relevant centers the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (Cinvestav), where varied high - level scientific and technological research is done. Other major higher - education institutions in the city include the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (3 campuses), the Universidad Panamericana (UP), the Universidad La Salle, the Universidad del Valle de Mexico (UVM), the Universidad Anáhuac, Simon Bolivar University (USB), the Alliant International University, the Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México (Colmex), Escuela Libre de Derecho and the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, (CIDE). In addition, the prestigious University of California maintains a campus known as "Casa de California '' in the city. The Universidad Tecnológica de México is also in Mexico City.
Unlike those of Mexican states ' schools, curricula of Mexico City 's public schools is managed by the federal Secretary of Public Education. The whole funding is allocated by the government of Mexico City (in some specific cases, such as El Colegio de México, funding comes from both the city 's government and other public and private national and international entities). The city 's public high school system is the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS - DF).
A special case is that of El Colegio Nacional, created during the district 's governmental period of Miguel Alemán Valdés to have, in Mexico, an institution similar to the College of France. The select and privileged group of Mexican scientists and artists belonging to this institution -- membership is for life -- include, among many, Mario Lavista, Ruy Pérez Tamayo, José Emilio Pacheco, Marcos Moshinsky (d. 2009), Guillermo Soberón Acevedo. Members are obligated to publicly disclose their works through conferences and public events such as concerts and recitals.
Among its many public and private schools (K -- 13), the city offers multi-cultural, multi-lingual and international schools attended by Mexican and foreign students. Best known are the Colegio Alemán (German school with three main campuses), the Liceo Mexicano Japonés (Japanese), the Centro Cultural Coreano en México (Korean), the Lycée Franco - Mexicain (French), the American School, The Westhill Institute (American School), the Edron Academy and the Greengates School (British).
Mexico City is Latin America 's leading center for the television, music and film industries. It is also Mexico 's most important for the printed media and book publishing industries. Dozens of daily newspapers are published, including El Universal, Excélsior, Reforma and La Jornada. Other major papers include Milenio, Crónica, El Economista and El Financiero. Leading magazines include Expansión, Proceso, Poder, as well as dozens of entertainment publications such as Vanidades, Quién, Chilango, TV Notas, and local editions of Vogue, GQ, and Architectural Digest.
It is also a leading center of the advertising industry. Most international ad firms have offices in the city, including Grey, JWT, Leo Burnett, Euro RSCG, BBDO, Ogilvy, Saatchi & Saatchi, and McCann Erickson. Many local firms also compete in the sector, including Alazraki, Olabuenaga / Chemistri, Terán, Augusto Elías, and Clemente Cámara, among others. There are 60 radio stations operating in the city and many local community radio transmission networks.
The two largest media companies in the Spanish - speaking world, Televisa and Azteca, are headquartered in Mexico City. Other local television channels include:
XEW 2, XHTV 4, XHGC 5, XHIMT 7, XEQ 9, XEIPN 11, XHDF 13, XHUNAM 20, XHCDM 21, XEIMT 22, XHTRES 28, XHTVM 40 and XHHCU 45.
Mexico City offers an immense and varied consumer retail market, ranging from basic foods to ultra high - end luxury goods. Consumers may buy in fixed indoor markets, mobile markets (tianguis), from street vendors, from downtown shops in a street dedicated to a certain type of good, in convenience stores and traditional neighborhood stores, in modern supermarkets, in warehouse and membership stores and the shopping centers that they anchor, in department stores, big - box stores and in modern shopping malls.
In addition, "tianguis '' or mobile markets set up shop on streets in many neighborhoods, depending on day of week. Sundays see the largest number of these markets.
The city 's main source of fresh produce is the Central de Abasto. This in itself is a self - contained mini-city in Iztapalapa borough covering an area equivalent to several dozen city blocks. The wholesale market supplies most of the city 's "mercados '', supermarkets and restaurants, as well as people who come to buy the produce for themselves. Tons of fresh produce are trucked in from all over Mexico every day.
The principal fish market is known as La Nueva Viga, in the same complex as the Central de Abastos. The world - renowned market of Tepito occupies 25 blocks, and sells a variety of products.
A staple for consumers in the city is the omnipresent "mercado ''. Every major neighborhood in the city has its own borough - regulated market, often more than one. These are large well - established facilities offering most basic products, such as fresh produce and meat / poultry, dry goods, tortillerías, and many other services such as locksmiths, herbal medicine, hardware goods, sewing implements; and a multitude of stands offering freshly made, home - style cooking and drinks in the tradition of aguas frescas and atole.
Street vendors ply their trade from stalls in the tianguis as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at plazas comerciales, where vendors of a certain "theme '' (e.g. stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk. In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground. In the centre of the city informal street vendors are increasingly targeted by laws and prosecution. The weekly San Felipe de Jesús Tianguis is reported to be the largest in Latin America.
The Historic Center of Mexico City is widely known for specialized, often low - cost retailers. Certain blocks or streets are dedicated to shops selling a certain type of merchandise, with areas dedicated to over 40 categories such as home appliances, lamps and electricals, closets and bathrooms, housewares, wedding dresses, jukeboxes, printing, office furniture and safes, books, photography, jewelry, and opticians. The main department stores are also represented downtown.
Traditional markets downtown include the La Merced Market; the Mercado de Jamaica specializes in fresh flowers, the Mercado de Sonora in the occult, and La Lagunilla in furniture.
Ethnic shopping areas are located in Chinatown, downtown along Calle Dolores, but Mexico City 's Koreatown, or Pequeño Seúl, is located in the Zona Rosa.
Large, modern chain supermarkets, hypermarkets and warehouse clubs including Soriana, Comercial Mexicana, Chedraui, Bodega Aurrerá, Walmart and Costco, are located across the city. Many anchor shopping centers that contain smaller shops, services, a food court and sometimes cinemas.
Small "mom - and - pop '' corner stores ("abarroterías '' or more colloquially as "changarros '') abound in all neighborhoods, rich and poor. These are small shops offering basics such as soft drinks, packaged snacks, canned goods and dairy products. Thousands of C - stores or corner stores, such as Oxxo, 7 - Eleven and Extra are located throughout the city.
Chapultepec Park, the city 's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of Polanco district, and houses the city 's zoo, several ponds, seven museums including the National Museum of Anthropology, and the oldest and most traditional amusement park, La Feria de Chapultepec Mágico, with its vintage Montaña Rusa rollercoaster.
Other iconic city parks include the Alameda Central, Mexico City historic center, a city park since colonial times and renovated in 2013; Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle, and Parque Lincoln in Polanco. There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small "squares '' occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.
Several other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.
Amusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city.
Mexico City has three zoos. Chapultepec Zoo, the San Juan de Aragon Zoo and Los Coyotes Zoo. Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in the Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924. Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others. Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and the Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others. Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68 - acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on February 2, 1999. It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the Mexico City. You can admire eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white - tailed deer.
Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of the Palaces ''), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Europe, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe.
During Andrés López Obrador 's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza ("The City of Hope ''). This motto was quickly adopted as a city nickname, but has faded since the new motto Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement '') was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard, though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media. Since 2013, to refer to the City particularly in relation to government campaigns, the abbreviation CDMX has been used (from Ciudad de México).
The city is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals ' nickname chilangos. Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to "connote a loud, arrogant, ill - mannered, loutish person ''. For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia ("the provinces '', the periphery) and many proudly embrace the term chilango. Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe ''). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but "(p) erhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized ''.
The Secretariat of Public Security of the Federal District (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública del Distrito Federal -- SSP) manages a combined force of over 90,000 officers in the Federal District (DF). The SSP is charged with maintaining public order and safety in the heart of Mexico City. The historic district is also roamed by tourist police, aiming to orient and serve tourists. These horse - mounted agents dress in traditional uniforms.
The investigative Judicial Police of the Federal District (Policía Judicial del Distrito Federal -- PJDF) is organized under the Office of the Attorney General of the DF (the Procuraduría General de Justicia del Distrito Federal). The PGJDF maintains 16 precincts (delegaciones) with an estimated 3,500 judicial police, 1,100 investigating agents for prosecuting attorneys (agentes del ministerio público), and nearly 1,000 criminology experts or specialists (peritos).
Between 2000 and 2004 an average of 478 crimes were reported each day in Mexico City; however, the actual crime rate is thought to be much higher "since most people are reluctant to report crime ''. Under policies enacted by Mayor Marcelo Ebrard between 2009 and 2011, Mexico City underwent a major security upgrade with violent and petty crime rates both falling significantly despite the rise in violent crime in other parts of the country. Some of the policies enacted included the installation of 11,000 security cameras around the city and a very large expansion of the police force. Mexico City has one of the world 's highest police officer - to - resident ratios, with one uniformed officer per 100 citizens. Since 1997 the prison population has increased by more than 500 %. Political scientist Markus - Michael Müller argues that mostly informal street vendors are hit by these measures. He sees punishment "related to the growing politicisation of security and crime issues and the resulting criminalisation of the people living at the margins of urban society, in particular those who work in the city 's informal economy. ''
Mexico City is twinned with:
Mexico is part of the Union of Ibero - American Capital Cities, which was founded on October 12, 1982, to establish and foster brotherly relations between the following cities:
1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Jakarta 3 Shanghai 4 Karachi 5 Delhi
6 Seoul - Incheon 7 Mexico City 8 Beijing 9 Lagos 10 São Paulo
11 Mumbai 12 New York 13 Osaka 14 Dhaka 15 Kolkata
16 Tehran 17 Istanbul 18 London 19 Los Angeles 20 Buenos Aires
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when was the museum of islamic art built | Museum of Islamic Art, Doha - wikipedia
The Museum of Islamic Art (Arabic: متحف الفن الإسلامي , matḥaf al - fann al - islāmī) is a museum located on one end of the seven kilometers long Corniche in the Qatari capital, Doha. As with the architect I.M. Pei 's requirement, the museum is built on an island off an artificial projecting peninsula near the traditional dhow (wooden Qatari boat) harbor. A purpose - built park surrounds the edifice on the Eastern and Southern facades while 2 bridges connect the Southern front facade of the property with the main peninsula that holds the park. The Western and Northern facades are marked by the harbor showcasing the Qatari seafaring past.
Facilities inside the 5 - storied museum include temporary and permanent galleries, a gift shop, a library, a cafe, a 200 - seat theater, classrooms and a restaurant. There are prayer rooms and ablution facilities inside to cater to Muslim visitors.
External facilities that form part of the crescent shaped MIA park include walking tracks, cycling tracks, a carousel, cafes, rest rooms and boat rentals.
MIA is part of Qatar Museums Authority. Admission to the museum and park are free. The park is open 24 hours to cater to residents of the city.
The museum is influenced by ancient Islamic architecture, yet has a uniquely modern design involving geometric patterns. It is the first of its kind to feature over 14 centuries of Islamic art in the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.
Occupying a total area of 45,000 m, the museum is located on an artificial peninsula overlooking the south end of Doha Bay. Construction of the building was done by a Turkish company, Baytur Construction in 2006. The interior gallery spaces were designed by a team of Wilmotte Associates. The museum was officially opened on November 22, 2008 by the then emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad. It opened to the general public on December 8, 2008.
At 91 years of age, the museum 's architect, I.M. Pei had to be coaxed out of retirement to undertake this enterprise. He traveled throughout the Muslim world on a six - month quest to learn about Muslim architecture and history and read Muslim texts to draw inspiration for his design. According to Pie, the light fountain in 9th century Ibn Tulun Mosque of Cairo was the inspiration. Declining all proposed sites for the museum, he suggested a stand - alone island for the structure in order to avoid encroachments by other buildings in the future. It was built off an artificial peninsula, approximately 60m off the Doha Corniche and surrounded by a some - what crescent shaped 290,000 m park. Pei requested that the museum spaces be designed by his collaborator on the Louvre project, Wilmotte & Associates, who then assembled a design team including Plowden & Smith (conservation consultants), Isometrix Lighting + Design (lighting consultants), SG Conseil (AV Consultants) under Turner Projacs. Along with this design team, Leslie E. Robertson Associates was the structural engineer for the project.
The main building consists of the five floors, the main dome, and the central tower. It is connected with the education ward via a large central court. Pie utilized creamy limestone for the outer facades to emphasize the various shades during the different times of the day. The five floors are covered by a glass facade to the north, and it provides a panoramic view of the Persian Gulf. The interior of the building is decorated by several Islamic arts, and the large metallic chandelier hung over the main staircase of the lobby. Many elements found in Ibn Tulun Mosque are represented in the building as an abstract form. This enables the agreement with values and principles of the postmodern architecture historical trend which synchronize the modernity and the historical Islamic architectural identity.
The Museum of Islamic Art (MIA) represents Islamic art from three continents over 1,400 years. Its collection includes metal work, ceramics, jewelry, wood work, textiles and glass obtained from three continents and dating from the 7th to the 19th century.
The museum houses a collection of work gathered since the late 1980 's including manuscripts, textiles and ceramics. It is one of the world 's most complete collections of Islamic artifacts, with items originating in Spain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, India, and Central Asia.
The well - lit limestone facade 's play with light and shadow seen from the corniche
The use of arches and water features central to Islamic design
A view from the main cornice street
Water features that cater to climatic needs of the desert nation are an integral part of the museum 's design
Punctures and sculptural light fixtures detail out geometric patterns and designs
At the end of MIA park, is located the art installation "7 '' by Richard Serra
View of the skyline from the raised mounds within the park
The main staircase in the background and the famed light sculpture in the foreground above
View while approaching from the public parking
The central atrium with the 3 transparent floored bridges to go across
View of the Southern facade and smaller bridge (at a lower level) while standing on the main bridge (bigger primary access)
Southern facade from across the bridge
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who replaces the vice president if he resigns | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office. (A President can be removed from office by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate.) The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
"Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. ''
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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where does the term 25 lighters come from | Lighter - wikipedia
A lighter is a portable device used to create a flame, and to ignite a variety of combustible materials, such as cigars, gas stoves, fireworks, candles or cigarettes. It consists of a metal or plastic container filled with a flammable fluid or pressurized liquid gas, a means of ignition to produce the flame, and some provision for extinguishing the flame. Alternatively, a lighter can be powered by electricity, using an electric arc or heating element to ignite the target.
The first lighters were converted flintlock pistols that used gunpowder. One of the first lighters was invented by the German chemist named Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1823 and was often called Döbereiner 's lamp. This lighter worked by passing flammable hydrogen gas, produced within the lighter by a chemical reaction, over a platinum metal catalyst which in turn caused it to ignite and give off a great amount of heat and light.
The patenting of ferrocerium (often misidentified as flint) by Carl Auer von Welsbach in 1903 has made modern lighters possible. When scratched it produces a large spark which is responsible for lighting the fuel of many lighters, and is suitably inexpensive for use in disposable items.
Using Carl Auer von Welsbach 's flint, companies like Ronson were able to develop practical and easy to use lighters. In 1910, Ronson released the first Pist - O - Liter, and in 1913, the company developed its first lighter, called the "Wonderlite '', which was a permanent match style of lighter.
During WWl soldiers started to create lighters of empty cartridge cases. During that time one of the soldiers came up with a means to insert a chimney cap with holes in it to make it more windproof.
The Zippo lighter and company were invented and founded by George G. Blaisdell in 1932. The Zippo was noted for its reliability, "Life Time Warranty '' and marketing as "Wind - Proof ''. Most early Zippos used naphtha as a fuel source.
In the 1950s, there was a switch in the fuel of choice from naphtha to butane, as butane allows for a controllable flame and has less odour. This also led to the use of piezoelectric spark, which replaced the need for a flint wheel in some lighters and was used in many Ronson lighters.
In modern times most of the world 's lighters are produced in the United States, China, and Thailand.
Naphtha based lighters employ a saturated cloth wick and fibre packing to absorb the fluid and prevent it from leaking. They employ an enclosed top to prevent the volatile liquid from evaporating, and to conveniently extinguish the flame. Butane lighters have a valved orifice that meters the butane gas as it escapes.
A spark is created by striking metal against a flint, or by pressing a button that compresses a piezoelectric crystal (piezo ignition), generating an electric arc. In naphtha lighters, the liquid is sufficiently volatile, and flammable vapour is present as soon as the top of the lighter is opened. Butane lighters combine the striking action with the opening of the valve to release gas. The spark ignites the flammable gas causing a flame to come out of the lighter which continues until either the top is closed (naphtha type), or the valve is released (butane type).
A metal enclosure with air holes generally surrounds the flame, and is designed to allow mixing of fuel and air while making the lighter less sensitive to wind. The high energy jet in butane lighters allows mixing to be accomplished by using Bernoulli 's principle, so that the air hole (s) in this type tend to be much smaller and farther from the flame.
Specialized "windproof '' butane lighters are manufactured for demanding conditions such as shipboard, high altitude, and wet climates. Some dedicated models double as synthetic rope cutters. Such lighters are often far hotter than normal lighters (those that use a "soft flame '') and can burn in excess of 1,100 ° C (2,010 ° F). Contrary to common misconception, the windproof capabilities are not achieved from "higher pressure '' fuel, with lighters using the same fuel (butane) as standard lighters, and therefore developing the same vapour pressure. Instead, windproof lighters mix the fuel with air, and pass the butane / air mixture through a catalytic coil. An electric spark starts the initial flame, and soon after the coil is hot enough to sustain a catalytic reaction and cause the fuel / air mixture to burn on contact.
Arc lighters use a spark to create a plasma conduit between electrodes, which is then maintained by a lower voltage. The arc is then applied to a flammable substance to cause ignition.
Some vehicles are equipped with an electric lighter located on the dashboard or in the well between the front seats. Its electric heating element becomes hot in seconds upon activation. The car lighter was claimed to have been invented by Alexander Kucala, a tavern owner and inventor, on the south side of Chicago in the early 1930s called the AL Lighter.
Not to be confused with the meaning of match as in matchsticks or the "permanent match '' (see below), this type of lighter consists of a length of slow match in a holder, with means to ignite and to extinguish the match. While the glowing match does not generally supply enough energy to start a fire without further kindling, it is fully sufficient to light a cigarette. The main advantage of this design shows itself in windy conditions, where the glow of the match is fanned by the wind instead of being blown out.
A typical form of lighter is the permanent match or everlasting match, consisting of a naphtha fuel - filled metal shell and a separate threaded metal rod assembly -- the "match '' -- serving as the striker and wick. This "metal match '' is stored screwed into the fuel storage compartment, the shell.
The fuel - saturated striker / wick assembly is unscrewed to remove, and scratched against a flint on the side of the case to create a spark. Its concealed wick catches fire, resembling a match. The flame is extinguished by screwing the "match '' back into the shell, where it absorbs fuel for the next use. An advantage over other naphtha lighters is that the fuel compartment is sealed shut with a rubber o - ring, which slows or stops fuel evaporation.
A flameless lighter is a safe alternative to traditional lighters. The flameless lighter uses an enclosed heating element which glows, so that the device does not produce an open flame. Typical flameless heating elements are an electrically heated wire or an artificial coal.
Flameless lighters are designed for use in any environment where an open flame, conventional lighters or matches are not permitted. The flameless lighter is used in many environments such as prisons and detention facilities, oil and gas facilities, mental health facilities, nursing homes, airports and night clubs / restaurants.
Many advertised so - called flameless lighters are not flameless at all, but the flame is invisible (such as a windproof lighter). If a piece of paper can easily be ignited, it is probably not a true flameless lighter and may not be safe in hazardous environments where smoking is confined to specific safe areas.
The flameless lighter was invented by brothers Douglas Hammond and David Hammond in the UK in 1966 under the "Ciglow '' name.
Catalytic lighters use methanol or methylated spirits as fuel and a thin platinum wire which heats up in the presence of flammable vapours and produces a flame.
Two technical standards relate to the safety of lighters: the International Standard EN ISO 9994: 2002 and the European standard EN 13869: 2002.
The International Standard establishes non-functional specifications on quality, reliability and safety of lighters and appropriate test procedures. For instance, a lighter should generate flame only through positive action on the part of the user, two or more independent actions by the user, or an actuating force greater than or equal to 15 Newton. The standard also specifies other safety features, such as the lighter 's maximum flame height and its resistance to elevated temperatures, dropping, and damages from continuous burning. However, the standard does not include child resistance specifications.
The European standard EN 13869: 2002 establishes child - resistance specifications and defines as novelty lighters those that resemble another object commonly recognized as appealing to children younger than 51 months, or those that have entertaining audio or animated effects.
As matches, lighters, and other heat sources are the leading causes of fire deaths for children, many jurisdictions, such as the EU, have prohibited the marketing of novelty or non-child resistant lighters. Examples of child resistance features, include the use of a smooth or shielded spark wheel. Many people remove the child proofing from lighters by prying off the metal with scissors or keys, making the lighter easier to ignite.
In 2005 the fourth edition of the ISO standard was released (ISO9994: 2005). The main change to the 2004 Standard is the inclusion of specifications on safety symbols.
In August 2011 Stephen Fry chose the lighter as the greatest gadget in his Channel 4 programme Stephen Fry 's 100 Greatest Gadgets, one of the 100 Greatest strand, describing it as "fire with a flick of the fingers ''.
Media related to Lighter at Wikimedia Commons
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which of the following does not describe seattle's hooverville | Hooverville - wikipedia
A "Hooverville '' was a shanty town built during the Great Depression by the homeless in the United States of America. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was President of the United States of America during the onset of the Depression and was widely blamed for it. The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the Democratic National Committee. There were hundreds of Hoovervilles across the country during the 1930s and hundreds of thousands of people lived in these slums.
Homelessness was present before the Great Depression, and was a common sight before 1929. Most large cities built municipal lodging houses for the homeless, but the Depression exponentially increased demand. The homeless clustered in shanty towns close to free soup kitchens. These settlements were often trespassing on private lands, but they were frequently tolerated or ignored out of necessity. The New Deal enacted special relief programs aimed at the homeless under the Federal Transient Service (FTS), which operated from 1933 -- 1935.
Some of the men who were forced to live in these conditions possessed construction skills and were able to build their houses out of stone. Most people, however, resorted to building their residences out of wood from crates, cardboard, scraps of metal, or whatever materials were available to them. They usually had a small stove, bedding and a couple of simple cooking implements. Men, women and children alike lived in Hoovervilles. Most of these unemployed residents of the Hoovervilles used public charities or begged for food from those who had housing during this era.
Democrats coined many terms based on opinions of Herbert Hoover such as "Hoover blanket '' (old newspaper used as blanketing), "Hoover flag '' (an empty pocket turned inside out), "Hoover leather '' was cardboard used to line a shoe when the sole wore through, and a "Hoover wagon '' was an automobile with horses hitched to it because the owner could not afford fuel.
After 1940 the economy recovered, unemployment fell, and shanty eradication programs destroyed all the Hoovervilles.
Among the hundreds of Hoovervilles across the U.S. during the 1930s were those in:
Hoovervilles have often featured in popular culture, and still appear in editorial cartoons. Movies like My Man Godfrey (1936) and Sullivan 's Travels (1941) sometimes sentimentalized Hooverville life.
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when does the weather warm up in los angeles | Climate of Los Angeles - wikipedia
The Climate of Los Angeles is a year - round mild - to - hot and mostly dry climate for the Los Angeles metropolitan area in California. The climate is classified as a Mediterranean climate, which is a type of dry subtropical climate. It is characterized by seasonal changes in rainfall -- with a dry summer and a winter rainy season -- but relatively modest transitions in temperature. Under the modified Köppen climate classification, the coastal areas are classified as Csb, and the inland areas as Csa.
The Los Angeles area contains microclimates, where daytime temperatures can vary as much as 36 ° F (20 ° C) between inland areas such as the San Fernando Valley or San Gabriel Valley, and the coastal Los Angeles Basin.
The primary weather station for Los Angeles is located near downtown at the University of Southern California campus, and this article refers primarily to climate data generated by this station as representative of the Los Angeles metropolitan area as a whole. Los Angeles is a hot - summer mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa), receiving low amounts precipitation annually, even during the winter rainy season. Los Angeles has been below its seasonal rainfall average since 2009, and has also had temperatures over 90 ° F (32 ° C) extending well into November and even December each year during the same time period. The concept of "seasons '' has become almost inapplicable to the Los Angeles climate in the last decade, with only two clear seasonal phases in evidence: a warm / hot season with no precipitation ("summer ''), which lasts most of the year, and a cool season with the possibility for limited precipitation ("winter ''), which lasts two to three months. Daytime high temperatures, even during the cool season, are nearly always at least 70 ° F (21 ° C). Extended heat waves, with temperatures in excess of 90 ° F (32 ° C) for up to a week, are possible year - round, even during months considered the "dead of winter '' in other climates. Skies are almost uniformly clear and sunny year - round, often with not a single cloud. At certain times of year, coastal fog and morning clouds are possible, as well as June Gloom, but overall the Los Angeles area has one of the most unrelentingly sunny climates in the world. Los Angeles differs from other mediterranean climates (especially those in the actual Mediterranean) by having a nearly - absent cool or "winter '' season, and much lower rainfall totals than other mediterranean locales.
Summers are warm to hot, and nearly completely dry. The summer temperature pattern usually begins in late June or early July, and lasts through September or October, although it may start as early as late May. In August, the average high / low at the University of Southern California downtown campus are 84.8 ° F (29.3 ° C) and 65.6 ° F (18.7 ° C). The same figures at the LAX airport, approximately 12 miles (19 km) to the southwest and near the ocean, are 76.6 ° F (24.8 ° C) and 64.2 ° F (17.9 ° C). However, temperatures across the region sometimes exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C) during the summer. This happens when an atmospheric high - pressure area becomes dominant over the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah (a frequent occurrence), and the resulting offshore flow of the atmospheric air mass shuts off the normal coastal sea breeze in Los Angeles. July, August and September are the hottest months, with September holding the all - time record of 113 ° F (45 ° C). Skies are nearly constantly sunny, unless interrupted in late spring and early summer by the June Gloom pattern, which is unpredictable year - to - year. The North American Monsoon can bring occasional thunderstorms and high humidity to Los Angeles in the summer and early fall.
Winters are mildly cool to warm, with average high temperatures at the Downtown / USC weather station of 68 ° F (20 ° C) and lows of 48 ° F (9 ° C), with occasional heavy rainfall. Temperatures across the coastal basin rarely drop below 45 ° F (7 ° C), although light frost does occasionally form during cooler nights, at least in areas removed from the direct influence of the coastal air (approximately 5 miles (8 km) inland from the beach). However, high pressure systems over the deserts often bring some Santa Ana winds, resulting in dry, and dusty days. Temperatures can reach into the 70 to 85 ° F (21 to 29 ° C) routinely during Santa Ana Winds even in December or January but only sometimes. Almost every winter season, temperatures can usually reach up to75 ° F (24 ° C) but can reach up to 85 ° F (29 ° C) on some days during a Santa Ana - type event. Sunny skies characteristically dominate the weather pattern in some parts of the winter season.
Spring and autumn hardly exist as such in this climate. Summer temperature patterns of 75 to 90 ° F (24 to 32 ° C) highs and 60 to 70 ° F (16 to 21 ° C) lows usually persist until early - November. Likewise, the "winter - season '' temperature pattern of 65 to 75 ° F (18 to 24 ° C) highs and 45 to 60 ° F (7 to 16 ° C) lows may last through April or May, periodically interrupted by hot Santa Ana wind events for up to a week at a time. The rainy season always ends by mid-May. June is normally a transitional month of less - volatile temperatures between 60 and 80 ° F (16 and 27 ° C), with increased cloudy days and the disappearance of the Santa Ana winds.
Rainfall, on average, is frequently below average. Most rain occurs during the winter and early to mid spring, typical of a Mediterranean climate. However, the amount received is usually lower than in other Mediterranean climates. The first sporadic rainfall of the rainy season usually occurs in October or November, with heavy rain becoming more common December through early April. Usually the Pineapple Express storms from November to January. February, on average, is the wettest month. The rains then taper off in April or by May, usually see only two to three light rain showers. However, the timing and volume of rains in the winter is far from predictable. After a significant rain, the region 's air is cleared of the usual atmospheric haze as well as man - made smog, giving exceptionally clear views across the giant metropolis.
Most cold fronts and depressions spun off by the polar low, the strong winter seasonal low - pressure area in the Gulf of Alaska, fail to carry significant precipitable moisture as far south as Los Angeles, resulting in the region 's relatively low average rainfall amount of 12 -- 15 inches (300 -- 380 mm) even in normal years. However, a "normal '' year rarely occurs, since rainfall in Los Angeles is subject to the position and strength of the jet stream, and the strength of the Gulf of Alaska low. Some years, a well - developed series of cold fronts moves into the area with relatively short separation between each, bringing intermittently rainy periods to Los Angeles for several weeks at a time. If this pattern persists in a rainy season, significantly above - average precipitation will be received. Other years, especially in the drought years of 2012 -- 2016, a blocking region of atmospheric high pressure over the eastern Pacific Ocean, between Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, diverts the jet stream and its flow of cold fronts far to the north through Canada and down into the U.S. Midwest, leaving the U.S. west coast and especially Los Angeles under warm and dry conditions for weeks to months at a time.
Because the rainy season begins in late fall and ends in early to mid spring, precipitation is measured using the water year instead of the calendar year, to give an accurate picture of each rainy season 's precipitation amounts. Each water year begins October 1 and ends the following September 30, during the driest part of the year.
Sometimes rainfall can occur in the summer from westward - straying monsoon thunderstorms, but this is unusual. Even less common is rain from remnants of dissipating eastern Pacific hurricanes. Los Angeles averages only 15.1 inches (384 mm) of precipitation per year, and this is lower at the coast and higher in the mountains and foothill cities. Rain is typically brought with when High Pressure systems in the summer which move east in a clockwise across the western United States bringing motion bringing in Monsoonal Moisture to the area. This will usually occur during the summer months (usually in July -- September). Snow is extremely rare in the Greater Los Angeles area and basin, but the nearby San Gabriel Mountains and San Bernardino Mountains typically receive a heavy amount of snow every winter season. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2 inches (5 cm) on January 15, 1932.
Historically - speaking, the warm - phase of an El Niño -- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) regime typically coincides with above average precipitation across Southern California. The above average sea - surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean are largely responsible for this as the ocean acts as a rich moisture source for tropical moisture to advect towards the North American continent in atmospheric river events. Prior to the strong El Nino of 2015 -- 2016, the previous two strong El Niño events in 1982 -- 83 and 1997 -- 98 coincided with well - above average precipitation across Southern California. While some measurements suggest the 2015 - 2016 El Niño was the strongest on record since 1950, Southern California received below average precipitation contrary to what the Climate Prediction Center predicted leading up to the winter months. While scientists have long agreed the intensity and timing of the winter precipitation pattern in Los Angeles is more complex than just analyzing the warm / cool phase of ENSO, the fact that Los Angeles received below average precipitation during the strong El Niño event of 2015 -- 2016 will be the subject of numerous research studies among climate scientists.
The Los Angeles Basin, composed of the coastal plain surrounded by mountains, is generally the coolest in summer and mildest in winter. Overall, it receives less rainfall than the surrounding valleys and mountains.
LAX airport and its surroundings (Westchester and El Segundo, as well as Santa Monica, Venice, and the immediately surrounding neighborhoods) are generally the coolest part of the region in the summer, as they receive a near - constant sea breeze. Santa Monica and its environs may be 10 to 15 ° F (6 to 8 ° C) cooler than areas only 5 miles (8.0 km) further inland. Under the Köppen climate classification LAX has a semi-arid climate due to its modest winter rainfall and mild mean temperatures.
Santa Monica has mean temperatures low enough for its precipitation numbers to still retain a cool - summer mediterranean climate (csb).
Culver City, Inglewood, Palms, and surrounding areas are only a few miles inland from Santa Monica and the beach, but reach temperatures up to 10 degrees (F) warmer on average in the summer. Culver City has a semi-arid climate that is still significantly moderated by the Pacific trade winds keeping averages mild compared to areas farther inland.
Long Beach, located in the coastal basin about 20 miles (30 km) to the south of downtown Los Angeles, has a coastally - influenced climate, but is not as cool as Santa Monica, or the Westside, or the South Bay during the summer. Long Beach sits on a south - facing section of coast, and does not receive as much sea breeze cooling from the prevailing westerly / south - westerly winds (as these winds may pass over the Palos Verdes Peninsula, San Pedro, and the twin ports first). Long Beach 's high temperature can compete with those of downtown Los Angeles. Locations further north in Long Beach, which stretches over 8.5 miles (13.7 km) northward from the water, can be considerably warmer than Long Beach 's coast and airport weather station.
The San Fernando Valley is known for significantly higher temperatures than the coastal basin. Canoga Park and Woodland Hills, in the south - west end of the valley, typically record the highest temperatures. The all - time high of 116 ° F (47 ° C) nearly rivals the record high temperatures of Phoenix, Arizona (122 ° F (50 ° C)) and Palm Springs (123 ° F (51 ° C)). The city of Burbank, at the eastern end of the Valley, is also known for being significantly hotter than downtown Los Angeles, which is only 9 miles (14 km) to the south. During winter both the Canoga Park and Burbank weather stations are significantly wetter than some coastal stations and thus retain hot - summer mediterranean climates (csa). By comparison, Canoga Park has quite cool summer nights, in contrast to many other interior Southern California areas.
The climate of Santa Ana, the county seat of Orange County, as well as Anaheim, both in north - central Orange County, are quite similar, and typical of locations on the coastal plain 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 km) inland from the beach. Whilst Santa Ana sits firmly on the border between the semi-arid and the hot - summer mediterranean climate, Anaheim is firmly a semi-arid climate with very low precipitation for the Los Angeles metropolitan area.
In downtown Los Angeles, weather records began on July 1, 1877. The highest temperature recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 113 ° F (45 ° C) on September 27, 2010. The lowest temperature was 28 ° F (− 2 ° C) on January 7, 1913 and on January 4, 1949. The wettest "rain year '' from July to the following June was 1883 / 1884 with 38.18 inches (969.8 mm), and the driest 2006 / 2007 with 3.21 inches (81.5 mm). The greatest rainfall in one month was 15.80 inches (401.3 mm) in December 1889, which also had the most days -- twenty -- receiving at least 0.01 inches (0.3 mm) of rain. The greatest rainfall in 24 hours was 5.68 inches (144.3 mm) on March 2, 1938.
At the Los Angeles International Airport, the highest recorded temperature was 110 ° F (43 ° C) on September 26, 1963. The lowest temperature was 27 ° F (− 3 ° C) on January 4, 1949. The wettest year was 1983 with 29.46 inches (748 mm) and the driest year was 1947 with 2.95 inches (74.9 mm). The greatest rainfall in one month was 13.79 inches (350 mm) in February 1998. The greatest rainfall in 24 hours was 5.60 inches (142.2 mm) on November 21, 1967.
In Long Beach, the highest recorded temperature was 111 ° F (44 ° C) on October 16, 1958, and October 15, 1961, and again on September 27, 2010. The lowest temperature was 21 ° F (− 6 ° C) on January 20, 1922. The wettest year was 1978 with 27.67 inches (703 mm). The driest year was 2002 with 2.63 inches (66.8 mm). The greatest rainfall in one month was 14.50 inches (368 mm) in January 1969, including a record 24 - hour rainfall of 6.71 inches (170.4 mm) on January 20 that month. The record snowfall was 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in January 1949.
The Santa Ana winds are strong, extremely dry offshore winds that characteristically sweep across Southern California and northern Baja California during late fall into winter season. They range from hot to cold, depending on the prevailing temperatures in the source region, the Great Basin and upper Mojave Desert. Nevertheless, the winds are notorious for causing hot, dry weather due to compressional heating of the lower atmosphere.
Notable Santa Ana windstorms happen several times a year between fall and spring. Once every several years a strong windstorm causes significant damage, toppling or uprooting large old trees and damaging structures across the region.
While overall precipitation is low, the rain that does fall occasionally comes in brief heavy storms. Combined with steep mountain slopes and recent burn areas from wildfires, these heavy rains often cause landslides and debris flows in foothill areas, damaging structures and blocking roads.
Textbook cumulonimbus - formed summer thunderstorms are fairly rare in Los Angeles, because the atmosphere over the coastal basin is generally too stable and dry, especially during summer, to allow the strong vertical development necessary for mature cumulonimbus clouds. Full, mature thunderstorms can develop in the surrounding deserts and mountains during the summer North American Monsoon, but rarely over the Los Angeles metropolitan region and coastal basin but the moisture is coming off on Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of California. This atmospheric stability is largely due to the cool and persistent marine layer, which is fueled by the constant influx of cold Pacific water via the California Current. Summer thunderstorms that do manage to form on the coastal basin are typically associated with the North American Monsoon and / or tropical cyclones, or downburst winds, which can bring enough tropical heat and moisture to overcome the cool marine layer, destabilizing the atmosphere.
Though still relatively rare, thunderstorms most often occur during warm southerly - flow winter rain storms. These warm storms are different from the typical northwesterly cold fronts that bring most of the region 's winter precipitation. Atmospheric instability caused by these warm winter storm systems allows the formation of small, weak, isolated thunderstorms, which tend to move across the area quickly, producing a few rumbles of thunder, and soon dissipate back into the larger rain storm system. Occasionally, these bring impressive displays of lightning, hail, and damaging winds to small localities within the region. Small, weak, isolated tornadoes can occur during these events, but are exceedingly rare. Likewise, weak - to - moderate - strength waterspouts may form over the ocean (typically off the stretch of coast between Long Beach and Huntington Beach) during warm winter storms, but again, this is very rare.
The average annual temperature of the sea is 63 ° F (17 ° C), from 58 ° F (14 ° C) in January to 68 ° F (20 ° C) in August.
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who is the first person that went to space | Yuri Gagarin - wikipedia
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (Russian: Ю́рий Алексе́евич Гага́рин, IPA: (ˈjʉrjɪj ɐljɪˈksjejɪvjɪtɕ ɡɐˈɡarjɪn); 9 March 1934 -- 27 March 1968) was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961.
Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, the nation 's highest honour. Vostok 1 marked his only spaceflight, but he served as backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission (which ended in a fatal crash). Gagarin later became deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre outside Moscow, which was later named after him. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG - 15 training jet he was piloting crashed. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale awards the Yuri A. Gagarin Gold Medal in his honor.
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino, near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death). His parents worked on a collective farm: Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and bricklayer, and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a milkmaid. Yuri was the third of four children: older brother Valentin, older sister Zoya, and younger brother Boris.
Like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during Nazi occupation in World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow, and an officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family was allowed to build a mud hut, approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside, on the land behind their house, where they spent a year and nine months until the end of the occupation. His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943, and did not return until after the war in 1945. In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.
In 1950, Gagarin entered into an apprenticeship at age 16 as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy Steel Plant near Moscow, and also enrolled at a local "young workers '' school for seventh grade evening classes. After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in moldmaking and foundry work, he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet at a local flying club, where he learned to fly -- at first in a biplane and later in a Yak - 18 trainer. He also earned extra money as a part - time dock laborer on the Volga River.
After he graduated from the technical school in 1955, the Soviet Army drafted Gagarin. On a recommendation, Gagarin was sent to the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot 's School in Orenburg, and soloed in a MiG - 15 in 1957. After graduation, he was assigned to the Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where terrible weather made flying risky. He became a Lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces on 5 November 1957; on 6 November 1959 he received the rank of Senior Lieutenant.
In 1960, after an extensive search and selection process, Gagarin was chosen with 19 other pilots for the Soviet space program. Gagarin was further selected for an elite training group known as the Sochi Six, from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. Gagarin and other prospective candidates were subjected to experiments designed to test physical and psychological endurance; he also underwent training for the upcoming flight. Out of the twenty selected, the eventual choices for the first launch were Gagarin and Gherman Titov due to their performance during training sessions as well as their physical characteristics -- space was limited in the small Vostok cockpit, and both men were rather short. Gagarin was 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in) tall.
In August 1960, when Gagarin was one of 20 possible candidates, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far - ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well - developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.
Gagarin was also a favoured candidate by his peers. When the 20 candidates were asked to anonymously vote for which other candidate they would like to see as the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin. One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused, and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.
Gagarin kept physically fit throughout his life, and was a keen sportsman. Cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky wrote:
Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force. I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper... I do n't think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts.
In addition to being a keen ice hockey player, Gagarin was also a basketball fan, and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.
On 12 April 1961, the Vostok 3KA - 3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft with Gagarin aboard was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Gagarin thus became both the first human to travel into space, and the first to orbit the Earth. His call sign was Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).
The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: "Preliminary stage... intermediate... main... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right. ''
Gagarin: "Поехали! '' (Poyekhali! -- Let 's go!).
Gagarin 's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age in human history.
In his post-flight report, Gagarin recalled his experience of spaceflight, having been the first human in space:
The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended.
Following the flight, Gagarin told the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that during reentry he had whistled the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows '' (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает ''). The first two lines of the song are: "The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows / Where her son flies in the sky ''. This patriotic song was written by Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Yevgeniy Dolmatovsky.
Some sources have claimed that Gagarin commented during the flight, "I do n't see any God up here. '' However, no such words appear in the verbatim record of his conversations with Earth - based stations during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview, Gagarin 's friend Colonel Valentin Petrov stated that the cosmonaut never said such words, and that the quote originated from Nikita Khrushchev 's speech at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU about the state 's anti-religion campaign, saying "Gagarin flew into space, but did n't see any god there. '' Petrov also said that Gagarin had been baptised into the Orthodox Church as a child, and a 2011 Foma magazine article quoted the rector of the Orthodox church in Star City saying, "Gagarin baptized his elder daughter Yelena shortly before his space flight; and his family used to celebrate Christmas and Easter and keep icons in the house. ''
Gagarin 's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program. The announcement on the Soviet radio was made by Yuri Levitan, the same speaker who announced all major events in the Great Patriotic War. Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to World War II Victory Parades. Gagarin was escorted in a long motorcade of high - ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, he was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, by Nikita Khrushchev.
Later on, Gagarin toured widely abroad. He visited Italy, Germany, Canada, Brazil, Japan, Egypt and Finland to promote the Soviet Union 's accomplishment of putting the first human in space. He visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.
The sudden rise to fame took its toll on Gagarin. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker '', his touring schedule placed him in social situations where he was always expected to drink. Gagarin was also reportedly caught by his wife in a room with another woman, a nurse named Anna who had aided him after a boating incident earlier in the day, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961. He attempted to escape by leaving through a window and jumping off her second floor balcony, hitting his face on a kerbstone and leaving a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.
In 1962, he began serving as a Deputy to the Soviet of the Union, and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963. Soviet officials tried to keep him away from any flights, being worried of losing their hero in an accident. Gagarin was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov in the Soyuz 1 flight, which was launched despite Gagarin 's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary. When Komarov 's flight ended in a fatal crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.
On 20 December 1963, Gagarin had become Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base. Two years later he was re-elected as a deputy to the SSSU, but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities. Next year he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot. On 17 February 1968 he successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration, passing with flying colors.
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, he and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG - 15UTI crash near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and the ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin on Red Square.
Gagarin was survived by his wife Valentina, a graduate of the Orenburg medical school; and two daughters, Yelena (born 1959) and Galina (born 1961).
The cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is not entirely certain, and has been subject to speculation about conspiracy theories over the ensuing decades.
Soviet documents declassified in March 2003 showed that the KGB had conducted their own investigation of the accident, in addition to one government and two military investigations. The KGB 's report dismissed various conspiracy theories, instead indicating that the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information, and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin 's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded that Gagarin 's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out - of - date weather report, the crew believed their altitude to be higher than it actually was, and could not react properly to bring the MiG - 15 out of its spin.
Another theory, advanced by the original crash investigator in 2005, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft. A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said that they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.
In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. Those documents revealed that the commission 's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had maneuvered sharply either to avoid a weather balloon, leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions, '' or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover ''.
In his 2004 book Two Sides of the Moon, Alexey Leonov, who was part of a State Commission established to investigate the death in 1968, recounts that he was flying a helicopter in the same area that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance. '' Corroborating other theories, his conclusion is that a Sukhoi jet (which he identifies as a Su - 15 ' Flagon ') was flying below its minimum allowed altitude, and "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin 's plane while breaking the sound barrier. '' The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov believes the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin 's plane crashing. In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said that a declassified report on the incident revealed the presence of a second, "unauthorized '' Su - 15 flying in the area. Leonov states that this aircraft had descended to 450 metres (1,480 ft) and that, while running afterburners, "the aircraft reduced its echelon at a distance of 10 -- 15 meters in the clouds, passing close to Gagarin, turning his plane and thus sending it into a tailspin -- a deep spiral, to be precise -- at a speed of 750 kilometers per hour. '' As a condition of being allowed to discuss the report, however, Leonov was required to not disclose the name of the other pilot, who was reported to be 80 years old (as of 2013) and in poor health.
In 1957, while at the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot 's School in Orenburg, Gagarin met Valentina Ivanovna Goryacheva, a medical technician graduate of the Orenburg Medical School. They were married on 7 November 1957, the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they have two daughters.
Yelena Yurievna Gagarina is an art historian who has worked as the Director - General of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001.
Galina Yurievna Gagarina is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.
Aside from his short stature at 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in), one of Gagarin 's most notable traits was his smile. Many commented on how Gagarin 's smile gained the attention of crowds on the frequent tours he did in the months after the Vostok 1 mission success.
Gagarin also garnered a reputation as an adept public figure. When he visited Manchester in the United Kingdom, it was pouring rain. However, Gagarin insisted that the convertible top remain down so that the cheering crowds could catch a glimpse of him. Gagarin stated, "If all these people have turned out to welcome me and can stand in the rain, so can I. '' Gagarin refused an umbrella and remained standing in his open - top Bentley so that the cheering crowds could still see him.
Sergei Korolev, one of the masterminds behind the early years of the Soviet space program, later said that Gagarin possessed a smile "that lit up the darkness of the Cold War ''.
12 April, the date of Gagarin 's space flight, has been commemorated as a special date. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and later in Russia and other post-Soviet states as the Cosmonautics Day. In 2011 it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.
Since 2001, Yuri 's Night, an international celebration, is held every 12 April to commemorate milestones in space exploration.
A number of buildings and other sites on Earth have been named for Gagarin. The Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City was named in 1969. The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched, is now known as Gagarin 's Start. Gagarin Raion in the Sevastopol city (Ukraine) was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.
Gagarin has been honored on the Moon by both astronauts and astronomers. He was honored by the American space program during Apollo 11 in 1969 when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the surface. In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the Fallen Astronaut at their landing site as a memorial to all the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race, with Yuri Gagarin listed among 14 others. He is memorialized by the official naming of a 265 km crater on the Far Side after him.
Gagarin is memorialized in music, including a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Alexandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970 -- 1971. The most famous of these songs referred to Gagarin 's poyekhali!: He said "let 's go! '' He waved his hand. He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin '' by Jean Michel Jarre (on Métamorphoses), "Gagarin '' by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you '' by Undervud.
Vessels have been named for him. Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971. Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in Gagarin 's honour in 2011.
There were two commemorative coins issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: 1 ruble coin (1981, copper - nickel) and 3 ruble coin (1991, silver). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin 's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia: 2 ruble coin (copper - nickel), 3 ruble coin (silver), 10 ruble coin (brass - copper, nickel), and 100 ruble coin (silver). In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000 ruble coin (gold) and 3 ruble coin (silver) to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup. In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the # 6 most popular space hero, tied with Star Trek 's fictional Capt. James T. Kirk. The Russian docudrama, Gagarin: First in Space, was released in 2013.
Several statues have been erected in his honor.
On 4 June 1980, a monument to Gagarin was opened on Gagarin Square in Leninsky Avenue, Moscow. The monument is 42.4 m tall and constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used by Gagarin.
In 2011 a statue, Yuri Gagarin, was unveiled at the Admiralty Arch end of The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin 's former school in Lyubertsy. In 2013 the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory in Greenwich.
In 2012 a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA 's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture, completed in 2011 by artist / cosmonaut Alexsei Leonov, was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.
In April 2018 a bust of Gagarin, erected on the street which bears his name in the Serbian capital Belgrade, was removed, after less than week, following an outcry over the size of its head. Locals said that the tribute, was an "insult '' to Gagarin. A new work will be commissioned. It was revealed that the city had had no prior knowledge of the design, and neither had the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation which had financed it.
Apart from these, Gagarin has also statues and monuments for example in Karaganda, Orenburg, Izhevsk, Gagarin - Smolensk Oblast, Yoshkar - Ola, Cheboksary, Druzhkivka, Tiraspol, Irkutsk, Komsomolsk - on - Amur and Nicosia.
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin 's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining the original flight audio with footage of the route taken by Gagarin. The Russian, American, and Italian Expedition 27 crew aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri 's Night '', wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.
Swiss - based German watchmaker Bernhard Lederer created a limited edition of 50 Gagarin Tourbillons to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin 's flight.
The launch of Soyuz TMA - 21 on 4 April 2011 was devoted to the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
and others.
Yuri Gagarin was elected an honorary citizen of the following cities:
He was also awarded the golden keys to the gates of the Egyptian cities Cairo and Alexandria.
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different types of handguns with names and pictures | List of pistols - wikipedia
This is a list of pistols. The table is sortable.
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what will be the last season of game of thrones | Game of Thrones (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones was announced by HBO in July 2016. Unlike the first six seasons that each had ten episodes and the seventh that had seven episodes, the eighth season will have only six episodes. Like the previous season, it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, and will instead adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring.
The season will be adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. Filming officially began on October 23, 2017. The season is scheduled to premiere in 2019.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss will serve as showrunners for the eighth season. The directors for the eighth season were announced in September 2017. Miguel Sapochnik, who previously directed "The Gift '' and "Hardhome '' on season 5, as well as "Battle of the Bastards '' and "The Winds of Winter '' on season 6 will return as director. He will divide up direction of the first five episodes with David Nutter, who had directed two episodes on seasons two, three and five. The final episode of the show will be directed by Benioff and Weiss, who have previously directed one episode each.
At the show 's South by Southwest panel on March 12, 2017, Benioff and Weiss announced the writers for the show to be Dave Hill (episode 1) and Bryan Cogman (episode 2). The showrunners will then divide up the screenplay for the remaining four episodes amongst themselves.
Writing for the eighth season started with a 140 - page outline. Benioff said that the divvying up process and who should write what section became more difficult, being that "this would be the last time that we would be doing this ''.
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, HBO programming president Casey Bloys stated that instead of the series finale being a feature film, the final season would be "six one - hour movies '' on television. He continued, "The show has proven that TV is every bit as impressive and in many cases more so, than film. What they 're doing is monumental. '' Filming officially began on October 23, 2017.
Co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have said that the seventh and eighth season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating that after season six, they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said, "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed in July 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Benioff and Weiss later confirmed that the eighth season will consist of six episodes, and is expected to premiere later than usual for the same reason.
Benioff and Weiss spoke about the end of the show, saying, "From the beginning we 've wanted to tell a 70 - hour movie. It will turn out to be a 73 - hour movie, but it 's stayed relatively the same of having the beginning, middle and now we 're coming to the end. It would have been really tough if we lost any core cast members along the way, I 'm very happy we 've kept everyone and we get to finish it the way we want to. '' The season is set to air in 2019.
Ramin Djawadi is set to return as the composer of the show for the eighth season.
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who was the military officer in charge of the research and development of the atomic bomb | Manhattan Project - wikipedia
The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys. The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion (about $22 billion in 2016 dollars). Over 90 % of the cost was for building factories and to produce fissile material, with less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada.
Two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple gun - type fission weapon and a more complex implosion - type nuclear weapon. The Thin Man gun - type design proved impractical to use with plutonium, and therefore a simpler gun - type called Little Boy was developed that used uranium - 235, an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium - 238, and with almost the same mass, it proved difficult to separate the two. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world 's first artificial nuclear reactor was demonstrated in Chicago at the Metallurgical Laboratory, it designed the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the production reactors in Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion - type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory.
The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project 's tight security, Soviet atomic spies successfully penetrated the program.
The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion - type bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico 's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of national laboratories, supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947.
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian - born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein -- Szilárd letter, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type ''. It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner and Edward Teller. The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. ''
The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940. Briggs proposed spending $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium - 235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium. On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), with Vannevar Bush as its director. The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research. The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S - 1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium '' was dropped for security reasons.
In Britain, Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium - 235 in June 1939. Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of 10 kilograms (22 lb), which was small enough to be carried by a bomber of the day. Their March 1940 Frisch -- Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee, which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb. In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research, and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as far advanced.
As part of the scientific exchange, the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States. One of its members, the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the Maud Committee had not reached key American physicists. Oliphant then set out to find out why the committee 's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited Berkeley, California, where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to James B. Conant, Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram. Oliphant 's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb.
On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President Henry A. Wallace. To control the program, he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself -- although he never attended a meeting -- Wallace, Bush, Conant, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George C. Marshall. Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with management of large - scale construction projects. He also agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British, and on 11 October he sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters.
The S - 1 Committee held its meeting on 18 December 1941 "pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency '' in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent United States declaration of war upon Japan and then on Germany. Work was proceeding on three different techniques for isotope separation to separate uranium - 235 from the more abundant uranium - 238. Lawrence and his team at the University of California, Berkeley, investigated electromagnetic separation, while Eger Murphree and Jesse Wakefield Beams 's team looked into gaseous diffusion at Columbia University, and Philip Abelson directed research into thermal diffusion at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and later the Naval Research Laboratory. Murphree was also the head of an unsuccessful separation project using gas centrifuges.
Meanwhile, there were two lines of research into nuclear reactor technology, with Harold Urey continuing research into heavy water at Columbia, while Arthur Compton brought the scientists working under his supervision from Columbia, California and Princeton University to join his team at the University of Chicago, where he organized the Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using graphite as a neutron moderator. Briggs, Compton, Lawrence, Murphree, and Urey met on 23 May 1942 to finalize the S - 1 Committee recommendations, which called for all five technologies to be pursued. This was approved by Bush, Conant, and Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer, the chief of staff of Major General Brehon B. Somervell 's Services of Supply, who had been designated the Army 's representative on nuclear matters. Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $54 million for construction by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, $31 million for research and development by OSRD and $5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943. The Top Policy Group in turn sent it to the President on 17 June 1942 and he approved it by writing "OK FDR '' on the document.
Compton asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California, Berkeley, to take over research into fast neutron calculations -- the key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation -- from Gregory Breit, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security. John H. Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by contacting and coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country. Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois examined the problems of neutron diffusion -- how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction -- and hydrodynamics -- how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave. To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California, Berkeley, in July 1942 with theoretical physicists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stan Frankel, and Eldred C. Nelson, the latter three former students of Oppenheimer, and experimental physicists Emilio Segrè, Felix Bloch, Franco Rasetti, John Henry Manley, and Edwin McMillan. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible.
There were still many unknown factors. The properties of pure uranium - 235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, an element that had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team. The scientists at the Berkeley conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium - 238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium - 235 atoms. At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were available from cyclotrons. Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced. There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug '' into a sphere of "active material '' with a "tamper '' -- dense material that would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive form of "implosion '' suggested by Richard C. Tolman, and the possibility of autocatalytic methods, which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.
Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled -- at least until more experimental data was available -- the Berkeley conference then turned in a different direction. Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "super '', now usually referred to as a "hydrogen bomb '', which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium. Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite '' the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei. Bethe calculated that it could not happen, and a report co-authored by Teller showed that "no self - propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started. '' In Serber 's account, Oppenheimer mentioned the possibility of this scenario to Arthur Compton, who "did n't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington '' and was "never laid to rest ''.
The Chief of Engineers, Major General Eugene Reybold, selected Colonel James C. Marshall to head the Army 's part of the project in June 1942. Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D.C., but established his temporary headquarters on the 18th floor of 270 Broadway in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers ' North Atlantic Division. It was close to the Manhattan office of Stone & Webster, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University. He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols, who became his deputy.
Because most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General Thomas M. Robbins, and his deputy, Colonel Leslie Groves. Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project "Development of Substitute Materials '', but Groves felt that this would draw attention. Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army 's component of the project the Manhattan District. This became official on 13 August, when Reybold issued the order creating the new district. Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED. Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer. Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole, but was supplanted over time by "Manhattan ''.
Marshall later conceded that, "I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $90 million. '' A single TNT plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $128 million. Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests. A survey team from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants. The War Production Board recommended sites around Knoxville, Tennessee, an isolated area where the Tennessee Valley Authority could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors. After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near Elza, Tennessee. Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant 's reactor experiments before taking action. Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence 's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence.
Marshall and Nichols began assembling the resources they would need. The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project. The top ratings were AA - 1 through AA - 4 in descending order, although there was also a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies. Ratings AA - 1 and AA - 2 were for essential weapons and equipment, so Colonel Lucius D. Clay, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA - 3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose. Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA - 3 was the same priority as Nichols ' TNT plant in Pennsylvania.
Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall 's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously, specifically the failure to acquire the Tennessee site, the low priority allocated to the project by the Army and the location of his headquarters in New York City. Bush felt that more aggressive leadership was required, and spoke to Harvey Bundy and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns. He wanted the project placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as overall director.
Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post, informing him on 17 September of this decision, and that General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general, as it was felt that the title "general '' would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project. Groves ' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves. Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D.C., on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office. He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September. Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell. Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves ' scientific advisers.
On 19 September, Groves went to Donald Nelson, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required. Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President. Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary. It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA - 3 rating was too low. After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA - 1 authority on 1 July 1944. According to Groves, "In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority. Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority. That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority ''.
One of Groves ' early problems was to find a director for Project Y, the group that would design and build the bomb. The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared. Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. There were also concerns about Oppenheimer 's security status, as many of his associates were Communists, including his brother, Frank Oppenheimer; his wife, Kitty; and his girlfriend, Jean Tatlock. A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director. Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943.
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts. Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in 1941 to strengthen cooperation with its own project, codenamed Tube Alloys, because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo - American project was poorly treated, and Churchill did not reply to the letter. The United States as a result decided as early as April 1942 that if its offer was rejected, they should proceed alone. The British, who had made significant contributions early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program while fighting for their survival. As a result, Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. and on 30 July 1942, Sir John Anderson, the minister responsible for Tube Alloys, advised Churchill that: "We must face the fact that... (our) pioneering work... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger. ' Soon we shall have little or none. '' That month Churchill and Roosevelt made an informal, unwritten agreement for atomic collaboration.
The opportunity for an equal partnership no longer existed, however, as shown in August 1942 when the British unsuccessfully demanded substantial control over the project while paying none of the costs. By 1943 the roles of the two countries had reversed from late 1941; in January Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas. While the British were shocked by the abrogation of the Churchill - Roosevelt agreement, head of the Canadian National Research Council C.J. Mackenzie was less surprised, writing "I ca n't help feeling that the United Kingdom group (over) emphasizes the importance of their contribution as compared with the Americans. '' As Conant and Bush told the British, the order came "from the top ''.
The British bargaining position had worsened; the American scientists had decided that the United States no longer needed outside help, and they wanted to prevent Britain exploiting post-war commercial applications of atomic energy. The committee supported, and Roosevelt agreed to, restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war -- especially not bomb design -- even if doing so slowed down the American project. By early 1943 the British stopped sending research and scientists to America, and as a result the Americans stopped all information sharing. The British considered ending the supply of Canadian uranium and heavy water to force the Americans to again share, but Canada needed American supplies to produce them. They investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program, but determined that it could not be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe.
By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project. James Chadwick and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which resulted in a resumption of cooperation between scientists working on the same problem. Britain, however, agreed to restrictions on data on the building of large - scale production plants necessary for the bomb. The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement in September 1944 extended this cooperation to the postwar period. The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Stimson, Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee, Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J.J. Llewellin were the British members, and C.D. Howe was the Canadian member. Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States, Lord Halifax, in early 1945. Sir John Dill died in Washington, D.C., in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson.
When cooperation resumed after the Quebec agreement, the Americans ' progress and expenditures amazed the British. The United States had already spent more than $1 billion ($11,400,000,000 today), while in 1943, the United Kingdom had spent about £ 0.5 million. Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandon any hopes of a British project during the war. With Churchill 's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls, and Ernest Titterton. More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the 35 working with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and stayed until the end of the war. The 19 sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium - related ones. Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee.
The Combined Policy Committee created the Combined Development Trust in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets. The Belgian Congo and Canada held much of the world 's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the Belgian government in exile was in London. Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research. In 1944, the Trust purchased 3,440,000 pounds (1,560,000 kg) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo. In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project, a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies. Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $37.5 million into the Trust 's account.
Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project, but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them. He also said that Churchill was "the best friend the atomic bomb project had (as) he kept Roosevelt 's interest up... He just stirred him up all the time by telling him how important he thought the project was. ''
The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom 's independent nuclear weapons program after the war when the McMahon Act of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation.
The day after he took over the project, Groves took a train to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed. On 29 September 1942, United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land by eminent domain at a cost of $3.5 million. An additional 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the condemnation order, which came into effect on 7 October. Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail. By mid-November U.S. Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in. Some families were given two weeks ' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations; others had settled there after being evicted to make way for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s or the Norris Dam in the 1930s. The ultimate cost of land acquisition in the area, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $2.6 million, which worked out to around $47 an acre. When presented with Public Proclamation Number Two, which declared Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the Governor of Tennessee, Prentice Cooper, angrily tore it up.
Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) in early 1943. While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed and built a residential community for 13,000. The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name. The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change. In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary, the Roane - Anderson Company (for Roane and Anderson Counties, in which Oak Ridge was located). Chemical engineers, including William J. Wilcox Jr. and Warren Fuchs, were part of "frantic efforts '' to make 10 % to 12 % enriched uranium 235, known as the code name "tuballoy tetroxide '', with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials. The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000 in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works, and 10,000 by Roane - Anderson.
Fine - arts photographer, Josephine Herrick, and her colleague, Mary Steers, helped document the work at Oak Ridge.
The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but in the end it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer 's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch. In October 1942, Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan Project was sent to survey the area, and he recommended a site near Jemez Springs, New Mexico. On 16 November, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic, while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding. The party then moved on to the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School. Oppenheimer was impressed and expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty and views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, which, it was hoped, would inspire those who would work on the project. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal.
Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $440,000 for the purchase of the site of 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government. Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted use of some 45,100 acres (18,300 ha) of United States Forest Service land to the War Department "for so long as the military necessity continues ''. The need for land, for a new road, and later for a right of way for a 25 - mile (40 km) power line, eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45,737 acres (18,509.1 ha), but only $414,971 was spent. Construction was contracted to the M.M. Sundt Company of Tucson, Arizona, with Willard C. Kruger and Associates of Santa Fe, New Mexico, as architect and engineer. Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer 's estimate, with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943. It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was greater than expected, and by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $7 million had been spent.
Because it was secret, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y '' or "the Hill ''. Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe. Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army. Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel 's uniform, but two key physicists, Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi, balked at the idea. Conant, Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.
An Army - OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a pilot plant for plutonium production in Red Gate Woods southwest of Chicago. In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of 1,025 acres (415 ha) from the Cook County Forest Preserve District, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer. It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the plant at Oak Ridge, and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago.
Delays in establishing the plant in Red Gate Woods led Compton to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. The reactor required an enormous amount of graphite blocks and uranium pellets. At the time, there was a limited source of pure uranium. Frank Spedding of Iowa State University were able to produce only two short tons of pure uranium. Additional three short tons of uranium metal was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant which was produced in a rush with makeshift process. A large square balloon was constructed by Goodyear Tire to encase the reactor. On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self - sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as Chicago Pile - 1. The point at which a reaction becomes self - sustaining became known as "going critical ''. Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D.C., by a coded phone call, saying, "The Italian navigator (Fermi) has just landed in the new world. ''
In January 1943, Grafton 's successor, Major Arthur V. Peterson, ordered Chicago Pile - 1 dismantled and reassembled at Red Gate Woods, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area. At the Argonne site, Chicago Pile - 3, the first heavy water reactor, went critical on 15 May 1944. After the war, the operations that remained at Red Gate moved to the new site of the Argonne National Laboratory about 6 miles (9.7 km) away.
By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. Groves recruited DuPont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. DuPont was offered a standard cost plus fixed - fee contract, but the President of the company, Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., wanted no profit of any kind, and asked for the proposed contract to be amended to explicitly exclude the company from acquiring any patent rights. This was accepted, but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon. After the war, DuPont asked to be released from the contract early, and had to return 33 cents.
DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge. In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel Franklin Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was "ideal in virtually all respects ''. It was isolated and near the Columbia River, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors that would produce the plutonium. Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed "Site W ''.
Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $5 million for the acquisition of 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) of land in the area. The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of White Bluffs and Hanford, and nearby settlements, as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area. A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted before the land was acquired. Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible. The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946.
The dispute did not delay work. Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live on - site. By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp. As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site. At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state. Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago. Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences, towers, and guard dogs were less evident.
Cominco had produced electrolytic hydrogen at Trail, British Columbia, since 1930. Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water. To the existing $10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3 % to 99.8 %. For this process, Hugh Taylor of Princeton developed a platinum - on - carbon catalyst for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel - chromia one for the fourth stage tower. The final cost was $2.8 million. The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942. Trail 's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. Heavy water from Trail was used for Chicago Pile 3, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944.
The Chalk River, Ontario, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area. A new community was built at Deep River, Ontario, to provide residences and facilities for the team members. The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. The first director of the new laboratory was Hans von Halban. He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who in turn was succeeded by Bennett Lewis in September 1946. A pilot reactor known as ZEEP (zero - energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945, ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970. A larger 10 MW NRX reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947.
The Eldorado Mine at Port Radium was a source of uranium ore.
Although DuPont 's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup, in case the graphite reactor design proved infeasible for some reason. For this purpose, it was estimated that 3 long tons (3.0 t) of heavy water would be required per month. The P - 9 Project was the government 's code name for the heavy water production program. As the plant at Trail, which was then under construction, could produce 0.5 long tons (0.51 t) per month, additional capacity was required. Groves therefore authorized DuPont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near Morgantown, West Virginia; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and Newport, Indiana; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near Childersburg and Sylacauga, Alabama. Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under Ordnance Department contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The American plants used a process different from Trail 's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water.
The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in Joachimsthal in Czechoslovakia, and in the Belgian Congo. All but Joachimstal were in allied hands. A November 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project 's requirements. Nichols arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated for the purchase of 1,200 long tons (1,200 t) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo. He negotiated with Eldorado Gold Mines for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario, and its shipment in 100 - ton lots. The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company 's stock until it acquired a controlling interest.
While these purchases assured a sufficient supply to meet wartime needs, the American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries ' interest to gain control of as much of the world 's uranium deposits as possible. The richest source of ore was the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo, but it was flooded and closed. Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with Edgar Sengier, the director of the company that owned the mine, Union Minière du Haut Katanga. The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee. As 30 percent of Union Minière 's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations. Sir John Anderson and Ambassador John Winant hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1,720 long tons (1,750 t) of ore to be purchased at $1.45 a pound. To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation 's stockpile in Uravan, Colorado. Uranium mining in Colorado yielded about 800 long tons (810 t) of ore.
Mallinckrodt Incorporated in St. Louis, Missouri, took the raw ore and dissolved it in nitric acid to produce uranyl nitrate. Ether was then added in a liquid -- liquid extraction process to separate the impurities from the uranyl nitrate. This was then heated to form uranium trioxide, which was reduced to highly pure uranium dioxide. By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult for contractors Westinghouse and Metal Hydrides. Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low. A special branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives. This became known as the Ames Project, and its Ames process became available in 1943.
Natural uranium consists of 99.3 % uranium - 238 and 0.7 % uranium - 235, but only the latter is fissile. The chemically identical uranium - 235 has to be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope. Various methods were considered for uranium enrichment, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge.
The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project. In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others.
The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942. Jesse Beams had developed such a process at the University of Virginia during the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. The process required high rotational speeds, but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart. It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds. In 1941 he began working with uranium hexafluoride, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium - 235. At Columbia, Urey had Karl Cohen investigate the process, and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct.
Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium - 235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with 1 - meter (3 ft 3 in) rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with 4 - meter (13 ft) rotors, assuming that 4 - meter rotors could be built. The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting, and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60 % of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges would be required. Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase the efficiency of the process. However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant. In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee following a recommendation by Conant, Nichols and August C. Klein of Stone & Webster.
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. This method employed devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron. The name was derived from the words California, university and cyclotron. In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass. The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient. Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity.
Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of copper, which was in desperately short supply. However, silver could be substituted, in an 11: 10 ratio. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository. "Young man, '' Bell told him, "you may think of silver in tons but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces! '' Eventually, 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) were used.
The 1,000 - troy - ounce (31 kg) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets and taken to Phelps Dodge in Bayway, New Jersey, where they were extruded into strips 0.625 inches (15.9 mm) thick, 3 inches (76 mm) wide and 40 feet (12 m) long. These were wound onto magnetic coils by Allis - Chalmers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After the war, all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver. In the end, only 1 / 3,600,000 th was lost. The last silver was returned in May 1970.
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called Y - 12, was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S - 1 Committee in June 1942. The design called for five first - stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II. Construction began in February 1943.
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in October, the 14 - ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets, and had to be fastened more securely. A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out. In December Groves ordered a magnet to be broken open, and handfuls of rust were found inside. Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned. A pickling plant was established on - site to clean the pipes and fittings. The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April. The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944.
Tennessee Eastman was contracted to manage Y - 12 on the usual cost plus fixed - fee basis, with a fee of $22,500 per month plus $7,500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $4,000 per additional racetrack. The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate. They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education. Nichols compared unit production data, and pointed out to Lawrence that the young "hillbilly '' girl operators were outperforming his PhDs. They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost, a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors. The girls were "trained like soldiers not to reason why '', while "the scientists could not refrain from time - consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials. ''
Y - 12 initially enriched the uranium - 235 content to between 13 % and 15 %, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product. Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 % of the uranium - 235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4 %) feed from the new S - 50 thermal diffusion plant. The next month it received enhanced (5 %) feed from the K - 25 gaseous diffusion plant. By August K - 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion. Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules, while the residual gas is somewhat depleted. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, Karl P. Cohen, and John R. Dunning.
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 - stage gaseous diffusion plant. On 14 December, M.W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K - 25. A cost plus fixed - fee contract was negotiated, eventually totaling $2.5 million. A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project, headed by Percival C. Keith, one of Kellogg 's vice presidents. The process faced formidable technical difficulties. The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride would have to be used, as no substitute could be found, and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas. The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which would have to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride. The best choice for this seemed to be nickel. Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel. A six - stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the Norris - Adler prototype proved to be too brittle. A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation. In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production.
Kellex 's design for K - 25 called for a four - story 0.5 - mile (0.80 km) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings. These were divided into nine sections. Within these were cells of six stages. The cells could be operated independently, or consecutively within a section. Similarly, the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade. A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 - acre (2.0 km) site in May 1943. Work on the main building began in October 1943, and the six - stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944. In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 - stage side feed unit, which became known as K - 27. Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor, Union Carbide and Carbon, on 11 September 1945. The total cost, including the K - 27 plant completed after the war, came to $480 million.
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K - 25 had attained a 1.1 % enrichment and the output of the S - 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed. Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 % enrichment. In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation. K - 25 and K - 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end. Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall, this can be used as a means of isotope separation. This process was first demonstrated by Klaus Clusius and Gerhard Dickel in Germany in 1938. It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project. This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part.
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when Captain William S. Parsons, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion. Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y - 12. Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis, Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea, and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $3.5 million could enrich 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium per week to nearly 0.9 % uranium - 235. Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944.
Groves contracted with the H.K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S - 50. Groves 's advisers, Karl Cohen and W.I. Thompson from Standard Oil, estimated that it would take six months to build. Groves gave Ferguson just four. Plans called for the installation of 2,142 48 - foot - tall (15 m) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks. Inside each column were three concentric tubes. Steam, obtained from the nearby K - 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 1,000 pounds per square inch (6,900 kPa) and temperature of 545 ° F (285 ° C), flowed downward through the innermost 1.25 - inch (32 mm) nickel pipe, while water at 155 ° F (68 ° C) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe. Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes.
Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S - 50 began partial operation in September. Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve. The plant produced just 10.5 pounds (4.8 kg) of 0.852 % uranium - 235 in October. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 it produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg). By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S - 50 was fed into Y - 12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S - 50 became the first stage, enriching from 0.71 % to 0.89 %. This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K - 25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23 %. This was, in turn, fed into Y - 12, which boosted it to about 89 %, sufficient for nuclear weapons.
About 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium enriched to 89 % uranium - 235 was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945. The entire 50 kg, along with some 50 % - enriched, averaging out to about 85 % enriched, were used in Little Boy.
The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used the fissile element plutonium. Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities of the element is in a nuclear reactor, in which natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons. The uranium - 238 is transmuted into uranium - 239, which rapidly decays, first into neptunium - 239 and then into plutonium - 239. Only a small amount of the uranium - 238 will be transformed, so the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from fission products.
In March 1943, DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112 - acre (0.5 km) site at Oak Ridge. Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air - cooled X-10 Graphite Reactor, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water - cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot. The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, 24 feet (7.3 m) long on each side, weighing around 1,500 long tons (1,500 t), surrounded by 7 feet (2.1 m) of high - density concrete as a radiation shield.
The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides. These somehow had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a hot dipping process without success. Meanwhile, Alcoa tried canning. A new process for flux-less welding was developed, and 97 % of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50 %. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of General Electric, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943.
Watched by Fermi and Compton, the X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 long tons (30 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 long tons (37 t), raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 milligrams (0.018 oz) of plutonium was created. Modifications over time raised the power to 4,000 kW in July 1944. X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research activities.
Although an air - cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, it was recognized that this would be impractical for the much larger production reactors. Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water - cooled reactor would be simpler, cheaper and quicker to build. The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines.
As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944. They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and aluminum - silicon alloy, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere. Finally, they were subjected to a series of tests to detect holes or faulty welds. Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful of canned slugs per day. But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs would be available to start Reactor B on schedule in August 1944.
Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943. The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites chosen to be developed first, as this maximised the distance between the reactors. They would be the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project. Some 390 long tons (400 t) of steel, 17,400 cubic yards (13,300 m) of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120 - foot (37 m) high building.
Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944. Watched by Compton, Matthias, DuPont 's Crawford Greenewalt, Leona Woods and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944. Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical. Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production. At first all appeared well but around 03: 00 the power level started to drop and by 06: 30 the reactor had shut down completely. The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination. The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once more.
Fermi contacted Chien - Shiung Wu, who identified the cause of the problem as neutron poisoning from xenon - 135, which has a half - life of 9.2 hours. Fermi, Woods, Donald J. Hughes and John Archibald Wheeler then calculated the nuclear cross section of xenon - 135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium. Fortunately, DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory 's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners. The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium. Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945.
Meanwhile, the chemists considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a lanthanum fluoride process for separating uranium and plutonium, which was chosen for the pilot separation plant. A second separation process, the bismuth phosphate process, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson. This process worked by toggling plutonium between its + 4 and + 6 oxidation states in solutions of bismuth phosphate. In the former state, the plutonium was precipitated; in the latter, it stayed in solution and the other products were precipitated.
Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants. Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test. The first batch was processed at 40 % efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90 %.
At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area. This contained buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation. One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor. Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials.
Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200 - West and 200 - East. This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200 - West and one, the B plant, at 200 - East. Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or "canyon '' (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213). The canyons were each 800 feet (240 m) long and 65 feet (20 m) wide. Each consisted of forty 17.7 - by - 13 - by - 20 - foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m) cells.
Work began on 221 - T and 221 - U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December. The 221 - B building followed in March 1945. Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, all work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed - circuit television, something unheard of in 1943. Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools. The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive. The 224 - T and 224 - U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224 - B followed on 10 February 1945. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231 - W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year. On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand - delivered the first shipment of 80 grams (2.6 ozt) of 95 % - pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles.
In 1943, development efforts were directed to a gun - type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron - generated plutonium - 239, which was extremely pure, but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor - bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium - 240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium. Seaborg had correctly predicted in March 1943 that some of the plutonium - 239 would absorb a neutron and become plutonium - 240.
This made reactor plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun - type weapon. The plutonium - 240 would start the chain reaction too quickly, causing a predetonation that would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with a minimal amount of plutonium reacted (a fizzle). A faster gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was considered and rejected, as plutonium - 240 is even harder to separate from plutonium - 239 than uranium - 235 from uranium - 238.
Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist Seth Neddermeyer. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, and the mass becomes a critical mass. The metal needs to travel only a very short distance, so the critical mass is assembled in much less time than it would take with the gun method. Neddermeyer 's 1943 and early 1944 investigations into implosion showed promise, but also made it clear that the problem would be much more difficult from a theoretical and engineering perspective than the gun design. In September 1943, John von Neumann, who had experience with shaped charges used in armor - piercing shells, argued that not only would implosion reduce the danger of predetonation and fizzle, but would make more efficient use of the fissionable material. He proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on.
By July 1944, Oppenheimer had concluded plutonium could not be used in a gun design, and opted for implosion. The accelerated effort on an implosion design, codenamed Fat Man, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert George Kistiakowsky and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher. The new design that von Neumann and T (for theoretical) Division, most notably Rudolf Peierls, had devised used explosive lenses to focus the explosion onto a spherical shape using a combination of both slow and fast high explosives.
The design of lenses that detonated with the proper shape and velocity turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating. Various explosives were tested before settling on composition B as the fast explosive and baratol as the slow explosive. The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical detonators, of which there were two for each lens for reliability. It was therefore decided to use exploding - bridgewire detonators, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by Luis Alvarez. A contract for their manufacture was given to Raytheon.
To study the behavior of converging shock waves, Robert Serber devised the RaLa Experiment, which used the short - lived radioisotope lanthanum - 140, a potent source of gamma radiation. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an ionization chamber. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests. In his history of the Los Alamos project, David Hawkins wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design ''.
Within the explosives was the 4.5 - inch (110 mm) thick aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer, the 3 - inch (76 mm) thick tamper of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core. Some part of it might fission as well. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron. A polonium - beryllium modulated neutron initiator, known as an "urchin '' because its shape resembled a sea urchin, was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment. This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project. Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver. The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak.
The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 ° C to 450 ° C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium - gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.
The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the experienced chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element appeared in their urine. A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP - site. The hemispheres for the first plutonium pit (or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later.
Because of the complexity of an implosion - style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. Groves approved the test, subject to the active material being recovered. Consideration was therefore given to a controlled fizzle, but Oppenheimer opted instead for a full - scale nuclear test, codenamed "Trinity ''.
In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge, a professor of physics at Harvard, working under Kistiakowsky. Bainbridge selected the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield as the site for the test. Bainbridge worked with Captain Samuel P. Davalos on the construction of the Trinity Base Camp and its facilities, which included barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary.
Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate committee, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo '' was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. Measuring 25 feet (7.6 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) wide, it was fabricated at great expense from 214 long tons (217 t) of iron and steel by Babcock & Wilcox in Barberton, Ohio. Brought in a special railroad car to a siding in Pope, New Mexico, it was transported the last 25 miles (40 km) to the test site on a trailer pulled by two tractors. By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of how powerful the explosion would be. In the end, Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion.
A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from Ground Zero and piled with 100 long tons (100 t) of TNT spiked with nuclear fission products in the form of an irradiated uranium slug from Hanford, which was dissolved and poured into tubing inside the explosive. This explosion was observed by Oppenheimer and Groves 's new deputy commander, Brigadier General Thomas Farrell. The pre-test produced data that proved vital for the Trinity test.
For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed "the gadget '', was hoisted to the top of a 100 - foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target, and generated less nuclear fallout. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of Norris Bradbury at the nearby McDonald Ranch House on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day. Observers included Bush, Chadwick, Conant, Farrell, Fermi, Groves, Lawrence, Oppenheimer and Tolman. At 05: 30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of Trinitite (radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the mushroom cloud reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as El Paso, Texas, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field.
In June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed some 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. As construction activity fell off, the workforce declined to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel increased to 5,600. Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult. In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the War Manpower Commission. In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority.
Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project 's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project. Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work. At the University of Wisconsin -- Madison, Stanislaw Ulam gave one of his students, Joan Hinton, an exam early, so she could leave to do war work. A few weeks later, Ulam received a letter from Hans Bethe, inviting him to join the project. Conant personally persuaded Kistiakowsky to join the project.
One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the Army Specialized Training Program. In 1943, the MED created the Special Engineer Detachment (SED), with an authorized strength of 675. Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED. Another source was the Women 's Army Corps (WAC). Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well. On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit.
An Associate Professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine, Stafford L. Warren, was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps, and appointed as chief of the MED 's Medical Section and Groves ' medical advisor. Warren 's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos. The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED 's health and safety programs. This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials. Yet in December 1945, the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record. Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries, which was about 62 percent below the rate of private industry.
A 1945 Life article estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings "probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved. '' The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000 others employed with the project "worked like moles in the dark ''. Warned that disclosing the project 's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a $10,000 ($108,000 today) fine, they saw enormous quantities of raw materials enter factories with nothing coming out, and monitored "dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place '' without knowing the purpose of their jobs.
Oak Ridge security personnel considered any private party with more than seven people as suspicious, and residents -- who believed that US government agents were secretly among them -- avoided repeatedly inviting the same guests. Although original residents of the area could be buried in existing cemeteries, every coffin was reportedly opened for inspection. Everyone, including top military officials, and their automobiles were searched when entering and exiting project facilities. One Oak Ridge worker stated that "if you got inquisitive, you were called on the carpet within two hours by government secret agents. Usually those summoned to explain were then escorted bag and baggage to the gate and ordered to keep going. '' Nonetheless, despite being told that their work would help end the war and perhaps all future wars, not seeing or understanding the results of their often tedious duties -- or even typical side effects of factory work such as smoke from smokestacks -- and the war in Europe ending without the use of their work, caused serious morale problems among workers and caused many rumors to spread. One manager stated after the war:
Well it was n't that the job was tough... it was confusing. You see, no one knew what was being made in Oak Ridge, not even me, and a lot of the people thought they were wasting their time here. It was up to me to explain to the dissatisfied workers that they were doing a very important job. When they asked me what, I 'd have to tell them it was a secret. But I almost went crazy myself trying to figure out what was going on.
Another worker told of how, working in a laundry, she every day held "a special instrument '' to uniforms and listened for "a clicking noise ''. She learned only after the war that she had been performing the important task of checking for radiation with a geiger counter. To improve morale among such workers Oak Ridge created an extensive system of intramural sports leagues, including 10 baseball teams, 81 softball teams, and 26 football teams.
Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military - related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles. William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who wrote an article on atomic fission in The Saturday Evening Post of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue. The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project.
The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project. The government 's Office of Censorship, by contrast, relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office. By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington based on public records, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy. In June the Office of Censorship asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing "atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents. The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons. '' The office also asked to avoid discussion of "polonium, uranium, ytterbium, hafnium, protactinium, radium, rhenium, thorium, deuterium ''; only uranium was sensitive, but was listed with other elements to hide its importance.
The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis - instigated sabotage. However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down. With so many people involved, security was a difficult task. A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project 's security issues. By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, Haakon Chevalier, about passing information to the Soviet Union.
The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs, a member of the British Mission who played an important part at Los Alamos. The 1950 revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States ' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada. Subsequently, other instances of espionage were uncovered, leading to the arrest of Harry Gold, David Greenglass, and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. Other spies like George Koval and Theodore Hall remained unknown for decades. The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the Soviet atomic bomb project was a shortage of uranium ore. The consensus is that espionage saved the Soviets one or two years of effort.
In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project. It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German - occupied Norway. A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G - 2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General George V. Strong, appointed Boris Pash to command the unit, which was codenamed "Alsos '', a Greek word meaning "grove ''.
The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned staff of the physics laboratory at the University of Rome following the capture of the city in June 1944. Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in Operation Overlord. Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General Dwight D. Eisenhower and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith. Under the codename Operation Peppermint, special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use.
Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, Pash and Calvert interviewed Frédéric Joliot - Curie about the activities of German scientists. They spoke to officials at Union Minière du Haut Katanga about uranium shipments to Germany. They tracked down 68 tons of ore in Belgium and 30 tons in France. The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Oranienburg, 20 miles north of Berlin, so Groves arranged for it to be bombed on 15 March 1945.
An Alsos team went to Stassfurt in the Soviet Occupation Zone and retrieved 11 tons of ore from WIFO. In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T - Force, conducted Operation Harborage, a sweep behind enemy lines of the cities of Hechingen, Bisingen, and Haigerloch that were the heart of the German nuclear effort. T - Force captured the nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium.
Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including Kurt Diebner, Otto Hahn, Walther Gerlach, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who were taken to England where they were interned at Farm Hall, a bugged house in Godmanchester. After the bombs were detonated in Japan, the Germans were forced to confront the fact that the Allies had done what they could not.
Starting in November 1943, the Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field, Ohio, began Silverplate, the codename modification of B - 29s to carry the bombs. Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field, California, and the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern, California. Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), General Henry H. Arnold, in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets. The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17 - foot (5.2 m) long Thin Man or the 59 - inch (150 cm) wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. Groves hoped that the American Boeing B - 29 Superfortress could be modified to carry Thin Man by joining its two bomb bays together. Arnold promised that no effort would be spared to modify B - 29s to do the job, and designated Major General Oliver P. Echols as the USAAF liaison to the Manhattan Project. In turn, Echols named Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson as his alternate, and Wilson became Manhattan Project 's main USAAF contact. President Roosevelt instructed Groves that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, he should be ready to drop them on Germany.
The 509th Composite Group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets. This base, close to the border with Nevada, was codenamed "Kingman '' or "W - 47 ''. Training was conducted at Wendover and at Batista Army Airfield, Cuba, where the 393d Bombardment Squadron practiced long - distance flights over water, and dropping dummy pumpkin bombs. A special unit known as Project Alberta was formed at Los Alamos under Navy Captain William S. Parsons from Project Y as part of the Manhattan Project to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs. Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Alberta met with Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on Guam in February 1945 to inform him of the project. While he was there, Ashworth selected North Field on the Pacific Island Tinian as a base for the 509th Composite Group, and reserved space for the group and its buildings. The group deployed there in July 1945. Farrell arrived at Tinian on 30 July as the Manhattan Project representative.
Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USS Indianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine. The remaining components, which included six uranium - 235 rings, were delivered by three C - 54 Skymasters of the 509th Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron. Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B - 29s. The first plutonium core went in a special C - 54. A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets, and recommended Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. At this point, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets, but from targets for conventional bombing as well. One of Kyoto 's substitutes was Nagasaki.
In May 1945, the Interim Committee was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy. The committee was chaired by Stimson, with James F. Byrnes, a former US Senator soon to be Secretary of State, as President Harry S. Truman 's personal representative; Ralph A. Bard, the Under Secretary of the Navy; William L. Clayton, the Assistant Secretary of State; Vannevar Bush; Karl T. Compton; James B. Conant; and George L. Harrison, an assistant to Stimson and president of New York Life Insurance Company. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues. In its presentation to the Interim Committee, the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on its probable military and political impact.
At the Potsdam Conference in Germany, Truman was informed that the Trinity test had been successful. He told Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, that the US had a new superweapon, without giving any details. This was the first official communication to the Soviet Union about the bomb, but Stalin already knew about it from spies. With the authorization to use the bomb against Japan already given, no alternatives were considered after the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration.
On 6 August 1945, a Boeing B - 29 Superfortress (Enola Gay) of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field, and Little Boy in its bomb bay. Hiroshima, the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division and a port of embarkation, was the primary target of the mission, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives. With Farrell 's permission, Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks during takeoff. The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT. An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged. About 70,000 to 80,000 people, of whom 20,000 were Japanese combatants and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers, or some 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed immediately, and another 70,000 injured.
On the morning of 9 August 1945, a second B - 29 (Bockscar), piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron 's commander, Major Charles W. Sweeney, lifted off with Fat Man on board. This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target. Sweeney took off with the weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged. When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders. After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered. The Fat Man was dropped over the city 's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi - Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the Urakami Valley, and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills, resulting in the destruction of about 44 % of the city. The bombing also crippled the city 's industrial production extensively and killed 23,200 -- 28,200 Japanese industrial workers and 150 Japanese soldiers. Overall, an estimated 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 injured.
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October. Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August. It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August. On 10 August, Truman secretly requested that additional atomic bombs not be dropped on Japan without his express authority. Groves suspended the third core 's shipment on his own authority on 13 August.
On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October. This and other scientific missions to Japan would provide valuable scientific and historical data.
The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians. Some questioned whether an "atomic diplomacy '' would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive. The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee 's scientific panel. The Szilárd petition, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons.
Seeing the work they had not understood produce the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs amazed the workers of the Manhattan Project as much as the rest of the world; newspapers in Oak Ridge announcing the Hiroshima bomb sold for $1 ($11 today). Although the bombs ' existence was public, secrecy continued, and many workers remained ignorant of their jobs; one stated in 1946, "I do n't know what the hell I 'm doing besides looking into a -- -- -- and turning a -- -- -- alongside a -- -- --. I do n't know anything about it, and there 's nothing to say ''. Many residents continued to avoid discussion of "the stuff '' in ordinary conversation despite it being the reason for their town 's existence.
In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had Henry DeWolf Smyth prepare a history for public consumption. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, better known as the "Smyth Report '', was released to the public on 12 August 1945. Groves and Nichols presented Army -- Navy "E '' Awards to key contractors, whose involvement had hitherto been secret. Over 20 awards of the Presidential Medal for Merit were made to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer. Military personnel received the Legion of Merit, including the commander of the Women 's Army Corps detachment, Captain Arlene G. Scheidenhelm.
At Hanford, plutonium production fell off as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the Wigner effect. The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable. In order to maintain the supply of polonium for the urchin initiators, production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would be available in the future. Research continued, with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a redox solvent extraction process as an alternative plutonium extraction technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered.
Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, named for its director, Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias from Los Alamos. Z Division was initially located at Wendover Field but moved to Oxnard Field, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. This marked the beginning of Sandia Base. Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B - 29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests. By October, all the staff and facilities at Wendover had been transferred to Sandia. As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand - picked regular officers.
Nichols recommended that S - 50 and the Alpha tracks at Y - 12 be closed down. This was done in September. Although performing better than ever, the Alpha tracks could not compete with K - 25 and the new K - 27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y - 12 plant was closed, thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $2 million a month.
Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent. Much remained to be done. The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were like laboratory pieces; work would be required to make them simpler, safer and more reliable. Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method, and composite uranium - plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply because of the problems with the reactors. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement. In fact, Bradbury would remain in the post for the next 25 years. Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities.
Two Fat Man -- type detonations were conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships. Able was detonated on 1 July 1946. The more spectacular Baker was detonated underwater on 25 July 1946.
After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons. In the face of the destructiveness of the new weapons and in anticipation of the nuclear arms race several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons. The Baruch Plan, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted.
Following a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project. It established civilian control over atomic development, and separated the development, production and control of atomic weapons from the military. Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). Although the Manhattan Project ceased to exist on 31 December 1946, the Manhattan District was not abolished until 15 August 1947.
The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. Total allocation was $2.4 billion. Over 90 % of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials, and less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons.
A total of four weapons (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, Fat Man, and an unused bomb) were produced by the end of 1945, making the average cost per bomb around $500 million in 1945 dollars. By comparison, the project 's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90 % of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34 % of the total spent on US tanks during the same period. Overall, it was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States in World War II, behind only the design and production of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress.
The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound and far - reaching. William Laurence of the New York Times, the first to use the phrase "Atomic Age '', became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945. In 1943 and 1944 he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Office of Censorship to permit writing about the explosive potential of uranium, and government officials felt that he had earned the right to report on the biggest secret of the war. Laurence witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases prepared for them. He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and the Soviet Union.
The wartime Manhattan Project left a legacy in the form of the network of national laboratories: the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Ames Laboratory. Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the Brookhaven National Laboratory at Upton, New York, and the Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Groves allocated $72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946 -- 1947. They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large - scale research that Alvin Weinberg, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call Big Science.
The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project. In May 1946, Nimitz, now Chief of Naval Operations, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project. A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain Hyman G. Rickover, who became assistant director there. They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a nuclear - powered navy. A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing nuclear aircraft. Their Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) project ran into formidable technical difficulties, and was ultimately cancelled.
The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard - of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine in the immediate postwar years. Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities. Most of the orders were for iodine - 131 and phosphorus - 32, which were used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. In addition to medicine, isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research.
On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project:
Five years ago, the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream. You have made that dream a reality. You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities. You have built cities where none were known before. You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a precision heretofore deemed impossible. You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives. With regard to peacetime applications, you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world.
In 2014, the United States Congress passed a law providing for a national park dedicated to the history of the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project National Historical Park was established on 10 November 2015.
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how old is the cast of good times | Good Times - wikipedia
Good Times is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from February 8, 1974, to August 1, 1979. Created by Eric Monte and Mike Evans, and developed by Norman Lear, the series ' primary executive producer, it was television 's first African American two - parent family sitcom. Good Times was billed as a spin - off of Maude, which was itself a spin - off of All in the Family.
Florida and James Evans and their three children live at 921 North Gilbert Avenue, apartment 17C, in a housing project in a poor, black neighborhood in inner - city Chicago. The project is unnamed on the show, but is implicitly the infamous Cabrini -- Green projects, shown in the opening and closing credits. Florida and James have three children: James Jr., also known as "J.J. ''; Thelma; and Michael, called "the militant midget '' by his father due to his passionate activism. When the series begins, J.J. is seventeen years old, Thelma is sixteen, and Michael is eleven. Their exuberant neighbor, and Florida 's best friend, is Willona Woods, a recent divorcée who works at a boutique. Their building superintendent is Nathan Bookman (seasons 2 -- 6), who James, Willona and later J.J. refer to as "Buffalo Butt '', or, even more derisively, "Booger ''.
The characters originated on the sitcom Maude as Florida and Henry Evans, with Florida employed as Maude Findlay 's housekeeper in Tuckahoe, New York, and Henry employed as a New York City firefighter. When producers decided to feature the Florida character in her own show, they changed the characters ' history to fit a new series that was well into development rather than start from scratch to create a consistent starring vehicle. Henry 's name became James, he worked various odd jobs, there was no mention of Maude, and the couple lived in Chicago.
Episodes of Good Times deal with the characters ' attempts to overcome poverty living in a high rise project building in Chicago. James Evans often works at least two jobs, mostly manual labor such as dishwasher, construction laborer, etc. Often he is unemployed, but he is a proud man who will not accept charity. When he has to, he hustles money playing pool, although Florida disapproves of this.
Good Times was intended to be a good show for Esther Rolle and John Amos. Both expected the show to deal with serious topics in a comedic way while providing positive characters for viewers to identify with.
However, Jimmie Walker 's character of J.J. was an immediate hit with audiences and became the breakout character of the series. J.J. 's frequent use of the expression "Dy - no - mite! '' (often in the phrase "Kid Dy - no - mite! ''), credited to director John Rich, became a popular catchphrase (later included in TV Land 's The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases special). Rich insisted Walker say it in every episode. Walker and executive producer Norman Lear were skeptical of the idea, but the phrase and the J.J. Evans character caught on with the audience. As a result of the character 's popularity, the writers focused more on J.J. 's comedic antics instead of serious issues.
Through seasons two and three, Rolle and Amos grew increasingly disillusioned with the direction of the show and especially with J.J. 's antics and stereotypically buffoonish behavior. Rolle was vocal about her hate of his character. In a 1975 interview with Ebony magazine she stated:
He 's 18 and he does n't work. He ca n't read or write. He does n't think. The show did n't start out to be that... Little by little -- with the help of the artist, I suppose, because they could n't do that to me -- they have made J.J. more stupid and enlarged the role. Negative images have been slipped in on us through the character of the oldest child.
Although doing so less publicly, Amos also was outspoken about his dissatisfaction with the J.J. character. Amos stated:
The writers would prefer to put a chicken hat on J.J. and have him prance around saying "DY - NO - MITE '', and that way they could waste a few minutes and not have to write meaningful dialogue.
While Amos was less public with his dissatisfaction, he was ultimately fired after season three due to disagreements with Norman Lear. Amos ' departure was initially attributed to his desire to focus on a film career, but he admitted in a 1976 interview that Lear called him and told him that his contract option with the show was not being renewed. Amos stated, "That 's the same thing as being fired. '' The producers decided not to recast the character of James Evans, instead opting to kill off the character in the two - part season four episode, "The Big Move ''.
By the end of season four, Esther Rolle had also become dissatisfied with the show 's direction and decided to leave the series. In the final two episodes of the season, "Love Has a Spot On His Lung '', Rolle 's character gets engaged to Carl Dixon (Moses Gunn), a man she began dating toward the end of season four. In the season five premiere episode, it is revealed that Florida and Carl married off screen and moved to Arizona for the sake of Carl 's health.
With Amos and Rolle gone, Ja'net Dubois took over as the lead character, as Willona checked in on the Evans children since they were now living alone. In season five Janet Jackson joined the cast, playing Penny Gordon Woods, an abused girl who is abandoned by her mother and eventually adopted by Willona.
Before taping of season six began, CBS and the show 's producers decided that they had to do "something drastic '' to increase viewership. According to then - vice president of CBS programming Steve Mills, "We had lost the essence of the show. Without parental guidance the show slipped. Everything told us that: our mail, our phone calls, our research. We felt we had to go back to basics. ''
Producers approached Esther Rolle with an offer to appear in a guest role on the series. Rolle was initially hesitant but when producers agreed to a number of her demands (including an increased salary and higher quality scripts), she agreed to return to the series on a full - time basis. Rolle also wanted producers to make the character of J.J. more responsible, as she felt the character was a poor role model for black American youths. She also requested that producers write out the character of Carl Dixon; Rolle reportedly disliked the storyline surrounding the Carl Dixon character, as she believed Florida would not have moved on so quickly after James ' death or leave her children. Rolle also thought the writers had disregarded Florida 's devout Christian beliefs by having her fall for and marry Carl, who was an atheist.
In the season six premiere episode "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 1 '', Florida returns from Arizona without Carl to attend Thelma 's upcoming wedding to professional football player Keith Anderson (Ben Powers, who joined the cast for the final season). In a rare uncut version of "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 2 '', after Florida arrives home from Arizona, Willona briefly pulls her aside and mentions Carl, to which Florida sadly smiles and shakes her head implying that Carl had died from cancer. Florida later mentions Carl one last time when she tells Michael about a book they 'd both bought him. Despite changes in the series at Esther Rolle 's request and her return, ratings did not improve and CBS canceled the series during the 1978 -- 79 season.
In the series finale, "The End of the Rainbow '', each character finally gets a "happy ending. '' J.J. gets his big break as an artist for a comic book company with his newly created character, DynoWoman, which is based on Thelma (much to her surprise and delight), and is moving into an apartment with some lady friends. Michael attends college and moves into an on - campus dorm. Keith 's bad knee heals due to his exercise and own physical therapy, leading to the Chicago Bears offering him a contract to play football. Keith announces that he and Thelma are moving into a luxury apartment in the city 's upscale Gold Coast district. Thelma also announces that she is pregnant with the couple 's first child. Keith offers Florida the chance to move in with them so she can help Thelma with the new baby. Willona becomes the head buyer of the boutique she works in and announces that she and Penny are also moving out of the projects. Willona then reveals that her new apartment is in the same apartment building that Keith, Thelma and Florida are moving to; once again, she and Penny become the Evans ' downstairs neighbors.
Good Times was created by Eric Monte and actor Mike Evans. The series also features a character named "Michael Evans '', after co-creator Mike Evans who portrayed Lionel Jefferson on the Norman Lear - produced series All in the Family and The Jeffersons.
The gospel - styled theme song was composed by Dave Grusin with lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. It was sung by Jim Gilstrap and Motown singer Blinky Williams with a gospel choir providing background vocals.
The lyrics to the theme song are notorious for being hard to discern, notably the line "Hangin ' in a chow line '' / "Hangin ' in and jivin ' '' (depending on the source used). Dave Chappelle used this part of the lyrics as a quiz in his "I Know Black People '' skit on Chappelle 's Show in which the former was claimed as the answer. The insert for the Season One DVD box set has the lyric as "Hangin ' in a chow line ''. However, the Bergmans confirmed that the lyric is actually "Hangin ' in and jivin '. '' Slightly different lyrics were used for the closing credits, with the song beginning on a verse instead of the chorus.
The program premiered in February 1974; high ratings led CBS to renew the program for the 1974 -- 75 season, as it was the seventeenth - highest - rated program that year. During its first full season on the air, 1974 -- 75, the show was the seventh - highest - rated program in the Nielsen ratings, with more than 25 % of all American households tuning into an episode each week. Three of the top ten highest - rated programs on American TV that season centered on the lives of African - Americans: Sanford and Son, The Jeffersons, and Good Times.
The Nielsen ratings for the series declined over time, partly because of its many time slot changes and the departure of John Amos. The ratings went down considerably when the show entered its final two seasons:
Cable network TV One aired reruns of the show since its launch on January 19, 2004, with the exception of a period from 2002 until June 2013. Good Times had also aired at various times on TV Land and on the Canadian specialty cable channel DejaView. Minisodes of the show are available for free on Crackle.
Additionally, digital multicast network Antenna TV also aired episodes of the show until January 1, 2018, when GetTV, operated by Sony (which distributes the show) began airing the program.
Good Times airs on GetTV with a TV - PG rating. Also, most episodes run on TV One with a TV - G rating, with the exception being the Season 3 episode "J.J. in Trouble '', in which J.J. fears he may have contracted an STD; this episode airs on TV One with a TV - 14 rating, as well as the "parental guidance is suggested '' slide that preceded the episode when it was originally broadcast on CBS.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 between February 2003 and August 2006, with a complete box set following the separate seasons on October 28, 2008. Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 4 on December 27, 2006.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including Good Times. They have subsequently re-released the first four seasons on DVD.
On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released Good Times - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.
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what is the ninth amendment to the constitution | Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Ninth Amendment (Amendment IX) to the United States Constitution addresses rights, retained by the people, that are not specifically enumerated in the Constitution. It is part of the Bill of Rights.
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows:
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
When the U.S. Constitution was put to the states for ratification after being signed on September 17, 1787, the Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. One of the arguments the Federalists gave against the addition of a Bill of Rights, during the debates about ratification of the Constitution, was that a listing of rights could problematically enlarge the powers specified in Article One, Section 8 of the new Constitution by implication. For example, in Federalist 84, Alexander Hamilton asked, "Why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? '' Likewise, James Madison explained to Thomas Jefferson, "I conceive that in a certain degree... the rights in question are reserved by the manner in which the federal powers are granted '' by Article One, Section 8 of the Constitution.
The Anti-Federalists persisted in favor of a Bill of Rights during the ratification debates, but also were against ratification, and consequently several of the state ratification conventions gave their assent with accompanying resolutions proposing amendments to be added. In 1788, the Virginia Ratifying Convention attempted to solve the problem that Hamilton and the Federalists had identified by proposing a constitutional amendment specifying:
That those clauses which declare that Congress shall not exercise certain powers be not interpreted in any manner whatsoever to extend the powers of Congress. But that they may be construed either as making exceptions to the specified powers where this shall be the case, or otherwise as inserted merely for greater caution.
This proposal ultimately led to the Ninth Amendment. In 1789, while introducing to the House of Representatives nineteen draft Amendments, James Madison addressed what would become the Ninth Amendment as follows:
It has been objected also against a Bill of Rights, that, by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power, it would disparage those rights which were not placed in that enumeration; and it might follow by implication, that those rights which were not singled out, were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government, and were consequently insecure. This is one of the most plausible arguments I have ever heard against the admission of a bill of rights into this system; but, I conceive, that it may be guarded against. I have attempted it, as gentlemen may see by turning to the last clause of the fourth resolution.
Like Alexander Hamilton, Madison was concerned that enumerating various rights could "enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution. '' To attempt to solve this problem, Madison submitted this draft to Congress:
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution.
This was an intermediate form of the Ninth Amendment that borrowed language from the Virginia proposal, while foreshadowing the final version.
The final text of the Ninth Amendment, like Madison 's draft, speaks of other rights than those enumerated in the Constitution. The character of those other rights was indicated by Madison in his speech introducing the Bill of Rights (emphasis added):
It has been said, by way of objection to a bill of rights... that in the Federal Government they are unnecessary, because the powers are enumerated, and it follows, that all that are not granted by the constitution are retained; that the constitution is a bill of powers, the great residuum being the rights of the people; and, therefore, a bill of rights can not be so necessary as if the residuum was thrown into the hands of the Government. I admit that these arguments are not entirely without foundation, but they are not as conclusive to the extent it has been proposed. It is true the powers of the general government are circumscribed; they are directed to particular objects; but even if government keeps within those limits, it has certain discretionary powers with respect to the means, which may admit of abuse.
The First through Eighth Amendments address the means by which the federal government exercises its enumerated powers, while the Ninth Amendment addresses a "great residuum '' of rights that have not been "thrown into the hands of the government, '' as Madison put it. The Ninth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791 upon ratification by three - fourths of the states.
The final form of the amendment ratified by the states is as follows:
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment has generally been regarded by the courts as negating any expansion of governmental power on account of the enumeration of rights in the Constitution, but the Amendment has not been regarded as further limiting governmental power. The U.S. Supreme Court explained this, in U.S. Public Workers v. Mitchell 330 U.S. 75 (1947): "If granted power is found, necessarily the objection of invasion of those rights, reserved by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, must fail. ''
The Supreme Court held in Barron v. Baltimore (1833) that the Bill of Rights was enforceable by the federal courts only against the federal government, and not against the states. Thus, the Ninth Amendment originally applied only to the federal government, which is a government of enumerated powers.
Some jurists have asserted that the Ninth Amendment is relevant to the interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Arthur Goldberg (joined by Chief Justice Earl Warren and Justice William Brennan) expressed this view in a concurring opinion in the case of Griswold v. Connecticut (1965):
The Framers did not intend that the first eight amendments be construed to exhaust the basic and fundamental rights... I do not mean to imply that the... Ninth Amendment constitutes an independent source of rights protected from infringement by either the States or the Federal Government... While the Ninth Amendment -- and indeed the entire Bill of Rights -- originally concerned restrictions upon federal power, the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the States as well from abridging fundamental personal liberties. And, the Ninth Amendment, in indicating that not all such liberties are specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments, is surely relevant in showing the existence of other fundamental personal rights, now protected from state, as well as federal, infringement. In sum, the Ninth Amendment simply lends strong support to the view that the "liberty '' protected by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments from infringement by the Federal Government or the States is not restricted to rights specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments. Cf. United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U.S. 75, 94 -- 95.
In support of his interpretation of the Ninth, Goldberg quoted from Madison 's speech in the House of Representatives as well as from Alexander Hamilton 's Federalist Paper No. 84:
I go further and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted, and, on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a plausible pretense for claiming that power.
But the two Justices who dissented in Griswold replied that Goldberg was mistaken to invoke the Ninth as authority. Hugo Black 's dissent said:
My Brother GOLDBERG has adopted the recent discovery that the Ninth Amendment, as well as the Due Process Clause, can be used by this Court as authority to strike down all state legislation which this Court thinks violates "fundamental principles of liberty and justice, '' or is contrary to the "traditions and (collective) conscience of our people. ''... (O) ne would certainly have to look far beyond the language of the Ninth Amendment to find that the Framers vested in this Court any such awesome veto powers over lawmaking, either by the States or by the Congress. Nor does anything in the history of the Amendment offer any support for such a shocking doctrine. The whole history of the adoption of the Constitution and Bill of Rights points the other way, and the very material quoted by my Brother GOLDBERG shows that the Ninth Amendment was intended to protect against the idea that, "by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power '' to the Federal Government, "those rights which were not singled out were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government (the United States), and were consequently insecure. '' That Amendment was passed not to broaden the powers of this Court or any other department of "the General Government, '' but, as every student of history knows, to assure the people that the Constitution in all its provisions was intended to limit the Federal Government to the powers granted expressly or by necessary implication... (F) or a period of a century and a half, no serious suggestion was ever made that the Ninth Amendment, enacted to protect state powers against federal invasion, could be used as a weapon of federal power to prevent state legislatures from passing laws they consider appropriate to govern local affairs.
And Potter Stewart 's dissent said:
(T) o say that the Ninth Amendment has anything to do with this case is to turn somersaults with history. The Ninth Amendment, like its companion, the Tenth, which this Court held "states but a truism that all is retained which has not been surrendered, '' United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100, 312 U.S. 124, was framed by James Madison and adopted by the States simply to make clear that the adoption of the Bill of Rights did not alter the plan that the Federal Government was to be a government of express and limited powers, and that all rights and powers not delegated to it were retained by the people and the individual States. Until today, no member of this Court has ever suggested that the Ninth Amendment meant anything else, and the idea that a federal court could ever use the Ninth Amendment to annul a law passed by the elected representatives of the people of the State of Connecticut would have caused James Madison no little wonder.
Since Griswold, some judges have tried to use the Ninth Amendment to justify judicially enforcing rights that are not enumerated. For example, the District Court that heard the case of Roe v. Wade ruled in favor of a "Ninth Amendment right to choose to have an abortion, '' although it stressed that the right was "not unqualified or unfettered. '' However, Justice William O. Douglas rejected that view; Douglas wrote that "The Ninth Amendment obviously does not create federally enforceable rights. '' See Doe v. Bolton (1973). Douglas joined the majority opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court in Roe, which stated that a federally enforceable right to privacy, "whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment 's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment 's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman 's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. ''
The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stated in Gibson v. Matthews, 926 F. 2d 532, 537 (6th Cir. 1991) that the Ninth Amendment was intended to vitiate the maxim of expressio unique est exclusion alterius according to which the express mention of one thing excludes all others:
(T) he ninth amendment does not confer substantive rights in addition to those conferred by other portions of our governing law. The ninth amendment was added to the Bill of Rights to ensure that the maxim expression unique est exclusion alterius would not be used at a later time to deny fundamental rights merely because they were not specifically enumerated in the Constitution.
Justice Antonin Scalia expressed the view, in the dissenting opinion of Troxel v. Granville, 530 U.S. 57 (2000), that:
The Declaration of Independence... is not a legal prescription conferring powers upon the courts; and the Constitution 's refusal to "deny or disparage '' other rights is far removed from affirming any one of them, and even farther removed from authorizing judges to identify what they might be, and to enforce the judges ' list against laws duly enacted by the people.
Professor Laurence Tribe shares the view that this amendment does not confer substantive rights: "It is a common error, but an error nonetheless, to talk of ' ninth amendment rights. ' The ninth amendment is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution. ''
In 2000, Harvard historian Bernard Bailyn gave a speech at the White House on the subject of the Ninth Amendment. He said that the Ninth Amendment refers to "a universe of rights, possessed by the people -- latent rights, still to be evoked and enacted into law... a reservoir of other, unenumerated rights that the people retain, which in time may be enacted into law. '' Similarly, journalist Brian Doherty has argued that the Ninth Amendment "specifically roots the Constitution in a natural rights tradition that says we are born with more rights than any constitution could ever list or specify. ''
Robert Bork, often considered an originalist, stated during his Supreme Court confirmation hearing that a judge should not apply a constitutional provision like this one if he does not know what it means; the example Bork then gave was a clause covered by an inkblot. Upon further study, Bork later ascribed a meaning to the Ninth Amendment in his book The Tempting of America. In that book, Bork subscribed to the interpretation of constitutional historian Russell Caplan, who asserted that this Amendment was meant to ensure that the federal Bill of Rights would not affect provisions in state law that restrain state governments.
A libertarian originalist, Randy Barnett has argued that the Ninth Amendment requires what he calls a presumption of liberty. Barnett also argues that the Ninth Amendment prevents the government from invalidating a ruling by either a jury or lower court through strict interpretation of the Bill of Rights. According to Barnett, "The purpose of the Ninth Amendment was to ensure that all individual natural rights had the same stature and force after some of them were enumerated as they had before. ''
According to professor and former Circuit Judge Michael W. McConnell, "(T) he rights retained by the people are indeed individual natural rights, but those rights enjoy precisely the same status and are protected in the same way, as before the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. They are not relinquished, denied, or disparaged. Nor do natural rights become ' ' constitutional rights. ' ' They are simply what all retained rights were before the enactment of the Bill of Rights: a guide to equitable interpretation and a rationale for the narrow construction of statutes that might be thought to infringe them, but not superior to explicit positive law. This understanding of the relation of unenumerated natural rights to a positive law closely resembles the relationship between common law and legislation: the common law governs in the absence of contrary legislation, and sometimes even guides or limits the interpretation of ambiguous or overbroad statutes, but does not prevail in the teeth of specific statutory overrides.
"This mode of interpretation offers a middle way between the two usual poles of unenumerated rights jurisprudence. One Pole maintains that if a claimed right can not be found in the Constitution, even applying a liberal construction to its terms, it is entitled to no protection at all... The other pole maintains that there are unwritten natural rights whose content must inevitably be determined, finally and without the possibility of legislative override, by judges. These rights then receive full constitutional protection even when the representatives of the people have reached the contrary conclusion... If I am correct about the meaning of the Ninth Amendment, neither of these approaches is entirely correct. Rather, an assertion of a natural right (generally founded on common law or other long - standing practice) will be judicially enforceable unless there is specific and explicit positive law to the contrary. This allows the representatives of the people, rather than members of the judiciary, to make the ultimate determination of when natural rights should yield to the peace, safety, and happiness of society ''.
Still others, such as Thomas B. McAffee, have argued that the Ninth Amendment protects the unenumerated "residuum '' of rights which the federal government was never empowered to violate.
According to lawyer and diplomat Frederic Jesup Stimson, the framers of the Constitution and the Ninth Amendment intended that no rights that they already held would be lost through omission. Law professor Charles Lund Black took a similar position, though Stimson and Black respectively acknowledged that their views differed from the modern view, and differed from the prevalent view in academic writing.
Gun rights activists in recent decades have sometimes argued for a fundamental natural right to keep and bear arms in the United States that both predates the U.S. Constitution and is covered by the Constitution 's Ninth Amendment; according to this viewpoint, the Second Amendment only enumerates a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms.
The Ninth Amendment explicitly bars denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution, but this amendment does not explicitly bar denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the enumeration of certain powers in the Constitution. It is to that enumeration of powers that the courts have pointed, in order to determine the extent of the unenumerated rights mentioned in the Ninth Amendment.
It was at first believed by our greatest judges and jurists that the whole English Constitution was implied in the Federal Constitution; that there is, as it were, an unwritten Constitution which we inherited in America and which consisted, not only of the English Constitution where not expressly altered by our own but of all matters of natural right and justice. Doubtless, this is the intended meaning of the Ninth Amendment.... Such is not, perhaps, the modern view; but the question has become, in fact, academic, for the reason that in 120 years of interpretation our Supreme Court has ever found some clause in the Federal Constitution into which to read any English constitutional principle not therein expressly altered.
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there was a man going to st ives | As I was going to St. Ives - wikipedia
"As I was going to St Ives '' is a traditional English - language nursery rhyme in the form of a riddle. Its Roud Folk Song Index number is 19772.
The most common modern version is:
The earliest known published version of it comes from a manuscript dated to around 1730 (but it differs in referring to "nine '' rather than "seven '' wives). The modern form was first printed around 1825.
There are a number of places called St Ives in England and elsewhere. It is generally thought that the rhyme refers to St Ives, Cornwall, when it was a busy fishing port and had many cats to stop the rats and mice destroying the fishing gear, although some people argue it was St Ives, Cambridgeshire as this is an ancient market town and therefore an equally plausible destination.
All potential answers to this riddle are based on its ambiguity because the riddle only tells us the group has been "met '' on the journey to St. Ives and gives no further information about its intentions, only those of the narrator. In modern usage, ' to meet someone on the road ' may include the sense of ' passed ' or ' overtook '; while the older usage may have referred exclusively to those going in opposite directions. As such, the ' correct ' answer could be stated as "at least one, the narrator plus anyone who happens to be travelling in the same direction as him or her ''.
If the group that the narrator meets is assumed not to be travelling to St. Ives the answer could be one person going to St. Ives: the narrator. This is the most common assumption, as the purpose of the riddle was most likely to trick the listener into making long winded calculations only to be surprised by the simplicity of the answer.
If one disregards the ' trick ' answer and assumes the narrator overtook the group as they were also travelling to St. Ives, the most common mathematical answer is 2802: 1 man, 7 wives, 49 sacks, 343 cats, and 2401 kits, plus the narrator (the sum of a geometric series, plus one).
A similar problem is found in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (Problem 79), dated to around 1650 BC. The papyrus is translated as follows:
The problem appears to be an illustration of an algorithm for multiplying numbers. The sequence 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 appears in the right - hand column, and the terms 2,801, 2 × 2,801, 4 × 2,801 appear in the left; the sum on the left is 7 × 2,801 = 19,607, the same as the sum of the terms on the right. The equality of the two geometric sequences can be stated as the equation (2 + 2 + 2) (7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7) = 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7, which relies on the coincidence 2 + 2 + 2 = 7.
Note that the author of the papyrus listed a wrong value for the fourth power of 7; it should be 2,401, not 2,301. However, the sum of the powers (19,607) is correct.
The problem has been paraphrased by modern commentators as a story problem involving houses, cats, mice, and grain, although in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus there is no discussion beyond the bare outline stated above. The hekat was ⁄ of a cubic cubit (approximately 4.8 l or 1.1 imp gal or 1.3 US gal).
As I was going to St Ives I met a man with seven wives Of course, the seven wives were n't his But here in France, that 's how it is
As I was going to St Ives I met a man with seven wives I know this sounds absurd and loony But that poor man was Mickey Rooney!
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why do the swiss put bells on their cows | Cowbell - wikipedia
A cow bell or cowbell is a bell worn by freely roaming animals made to scare off any predators. Although they are typically referred to as "cow bells '' due to their extensive use with cattle, the bells are used on a wide variety of animals.
The bell and clapper are commonly crafted from iron, bronze, brass, copper, or wood. The collar used to hold the bell is traditionally made with leather and wood fibers.
Most cow bells are made of thin, flat pieces of plated sheet metal. Plating causes the sheet metal to have a surface which can be decorated or left plain. The craftsmanship of cow bells varies by geographic location and culture. The ornaments on the cow bell and the collar are usually decorative although some cultures believe that certain ornaments provide or enhance magical protections such as the power to prevent or cure fever and other illnesses. The cow bell is used to keep track of grazing animal herds such as goats, reindeer, sheep and cows. They are mainly used in Europe, Mediterranean areas and Latin America, but are also used worldwide by those who practice transhumance, including nomadic pastoral tribes in Africa and Asia.
Different bells can have specific sounds to identify important characteristics of the animals, such as age, sex, and species. Some cultures have even developed names to differentiate between bells and their tones; for example, in Spanish "truco '' refers to stud males, "esquila '' to female goats or ewes, and "esquileta '' for pregnant females and immature animals. Each of these bells possess unique sounds, shapes, and sizes.
It is difficult to pinpoint when exactly the use of cow bells began, but the earliest examples of truly recognizable cow bells date back to the Iron Age.
The use of iron bells in sub-Saharan African music and the Niger -- Congo area is linked to the early iron - making technology spread during the Bantu migrations.
The earliest archaeological evidence of bells dates back to more than 5000 years ago, from the 3rd millennium BC in Neolithic China. During this era, there is evidence of early forms of pottery cowbells, which were likely used to track goats, sheep, and cattle. The pottery bells were later replaced by metal bells. In West Asia, the first bells appeared in 1000 BC. The earliest metal bells, one found in the Taosi site, and four in the Erlitou site, are dated to about 2000 BC.
Though the bells for shepherding were expanded from the fertile crescent to Celtic, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman cultures, in Europe the earliest written evidence of bells used for livestock dates to the late 14th to early 15th century. Grimm 's Deutsches Wörterbuch s.v. "Kuhschelle '' points to a 1410 mention in a Frankfurt archive; the OED lists 1440 as the earliest attestation of a bell - wether, the leading sheep of a flock, on whose neck a bell is hung. The OED also attributes the phrase "to bear the bell '' in the sense "to take the first place '' as originally referring to the leading cow or sheep of a drove or flock to Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde, 1374. In 15th - century Germany, a cow bell was worn only by the best and leading piece of livestock. The wider distribution of the bell worn by livestock was a gradual process of the Early Modern period. In France in the mid-16th century, Francois Rabelais makes this practice explicit in his Gargantua and Pantagruel, stating that
such was the custom, to appear on the field wearing jingling garment, as the high priest wears when entering the sacristy; since the tournaments, that is, the contest of nobility, have been abolished, carters have taken the bells and hung them on their hacks.
The importance of the cow bell is highlighted in Swiss folklore, which reflects a period when a great Trychel, or large cow bell, was a rare and much - coveted item. The legend of the Simmental tells how a young cowherd strays inside a mountain, and is offered by a beautiful woman the choice between a treasure of gold coins, a golden Trychel, or the fairy herself. He chooses the Trychel.
As opposed to regular cast - metal bells, trychlen are made of hammered sheet metal. This results in a clanking, less crisp sound, but at the same time results in a bell that is lighter and thus easier to carry. In Southern Germany, such cow bells are called Kuhglocke.
Modern - day manufacturing of cow bells continues today in Korea, Indonesia, and India; created as village handicrafts. Despite a May 2012 fire that destroyed its factory, the Bevin Brothers Manufacturing Company continues to make cow bell bells in East Hampton, CT, as it has since its founding in 1832; it is the only remaining U.S. company making just bells.
In Western Europe, when the snow has melted in the spring, villages send the cows to the high alpine meadows to graze. This event, called Alpaufzug, is celebrated in each village with a procession through the village to the high pastures. The cows are decorated with floral wreaths woven through the horns. The best milk - producing cow in the village leads the procession and wears the largest bell. The bells are made in various sizes, and are awarded to the cows according to their milk production that year.
In the fall, the event is repeated, but is called an "Alpabzug '', as the animals return from the high meadow. The best cows (each referred to as a Kranzkuh, i.e. "crown (ed) cow '', after the ornamental headwear with which it is adorned) from each herd again lead the procession. The traditional festival is called Viehscheid in Southern Germany, and has other names in the Alpine regions.
Ancient Madoera festival. Madoera (Madura), Sawah Tengah, Java Oriental, Indonesia
Brass cowbells from Tamil culture in Southern India.
Greek Animal bells
Italian animal bells
Ancient Roman cowbell in a Bavarian museum, Weißenburg (Bayern).
A wood collar for cowbell
Another wood collar for cowbell with carved symbols.
Iron cowbell view 1
Iron cowbell view 2
A Simmentaler Fleckvieh cow wearing a trychel cowbell
Procession of La Vijanera fiesta (Cantabria).
Plowing a rice field with oxen, about 1910 - 1920 in Sawa (Indonesia).
An improvised cowbell used for sheep or goats. The bell was found in 1988 in a field near Tuqu ' (Tekoa) in the Judean hills, the West Bank. The bell 's body is made of aluminum, probably a broken kitchen utensil, while the clapper is a brass cartridge case.
Swiss Souvenir Cow Bells
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what is the state of the south african health care system | Healthcare in South Africa - Wikipedia
In South Africa, private and public health systems exist in parallel. The public system serves the vast majority of the population, but is chronically underfunded and understaffed. The wealthiest 20 % of the population use the private system and are far better served. In 2005, South Africa spent 8.7 % of GDP on health care, or US $437 per capita. Of that, approximately 42 % was government expenditure. About 79 % of doctors work in the private sector.
The first hospital in South Africa, a temporary tent to care for sick sailors of the Dutch East India Company (the Company) afflicted by diseases such as typhoid and scurvy, was started at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652.
A permanent hospital was completed in 1656. Initially, convalescent soldiers provided to others whatever care they could, but around 1700 the first Binnenmoeder (Dutch for matron) and Siekenvader (male nurse / supervisor) were appointed in order to ensure cleanliness in the hospital, and to supervise bedside attendants.
The Company subsequently employed Sworn Midwives from Holland, who practiced midwifery and also trained and examined local women who wished to become midwives. Some of the early trainees at the Cape were freed Malay and coloured slaves.
From 1807, other hospitals were built in order to meet the increasing demand for healthcare. The first hospitals in the Eastern Cape were founded in Port Elizabeth, King Williamstown, Grahamstown and Queenstown.
Roman Catholic Nuns of the Assumption Order were the first members of a religious order to arrive in South Africa. In 1874, two Nightingale nurses, Anglican Sisterhoods, the Community of St Michael and All Angels arrived from England.
The discovery of diamonds in Kimberley led to an explosion of immigrants, which, coupled with the "generally squalid conditions '' around mines, encouraged the spread of diseases dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.
Following negotiations with the Anglican Order of St Michael, Sister Henrietta Stockdale and other members were assigned to the Carnarvon hospital in 1877. Sister Stockdale had studied nursing and taught the nurses at Carnavorn what she knew; these nurses would move to other hospitals in Barbeton, Pretoria, Queenstown, and Cape Town, where they in turn trained others in nursing. This laid the foundation of professional nursing in South Africa.
Sister Stockdale was also responsible for the nursing clauses in Act 34 of 1981, the first legal rules in the world requiring state registration of nurses.
Most mission hospitals have become public hospitals in contemporary South Africa.
The Anglo - Boer war and World War 1 severely strained healthcare provision in South Africa.
Formal training for black nurses began at Lovedale in 1902. In the first half of the 20th century, nursing was not considered appropriate for Indian women but some males did become registered nurses or orderlies.
In 1912, the South African military recognised the importance of military nursing in the Defence Act. In 1913, the first nursing journal, The South African Nursing Record, was published. In 1914, The South African Trained Nurses ' Association, the first organisation for nurses, formed. In 1944, the first Nursing Act was promulgated.
In 1935, the first diploma courses to enable nurses to train as tutors were introduced at the University of Witwatersrand and the University of Cape Town.
The establishment of independent states and homelands in South Africa also created independent Nursing Councils, and Nursing Associations for the Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei. Under the post-Apartheid dispensation, these were all merged to form one organisation, the Democratic Nursing Organisation of South Africa (DENOSA).
In 2013, it was estimated that vacancy rates for doctors were 56 % and for nurses 46 %. Half the population lives in rural areas, but only 3 % of newly qualified doctors take jobs there. All medical training takes place in the public sector but 70 % of doctors go into the private sector. 10 % of medical staff is qualified in other countries. Medical student numbers increased by 34 % between 2000 and 2012.
There are more than 400 public hospitals and more than 200 private hospitals. The provincial health departments manage the larger regional hospitals directly. Smaller hospitals and primary care clinics are managed at district level. The national Department of Health manages the 10 major teaching hospitals directly.
The Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital is the third largest hospital in the world and it is located in Johannesburg.
The public sector uses a Uniform Patient Fee Schedule as a guide to billing for services. This is being used in all the provinces of South Africa, although in Western Cape, Kwa - Zulu Natal, and Eastern Cape, it is being implemented on a phased schedule. Implemented in November 2000, the UPFS categorises the different fees for every type of patient and situation.
It groups patients into three categories defined in general terms, and includes a classification system for placing all patients into either one of these categories depending on the situation and any other relevant variables. The three categories include full paying patients -- patients who are either being treated by a private practitioner, who are externally funded, or who are some types of non-South African citizens --, fully subsidised patients -- patients who are referred to a hospital by Primary Healthcare Services --, and partially subsidised patients -- patients whose costs are partially covered based on their income. There are also specified occasions in which services are free of cost.
Because of its abundant cases of HIV / AIDS among citizens (about 5.6 million in 2009) South Africa has been working to create a program to distribute anti-retroviral therapy treatment, which has generally been limited in low economic countries, including neighboring country Lesotho. An anti-retroviral drug aims to control the amount of virus in the patient 's body. In November 2003 the Operational Plan for Comprehensive HIV and AIDS Care, Management and Treatment for South Africa was approved, which was soon accompanied by a National Strategic Plan for 2007 -- 2011. When South Africa freed itself of apartheid, the new health care policy has emphasised public health care, which is founded with primary health care. The National Strategic Plan therefore promotes distribution of anti-retroviral therapy through the public sector, and more specifically, primary health care.
According to the World Health Organization, about 37 % of infected individuals were receiving treatment at the end of 2009. It was n't until 2009 that the South African National AIDS Council urged the government to raise the treatment threshold to be within the World Health Organization guidelines. Although this is the case, the latest anti-retroviral treatment guideline, released in February 2010, continue to fall short of these recommendations. In the beginning of 2010, the government promised to treat all HIV - positive children with anti-retroviral therapy, though throughout the year, there have been studies that show the lack of treatment for children among many hospitals. In 2009, a bit over 50 % of children in need of anti-retroviral therapy were receiving it. Because the World Health Organization 's 2010 guidelines suggest that HIV - positive patients need to start receiving treatment earlier than they have been, only 37 % of those considered in need of anti-retroviral therapy are receiving it.
A controversy within the distribution of anti-retroviral treatment is the use of generic drugs. When an effective anti-retroviral drug became in available in 1996, only economically rich countries could afford it at a price of $10,000 to $15,000 per person per year. For economically disadvantaged countries, such as South Africa, to begin using and distributing the drug, the price had to be lowered substantially. In 2000, generic anti-retroviral treatments started being produced and sold at a much cheaper cost. Needing to compete with these prices, the big - brand pharmaceutical companies were forced to lower their prices. This competition has greatly benefited low economic countries and the prices have continued decline since the generic drug was introduced. The anti-retroviral treatment can now be purchased at as low as eighty - eight dollars per person per year. While the production of generic drugs has allowed the treatment of many more people in need, pharmaceutical companies feel that the combination of a decrease in price and a decrease in customers reduces the money they can spend on researching and developing new medications and treatments for HIV / AIDS.
Following the end of the Second World War, South Africa saw a rapid growth in the coverage of private medical provision, with this development mainly benefiting the predominantly middle class white population. From 1945 to 1960, the percentage of whites covered by health insurance grew from 48 % to 80 % of the population. Virtually the entire white population had shifted away from the free health services provided by the government by 1960, with 95 % of non-whites remaining reliant upon the public sector for treatment.
Membership of health insurance schemes became effectively compulsory for white South Africans due to membership of such schemes being a condition of employment, together with the fact that virtually all whites were formally employed. Pensioner members of many health insurance schemes received the same medical benefits as other members of these schemes, but free of costs.
Since coming to power in 1994, the African National Congress (ANC) has implemented a number of measures to combat health inequalities in South Africa. These have included the introduction of free health care in 1994 for all children under the age of six together with pregnant and breastfeeding women making use of public sector health facilities (extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996) and the extension of free hospital care (in 2003) to children older than six with moderate and severe disabilities.
The current government is working to establish a national health insurance (NHI) system out of concerns for discrepancies within the national health care system, such as unequal access to healthcare amongst different socio - economic groups. Although the details and outline of the proposal have yet to be released, it seeks to find ways to make health care more available to those who currently ca n't afford it or whose situation prevents them from attaining the services they need. There is a discrepancy between money spent in the private sector which serves the wealthy (about US $1500 per head per year) and that spent in the public sector (about US $150 per head per year) which serves about 84 % of the population. About 16 % of the population have private health insurance. The total public funding for healthcare in 2012 / 3 was R21 billion. The NHI scheme is expected to require expenditure of about R336 billion.
The NHI is speculated to propose that there be a single National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) for health insurance. This fund is expected to draw its revenue from general taxes and some sort of health insurance contribution. The proposed fund is supposed to work as a way to purchase and provide health care to all South African residents without detracting from other social services. Those receiving health care from both the public and private sectors will be mandated to contribute through taxes to the NHIF. The ANC hopes that the NHI plan will work to pay for health care costs for those who can not pay for it themselves.
There are those who doubt the NHI and oppose its fundamental techniques. For example, many believe that the NHI will put a burden on the upper class to pay for all lower class health care. Currently, the vast majority of health care funds comes from individual contributions coming from upper class patients paying directly for health care in the private sector. The NHI proposes that health care fund revenues be shifted from these individual contributions to a general tax revenue. Because the NHI aims to provide free health care to all South Africans, the new system is expected to bring an end to the financial burden facing public sector patients.
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where does the columbia river gorge start and end | Columbia River Gorge - wikipedia
The Columbia River Gorge is a canyon of the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m) deep, the canyon stretches for over 80 miles (130 km) as the river winds westward through the Cascade Range forming the boundary between the State of Washington to the north and Oregon to the south. Extending roughly from the confluence of the Columbia with the Deschutes River (and the towns of Roosevelt, Washington, and Arlington, Oregon) in the east down to the eastern reaches of the Portland metropolitan area, the water gap furnishes the only navigable route through the Cascades and the only water connection between the Columbia River Plateau and the Pacific Ocean. It is thus the route of Washington State Route 14, Interstate 84, U.S. Route 30, and a railroad.
The gorge holds federally protected status as a National Scenic Area called the Columbia Gorge National Scenic Area and is managed by the Columbia River Gorge Commission and the US Forest Service. The gorge is a popular recreational destination.
The Columbia River, Klamath River in Northern California, Pit River in Northern California, and Fraser River in Southern British Columbia are the only four rivers connecting the east - side watersheds of the Cascade Mountain Range to the Pacific Ocean. Each river has created a gorge through the Cascade Mountain Range. The Columbia River Gorge marks the state line between Oregon and Washington. The wide range of elevation and precipitation makes the Columbia River Gorge an extremely diverse and dynamic place. Ranging from 4,000 feet (1,200 m) to sea level, and transitioning from 100 inches (2,500 mm) of precipitation to only 10 inches (250 mm) in 80 miles (130 km), the Gorge creates a diverse collection of ecosystems from the temperate rain forest on the western end -- with an average annual precipitation of 75 to 100 inches (1,900 to 2,500 mm) -- to the eastern grasslands with average annual precipitation between 10 and 15 inches (250 and 380 mm), to a transitional dry woodland between Hood River and The Dalles. Isolated micro-habitats have allowed for many species of endemic plants and animals to prosper, including at least 13 endemic wildflowers.
The Gorge transitions between temperate rainforest to dry grasslands in only 80 miles, hosting a dramatic change in scenery while driving down Interstate 84. In the western, temperate rainforest areas, forests are marked by bigleaf maples, Douglas fir, and Western hemlock, all covered in epiphytes. In the transition zone (between Hood River and The Dalles), vegetation turns to Oregon white oak, Ponderosa pine, and cottonwood. At the eastern end, the forests make way for expansive grasslands, with occasional pockets of lodgepole and Ponderosa pine.
Atmospheric pressure differentials east and west of the Cascades create a wind tunnel effect in the deep cut of the gorge, generating 35 mph (56 km / h) winds that make it a popular windsurfing and kitesurfing location. It also creates the right conditions for snow and ice storms during the winter months which also draws very cold east winds at the mouth of the gorge on the west end.
The Gorge is a popular destination for hiking, biking, sight - seeing, fishing, and watersports. The area is known for its high concentration of waterfalls, with over 90 on the Oregon side of the Gorge alone. Many are along the Historic Columbia River Highway, including the notable 620 - foot (190 m) - high Multnomah Falls.
Trails and day use sites are maintained by the Forest Service and many Oregon and Washington state parks.
The Columbia River Gorge began forming as far back as the Miocene (roughly 17 to 12 million years ago), and continued to take shape through the Pleistocene (2 million to 700,000 years ago). During this period the Cascades Range was forming, which slowly moved the Columbia River 's delta about 100 miles (160 km) north to its current location.
Although the river slowly eroded the land over this period of time, the most drastic changes took place at the end of the last Ice Age when the Missoula Floods cut the steep, dramatic walls that exist today, flooding the river as high up as Crown Point. This quick erosion left many layers of volcanic rock exposed.
The gorge has supported human habitation for over 13,000 years. Evidence of the Folsom and Marmes people, who crossed the Bering land bridge from Asia, were found in archaeological digs. Excavations near Celilo Falls, a few miles east of The Dalles, show humans have occupied this salmon - fishing site for more than 10,000 years.
The gorge has provided a transportation corridor for thousands of years. Native Americans would travel through the Gorge to trade at Celilo Falls, both along the river and over Lolo Pass on the north side of Mount Hood. In 1805, the route was used by the Lewis and Clark Expedition to reach the Pacific. Early European and American settlers subsequently established steamboat lines and railroads through the gorge. Today, the BNSF Railway runs freights along the Washington side of the river, while its rival, the Union Pacific Railroad, runs freights along the Oregon shore. Until 1997, Amtrak 's Pioneer also used the Union Pacific tracks. The Portland segment of the Empire Builder uses the BNSF tracks that pass through the gorge.
The Columbia River Highway, built in the early 20th century, was the first major paved highway in the Pacific Northwest. Shipping was greatly simplified after Bonneville Dam and The Dalles Dam submerged the gorge 's major rapids such as Celilo Falls, a major salmon fishing site for local Native Americans until the site 's submergence in 1957.
In November 1986, Congress made it the second U.S. National Scenic Area and established the Columbia River Gorge Commission as part of an interstate compact. The experimental designation came in lieu of being recognized as a national park, which would require the existing industries in towns along the river to relocate. The designation was initially opposed by residents fearing government encroachment, due to restrictions from the plan like building paint colors, and conservationists who feared additional development in the region. In 2004, the gorge became the namesake of the Columbia Gorge American Viticultural Area, a 4,432 - acre (1,794 ha) area located on both sides of the river.
In fall 2017, the Eagle Creek Fire burned in the gorge for three months, consuming almost 50,000 acres (20,000 ha). It reached 100 % containment on November 30, 2017, but was not yet completely out.
Crown Point in the Columbia River Gorge, looking upstream from Chanticleer Point.
Columbia River Gorge, photographed from the southern edge of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.
The view east towards The Dalles from Dog Mountain.
Native Indian petroglyphs in the Columbia River Gorge near The Dalles Dam.
Kitesurfing on the Columbia River.
View of Columbia River Gorge from Cape Horn Trail, looking east toward Beacon Rock.
Columbia River Gorge, photographed from Crown Point.
Triple Falls
Oneonta Creek
Horsethief Butte, near The Dalles.
Coordinates: 45 ° 42 ′ 17 '' N 121 ° 47 ′ 30 '' W / 45.70472 ° N 121.79167 ° W / 45.70472; - 121.79167
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where is the mic located on apple earpods | Apple earbuds - wikipedia
11.9 g EarPods (Lightning)
Apple EarPods are white in - ear headphones included with music players and smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. They are designed to fit the ear while retaining a new design pushed by Apple alongside the iPod and iPod Touch products, with which they were sold together. They are the standard headphones provided with Apple iPhone purchases.
The classic earbuds shipped with all iPods before the fifth generation of both the iPod touch and iPod nano, and the iPhone 5 (which are shipped with the newer Apple EarPods made in Taiwan rather than Japan).
Model number MA814LL / A. Bundled with the original iPhone and iPhone 3G, they feature a control capsule in - line with the right earbud 's wire; they house a microphone and a single button, actuated by squeezing the unit, which (if supported by the device and its software) can activate features such as controlling calls, presentations, or music and video playback, launching Siri, or taking pictures with Camera application. There have been many reports of moisture problems with the remote / mic earbuds.
Shipped with the iPhone 3GS, iPhone 4, iPhone 4S, the third - generation iPod touch, and independently. They expand on the iPhone Stereo Headset by adding two other buttons dedicated to volume control.
Variant of the Earphones with Remote and Mic without a microphone. They shipped only with the third - generation iPod shuffle.
Apple In - Ear Headphones (introduced on September 9, 2008, revised on September 12, 2012) are only sold independently. Like the regular earbuds they have a remote control and microphone built - in. They are made available as the high - end earbud offering with dual drivers, advertised as "engineered for superior acoustic accuracy, balance, and clarity ''. The remote and protective case was redesigned on September 12, 2012, with the remote now matching that of the EarPods and the case subsequently modified with elements of the EarPods case while retaining the triangular shape.
Apple EarPods (renamed "EarPods with 3.5 mm Headphone plug '') (introduced on September 12, 2012) first shipped with the iPhone 5 and feature a remote control and microphone. They also ship with the iPod Touch (5th generation) (without remote and mic) and the iPod Nano (7th generation) (without remote and mic). They are also sold independently. The EarPods shipped with the iPhone 5 and later, along with those individually sold, come with a carrying case, whilst the iPod Touch (5th generation), iPod Touch (6th generation) and iPod Nano (7th generation) only have basic biodegradable packaging, due to their lack of a remote and mic. A microphone icon was added on the previously unmarked back side of the control capsule, on EarPods models actually having a microphone. They are compatible with iPhone 3GS - iPhone 6S, iPod Touch (2nd generation) and onwards and all models of the iPad and iPad mini. They require iOS 2.2 and onwards for iOS devices but are not compatible with the original iPhone, iPhone 3G, or iPod Touch (1st generation) due to sound problems. They are also compatible with most Android devices and computers.
EarPods with Lightning Connector ship with the iPhone 7 and later models and work with all devices that have a Lightning connector and support iOS 10 or later. They also ship with a headphone adapter for 3.5 mm headphones. This adapter works with the phone to replace the removed headphone jack.
AirPods were introduced at the "See you on the 7th '' event in September 2016 and initially supposed to launch before the end of October 2016. After being delayed from its original launch date, AirPods became available for online purchase on December 13, 2016. The AirPods are wireless earbud - style headphones with microphone, dual accelerometers, IR sensors used to pause the music if they are not in a user 's ears, and motion touch sensors that are used to activate Siri. With the absence of an audio jack in the iPhone 7, a wireless connection is one of only two remaining means to connect earphones to the device, the other being digital audio through the Lightning connector. They are advertised to have a battery life of five hours, and come with a charging case that gives them a total of 24 hours of battery life. The case is charged via an included Lightning to USB cable. AirPods are compatible with iPhone, iPad, Apple Watch, Macs, and the 6th generation iPod Touch, but it requires macOS Sierra (or a higher version of the MacOS), iOS 10 and watchOS. They are also compatible with devices on other platforms that support Bluetooth, but the setup process is comparatively complicated and limits the AirPods ' functionality.
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who attended the march on washington in 1963 | March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom - wikipedia
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, the March on Washington, or The Great March on Washington, was held in Washington, D.C. on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. The purpose of the march was to advocate for the civil and economic rights of African Americans. At the march, Martin Luther King Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream '' speech in which he called for an end to racism.
The march was organized by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations that came together under the banner of "jobs and freedom. '' Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000; the most widely cited estimate is 250,000 people. Observers estimated that 75 -- 80 % of the marchers were black. The march was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history.
The march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and preceded the Selma Voting Rights Movement which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Although African Americans had been legally freed from slavery, elevated to the status of citizens and the men given full voting rights at the end of the American Civil War, many continued to face social, economic, and political repression over the years and into the 1960s. In the early 1960s, a system of legal discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, were pervasive in the American South, ensuring that Black Americans remained oppressed. They also experienced discrimination from businesses and governments, and in some places were prevented from voting through intimidation and violence. Twenty - one states prohibited interracial marriage.
The impetus for a march on Washington developed over a long period of time, and earlier efforts to organize such a demonstration included the March on Washington Movement of the 1940s. A. Philip Randolph -- the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council, and vice president of the AFL - CIO -- was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington, in protest of discriminatory hiring by U.S. military contractors and demanding an Executive Order. Faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry. Randolph called off the March.
Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off (despite criticism from Rustin). Their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17, 1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Martin Luther King Jr., and Roy Wilkins. Mahalia Jackson performed.
The 1963 march was an important part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement, which involved demonstrations and nonviolent direct action across the United States. 1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference put aside their differences and came together for the march. Many whites and blacks also came together in the urgency for change in the nation.
Violent confrontations broke out in the South: in Cambridge, Maryland; Pine Bluff, Arkansas; Goldsboro, North Carolina; Somerville, Tennessee; Saint Augustine, Florida; and across Mississippi. Most of these incidents involved white people retaliating against nonviolent demonstrators. Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted. Some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nation 's capital. There was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedy 's race policy as "tokenism ''.
On May 24, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African - American novelist James Baldwin, along with a large group of cultural leaders, to a meeting in New York to discuss race relations. However, the meeting became antagonistic, as black delegates felt that Kennedy did not have a full understanding of the race problem in the nation. The public failure of the meeting, which came to be known as the Baldwin -- Kennedy meeting, underscored the divide between the needs of Black America and the understanding of Washington politicians. However, the meeting also provoked the Kennedy administration to take action on the civil rights for African - Americans. On June 11, 1963, President John F. Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio, announcing that he would begin to push for civil rights legislation -- the law which eventually became the Civil Rights Act of 1964. That night, Mississippi activist Medgar Evers was murdered in his own driveway, further escalating national tension around the issue of racial inequality.
A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin began planning the march in December 1961. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit - ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ blacks. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs ''. They received help from Amalgamated Clothing Workers unionist Stanley Aronowitz, who gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.
On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs ''. He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW 's Walter Reuther, but not of AFL -- CIO president George Meany. Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on economic inequality, stating in their original plan that "integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists. '' As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom '' to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.
In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, an umbrella group which would coordinate funds and messaging. This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "Big Six '', included: Randolph who was chosen as the titular head of the march, James Farmer, president of the Congress of Racial Equality; John Lewis, chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; Martin Luther King Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference; Roy Wilkins, president of the NAACP; and Whitney Young, president of the National Urban League. King in particular had become well known for his role in the Birmingham campaign and for his Letter from Birmingham Jail. Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, because he was a homosexual, a former Communist, and a draft resistor. They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout.
About two months before the march, the Big Six broadened their organizing coalition by bringing on board four white men who supported their efforts: Walter Reuther, president of the United Automobile Workers; Eugene Carson Blake, former president of the National Council of Churches; Mathew Ahmann, executive director of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice; and Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress. Together, the Big Six plus four became known as the "Big Ten. '' John Lewis later recalled, "Somehow, some way, we worked well together. The six of us, plus the four. We became like brothers. ''
On June 22, the organizers met with President Kennedy, who warned against creating "an atmosphere of intimidation '' by bringing a large crowd to Washington. The civil rights activists insisted on holding the march. Wilkins pushed for the organizers to rule out civil disobedience and described this proposal as the "perfect compromise ''. King and Young agreed. Leaders from CORE and SNCC, who wanted to conduct direct actions against the Department of Justice, endorsed the protest before they were informed that civil disobedience would not be allowed. Finalized plans for the March were announced in a press conference on July 2. President Kennedy spoke favorably of the March on July 17, saying that organizers planned a peaceful assembly and had cooperated with the Washington, D.C., police.
Mobilization and logistics were administered by Rustin, a civil rights veteran and organizer of the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, the first of the Freedom Rides to test the Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin was a long - time associate of both Randolph and Dr. King. With Randolph concentrating on building the march 's political coalition, Rustin built and led the team of two hundred activists and organizers who publicized the march and recruited the marchers, coordinated the buses and trains, provided the marshals, and set up and administered all of the logistic details of a mass march in the nation 's capital. During the days leading up to the march, these 200 volunteers used the ballroom of Washington DC radio station WUST as their operations headquarters.
The march was not universally supported among civil rights activists. Some, including Rustin (who assembled 4,000 volunteer marshals from New York), were concerned that it might turn violent, which could undermine pending legislation and damage the international image of the movement. The march was condemned by Malcolm X, spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, who termed it the "farce on Washington ''.
March organizers themselves disagreed over the purpose of the march. The NAACP and Urban League saw it as a gesture of support for a civil rights bill that had been introduced by the Kennedy Administration. Randolph, King, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) saw it as a way of raising both civil rights and economic issues to national attention beyond the Kennedy bill. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) saw it as a way of challenging and condemning the Kennedy administration 's inaction and lack of support for civil rights for African Americans.
Despite their disagreements, the group came together on a set of goals:
Although in years past, Randolph had supported "Negro only '' marches, partly to reduce the impression that the civil rights movement was dominated by white communists, organizers in 1963 agreed that whites and blacks marching side by side would create a more powerful image.
The Kennedy Administration cooperated with the organizers in planning the March, and one member of the Justice Department was assigned as a full - time liaison. Chicago and New York City (as well as some corporations) agreed to designate August 28 as "Freedom Day '' and give workers the day off.
To avoid being perceived as radical, organizers rejected support from Communist groups. However, some politicians claimed that the March was Communist - inspired, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) produced numerous reports suggesting the same. In the days before August 28, the FBI called celebrity backers to inform them of the organizers ' communist connections and advising them to withdraw their support. When William C. Sullivan produced a lengthy report on August 23 suggesting that Communists had failed to appreciably infiltrate the civil rights movement, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover rejected its contents. Strom Thurmond launched a prominent public attack on the March as Communist, and singled out Rustin in particular as a Communist and a gay man.
Organizers worked out of a building at West 130th St. and Lenox in Harlem. They promoted the march by selling buttons, featuring two hands shaking, the words "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom '', a union bug, and the date August 28, 1963. By August 2, they had distributed 42,000 of the buttons. Their goal was a crowd of at least 100,000 people.
As the march was being planned, activists across the country received bomb threats at their homes and in their offices. The Los Angeles Times received a message saying its headquarters would be bombed unless it printed a message calling the president a "Nigger Lover ''. Five airplanes were grounded on the morning of August 28 due to bomb threats. A man in Kansas City telephoned the FBI to say he would put a hole between King 's eyes; the FBI did not respond. Roy Wilkins was threatened with assassination if he did not leave the country.
Thousands traveled by road, rail, and air to Washington D.C. on Wednesday, August 28. Marchers from Boston traveled overnight and arrived in Washington at 7am after an eight - hour trip, but others took much longer bus rides from places like Milwaukee, Little Rock, and St. Louis. Organizers persuaded New York 's MTA to run extra subway trains after midnight on August 28, and the New York City bus terminal was busy throughout the night with peak crowds. A total of 450 buses left New York City from Harlem. Maryland police reported that "by 8: 00 a.m., 100 buses an hour were streaming through the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel. '' The United Automobile Workers financed bus transportation for 5,000 of its rank - and - file members, providing the largest single contingent from any organization.
One reporter, Fred Powledge, accompanied African - Americans who boarded six buses in Birmingham, Alabama, for the 750 - mile trip to Washington. The New York Times carried his report:
The 260 demonstrators, of all ages, carried picnic baskets, water jugs, Bibles and a major weapon - their willingness to march, sing and pray in protest against discrimination. They gathered early this morning (August 27) in Birmingham 's Kelly Ingram Park, where state troopers once (four months previous in May) used fire hoses and dog to put down their demonstrations. It was peaceful in the Birmingham park as the marchers waited for the buses. The police, now part of a moderate city power structure, directed traffic around the square and did not interfere with the gathering... An old man commented on the 20 - hour ride, which was bound to be less than comfortable: "You forget we Negroes have been riding buses all our lives. We do n't have the money to fly in airplanes. ''
John Marshall Kilimanjaro, a demonstrator traveling from Greensboro, North Carolina, said:
Contrary to the mythology, the early moments of the March -- getting there -- was no picnic. People were afraid. We did n't know what we would meet. There was no precedent. Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar. He was an AME preacher. We talked. Every now and then, people on the bus sang ' Oh Freedom ' and ' We Shall Overcome, ' but for the most part there was n't a whole bunch of singing. We were secretly praying that nothing violent happened.
Other bus rides featured racial tension, as black activists criticized liberal white participants as fair - weather friends.
Hazel Mangle Rivers, who had paid $8 for her ticket -- "one - tenth of her husband 's weekly salary '' -- was quoted in the August 29 New York Times. Rivers stated that she was impressed by Washington 's civility: "The people are lots better up here than they are down South. They treat you much nicer. Why, when I was out there at the march a white man stepped on my foot, and he said, "Excuse me, '' and I said "Certainly! '' That 's the first time that has ever happened to me. I believe that was the first time a white person has ever really been nice to me. ''
Some participants who arrived early held an all - night vigil outside the Department of Justice, claiming it had unfairly targeted civil rights activists and that it had been too lenient on white supremacists who attacked them.
The Washington, D.C., police forces were mobilized to full capacity for the march, including reserve officers and deputized firefighters. A total of 5,900 police officers were on duty. The government mustered 2,000 men from the National Guard, and brought in 3,000 outside soldiers to join the 1,000 already stationed in the area. These additional soldiers were flown in on helicopters from bases in Virginia and North Carolina. The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs. All of the forces involved were prepared to implement a coordinated conflict strategy named "Operation Steep Hill ''.
For the first time since Prohibition, liquor sales were banned in Washington D.C. Hospitals stockpiled blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries. Major League Baseball cancelled two games between the Minnesota Twins and the last place Washington Senators even though the venue, D.C. Stadium, was nearly four miles from the Lincoln Memorial rally site.
Rustin and Walter Fauntroy negotiated some security issues with the government, gaining approval for private marshals with the understanding that these would not be able to act against outside agitators. The FBI and Justice Department refused to provide preventive guards for buses traveling through the South to reach D.C. William Johnson recruited more than 1,000 police officers to serve on this force. Julius Hobson, an FBI informant who served on the March 's security force, told the team to be on the lookout for FBI infiltrators who might act as agents provocateurs. Jerry Bruno, President Kennedy 's advance man, was positioned to cut the power to the public address system in the event of any incendiary rally speech.
The organizers originally planned to hold the march outside of the Capitol Building. However, Reuther persuaded them to move the march to the Lincoln Memorial. He believed the Lincoln Memorial would be less threatening to Congress and the occasion would be appropriate underneath the gaze of Abraham Lincoln 's statute. The committee, notably Rustin, agreed to move the site on the condition that Reuther pay for a $19,000 sound system so that everyone on the National Mall could hear the speakers and musicians.
Rustin pushed hard for an expensive sound system, maintaining "We can not maintain order where people can not hear. '' The system was obtained and set up at the Lincoln Memorial, but was sabotaged on the day before the March. Its operators were unable to repair it. Fauntroy contacted Attorney General Robert Kennedy and his civil rights liaison Burke Marshall, demanding that the government fix the system. Fauntroy reportedly told them: "We have a couple hundred thousand people coming. Do you want a fight here tomorrow after all we 've done? '' The system was successfully rebuilt overnight by the U.S. Army Signal Corps.
The march commanded national attention by preempting regularly scheduled television programs. As the first ceremony of such magnitude ever initiated and dominated by African Americans, the march also was the first to have its nature wholly misperceived in advance. Dominant expectations ran from paternal apprehension to dread. On Meet the Press, reporters grilled Roy Wilkins and Martin Luther King about widespread foreboding that "it would be impossible to bring more than 100,000 militant Negroes into Washington without incidents and possibly rioting. '' Life magazine declared that the capital was suffering "its worst case of invasion jitters since the First Battle of Bull Run. '' The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs and the jails shifted inmates to other prisons to make room for those arrested in mass arrests; the city banned all sales of alcoholic beverages; hospitals made room for riot casualties by postponing elective surgery. With nearly 1,700 extra correspondents supplementing the Washington press corps, the march drew a media assembly larger than the Kennedy inauguration two years earlier. Students from the University of California came together as black power organizations and emphasized on the importance of African American freedom struggle. The march included black political parties and William Worthy who was one of many who lead college students during the freedom struggle era.
On August 28, more than 2,000 buses, 21 chartered trains, 10 chartered airliners, and uncounted cars converged on Washington. All regularly scheduled planes, trains, and buses were also filled to capacity.
Although Randolph and Rustin had originally planned to fill the streets of Washington, D.C., the final route of the March covered only half of the National Mall. The march began at the Washington Monument and was scheduled to progress to the Lincoln Memorial with a program of music and speakers. Demonstrators were met at the monument by speakers and musicians. Women leaders were asked to march down Independence Avenue, while the male leaders marched on Pennsylvania Avenue with the media.
The march failed to start on time because its leaders were meeting with members of Congress. To the leaders ' surprise, the assembled group began to march from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial without them. The leaders met the March at Constitution Avenue, where they linked arms at the head of a crowd in order to be photographed ' leading the march '.
Marchers were not supposed to create their own signs, though this rule was not completely enforced by marshals. Most of the demonstrators did carry pre-made signs, available in piles at the Washington Monument. The UAW provided thousands of signs that, among other things, read: "There Is No Halfway House on the Road to Freedom, '' "Equal Rights and Jobs NOW, '' "UAW Supports Freedom March, '' "in Freedom we are Born, in Freedom we must Live, '' and "Before we 'll be a Slave, we 'll be Buried in our Grave. ''
About 50 members of the American Nazi Party staged a counter-protest and were quickly dispersed by police. The rest of Washington was quiet during the March. Most non-participating workers stayed home. Jailers allowed inmates to watch the March on TV.
Representatives from each of the sponsoring organizations addressed the crowd from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial. Speakers (dubbed "The Big Ten '') included The Big Six; three religious leaders (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish); and labor leader Walter Reuther. None of the official speeches were by women; Josephine Baker gave a speech during the preliminary offerings, but women 's presence in the official program was limited to a "tribute '' led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke (see "excluded speakers '' below.)
Floyd McKissick read James Farmer 's speech because Farmer had been arrested during a protest in Louisiana; Farmer had written that the protests would not stop "until the dogs stop biting us in the South and the rats stop biting us in the North. ''
The actual order of the speakers was as follows: 1. A. Philip Randolph -- March Director, 2. Walter Reuther -- UAW, AFL - CIO, 3. Roy Wilkins -- NAACP, 4. John Lewis -- SNCC, 5. Daisy Bates -- Little Rock, Arkansas, 6. Dr. Eugene Carson Blake -- United Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches, 7. Floyd McKissick -- CORE, 8. Whitney Young -- National Urban League, 9. Several smaller speeches, including Rabbi Joachim Prinz -- American Jewish Congress, Mathew Ahmann -- National Catholic Conference, Josephine Baker -- actress, and 10. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. -- SCLC. Then closing remarks by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, March Organizers, leading with The Pledge and list of demands.
Marian Anderson was scheduled to lead the National Anthem but was unable to arrive on time; Camilla Williams performed in her place. Following an invocation by Archbishop Patrick O'Boyle, the opening remarks were given by march director A. Philip Randolph, followed by Eugene Carson Blake. A tribute to "Negro Women Fighters for Freedom '' was then led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke briefly in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight. The tribute introduced Daisy Bates, Diane Nash, Prince E. Lee, Rosa Parks, and Gloria Richardson. The following speakers were SNCC chairman John Lewis, labor leader Walter Reuther and CORE chairman Floyd McKissick (substituting for arrested CORE director James Farmer). The Eva Jessye Choir then sang, and Rabbi Uri Miller (president of the Synagogue Council of America) offered a prayer, followed by National Urban League director Whitney Young, NCCIJ director Mathew Ahmann, and NAACP leader Roy Wilkins. After a performance by singer Mahalia Jackson, American Jewish Congress president Joachim Prinz spoke, followed by SCLC president Martin Luther King Jr. Rustin then read the march 's official demands for the crowd 's approval, and Randolph led the crowd in a pledge to continue working for the march 's goals. The program was closed with a benediction by Morehouse College president Benjamin Mays.
Although one of the officially stated purposes of the march was to support the civil rights bill introduced by the Kennedy Administration, several of the speakers criticized the proposed law as insufficient. Two government agents stood by in a position to cut power to the microphone if necessary.
Roy Wilkins announced that W.E.B. Du Bois had died in Ghana the previous night; the crowd observed a moment of silence in his memory. Wilkins had initially refused to announce the news because he despised Du Bois as a Communist -- but then insisted on making the announcement when he realized that Randolph would make it if he did n't. Wilkins said: "Regardless of the fact that in his later years Dr. Du Bois chose another path, it is incontrovertible that at the dawn of the twentieth century his was the voice that was calling you to gather here today in this cause. If you want to read something that applies to 1963 go back and get a volume of The Souls of Black Folk by Du Bois, published in 1903. ''
John Lewis of SNCC was the youngest speaker at the event. His speech -- which a number of SNCC activists had helped write -- took the Administration to task for how little it had done to protect southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South. Deleted from his original speech at the insistence of more conservative and pro-Kennedy leaders were phrases such as:
In good conscience, we can not support wholeheartedly the administration 's civil rights bill, for it is too little and too late...
I want to know, which side is the federal government on?...
The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into the courts. Listen, Mr. Kennedy. Listen, Mr. Congressman. Listen, fellow citizens. The black masses are on the march for jobs and freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there wo n't be a "cooling - off '' period.
... We will march through the South, through the heart of Dixie, the way Sherman did. We shall pursue our own scorched earth policy and burn Jim Crow to the ground -- nonviolently...
Lewis ' speech was distributed to fellow organizers the evening before the march, garnering resistance from Reuther, O'Boye, and others who thought it was too divisive and militant. O'Boyle objected most strenuously to a part of the speech that called for immediate action and disavowed "patience. '' The government and moderate organizers could not countenance Lewis ' explicit opposition to Kennedy 's civil rights bill. That night, O'Boyle and other members of the Catholic delegation began preparing a statement announcing their withdrawal from the March. Reuther convinced them to wait and called Rustin; Rustin informed Lewis at 2 A.M. on the day of the march that his speech was unacceptable to key coalition members. (Rustin also reportedly contacted Tom Kahn, mistakenly believing that Kahn had edited the speech and inserted the line about Sherman 's March to the Sea. Rustin asked, "How could you do this? Do you know what Sherman did?) But Lewis did not want to change the speech. Other members of SNCC, including Stokely Carmichael, were also adamant that the speech not be censored. The dispute continued until minutes before talks were scheduled to begin. Under threat of public denouncement by the religious leaders, and under pressure from the rest of his coalition, Lewis agreed to omit the ' inflammatory ' passages. Many activists from SNCC, CORE, and even SCLC were angry at what they considered censorship of his speech. In the end, Lewis added a qualified endorsement of Kennedy 's civil rights legislation, saying: "It is true that we support the administration 's Civil Rights Bill. We support it with great reservation, however. '' Even after toning down his speech, Lewis called for activists to "get in and stay in the streets of every city, every village and hamlet of this nation until true freedom comes ''.
The speech given by SCLC president King, who spoke last, became known as the "I Have a Dream '' speech, which was carried live by TV stations and subsequently considered the most impressive moment of the march. In it, King called for an end to racism in the United States. It invoked the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. At the end of the speech, Mahalia Jackson shouted from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin! '', and King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme of "I have a dream ''. Over time it has been hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, added to the National Recording Registry and memorialized by the National Park Service with an inscription on the spot where King stood to deliver the speech.
A. Philip Randolph spoke first, promising: "we shall return again and again to Washington in ever growing numbers until total freedom is ours. '' Randolph also closed the event along with Bayard Rustin. Rustin followed King 's speech by slowly reading the list of demands. The two concluded by urging attendees to take various actions in support of the struggle.
Walter Reuther urged Americans to pressure their politicians to act to address racial injustices. He said,
American democracy is on trial in the eyes of the world... We can not successfully preach democracy in the world unless we first practice democracy at home. American democracy will lack the moral credentials and be both unequal to and unworthy of leading the forces of freedom against the forces of tyranny unless we take bold, affirmative, adequate steps to bridge the moral gap between American democracy 's noble promises and its ugly practices in the field of civil rights.
According to Irving Bluestone, who was standing near the platform while Reuther delivered his remarks, he overheard two black women talking. One asked, "Who is that white man? '' The other replied, "Do n't you know him? That 's the white Martin Luther King. ''
Author James Baldwin was prevented from speaking at the March on the grounds that his comments would be too inflammatory. Baldwin later commented on the irony of the "terrifying and profound '' requests that he prevent the March from happening:
In my view, by that time, there was, on the one hand, nothing to prevent -- the March had already been co-opted -- and, on the other, no way of stopping the people from descending on Washington. What struck me most horribly was that virtually no one in power (including some blacks or Negroes who were somewhere next door to power) was able, even remotely, to accept the depth, the dimension, of the passion and the faith of the people.
Despite the protests of organizer Anna Arnold Hedgeman, no women gave a speech at the March. Male organizers attributed this omission to the "difficulty of finding a single woman to speak without causing serious problems vis - à - vis other women and women 's groups ''. Hedgeman read a statement at an August 16 meeting, charging:
In light of the role of Negro women in the struggle for freedom and especially in light of the extra burden they have carried because of the castration of our Negro men in this culture, it is incredible that no woman should appear as a speaker at the historic March on Washington Meeting at the Lincoln Memorial...
The assembled group agreed that Myrlie Evers, the new widow of Medgar Evers, could speak during the "Tribute to Women ''. However, Mrs. Evers was unavailable. Daisy Bates spoke briefly (less than 200 words) in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight. Earlier, Josephine Baker had addressed the crowd before the official program began. Although Gloria Richardson was on the program and had been asked to give a two - minute speech, when she arrived at the stage her chair with her name on it had been removed, and the event marshal took her microphone away after she said "hello ''. Richardson, along with Rosa Parks and Lena Horne, was escorted away from the podium before Martin Luther King Jr. spoke.
Early plans for the March would have included an "Unemployed Worker '' as one of the speakers. This position was eliminated, furthering criticism of the March 's middle - class bias.
Gospel legend Mahalia Jackson sang "How I Got Over '', and Marian Anderson sang "He 's Got the Whole World in His Hands ''. This was not Marian Anderson 's first appearance at the Lincoln Memorial. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall. With the aid of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her husband Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open - air concert on Easter Sunday, 1939, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.
Joan Baez led the crowds in several verses of "We Shall Overcome '' and "Oh Freedom ''. Musician Bob Dylan performed "When the Ship Comes In '', for which he was joined by Baez. Dylan also performed "Only a Pawn in Their Game '', a provocative and not completely popular choice because it asserted that Byron De La Beckwith, as a poor white man, was not personally or primarily to blame for the murder of Medgar Evers.
Peter, Paul and Mary sang "If I Had a Hammer '' and Dylan 's "Blowin ' in the Wind ''. Odetta sang "I 'm On My Way ''.
Some participants, including Dick Gregory criticized the choice of mostly white performers and the lack of group participation in the singing. Dylan himself said he felt uncomfortable as a white man serving as a public image for the Civil Rights Movement. After the March on Washington, he performed at few other immediately politicized events.
The event featured many prominent celebrities in addition to singers on the program. Harry Belafonte, Sidney Poitier, James Baldwin, Jackie Robinson, Sammy Davis, Jr., Ruby Dee, Diahann Carroll, and Lena Horne were among the black celebrities attending. There were also quite a few white celebrities there supporting the cause: James Garner, Charlton Heston, Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, Marlon Brando, and Burt Lancaster, among others.
After the March, the speakers travelled to the White House for a brief discussion of proposed civil rights legislation with President Kennedy. Kennedy had watched King 's speech on TV and was very impressed. According to biographer Thomas C. Reeves, Kennedy "felt that he would be booed at the March, and also did n't want to meet with organizers before the March because he did n't want a list of demands. He arranged a 5 P.M. meeting at the White House with the 10 leaders on the 28th. '' The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest '' and Kennedy felt it was a victory for him as well -- bolstering the chances for his civil rights bill.
Media attention gave the march national exposure, carrying the organizers ' speeches and offering their own commentary. In his section The March on Washington and Television News, William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last Presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers ''. The major networks broadcast some of the March live, though they interspersed footage of interviews with politicians. Subsequent broadcasts focused heavily on the "I have a dream '' portion of King 's speech.
The Voice of America translated the speeches and rebroadcast them in 36 languages. The United States Information Agency organized a press conference for the benefit of foreign journalists, and also created a documentary film of the event for distribution to embassies abroad. Commented Michael Thelwell of SNCC: "So it happened that Negro students from the South, some of whom still had unhealed bruises from the electric cattle prods which Southern police used to break up demonstrations, were recorded for the screens of the world portraying ' American Democracy at Work. ' ''
Although the mass media generally declared the March successful because of its high turnout, organizers were not confident that it would create change. Randolph and Rustin abandoned their belief in the effectiveness of marching on Washington. King maintained faith that action in Washington could work, but determined that future marchers would need to call greater attention to economic injustice. In 1967 -- 1968, he organized a Poor People 's Campaign to occupy the National Mall with a shantytown.
Black nationalist Malcolm X, in his Message to the Grass Roots speech, criticized the march, describing it as "a picnic '' and "a circus ''. He said the civil rights leaders had diluted the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the strength and anger of black people, by allowing white people and organizations to help plan and participate in the march. One SNCC staffer commented during the march, "He 's denouncing us as clowns, but he 's right there with the clown show. '' But the membership of SNCC, increasingly frustrated with the tactics of the NAACP and other moderate groups, gradually embraced Malcolm X 's position.
Segregationists including William Jennings Bryan Dorn criticized the government for cooperating with the civil rights activists. Senator Olin D. Johnston rejected an invitation to attend, writing: "You are committing the worst possible mistake in promoting this March. You should know that criminal, fanatical, and communistic elements, as well as crackpots, will move in to take every advantage of this mob. You certainly will have no influence on any member of Congress, including myself. ''
Many participants said they felt the March was a historic and life - changing experience. Nan Grogan Orrock, a student at Mary Washington College, said: "You could n't help but get swept up in the feeling of the March. It was an incredible experience of this mass of humanity with one mind moving down the street. It was like being part of a glacier. You could feel the sense of collective will and effort in the air. '' SNCC organizer Bob Zellner reported that the event "provided dramatic proof that the sometimes quiet and always dangerous work we did in the Deep South had had a profound national impact. The spectacle of a quarter of a million supporters and activists gave me an assurance that the work I was in the process of dedicating my life to was worth doing. ''
Richard Brown, then a white graduate student at Harvard University, recalls that the March fostered direct actions for economic progress: "Henry Armstrong and I compared notes. I realized the Congress of Racial Equality might help black employment in Boston by urging businesses to hire contractors like Armstrong. He agreed to help start a list of reliable contractors that CORE could promote. It was a modest effort -- but it moved in the right direction. ''
Other participants, more sympathetic to Malcolm X and the black nationalists, expressed ambivalence. One marcher from New York explained:
It 's like St. Patrick 's Day. I came out of respect for what my people are doing, not because I believe it will do any good. I thought it would do some good in the beginning. But when the march started to get all the official approval from Mastah Kennedy, Mastah Wagner, Mastah Spellman, and they started setting limits on how we had to march peacefully, I knew that the march was going to be a mockery, that they were giving us something again.
Marcher Beverly Alston thought that the day had its greatest impact within the movement: "Culturally, there has been tremendous progress over the past forty years. Black awareness and self - determination has soared. Politically, I just do n't think we 've made enough progress. '' Fifteen - year - old Ericka Jenkins from Washington said:
I saw people laughing and listening and standing very close to one another, almost in an embrace. Children of every size, pregnant women, elderly people who seemed tired but happy to be there, clothing that made me know that they struggled to make it day to day, made me know they worked in farms or offices or even nearby for the government. I did n't see teenagers alone; I saw groups of teenagers with teachers. White people (were) standing in wonder. Their eyes were open, they were listening. Openness and nothing on guard -- I saw that in everybody. I was so happy to see that in the white people that they could listen and take in and respect and believe in the words of a black person. I had never seen anything like that.
Some people discussed racism becoming less explicit after the March. Reverend Abraham Woods of Birmingham commented: "Everything has changed. And when you look at it, nothing has changed. Racism is under the surface, and an incident that could scratch it, can bring it out. ''
The symbolism of the March has been contested since before it even took place. In the years following the March, movement radicals increasingly subscribed to Malcolm X 's narrative of the March as a co-optation by the white establishment. Liberals and conservatives tended to embrace the March, but focused mostly on King 's "I Have a Dream '' speech and the legislative successes of 1964 and 1965.
The mass media identified King 's speech as a highlight of the event and focused on this oration to the exclusion of other aspects. For several decades, King took center stage in narratives about the March. More recently, historians and commentators have acknowledged the role played by Bayard Rustin in organizing the event.
Soon after the speakers ended their meetings with Congress to go join the March, both houses passed legislation to create a dispute arbitration board for striking railroad workers.
The March is credited with propelling the U.S. government into action on civil rights, creating political momentum for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
The cooperation of a Democratic administration with the issue of civil rights marked a pivotal moment in voter alignment within the U.S. The Democratic Party gave up the Solid South -- its undivided support since Reconstruction among the segregated Southern states -- and went on to capture a high proportion of votes from blacks from the Republicans.
The 1963 March also spurred anniversary marches that occur every five years, with the 20th and 25th being some of the most well known. The 25th Anniversary theme was "We Still have a Dream... Jobs * Peace * Freedom. ''
At the 2013 anniversary march, President Barack Obama conferred a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom on Bayard Rustin and 15 others.
For the 50th Anniversary, the United States Postal Service released a forever stamp that commemorates the 1963 March on Washington. The stamp shows marchers near the Washington Monument with signs calling for equal rights and jobs for all.
In 2013, the Economic Policy Institute launched a series of reports around the theme of "The Unfinished March ''. These reports analyze the goals of the original march and assess how much progress has been made. They echo the message of Randolph and Rustin that civil rights can not transform people 's quality of life unless accompanied by economic justice. They contend that many of the March 's primary goals -- including housing, integrated education, and widespread employment at living wages -- have not been accomplished. They further argued that although legal advances were made, black people still live in concentrated areas of poverty ("ghettoes ''), where they receive inferior education and suffer from widespread unemployment.
Dedrick Muhammad of the NAACP writes that racial inequality of income and homeownership have increased since 1963 and worsened during the recent Great Recession.
Sidney Poitier, Harry Belafonte and Charlton Heston
Actor Ossie Davis
Dr. Ralph Bunche
Major League Baseball player, Jackie Robinson
Four young marchers singing
Charlton Heston, James Baldwin, Marlon Brando, and Harry Belafonte
Food service crew
Sammy Davis Jr., with Roy Wilkins, Executive Secretary of NAACP
Vocalists Peter, Paul, and Mary
National Basketball Association player, Bill Russell
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Video
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in which cases is a conditional statement of the form if a then b false | Material conditional - wikipedia
The circle on the left bounds all members of set A (\ displaystyle A), and the one on the right bounds all members of set B (\ displaystyle B). The red area describes all members for which the material conditional is true, and the white area describes all members for which it is false. The material conditional differs significantly from a natural language 's "if... then... '' statement. It is only false when both the antecedent A (\ displaystyle A) is true and the consequent B (\ displaystyle B) is false.))
The material conditional (also known as material implication, material consequence, or simply implication, implies, or conditional) is a logical connective (or a binary operator) that is often symbolized by a forward arrow "→ ''. The material conditional is used to form statements of the form p → q (termed a conditional statement) which is read as "if p then q ''. Unlike the English construction "if... then... '', the material conditional statement p → q does not specify a causal relationship between p and q. It is merely to be understood to mean "if p is true, then q is also true '' such that the statement p → q is false only when p is true and q is false. The material conditional only states that q is true when (but not necessarily only when) p is true, and makes no claim that p causes q.
The material conditional is also symbolized using:
With respect to the material conditionals above:
Conditional statements may be nested such that either or both of the antecedent or the consequent may themselves be conditional statements. In the example "(p → q) → (r → s) '', meaning "if the truth of p implies the truth of q, then the truth of r implies the truth of s), both the antecedent and the consequent are conditional statements.
In classical logic p → q (\ displaystyle p \ rightarrow q) is logically equivalent to ¬ (p ∧ ¬ q) (\ displaystyle \ neg (p \ land \ neg q)) and by De Morgan 's Law logically equivalent to ¬ p ∨ q (\ displaystyle \ neg p \ lor q). Whereas, in minimal logic (and therefore also intuitionistic logic) p → q (\ displaystyle p \ rightarrow q) only logically entails ¬ (p ∧ ¬ q) (\ displaystyle \ neg (p \ land \ neg q)); and in intuitionistic logic (but not minimal logic) ¬ p ∨ q (\ displaystyle \ neg p \ lor q) entails p → q (\ displaystyle p \ rightarrow q).
Logicians have many different views on the nature of material implication and approaches to explain its sense.
In classical logic, the compound p → q is logically equivalent to the negative compound: not both p and not q. Thus the compound p → q is false if and only if both p is true and q is false. By the same stroke, p → q is true if and only if either p is false or q is true (or both). Thus → is a function from pairs of truth values of the components p, q to truth values of the compound p → q, whose truth value is entirely a function of the truth values of the components. Hence, this interpretation is called truth - functional. The compound p → q is logically equivalent also to ¬ p ∨ q (either not p, or q (or both)), and to ¬ q → ¬ p (if not q then not p). But it is not equivalent to ¬ p → ¬ q, which is equivalent to q → p.
The truth table associated with the material conditional p → q is identical to that of ¬ p ∨ q. It is as follows:
It may also be useful to note that in Boolean algebra, true and false can be denoted as 1 and 0 respectively with an equivalent table.
The material conditional can be considered as a symbol of a formal theory, taken as a set of sentences, satisfying all the classical inferences involving →, in particular the following characteristic rules:
Unlike the truth - functional one, this approach to logical connectives permits the examination of structurally identical propositional forms in various logical systems, where somewhat different properties may be demonstrated. For example, in intuitionistic logic which rejects proofs by contraposition as valid rules of inference, (p → q) ⇒ ¬ p ∨ q is not a propositional theorem, but the material conditional is used to define negation.
When studying logic formally, the material conditional is distinguished from the semantic consequence relation ⊨ (\ displaystyle \ models). We say A ⊨ B (\ displaystyle A \ models B) if every interpretation that makes A true also makes B true. However, there is a close relationship between the two in most logics, including classical logic. For example, the following principles hold:
These principles do not hold in all logics, however. Obviously they do not hold in non-monotonic logics, nor do they hold in relevance logics.
Other properties of implication (the following expressions are always true, for any logical values of variables):
Note that a → (b → c) (\ displaystyle a \ rightarrow (b \ rightarrow c)) is logically equivalent to (a ∧ b) → c (\ displaystyle (a \ land b) \ rightarrow c); this property is sometimes called un / currying. Because of these properties, it is convenient to adopt a right - associative notation for → where a → b → c (\ displaystyle a \ rightarrow b \ rightarrow c) denotes a → (b → c) (\ displaystyle a \ rightarrow (b \ rightarrow c)).
Comparison of Boolean truth tables shows that a → b (\ displaystyle a \ rightarrow b) is equivalent to ¬ a ∨ b (\ displaystyle \ neg a \ lor b), and one is an equivalent replacement for the other in classical logic. See material implication (rule of inference).
Outside of mathematics, it is a matter of some controversy as to whether the truth function for material implication provides an adequate treatment of conditional statements in a natural language such as English, i.e., indicative conditionals and counterfactual conditionals. An indicative conditional is a sentence in the indicative mood with a conditional clause attached. A counterfactual conditional is a false - to - fact sentence in the subjunctive mood. That is to say, critics argue that in some non-mathematical cases, the truth value of a compound statement, "if p then q '', is not adequately determined by the truth values of p and q. Examples of non-truth - functional statements include: "q because p '', "p before q '' and "it is possible that p ''.
"(Of) the sixteen possible truth - functions of A and B, material implication is the only serious candidate. First, it is uncontroversial that when A is true and B is false, "If A, B '' is false. A basic rule of inference is modus ponens: from "If A, B '' and A, we can infer B. If it were possible to have A true, B false and "If A, B '' true, this inference would be invalid. Second, it is uncontroversial that "If A, B '' is sometimes true when A and B are respectively (true, true), or (false, true), or (false, false)... Non-truth - functional accounts agree that "If A, B '' is false when A is true and B is false; and they agree that the conditional is sometimes true for the other three combinations of truth - values for the components; but they deny that the conditional is always true in each of these three cases. Some agree with the truth - functionalist that when A and B are both true, "If A, B '' must be true. Some do not, demanding a further relation between the facts that A and that B. ''
The truth - functional theory of the conditional was integral to Frege 's new logic (1879). It was taken up enthusiastically by Russell (who called it "material implication ''), Wittgenstein in the Tractatus, and the logical positivists, and it is now found in every logic text. It is the first theory of conditionals which students encounter. Typically, it does not strike students as obviously correct. It is logic 's first surprise. Yet, as the textbooks testify, it does a creditable job in many circumstances. And it has many defenders. It is a strikingly simple theory: "If A, B '' is false when A is true and B is false. In all other cases, "If A, B '' is true. It is thus equivalent to "~ (A& ~ B) '' and to "~ A or B ''. "A ⊃ B '' has, by stipulation, these truth conditions.
The meaning of the material conditional can sometimes be used in the English "if condition then consequence '' construction (a kind of conditional sentence), where condition and consequence are to be filled with English sentences. However, this construction also implies a "reasonable '' connection between the condition (protasis) and consequence (apodosis) (see Connexive logic).
The material conditional can yield some unexpected truths when expressed in natural language. For example, any material conditional statement with a false antecedent is true (see vacuous truth). So the statement "if 2 is odd then 2 is even '' is true. Similarly, any material conditional with a true consequent is true. So the statement "if I have a penny in my pocket then Paris is in France '' is always true, regardless of whether or not there is a penny in my pocket. These problems are known as the paradoxes of material implication, though they are not really paradoxes in the strict sense; that is, they do not elicit logical contradictions. These unexpected truths arise because speakers of English (and other natural languages) are tempted to equivocate between the material conditional and the indicative conditional, or other conditional statements, like the counterfactual conditional and the material biconditional.
It is not surprising that a rigorously defined truth - functional operator does not correspond exactly to all notions of implication or otherwise expressed by ' if... then... ' sentences in natural languages. For an overview of some of the various analyses, formal and informal, of conditionals, see the "References '' section below. Relevance logic attempts to capture these alternate concepts of implication that material implication glosses over.
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who owns the diplomat hotel in hollywood florida | Diplomat Resort & Spa Hollywood - wikipedia
The Diplomat Resort & Spa, A Curio Collection by Hilton is a beachfront resort located in Hollywood, Florida (Just South of Fort Lauderdale). The hotel has a North and a South Tower that have 998 rooms and are 36 stories tall. The Diplomat has two pools, six restaurants and lounges, beachfront location and a convention center. The hotel is currently owned by Thayer Lodging Group and is operated under Hilton Worldwide
The Diplomat Hotel / Motel was opened in 1958. It was the only hotel in its time that was located between Miami and Fort Lauderdale. Supermarket tycoon Samuel Friedland opened the 150 room hotel named "The Envoy ''. He later expanded the hotel to 350 rooms and named it "The Diplomat ''. Soon, the Diplomat Hotel was a successful hotel in the Hollywood Area. Hollywood celebrities which include Bing Crosby, Maurice Chevalier, Woody Allen and more stayed at the Diplomat Hotel. Harry Truman also took visits to the Diplomat. In 1984, Bob Hope and Ronald Reagan visited the Diplomat as well. Due to financial problems, The Diplomat was closed and sold to the United Association of Journeymen. The Diplomat was demolished in 1998. Recently the hotel was renamed Diplomat Beach Resort
In 2002, Starwood Hotels and Resorts Worldwide opened the new Westin Diplomat Resort and Spa with 36 stories and 998 rooms. It cost $187 million to build the Westin Diplomat.
On August 29, 2014, Thayer Lodging Group bought the Westin Diplomat Resort and Spa for $460 Million Dollars. The Westin Diplomat had officially left the Starwood System. Thayer Lodging Group re-branded their hotel as a Curio Collection by Hilton.
Diplomat Landing is a complex across from the Diplomat Resort & Spa that is also owned by Thayer Lodging Group. Diplomat Landing is home to Bristol 's Burgers, formally known as Rivals Waterfront Bar & Grille (Part of the hotel) and Portico, an outdoor beer and wine garden that is located next to the Intracostal Waterway. Diplomat Landing also serves as a parking structure for guests staying at the resort. (A sky - bridge connects the Diplomat Resort to Diplomat Landing).
Coordinates: 25 ° 59 ′ 30 '' N 80 ° 07 ′ 05 '' W / 25.9917 ° N 80.1180 ° W / 25.9917; - 80.1180
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what area was not included in british plans for their 1814 campaign | Fort Bowyer - wikipedia
Fort Bowyer was a short - lived earthen and stockade fortification that the United States Army erected in 1813 on Mobile Point, near the mouth of Mobile Bay in what is now Baldwin County, Alabama, but then was part of the Mississippi Territory. The British twice attacked the fort during the War of 1812. The first, unsuccessful attack, took place in September 1814 and led to the British changing their strategy and attacking New Orleans. The second attack, following their defeat at the Battle of New Orleans, was successful. However, it took place in February 1815, after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but before the news had reached that part of America. Between 1819 and 1834 the United States built a new masonry fortification, Fort Morgan, on the site of Fort Bowyer.
Mobile had been a Spanish possession before the beginning of the Patriot War, but Congress had declared it American territory after commencement of the War of 1812. After Spanish forces evacuated Mobile in April 1813, the Americans built a redoubt on Mobile Point.
In June 1813, Colonel John Bowyer completed the fort. The fort, which initially had 14 guns, was made of sand and logs and fan - shaped, with the curved face facing the ship channel into Mobile Bay. On the landward side there was a bastion, flanked by two demi - bastions. The fort 's purpose was to impede any British invasion at this point on the Gulf Coast, as the fort commanded the narrow entrance to Mobile Bay. About a year after the fort 's construction the Americans abandoned it, but in August 1814, Major William Lawrence and 160 men from the 2nd U.S. Infantry re-garrisoned it.
East Coast
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
West Indies / Gulf Coast
Pacific Ocean
The First Battle of Fort Bowyer took place in mid-September, 1814. Captain William Percy of the Royal Navy decided to attack the fort in preparation for an assault on Mobile, doing so with 60 redcoats and an artillery piece. He believed Bowyer to be a low, wooden battery mounting some six to 14 small caliber guns.
Capturing the fort would enable the British to move on Mobile and thereby block Louisiana 's trade. From Mobile, the British could move overland to Natchez to cut off New Orleans from the north.
Percy took with him HMS Hermes (22 guns), HMS Sophie (18 guns), HMS Carron (20 guns; Captain Robert Cavendish Spencer), and a fourth vessel, HMS Childers (18 guns; Capt. Umfreville). American sources often mis - attributed the fourth vessel as HMS Anaconda, of 18 guns. Lieutenant Colonel Edward Nicolls volunteered to proceed with diversionary forces on land.
On the morning of 12 September, Percy landed Nicolls 's motley force of 60 Royal Marines,, about 60 Indians, together with a 51⁄2 - inch howitzer, about 9 miles to the eastward. The British land force then marched against the fort and Lawrence 's 160 men.
A further sixty Indians, under First Lieutenant James Cassell, had been detached to secure the pass of Bon Secour 27 miles to the east of the fort, but they played no active part in the attack itself.
The American forces in Fort Bowyer, commanded by William T. Lawrence, consisted of 160 infantry, and a disputed number of cannon which ranged between 6 and 14 guns.
The battle began with the Americans repulsing the British land attack on 14 September. Nicolls, ill at the time, was observing on Hermes. On 15 September, after contrary winds had died down, Percy crossed the bar with Hermes, Sophie, Carron, and Childers. The fort opened fire at 3: 20 p.m. and at 3: 30 Hermes opened fire. The U.S. fort and Hermes were at musket - shot range. At 3: 40, Sophie opened fire also, but the other two vessels were not able to get into a firing position. During the battle, a wooden splinter wounded Nicolls in the eye.
The British naval attack was unsuccessful. After two hours of fruitless bombardment, Hermes ran aground and lay helpless under the fire from the fort. Sophie 's boats took off Hermes ' crew and Percy set her on fire; she subsequently blew up after the fire reached her magazine. The remaining ships anchored for the night some one and half miles from the fort.
The next morning they re-crossed the bar and sailed away. Hermes had lost 17 killed in action, 5 mortally wounded and 19 wounded, while Sophie had 6 killed in action, 4 mortally wounded and 12 wounded, and the Carron had one mortally wounded, and 5 wounded. In all, including the marine killed on shore (Charles Butcher), the British lost 34 killed and 35 wounded in the land and naval attacks, while the Americans lost only four men killed and five or more wounded. Percy 's court - martial for the loss of Hermes concluded that the circumstances had warranted the attack.
The defeat at Fort Bowyer led the British to decide to attack New Orleans instead. However, after their defeat at the Battle of New Orleans, the British decided to try again to take Mobile.
The Second Battle of Fort Bowyer was the first step in a British campaign against Mobile, but turned out to be the last land engagement between British and American forces in the War of 1812. However, hostilities between land and naval forces did not end until late March, following the American capture of HMS Cyane, HMS Levant and HMS Penguin from mixed crews of Royal Navy sailors and Redcoats of the Royal Marines.
After the unsuccessful British attack in September 1814, American General Andrew Jackson, recognizing Fort Bowyer 's strategic importance, ordered the fort strengthened. Now its garrison comprised 370 officers and men of the 2nd Infantry Regiment, and Jackson proclaimed "ten thousand men can not take it ''.
Still, British General John Lambert decided to attack Mobile again. The British troops came from the 4th, 21st (Royal North British Fusiliers), and 44th, who had fought at New Orleans. The commander of the naval forces was Captain T.R. Rickets of the 74 - gun third - rate, HMS Vengeur. Captain Spencer of the Carron was among the sailors landed near Mobile, and was second in command of the naval party. The bomb vessels Aetna and Meteor were present during the siege of Fort Bowyer in February 1815.
When the British captured the fort, they discovered that it mounted three long 32 - pounders, eight 24s, six 12s, five 9s, a mortar, and a howitzer. However, Fort Bowyer 's weakness was its vulnerability to an attack from the landward side.
The British campaign began with an investiture of Fort Bowyer. On 8 February, Lambert landed a force of around 1,000 men seven miles east of the fort. The Royal Engineer Colonel Burgoyne surveyed the fort and decided on the method of attack. That night a 100 yard parallel was dug, at the loss of 10 - 12 men, which in the morning was occupied by soldiers who kept up such a musket fire on the fort that the enemy could not make any effectual reply.
The next night the parallel was extended and the following night four batteries were completed. The troops brought with them four 18 - pounder cannons, two 8 - inch howitzers, three 51⁄2 - inch and two 4.4 - inch mortars. In addition to these eleven conventional artillery pieces, HMS Tonnant landed Lieutenant John Lawrence 's 25 - man detachment of Royal Marine Artillery with several Congreve rocket launchers, two 6 - pounder rockets, and a hundred 12 - pounder rockets. While they were constructing their siege works, the British forces endured constant American fire and took light casualties, but continued undeterred. Once their guns were in place, the British were ready to launch a devastating artillery attack on the now vulnerable fort.
On February 12 after a barrage of artillery, Lambert, under a flag of truce, called on the fort to surrender. He demanded that Major Lawrence accept British terms to prevent the needless slaughter of his men. Lawrence acquiesced, surrendering Fort Bowyer after having withheld the siege for five days. An alternative history from British sources explains that on 11 February, before opening fire, Lambert called upon the fort to surrender. After negotiations, it was agreed that the Americans would leave as prisoners of war the following morning. The Governor begging for the delay "as so many of his men had got drunk ''. This was agreed to, with the gate of the fort moving to British control on 11 February.
With Mobile Bay secured by British warships and Fort Bowyer now under British control, the remaining American forces in the area hurried to Mobile to prepare for the expected onslaught there.
All British plans were cancelled when HMS Brazen arrived on 13 February, carrying news that the Treaty of Ghent had been signed on the previous Christmas Eve. When news of ratification of the Treaty arrived, ending the war, the British withdrew.
The final attachment of Mobile to the United States, from the Spanish Empire was the only permanent exchange of territory during the War of 1812.
Fort Bowyer subsequently reverted to U.S. control. The War Department would later replace it with the more heavily fortified Fort Morgan.
Two active battalions of the Regular Army (1 - 1 Inf and 2 - 1 Inf) perpetuate the lineage of elements of the old 2nd Infantry that was present at Fort Bowyer in both 1814 and 1815.
Notes
Citations
References
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when do they stop selling beer in nebraska | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21, would risk losing 8 % (10 % before 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
No sales on Christmas Day (IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 1). Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana prohibits the sales of cold beer by grocery stores or gas stations, but allows cold beer to be sold from liquor stores (IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 11).
In 2010, Indiana enacted a stringent photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions that initially required stores to verify the age of anyone purchasing alcohol by requiring him or her to produce a government - issued photo ID. The law applies to liquor stores, convenience stores, pharmacies and supermarkets in Indiana but not to restaurants, bars and other businesses where patrons consume alcohol onsite. However, due to significant backlash, the law was subsequently amended in the next legislative session (effective July 1, 2011) to pertain to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
Beer can be purchased at beverage outlets (> 128oz), or restaurants (six - packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses, but not supermarkets. Non-alcoholic beer is an exception, and may be sold in supermarkets, but persons buying it still must be at least 21 years of age. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of 12 and 18 packs.
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
There are currently seven state liquor stores located within supermarkets.
In 2010, a trial was initiated to test selling wine in grocery stores using vending machines. The buyer must present identification, look into a camera to allow an offsite PLCB employee to verify the identification, and blow into a breathalyzer to authorize the sale. This practice was ended in September 2011.
Starting in 2007, a number of groceries stores began selling beer within their supermarket cafe. They were granted restaurant liquor licenses by successfully arguing that the cafe is separate from the supermarket. Beer can only be purchased within the cafe; not at the general supermarket checkout, with a maximum of 192oz (two 16oz six packs.) Additionally, as of 2006, some gas stations have found a way to sell beer, such as Sheetz, by taking advantage of a loophole where they can classify themselves as restaurants, though this is rare throughout the state.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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where did they film gone with the wind | Gone with the Wind (film) - wikipedia
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel of the same name. The film was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming. Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and Reconstruction era, the film tells the story of Scarlett O'Hara, the strong - willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner, from her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes, who is married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, to her marriage to Rhett Butler. The leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh (Scarlett), Clark Gable (Rhett), Leslie Howard (Ashley), and Olivia de Havilland (Melanie).
Production was difficult from the start. Filming was delayed for two years due to Selznick 's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the "search for Scarlett '' led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard, but underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length. The original director, George Cukor, was fired shortly after filming had begun and was replaced by Fleming, who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while Fleming took some time off due to exhaustion.
The film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939, although some reviewers found it overlong. The casting was widely praised and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. At the 12th Academy Awards, it received ten Academy Awards (eight competitive, two honorary) from thirteen nominations, including wins for Best Picture, Best Director (Fleming), Best Adapted Screenplay (posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard), Best Actress (Leigh), and Best Supporting Actress (Hattie McDaniel, becoming the first African - American to win an Academy Award). It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time. The film was immensely popular, becoming the highest - earning film made up to that point, and retained the record for over a quarter of a century. When adjusted for monetary inflation, it is still the most successful film in box - office history.
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as historical revisionism glorifying slavery, but nevertheless, it has been credited for triggering changes to the way African - Americans are depicted cinematically. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture. The film is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time; it has placed in the top ten of the American Film Institute 's list of top 100 American films since the list 's inception in 1998, and in 1989, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara, her family 's cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters. Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes -- whom she secretly loves -- is to be married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley 's home, the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks.
At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett privately declares her feelings to Ashley, but he rebuffs her by responding that he and Melanie are more compatible. Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest, Rhett Butler, has overheard their conversation. The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist. As Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye, Melanie 's younger brother Charles proposes to her. Although she does not love him, Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight.
Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army. Scarlett 's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up, although the O'Haras ' outspoken housemaid Mammy tells Scarlett she knows she is going there only to wait for Ashley 's return. Scarlett, who should not attend a party while in mourning, attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she meets Rhett again, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. Celebrating a Confederate victory and to raise money for the Confederate war effort, gentlemen are invited to bid for ladies to dance with them. Rhett makes an inordinately large bid for Scarlett and, to the disapproval of the guests, she agrees to dance with him.
The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarlett 's town are killed. Scarlett makes another unsuccessful appeal to Ashley while he is visiting on Christmas furlough, although they do share a private and passionate kiss in the parlor on Christmas Day, just before he returns to war.
Eight months later, as the city is besieged by the Union Army in the Atlanta Campaign, Scarlett and her young house servant Prissy must deliver Melanie 's baby without medical assistance after she goes into premature labor. Afterwards, Scarlett calls upon Rhett to take her home to Tara with Melanie, her baby, and Prissy; he collects them in a horse and wagon, but once out of the city chooses to go off to fight, leaving Scarlett and the group to make their own way back to Tara. Upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves: Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever and her father has become incompetent. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself.
As the O'Haras work in the cotton fields, Scarlett 's father is killed after he is thrown from his horse in an attempt to chase away a scalawag from his land. With the defeat of the Confederacy Ashley also returns, but finds he is of little help at Tara. When Scarlett begs him to run away with her, he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately, but says he can not leave Melanie. Unable to pay the taxes on Tara implemented by Reconstructionists, Scarlett dupes her younger sister Suellen 's fiancé, the middle - aged and wealthy mill owner Frank Kennedy, into marrying her, by saying Suellen got tired of waiting and married another beau.
Frank, Ashley, Rhett and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone, resulting in Frank 's death. With Frank 's funeral barely over, Rhett proposes to Scarlett and she accepts. They have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue, but Scarlett, still pining for Ashley and chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure, lets Rhett know that she wants no more children and that they will no longer share a bed.
One day at Frank 's mill, Scarlett and Ashley are seen embracing by Ashley 's sister, India, and harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett she eagerly spreads rumors. Later that evening, Rhett, having heard the rumors, forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley; incapable of believing anything bad of her beloved sister - in - law, Melanie stands by Scarlett 's side so that all know that she believes the gossip to be false. After returning home from the party, Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk, and they argue about Ashley. Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will, stating his intent to have sex with her that night, and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom. The next day, Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce, which she rejects, saying that it would be a disgrace. When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant, but an argument ensues which results in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage. As she is recovering, tragedy strikes when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony.
Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie, who has suffered complications arising from a new pregnancy, on her deathbed. As Scarlett consoles Ashley, Rhett returns to their home in Atlanta; realizing that Ashley only ever truly loved Melanie, Scarlett dashes after Rhett to find him preparing to leave for good. She pleads with him, telling him she realizes now that she has loved him all along and that she never really loved Ashley, but Rhett says that with Bonnie 's death went any chance of reconciliation. Scarlett begs him to stay but Rhett rebuffs her and walks out the door and into the early morning fog, leaving her weeping on the staircase and vowing to one day win back his love.
Despite receiving top - billing in the opening credits, Gable -- along with Leigh, Howard, and de Havilland who receive second, third and fourth billing respectively -- has a relatively low placing in the cast list, due to its unusual structure. Rather than ordered by conventional billing, the cast is broken down into three sections: the Tara plantation, Twelve Oaks, and Atlanta. The cast 's names are ordered according to the social rank of the characters; therefore Thomas Mitchell, who plays Gerald O'Hara, leads the cast list as the head of the O'Hara family, while Barbara O'Neil as his wife receives the second credit and Vivien Leigh as the eldest daughter the third credit, despite having the most screen time. Similarly, Howard C. Hickman as John Wilkes is credited over Leslie Howard who plays his son, and Clark Gable, who plays only a visitor at Twelve Oaks, receives a relatively low credit in the cast list, despite being presented as the "star '' of the film in all the promotional literature. Following the death of Mary Anderson -- who played Maybelle Merriwether -- in April 2014, there are only two surviving credited cast members from the film: Olivia de Havilland who played Melanie Wilkes and Mickey Kuhn, who played her son Beau Wilkes.
Before publication of the novel, several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it, including Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures, and David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures. Jack L. Warner liked the story, but Warner Bros. 's biggest star Bette Davis was uninterested, and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century - Fox did not offer enough money. Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights. In July 1936 -- a month after it was published -- Selznick bought the rights for $50,000.
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex, two - year endeavor. For the role of Rhett Butler, Selznick wanted Clark Gable from the start, but Gable was under contract to MGM, who never loaned him to other studios. Gary Cooper was considered, but Samuel Goldwyn -- to whom Cooper was under contract -- refused to loan him out. Warner offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights. By this time, Selznick was determined to get Gable and eventually struck a deal with MGM. Selznick 's father - in - law, MGM chief Louis B. Mayer, offered in August 1938 to provide Gable and $1,250,000 for half of the film 's budget but for a high price: Selznick would have to pay Gable 's weekly salary, and half the profits would go to MGM while Loew 's, Inc -- MGM 's parent company -- would release the film.
The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938, when Selznick 's distribution deal with United Artists concluded. Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and, more importantly, build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett. Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1,400 unknowns. The effort cost $100,000 and was useless for the film, but created "priceless '' publicity. Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead, who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights; Joan Crawford, who was signed to MGM, was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable. After a deal was struck with MGM, Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer -- who was MGM 's top female star at the time -- but she withdrew herself from consideration. Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend, George Cukor, who had been hired to direct, but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part.
Many famous -- or soon - to - be-famous -- actresses were considered, but only thirty - one women were actually screen - tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson, Jean Arthur, Tallulah Bankhead, Diana Barrymore, Joan Bennett, Nancy Coleman, Frances Dee, Ellen Drew (as Terry Ray), Paulette Goddard, Susan Hayward (under her real name of Edythe Marrenner), Vivien Leigh, Anita Louise, Haila Stoddard, Margaret Tallichet, Lana Turner and Linda Watkins. Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice, the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins, who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book. However, Hopkins was in her mid-thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part. Four actresses, including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett, were still under consideration by December 1938; however, only two finalists, Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh, were tested in Technicolor, both on December 20. Goddard almost won the role, but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind.
Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh, a young English actress who was still little known in America, for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford. Leigh 's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency (headed by David Selznick 's brother, one of the owners of Selznick International), and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett. By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year. Selznick 's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10, 1938, when the burning of Atlanta was filmed. In a letter to his wife two days later, Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse '', and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh 's parents are French and Irish. ''
Of original screenplay writer Sidney Howard, film historian Joanne Yeck writes, "reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Wind 's epic dimensions was a herculean task... and Howard 's first submission was far too long, and would have required at least six hours of film;... (producer) Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions... but Howard refused to leave New England (and) as a result, revisions were handled by a host of local writers ''. Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time. Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days. Hecht returned to Howard 's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script. Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule, so Howard returned to work on the script for one week, reworking several key scenes in part two.
"By the time of the film 's release in 1939, there was some question as to who should receive screen credit, '' writes Yeck. "But despite the number of writers and changes, the final script was remarkably close to Howard 's version. The fact that Howard 's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing, for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm - tractor accident, and before the movie 's premiere. '' Selznick, in a memo written in October 1939, discussed the film 's writing credits: "(Y) ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book, most is my own personally, and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten. Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of (Oliver) Garrett 's in the whole script. As to construction, this is about eighty per cent my own, and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard, with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence. ''
According to Hecht biographer, William MacAdams, "At dawn on Sunday, February 20, 1939, David Selznick... and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind, which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before. It was costing Selznick $50,000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence. Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers. Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler, he said he had n't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it. They would act out scenes based on Sidney Howard 's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry. Hecht wrote, "After each scene had been performed and discussed, I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out. Selznick and Fleming, eager to continue with their acting, kept hurrying me. We worked in this fashion for seven days, putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day. Selznick refused to let us eat lunch, arguing that food would slow us up. He provided bananas and salted peanuts... thus on the seventh day I had completed, unscathed, the first nine reels of the Civil War epic. ''
MacAdams writes, "It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted... In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild, Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit, but four other writers were appended... Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment, Oliver H.P. Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction, and Hecht, to dialogue... ''
Principal photography began January 26, 1939, and ended on July 1, with post-production work continuing until November 11, 1939. Director George Cukor, with whom Selznick had a long working relationship, and who had spent almost two years in pre-production on Gone with the Wind, was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting. Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script, but other explanations put Cukor 's departure down to Gable 's discomfort at working with him. Emanuel Levy, Cukor 's biographer, claimed that Clark Gable had worked Hollywood 's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past, so Gable used his influence to have him discharged. Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor 's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed, and the pair went to Selznick 's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind. Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz, was called in from MGM to complete the picture, although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland. Another MGM director, Sam Wood, worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion. Although some of Cukor 's scenes were later reshot, Selznick estimated that "three solid reels '' of his work remained in the picture. As of the end of principal photography, Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming, Fleming ninety - three, and Wood twenty - four.
Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production, but on March 11, 1939 -- after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as "too dark '' -- was replaced with Ernest Haller, working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan. Garmes completed the first third of the film -- mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby -- but did not receive a credit. Most of the filming was done on "the back forty '' of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California, mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County. Tara, the fictional Southern plantation house, existed only as a plywood and papier - mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot. For the burning of Atlanta, new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot 's many old abandoned sets, and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down. Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $3.85 million, making it the second most expensive film made up to that point, with only Ben - Hur (1925) having cost more.
Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $5,000 for using the word "damn '' in Butler 's exit line, in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1, 1939, that forbade use of the words "hell '' or "damn '' except when their use "shall be essential and required for portrayal, in proper historical context, of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore... or a quotation from a literary work, provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste. '' With that amendment, the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett 's closing line.
To compose the score, Selznick chose Max Steiner, with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s. Warner Bros. -- who had contracted Steiner in 1936 -- agreed to lend him to Selznick. Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score, the longest period that he had ever spent writing one, and at two hours and thirty - six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written. Five orchestrators were hired, including Hugo Friedhofer, Maurice de Packh, Bernard Kaun, Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett. The score is characterized by two love themes, one for Ashley 's and Melanie 's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett 's passion for Ashley, though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme. Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music, which included Stephen Foster tunes such as "Louisiana Belle, '' "Dolly Day, '' "Ringo De Banjo, '' "Beautiful Dreamer, '' "Old Folks at Home, '' and "Katie Belle, '' which formed the basis of Scarlett 's theme; other tunes that feature prominently are: "Marching through Georgia '' by Henry Clay Work, "Dixie, '' "Garryowen '' and "The Bonnie Blue Flag. '' The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara, the O'Hara plantation; in the early 1940s, "Tara 's Theme '' formed the musical basis of the song "My Own True Love '' by Mack David. In all, there are ninety - nine separate pieces of music featured in the score. Due to the pressure of completing on time, Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer, Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld, and in addition, two short cues -- by Franz Waxman and William Axt -- were taken from scores in the MGM library.
On September 9, 1939, Selznick, his wife, Irene, investor John "Jock '' Whitney and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside, California to preview it at the Fox Theatre. The film was still a rough cut at this stage, missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects. It ran for four hours and twenty - five minutes, but would later be cut down to under four hours for its proper release. A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing, and after the first feature it was announced that the theater would be screening a preview; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun, nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed. When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered, and after it had finished it received a standing ovation. In his biography of Selznick, David Thomson wrote that the audience 's response before the film had even started "was the greatest moment of (Selznick 's) life, the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings '', with Selznick describing the preview cards as "probably the most amazing any picture has ever had. '' When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film, he said: "At noon I think it 's divine, at midnight I think it 's lousy. Sometimes I think it 's the greatest picture ever made. But if it 's only a great picture, I 'll still be satisfied. ''
About 300,000 people came out in Atlanta for the film 's premiere at the Loew 's Grand Theatre on December 15, 1939. It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B. Hartsfield, which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film, receptions, thousands of Confederate flags and a costume ball. Eurith D. Rivers, the governor of Georgia, declared December 15 a state holiday. An estimated three hundred thousand residents and visitors to Atlanta lined the streets for up to seven miles to watch a procession of limousines bring the stars from the airport. Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend: Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II, and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres. Hattie McDaniel was also absent, as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia 's Jim Crow laws, which would have kept them from sitting with their white colleagues. Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere, Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event, but McDaniel convinced him to attend. President Jimmy Carter would later recall it as "the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime. '' Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed, the latter attended by some of the actresses that had been considered for the part of Scarlett, among them Paulette Goddard, Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford.
From December 1939 to July 1940, the film played only advance - ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $1 -- more than double the price of a regular first - run feature -- with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts (as opposed to the typical 30 -- 35 percent of the period). After reaching saturation as a roadshow, MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices, before it finally entered general release in 1941 at "popular '' prices. Along with its distribution and advertising costs, total expenditure on the film was as high as $7 million.
In 1942, Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons, and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner, John Whitney, for $500,000. In turn, Whitney sold it on to MGM for $2.8 million, so that the studio owned the film outright. MGM immediately re-released the film in spring 1942, and again in 1947 and 1954; the 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen, compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1.75: 1. In doing so, a number of shots were optically re-framed and cut into the three - strip camera negatives, forever altering five shots in the film. A 1961 release commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War, and included a gala "premiere '' at the Loew 's Grand Theater. It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film, including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland; Clark Gable had died the previous year. For its 1967 re-release, it was blown up to 70mm, and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable -- with his white shirt ripped open -- holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames. There were further re-releases in 1971, 1974 and 1989; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989, it was given a complete audio and video restoration. It was released theatrically one more time in the United States, in 1998. In 2013, a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh 's centenary. In 2014, special screenings were scheduled over a two - day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film 's 75th anniversary.
The film received its world television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11, 1976, and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month. It made its network television debut in November later that year: NBC paid $5 million for a one - off airing, and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings. It became at that time the highest - rated television program ever presented on a single network, watched by 47.5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 65 percent of television viewers, still the record for the highest rated film to ever air on television. In 1978, CBS signed a deal worth $35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years. Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986, but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind, which were still held by CBS. A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS 's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended. It was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System: Turner Network Television (1988) and Turner Classic Movies (1994). It debuted on videocassette in March 1985, where it placed second in the sales charts, and has since been released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc formats.
Gone with the Wind was well received upon its release, with most consumer magazines and newspapers generally giving it excellent reviews. However, while its production values, technical achievements, and scale of ambition were universally recognized, some reviewers of the time found the film to be too long and dramatically unconvincing. Frank S. Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point, it probably was not the greatest film ever made, but he nevertheless found it to be an "interesting story beautifully told ''. Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion: "The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion - picture art. There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms, but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency. ''
While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel, this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the lengthy running time. John C. Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had "left too much in '', and that as entertainment, the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed. The Manchester Guardian felt that the film 's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half, which focuses on Scarlett 's "irrelevant marriages '' and "domestic squabbles, '' mostly superfluous, and the sole reason for their inclusion had been "simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way ''. The Guardian believed that if "the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval, and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme -- the collapse and devastation of the Old South -- then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film. '' Likewise, Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half: identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part, he concluded this is where the main fault of the picture lay, commenting that "the characters alone do not suffice ''. Despite many excellent scenes, he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the "psychological development '' had been neglected.
Much of the praise was reserved for the casting, with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett. Nugent described her as the "pivot of the picture '' and believed her to be "so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable ''. Similarly, Hoellering found her "perfect '' in "appearance and movements ''; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to "accentuate the split personality she portrays '' and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene. Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination, such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter. Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Of Clark Gable 's performance as Rhett Butler, Flinn felt the characterization was "as close to Miss Mitchell 's conception -- and the audience 's -- as might be imagined '', a view which Nugent concurred with, although Hoellering felt that Gable did n't quite convince in the closing scenes, as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust. Of the other principal cast members, both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be "convincing '' as the weak - willed Ashley, with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a "standout '' as Melanie; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland 's performance, describing it as a "gracious, dignified, tender gem of characterization ''. Hattie McDaniel 's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics: Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh, with Flinn placing it third after Leigh 's and Gable 's performances.
At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations, winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in, from a total of thirteen nominations. It won for Best Picture, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Interior Decoration, and Best Editing, and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color (it also became the first color film to win Best Picture). Its record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi (1958) won nine, and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben - Hur (1959) which won eleven. Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve (1950) secured fourteen. It was the longest American sound film made up to that point, and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted. The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes, while Lawrence of Arabia (1962) runs for just over 222 minutes; however, including the overture, intermission, entr'acte, and exit music, Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes (although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components.
Hattie McDaniel became the first African - American to win an Academy Award -- beating out her co-star Olivia de Havilland who was also nominated in the same category -- but was racially segregated from her co-stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room. Meanwhile, screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements.
Black commentators criticised the film for its depiction of black people and as a glorification of slavery. Carlton Moss, a black dramatist, complained in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a "frontal attack on American history and the Negro people '', Gone with the Wind was a "rear attack on the same ''. He went on to dismiss it as a "nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction ''. Moss further criticized the stereotypical black characterizations, such as the "shiftless and dull - witted Pork '', the "indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy '', Big Sam 's "radiant acceptance of slavery '', and Mammy with her "constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett ''. Following Hattie McDaniel 's Oscar win, Walter Francis White, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, accused her of being an Uncle Tom. McDaniel responded that she would "rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one ''; she further questioned White 's qualification to speak on behalf of blacks, since he was light - skinned and only one - eighth black.
Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release, with the film being called by some a "weapon of terror against black America '' and an insult to black audiences, and demonstrations were held in various cities. Even so, some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel 's achievements to be representative of progression: some African - Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel 's warm and witty characterization, while others hoped that the industry 's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors. In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award, Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life used the film as reminder of the "limit '' put on black aspiration by old prejudices. Malcolm X would later recall that "when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug ''.
Upon its release, Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere. At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone, it was averaging eleven thousand admissions per day in late December, and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States -- sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time. It repeated its success overseas, and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London, opening in April 1940 and playing for four years. By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation at the end of 1943 its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental (the studio 's share of the box office gross) of $32 million, making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point.
Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record - holder, The Birth of a Nation, the box - office performances of the two films were likely much closer. The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first - run engagements, which represented 70 percent and 50 percent of the box - office gross respectively, before entering general release (which at the time typically saw the distributor 's share set at 30 -- 35 percent of the gross). In the case of The Birth of a Nation, its distributor, Epoch, sold off many of its distribution territories on a "states rights '' basis -- which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box - office gross -- and Epoch 's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film, and not the local distributors. Carl E. Milliken, secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930.
When it was re-released in 1947, it earned an impressive $5 million rental in the United States and Canada, and was one of the top ten releases of the year. Successful re-releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry 's top earner, despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben - Hur, but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966. The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it, a decision that turned it into the most successful re-release in the history of the industry. It generated a box - office gross of $68 million, making it MGM 's most lucrative picture after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade. MGM earned a rental of $41 million from the release, with the U.S. and Canadian share amounting to over $30 million, placing it second only to The Graduate for that year. Including its $6.7 million rental from the 1961 reissue, it was the fourth highest - earner of the decade in the North American market, with only The Sound of Music, The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors. A further re-release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music, bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $116 million by the end of 1971 -- more than trebling its earnings from its initial release -- before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather.
Across all releases, it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada, and 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom, generating more theater admissions in those territories than any other film. In total, Gone with the Wind has grossed over $390 million globally at the box office; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $3.3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices, while Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $3.44 billion in 2014, making it the most successful film in cinema history.
The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century, having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008, and again in 2014. The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U.S. adults, with the results weighted by age, sex, race / ethnicity, education, region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population.
In revisiting the film in the 1970s, Arthur Schlesinger noted that Hollywood films generally age well, revealing an unexpected depth or integrity, but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly. Richard Schickel posits that one measure of a film 's quality is to ask what you can remember of it, and the film falls down in this regard: unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present. Stanley Kauffmann, likewise, also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience, claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly. Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being "badly written '', in turn describing the dialogue as "flowery '' and possessing a "picture postcard '' sensibility. Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art, in that it has limited rewatch value -- a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with, stating that having watched it twice he hopes "never to see it again: twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs ''. Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film 's main failing is in possessing a producer 's sensibility rather than an artistic one: having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being "created '' or "directed '', but rather having emerged "steaming from the crowded kitchen '', where the main creative force was a producer 's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible.
Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings, the film does hold a mandate around the world as the "single most beloved entertainment ever produced ''. Judith Crist observes that, kitsch aside, the film is "undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines '', the product of a showman with "taste and intelligence ''. Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a "sweep and vigor '' that aspire to its epic theme, but -- finding agreement with the film 's contemporary criticisms -- the personal lives take over in the second half, and it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality. Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather, which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest - grosser at the time: both were produced from "ultra-American '' best - selling novels, both live within codes of honor that are romanticized, and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism.
The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years, which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sound 's prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012, and in 2015 sixty - two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film.
The film has featured in several high - profile industry polls: in 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute (AFI), in a poll of the organization 's membership; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its "100 Greatest Movies '' list in 1998, with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007. Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll, and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best "directorial achievement '' in a Directors Guild of America members poll. In 2014, it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which ballotted every studio, agency, publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region. Gone with the Wind was selected for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry in 1989.
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes. David Reynolds writes that "The white women are elegant, their menfolk noble or at least dashing. And, in the background, the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content, clearly incapable of an independent existence. '' Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re-imaginings of the South during the era of segregation, in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values and the issue of slavery is largely ignored. The film has been described as a "regression '' that promotes the myth of the black rapist and the honourable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction, and as a "social propaganda '' film offering a "white supremacist '' view of the past. From 1972 to 1996, the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths ''. One of the questions explored by the exhibit was "How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW? '' This section showed slave experiences were diverse and concluded that the "happy darky '' was a myth, as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality.
W. Bryan Rommel Ruiz has argued that despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period, Gone with the Wind nevertheless reflects contemporary interpretations that were common in the early 20th century. One such viewpoint is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman: a government official can be heard offering bribes to the emancipated slaves for their votes. The inference is taken to be that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom, unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials. While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths, the film makes concessions in regards to others. After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town, a group of men including Scarlett 's husband Frank, Rhett Butler and Ashley raid the town; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan, representing the common trope of protecting the white woman 's virtue, but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by referring to it only as a "political meeting ''.
Thomas Cripps reasons that the film in some respects undercuts racial stereotypes; in particular, the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences, with dozens of movies making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend. Only a few weeks after its initial run, a story editor at Warner wrote a memorandum to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle, a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films, suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film "unproducible ''. More than any film since The Birth of a Nation, it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and blacks who encouraged the expectation that blacks would one day achieve equality. According to Cripps, the film eventually became a template for measuring social change.
In 2017, Gone with the Wind was pulled from the schedule at the Orpheum Theatre in Memphis, Tennessee after a 34 - year run of annual showings due to its perceived racially insensitive content.
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as "marital rape ''. The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase, where he begins to kiss her, refusing to be told ' no ' by the struggling and frightened Scarlett; Rhett overcomes her resistance and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom, where the audience is left in no doubt that she will "get what 's coming to her ''. The next scene, the following morning, shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction; Rhett apologizes for his behavior, blaming it on his drinking. The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other, and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex: that women secretly enjoy it, and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife.
Molly Haskell has argued that nevertheless, women are mostly uncritical of the scene, and that by and large it is consistent with what women have in mind if they fantasize about being raped. Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex; they will assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse.
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced, satirized, dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media, from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle -- a 1939 film spoofing the "search for Scarlett '' -- to current television shows, such as The Simpsons. The Scarlett O'Hara War (a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett), Moonlight and Magnolias (a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht 's five - day re-write of the script), and "Went with the Wind! '' (a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture. It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary, The Making of a Legend: Gone with the Wind, detailing the film 's difficult production history. In 1990, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film.
Following publication of her novel, Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but claimed to not have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett, and that she had "left them to their ultimate fate ''. Mitchell continued to resist pressure from Selznick and MGM to write a sequel until her death in 1949. In 1975, her brother, Stephens Mitchell (who assumed control of her estate), authorized a sequel to be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $12 million. Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay, and published in conjunction with the film 's release. Edwards submitted a 775 - page manuscript entitled Tara, The Continuation of Gone with the Wind, set between 1872 and 1882 focusing on Scarlett 's divorce from Rhett; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed.
The idea was revived in the 1990s, when a sequel was finally produced in 1994, in the form of a television miniseries. Scarlett was based upon the novel by Alexandra Ripley, itself a sequel to Mitchell 's book. British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett, and the series follows Scarlett 's relocation to Ireland after again becoming pregnant by Rhett.
Explanatory notes
George (Cukor) finally told me all about it. He hated (leaving the production) very much he said but he could not do otherwise. In effect he said he is an honest craftsman and he can not do a job unless he knows it is a good job and he feels the present job is not right. For days, he told me he has looked at the rushes and felt he was failing... the thing did not click as it should. Gradually he became convinced that the script was the trouble... David (Selznick), himself, thinks HE is writing the script... And George has continually taken script from day to day, compared the (Oliver) Garrett - Selznick version with the (Sidney) Howard, groaned and tried to change some parts back to the Howard script. But he seldom could do much with the scene... So George just told David he would not work any longer if the script was not better and he wanted the Howard script back. David told George he was a director -- not an author and he (David) was the producer and the judge of what is a good script... George said he was a director and a damn good one and he would not let his name go out over a lousy picture... And bull - headed David said "OK get out! ''
Citations
Further reading
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how tall is the windseeker at kings island | WindSeeker - wikipedia
WindSeeker (known as SteelHawk at Worlds of Fun) is a 301 - foot - tall (92 m) swing ride at several Cedar Fair parks. The rides are Wind Seeker models manufactured by Mondial. They opened for the 2011 season at Canada 's Wonderland in Ontario, Cedar Point and Kings Island in Ohio, and Knott 's Berry Farm in California. Carowinds in North Carolina and Kings Dominion in Virginia opened their WindSeekers in 2012. The first four each cost US $ 5,000,000, and the next two each cost $6,500,000. Cedar Fair relocated the Knott 's Berry Farm WindSeeker to Worlds of Fun in 2014, where it is known as SteelHawk.
The three - minute ride features 32 suspended twin seats (64 seats altogether) spinning around a central tower. A lighting package was installed on all four WindSeekers, consisting of strips of LED lights mounted on the arms that support the swings and (except at Knott 's Berry Farm) colored floodlights to illuminate towers from above.
Canada 's Wonderland was the first of the four parks to open its WindSeeker in 2011. On May 24, 2011, the ride was only open for a brief time before problems caused it to be closed for repairs; it reopened the week of June 10. The second WindSeeker was opened to the public at Cedar Point on June 14, 2011, the third on June 21, 2011, at Kings Island, the fourth in mid-August 2011 at Knott 's Berry Farm, the fifth WindSeeker to open was Carowinds ' model which soft - opened on March 30, 2012 and officially opened to the public on March 31, 2012 and the latest one to open was the sixth WindSeeker at Kings Dominion which officially opened to the public on April 6, 2012.
On September 21, 2012, Cedar Fair announced the temporary closure of all WindSeekers in response to two incidents at Knott 's Berry Farm. All the installations, excluding Knott 's Berry Farm, later reopened. The Knott 's Berry Farm installation remain closed for 11 months until it was announced it would be relocated to Worlds of Fun.
On their Facebook pages throughout August 2010, several Cedar Fair amusement parks hinted frequently at a new ride to be opened in 2011. On August 24, 2010, Canada 's Wonderland, Cedar Point, Kings Island, and Knott 's Berry Farm all announced that they would be adding a Mondial WindSeeker, to open sometime in spring 2011.
Construction of the WindSeekers at Canada 's Wonderland, Cedar Point, and Kings Island began in late October and early November 2010. To install them, Canada 's Wonderland 's Jet Scream ride was removed and Cedar Point 's Ocean Motion was moved to the former Demon Drop site. Construction was scheduled to begin around the same time at Knott 's Berry Farm, where the Sky Cabin observation tower was to be removed to make way for it. On January 7, 2011, however, it was announced that their WindSeeker would not replace Sky Cabin but instead be located in the Fiesta Village section of the park. Work began almost immediately after this announcement.
Kings Island 's WindSeeker was originally scheduled to be the first to open, on April 30, 2011, but the opening was delayed because of bad weather and eventually took place on the morning of June 21, 2011. It was the first WindSeeker to use the Fast Lane program.
The WindSeeker at Canada 's Wonderland was originally scheduled to open on May 8, 2011, one week after that of Kings Island. On May 24, 2011, after problems were discovered during testing, Canada 's Wonderland announced on their Facebook page that it would open to the public later that day, but it was quickly closed again when further mechanical problems were discovered. From May 24 to mid-June 2011, the ride was intermittently closed because of a variety of problems, most of which have since been resolved. At the beginning of October 2011, the hydraulic dampers used on the Knott 's Berry Farm model were added to reduce the amount of swing movement even more.
Cedar Point 's WindSeeker was originally scheduled to open on May 14, 2011, two weeks after that of Kings Island. After almost a month delays in construction and testing due to bad weather, it opened on June 14, 2011.
Before the decision to keep the Sky Cabin at Knott 's Berry Farm and to place its WindSeeker elsewhere, their WindSeeker was to have the same color scheme as others. Also, instead of there being the red "UFO '' on the top of the tower, original promotional materials show that a large purple "K '' was to be placed on the top of the ride. The ride opened in mid-August 2011 after three months of delays. In late 2011, Fast Lane became available on the Knott 's Berry Farm WindSeeker. On September 7, the ride stalled for nearly three hours, and on September 19, it stalled again at the top of the tower for three and a half hours. Both incidents prompted Cedar Fair to close all other WindSeekers until an internal investigation is completed. After the investigation was complete, all WindSeekers reopened except Knott 's ' model which was dismantled by December 11, 2013 to be sent to Worlds of Fun.
Throughout August 2011, the Carowinds web site had six different QR codes, each of which led the user to a website giving a clue as to what the 2012 attraction might be. When all six clues were put together, they made a picture that read "Voiceless it cries, wingless flutters, toothless bites, mouthless mutters, fun soars to new heights... August 24 ''. On August 24, 2011, it was officially announced that Carowinds would receive the fifth WindSeeker, and on September 1, 2011, Kings Dominion officially announced that the sixth would open at the park in 2012. The WindSeekers at Carowinds and Kings Dominion will have the same appearance as those at Canada 's Wonderland, Cedar Point, and Kings Island and are expected to open in 2012. Their construction started in early November 2011, after the parks closed for the season. At Kings Dominion, El Dorado was removed at the end of the 2011 season to make room for WindSeeker. The first WindSeeker tower piece was installed there on January 20, 2012, and at Carowinds on January 23, 2012. Carowinds soft - opened their version on March 30, 2012 to media and invited guests; it opened to the public on March 31, 2012. Kings Dominion officially opened their model on April 6, 2012.
On August 30, 2013, Worlds of Fun announced that they would be adding SteelHawk, the relocated WindSeeker from Knott 's Berry Farm.
Aside from the many minor problems all WindSeekers had in 2011, the first major accident occurred on June 2, 2012, on the Cedar Point installation. According to numerous news and rider reports, WindSeeker operated normally as the gondola made its way up the tower. Attached to the tower and gondola are a set of electrical cables that are located inside a plastic casing and are secured by two side panels to prevent the cables from moving around. At the top of the tower, winds were reportedly strong enough to push the electrical cables out of the socket on the tower causing the cables to move around freely. According to a rider riding WindSeeker at the time of the accident, as the gondola made its way back down the tower, the cables got stuck in the rotating gondola. The plastic casing began to be ripped apart as well as the cables causing the ride to come to a complete stop just over halfway up the tower. Because the electrical cables had been damaged, Cedar Point employees had to manually bring down the gondola. Riders were stuck on the ride for over an hour and no one was injured. WindSeeker at Cedar Point remained closed until the cause of the accident was found and fixed. The ride reopened on June 5, 2012.
The four WindSeekers opened in 2011 are based on the same prototype design by Dutch amusement ride manufacturer Mondial Rides. The WindSeeker at Canada 's Wonderland was the first to be completed and thus the first to be tested. It was discovered during testing that the swings could rock back and forth once rotation reached full speed, and were close to hitting each other in some cases. Therefore, hydraulic dampers not included in the original design were added to all four WindSeekers to reduce this rocking. Nevertheless, there were still incidents: on June 14, 2011, the swings on Cedar Point 's WindSeeker began to sway in different directions, and some seats almost collided with each other. In one reported case, a rider had to extend his leg to stop the seat in front from hitting him. In another, a car collided with the kneecap of a rider who had closed their eyes. Official explanations suggested that the hydraulic dampers could fail under high winds: apparently, high winds and the imbalance arising when some swings are full and others not could cause the swings to collide. On June 29, 2011, Jennifer Valentyne of Breakfast Television Toronto rode the WindSeeker at Canada 's Wonderland for her "Live - Eye '' spot on the show. When the swings reached the top of the tower, the seats began swinging and hitting each other. As the ride continued, Breakfast Television hosts Kevin Frankish and Dina Pugliese asked whether the seats were supposed to touch each other, but received no response.
Additional problems were discovered when the ride opened to the public. The WindSeeker at Canada 's Wonderland underwent repairs for just over a week when it was discovered that one of the 32 pairs of seats had been removed for an unstated reason. They were replaced and testing began shortly after. In another case at the same installation, riders were stuck at the top of the WindSeeker tower for 20 minutes when the swings did not come down. Since these incidents, ride operations are suspended during high winds or heavy rain.
During the 2012 season, all of the WindSeekers except Kings Island 's experienced incidents in which the ride stopped, stranding riders in the air. Two such incidents occurred in September at Knott 's Berry Farm, in one case leaving riders stranded at the top of the ride for nearly four hours, prompting the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration to order the ride shut down indefinitely on September 19 pending investigation of both the length of time riders were stranded and the actual causes of the incidents. Two days later on September 21, Cedar Fair announced the closure of all other WindSeekers to conduct an internal review. The company said that until the review concludes, none of the rides would operate again. The rides remained closed through the remainder of the 2012 season at the five seasonal parks but reopened at all parks in 2013, excluding Knott 's Berry Farm 's version which has been relocated.
All six WindSeekers consist of the same parts in an identical structure. The 301 - foot - tall (92 m) center tower is made up of eight parts. The base section is different from the other seven tower pieces because it supports the rest of the tower. On top of the eighth tower piece, there is a steel platform where workers and mechanics can observe the operation of the ride and perform maintenance. Above this platform is an element called the "red UFO '' or the "Crown ''. The gondola itself has a number of parts. In the middle of the structure there are wheels that allow the swings to rotate as they go up and down the tower. The gondola is raised and lowered by cables linking the gondola structure to four sets of yellow wheels, each attached to a different section of the steel platform at the top of the tower. Hydraulic dampers that were not in the original design were added to all the WindSeeker installations to reduce the movement of the swings while in operation. The illustrations below show where the parts are located and what they look like.
Riders sit in one of 64 seats placed around a central tower, which brings the gondola up and down. A restraint bar is fixed over the rider 's lap to keep them firmly in their seat. There is no seat belt across the rider 's lap, but there is one from the seat to the restraint bar in case the lock on the restraint bar fails. After the operators determine that it is safe to proceed, the gondola rises to the top of the tower to a musical accompaniment, beginning to spin slowly around the central tower and picking up speed as it ascends further. By the time it reaches the top, it is rotating around the tower at its full speed of approximately 30 miles per hour (48 km / h). The gondola remains at the top of the tower for just over a minute before starting its descent and immediately beginning to slow down. By the time it reaches the bottom of the tower, all rotation has ceased. One cycle of the ride lasts three minutes.
All the WindSeekers have speakers mounted to the inside of the gondola structure. They play 18 different tracks, among which are Hedwig 's theme from the Harry Potter films, the theme songs from E.T., Star Trek: The Motion Picture, and Superman, and songs from Flight of the Valkyries. At Cedar Point and Kings Island, the WindSeeker sign changes colors during night operation. At Cedar Point, as the gondola makes its way up the tower, the LED lights at the top of the tower go out, making the tower invisible, though the LED lights on the gondola remains lit. When the gondola comes back down, the lights at the top of the tower come on again. At Canada 's Wonderland, the LED lights at the top of the tower remain on throughout the cycle, keeping the tower visible at all times.
The WindSeeker at Knott 's Berry Farm differed from the other five in several ways. Rather than white, blue, and green on the tower, Knott 's adopted a color scheme using orange, purple, and yellow to reflect the Spanish California theme of the Fiesta Village section of the park. The tower at Knott 's had no lights at the top. The ride 's sign had a Mexican theme and did not light up.
One week after the official opening of the ride at Cedar Point, attraction reviewer Brian Krosnick of Theme Park Tourist submitted an online review saying that it was "truly breathtaking ''. The review applauded "the inclusion of on - ride audio and such an exemplary lighting package '', commenting that it was "more than anyone expected or could 've asked for ''. Krosnick pointed out that, because of the location of the ride beside Lake Erie and the hot summers, the lights on the ride attract massive "clouds '' of bugs. He felt the ride cycle might be too short for the type of ride, particularly the time spent at the top. On July 13, 2011, Nick Sim, also from Theme Park Tourist, reviewed the ride at Kings Island and made similar remarks. Los Angeles Times blogger Brady MacDonald complimented the "impressive nighttime spectacular from anywhere in the park ''. He reported having thoroughly enjoyed the ride at Knott 's Berry Farm and said that he would ride it every time he visited the park. Tom Sherer of the Sandusky Register praised Cedar Point 's WindSeeker for having one of the best views of the park and commented that it "is n't as extreme as a lot of people fear, unless you 're afraid of heights. '' He criticized the name WindSeeker, pointing out that the ride closes in high winds. Another reviewer called the view from Knott 's Berry Farm 's version "simply breathtaking '' and urged readers to "get a ride on it as soon as you can ''. The same reviewer, however, also criticized the choice of music, suggesting that the park should have used "themes from more ' southwestern ' films '' to fit with the overall theme of the Fiesta Village area. Members of the general public have also applauded the addition.
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where do you have to be born to be president | Natural - born - citizen clause - wikipedia
Status as a natural - born citizen of the United States is one of the eligibility requirements established in the United States Constitution for holding the office of President or Vice President. This requirement was intended to protect the nation from foreign influence.
The U.S. Constitution uses but does not define the phrase "natural born Citizen '', and various opinions have been offered over time regarding its precise meaning. The consensus of early 21st - century constitutional scholars, together with relevant case law, is that natural - born citizens include, subject to exceptions, those born in the United States. Many scholars have also concluded that those who meet the legal requirements for U.S. citizenship "at the moment of birth '', regardless of place of birth, are also natural - born citizens. Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or was born in the United States; of these there have been seven that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil.
The natural - born - citizen clause has been mentioned in passing in several decisions of the United States Supreme Court, and by some lower courts that have addressed eligibility challenges, but the Supreme Court has never directly addressed the question of a specific presidential or vice-presidential candidate 's eligibility as a natural - born citizen. Many eligibility lawsuits from the 2008, 2012, and 2016 election cycles were dismissed in lower courts due to the challengers ' difficulty in showing that they had standing to raise legal objections. Additionally, some experts have suggested that the precise meaning of the natural - born - citizen clause may never be decided by the courts because, in the end, presidential eligibility may be determined to be a non-justiciable political question that can be decided only by Congress rather than by the judicial branch of government.
Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States, under clause 5 (emphasis added):
No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty - five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
The Twelfth Amendment states, "No person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. '' The Fourteenth Amendment does not use the phrase natural - born citizen. It does provide, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. ''
Under Article One, representatives and senators are required to be U.S. citizens, but there is no requirement that they be natural born.
The use of the term "natural born '' was not without precedent. An early recorded mention was in Calvin 's Case (1608), in terms of birth within the jurisdiction of the sovereignty of the King. Statutes in Britain prior to American independence used the phrase "natural born subject ''. For example, clause III of the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 provided:
That the Children of all natural born Subjects born out of the Ligeance of Her Majesty Her Heires and Successors shall be deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Subjects of this Kingdom to all Intents Constructions and Purposes whatsoever
The Act was repealed (except for the quoted clause III regarding foreign - born children) by the Tories in 1711 by the statute 10 Anne c. 5.
Subsequently, the British Nationality Act 1730 provided:
for the explaining the said recited Clause in the said Act... (t) hat all Children born out of the Ligeance of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, or which shall hereafter be born out of such Ligeance, whose Fathers were or shall be natural - born Subjects of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, at the Time of the Birth of such Children respectively... are hereby declared to be natural - born Subjects of the Crown of Great Britain, to all Intents, Constructions and Purposes whatsoever.
Another use is in the Plantation Act 1740:
(A) ll persons born out of the legience of His Majesty, His Heirs, or Successors, who have... or shall inhabit or reside for... seven years or more in any of His Majesty 's colonies in America... shall be deemed, adjudged, and taken to be His Majesty 's natural - born subjects of this Kingdom.
Jurist William Blackstone wrote in 1765 that "Natural - born subjects are such as are born within the dominions of the crown of England ''. Blackstone added that offspring who are not inhabitants may also be natural born subjects:
But by several more modern statutes... all children, born out of the king 's ligeance, whose fathers were natural - born subjects, are now natural - born subjects themselves, to all intents and purposes, without any exception; unless their said fathers were attainted, or banished beyond sea, for high treason; or were then in the service of a prince at enmity with Great Britain.
In 1775, however, Blackstone reversed his opinion and explained that the children "are now deemed to be natural - born subjects '' rather than "are now natural - born subjects. '' Similarly, Francis Plowden initially explained that an early English statute made foreign - born children of English parents "in fact and law... true native subjects '' and that the eighteenth century British statutes made persons natural born subjects by statute law just as others were natural born subjects by the common law. However, after further consideration he also reversed his opinion and concluded in 1785 that the statutes did not make the children natural born subjects -- rather, there remained a "relict of alienage in them. '' Prior to Blackstone, Edward Coke offered a narrower opinion in Calvin 's Case. According to Coke: "(I) f any of the King 's ambassadors in foreign nations, have children there of their wives, being English women, by the common laws of England they are natural - born subjects, and yet they are born out - of the King 's dominions. ''
The term "natural born '' has often been used synonymously with "native born ''. The English lexicographer Samuel Johnson wrote in 1756 that the word "natural '' means "native, '' and that the word "native '' may mean either an "inhabitant '' or an "offspring ''.
From the Declaration of Independence (1776) to the ratification of the Constitution (1789), the thirteen states were independent of Britain, and during much of this time the Articles of Confederation tied together the country. The phrase "natural born citizen '' was sometimes used during this period. An example occurred in 1784 when the Maryland General Assembly conferred citizenship on the (French - born) Marquis de Lafayette:
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland -- that the Marquis de laFayette and his Heirs male forever shall be and they and each of them are hereby deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Citizens of this State and shall henceforth be entitled to all the Immunities, Rights and Privileges of natural born Citizens thereof...
The Constitution does not explain the meaning of "natural born ''. On June 18, 1787, Alexander Hamilton submitted to the Convention a sketch of a plan of government. The sketch provided for an executive "Governour '' but had no eligibility requirements. At the close of the Convention, Hamilton conveyed a paper to James Madison he said delineated the Constitution that he wished had been proposed by the Convention; he had stated its principles during the deliberations. Max Farrand wrote that it "was not submitted to the Convention and has no further value than attaches to the personal opinions of Hamilton. '' Article IX, section 1 of Hamilton 's draft constitution provided: "No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States. ''
On July 25, 1787, John Jay wrote to George Washington, presiding officer of the Convention:
Permit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen.
While the Committee of Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen, as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed "citizen '' to "natural born citizen '', and the residency requirement to 14 years, without recorded explanation after receiving Jay 's letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate.
In 2012, Abdul Karim Hassan filed several unsuccessful lawsuits that claimed the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment had superseded the natural - born - citizen clause; he had argued natural - born citizenship was a form of discrimination based on national origin.
More than two dozen proposed constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress to relax the restriction. Two of the more well known were introduced by Representative Jonathan Bingham in 1974, with the intent to allow German - born Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (otherwise fourth in the line of succession) to become eligible, and the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment by Senator Orrin Hatch in 2003, intending to allow eligibility for Austrian - born Arnold Schwarzenegger. The Bingham amendment would have also made clear the eligibility of those born abroad to U.S. parents, while the Hatch one would have allowed those who have been naturalized citizens for twenty years to be eligible.
St. George Tucker, an early federal judge, wrote in his 1803 edition of William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England, perhaps the leading authority for the delegates to the Constitutional Convention for the terms used in the Constitution, that the natural born citizen clause is "a happy means of security against foreign influence '' and that "(t) he admission of foreigners into our councils, consequently, can not be too much guarded against. '' In a footnote, Tucker wrote that naturalized citizens have the same rights as the natural - born except "they are forever incapable of being chosen to the office of president of the United States. ''
In a speech before the Senate, delegate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney gave the rationale, "to insure experience and attachment to the country. ''
Professor Akhil Amar of Yale Law School claimed that there had been a perception on the part of those drafting the constitution that a member of the European aristocracy could immigrate and buy his way into power.
Because of the large number of Framers who went on to serve in Congress, laws passed by the early sessions of Congress have often been looked to as evidence of the Framers ' intent. The Naturalization Act of 1790 stated that "the children of citizens of the United States, that may be born beyond sea, or out of the limits of the United States, shall be considered as natural born citizens: Provided, That the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons whose fathers have never been resident in the United States. '' This act was repealed by the Naturalization Act of 1795, which removed the characterization of such children as "natural born '', stating that "the children of citizens of the United States, born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, shall be considered as citizens of the United States '' while retaining the same residency restrictions as the 1790 act.
John Bingham, an American lawyer and politician, held to the belief that natural born should be interpreted as born in the United States. In 1862, in the House of Representatives he stated:
The Constitution leaves no room for doubt upon this subject. The words "natural born citizen of the United States '' appear in it, and the other provision appears in it that, "Congress shall have power to pass a uniform system of naturalization. '' To naturalize a person is to admit him to citizenship. Who are natural born citizens but those born within the Republic? Those born within the Republic, whether black or white, are citizens by birth -- natural born citizens.
He reiterated his statement in 1866:
Every human being born within the jurisdiction of the United States of parents not owing allegiance to any foreign sovereignty is, in the language of your Constitution itself, a natural - born citizen; but, sir, I may be allowed to say further that I deny that the Congress of the United States ever had the power, or color of power to say that any man born within the jurisdiction of the United States, not owing a foreign allegiance, is not and shall not be a citizen of the United States. Citizenship is his birthright and neither the Congress nor the States can justly or lawfully take it from him.
Edward Bates also held to the belief that "natural born '' should be interpreted as "born in the United States ''. He also indicated that those born in the United States to alien parents, even if they reside elsewhere, are still considered natural born. In 1862, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase sent a query to Attorney General Edward Bates asking whether or not "colored men '' can be citizens of the United States. The question arose because the Coast Guard had detained a schooner commanded by a free "colored man '' who claimed he was a citizen of the United States. If he were a U.S. citizen the boat could be released, but otherwise -- the Civil War then being fought -- it would be confiscated. No information about the man 's birth or parentage was provided. Bates responded on November 29, 1862, with a 27 - page opinion -- considered of such importance that the government published it not only in the official volumes of Attorney - General opinions but also as a separate booklet -- concluding,
I conclude that the free man of color, mentioned in your letter, if born in the United States, is a citizen of the United States. (italics in original)
In the course of that opinion, Bates commented at some length on the nature of citizenship, and wrote,
... our constitution, in speaking of natural born citizens, uses no affirmative language to make them such, but only recognizes and reaffirms the universal principle, common to all nations, and as old as political society, that the people born in a country do constitute the nation, and, as individuals, are natural members of the body politic. (italics in original)
In another opinion, dated September 1, 1862, Bates dealt with a question from the Secretary of State, of whether a person born in the U.S. to two non-citizens, who is taken with them back to their country, could, years later, re-enter the United States as of right, as a U.S. citizen. Bates wrote:
I am quite clear in the opinion that children born in the United States of alien parents, who have never been naturalized, are native - born citizens of the United States, and, of course, do not require the formality of naturalization to entitle them to the rights and privileges of such citizenship. I might sustain this opinion by a reference to the well - settled principle of the common law of England on this subject; to the writings of many of the earlier and later commentators on our Constitution and laws;... and lastly to the dicta and decisions of many of our national and state tribunals. But all this has been well done by Assistant Vice Chancellor Sandford, in the case of Lynch vs. Clarke, and I forbear. I refer to his opinion for a full and clear statement of the principle, and of the reasons and authorities for its support.
Unlike Edward Bates, U.S. Secretary of State William Learned Marcy was equivocal about whether those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens. In 1854 Marcy wrote John Y. Mason, the U.S. Minister to France:
In reply to the inquiry... whether "the children of foreign parents born in the United States, but brought to the country of which the father is a subject, and continuing to reside within the jurisdiction of their father 's country, are entitled to protection as citizens of the United States '', I have to observe that it is presumed that, according to the common law, any person born in the United States, unless he be born in one of the foreign legations therein, may be considered a citizen thereof until he formally renounces his citizenship. There is not, however any United States statute containing a provision upon this subject, nor, so far as I am aware, has there been any judicial decision in regard to it.
U.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont, however, shared Edward Bates ' opinion that those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens, and he added that they should be entitled to be president of the United States, if elected. In 1875 Pierrepont was presented with a query from the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish. A young man, named Arthur Steinkauler, had been born in Missouri in 1855, a year after his father was naturalized a U.S. citizen. When he was four years old, his father returned to Germany with him and both had stayed there ever since. The father had relinquished his U.S. citizenship and the young man was now 20 years old and about to be drafted into the Imperial German army. The question was asked "What was this young man 's situation as a native - born American citizen? '' After studying the relevant legal authorities, Pierrepont wrote:
Under the treaty (of 1868 with Germany), and in harmony with American doctrine, it is clear that Steinkauler the father abandoned his naturalization in America and became a German subject (his son being yet a minor), and that by virtue of German laws the son acquired German nationality. It is equally clear that the son, by birth, has American nationality, and hence he has two nationalities, one natural, the other acquired... Young Steinkauler is a native - born American citizen. There is no law of the United States under which his father or any other person can deprive him of his birthright. He can return to America at the age of 21, and in due time, if the people elect, he can become President of the United States... I am of opinion that when he reaches the age of 21 years he can then elect whether he will return and take the nationality of his birth, with its duties and privileges, or retain the nationality acquired by the act of his father.
Frederick van Dyne, the Assistant Solicitor of the U.S. Department of State (1900 -- 1907) indicated that children of citizens born outside the United States are also considered citizens. In 1904, he published a textbook, Citizenship of the United States, in which he wrote:
There is no uniform rule of international law covering the subject of citizenship. Every nation determines for itself who shall, and who shall not, be its citizens... By the law of the United States, citizenship depends, generally, on the place of birth; nevertheless the children of citizens, born out of the jurisdiction of the United States, are also citizens... The Constitution of the United States, while it recognized citizenship of the United States in prescribing the qualifications of the President, Senators, and Representatives, contained no definition of citizenship until the adoption of the 14th Amendment, in 1868; nor did Congress attempt to define it until the passage of the civil rights act, in 1866... Prior to this time the subject of citizenship by birth was generally held to be regulated by the common law, by which all persons born within the limits and allegiance of the United States were deemed natural - born citizens. It appears to have been assumed by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Murray v. The Charming Betsy (1804) 2 Cranch (6 U.S.) 64, 119, 2 L. Ed. 208, 226, that all persons born in the United States were citizens thereof... In M'Creery v. Somerville (1824) 9 Wheat. (22 U.S.) 354, 6 L. Ed. 109, which concerned the title to land in the state of Maryland, it was assumed that children born in that state to an alien were native - born citizens of the United States... The Federal courts have almost uniformly held that birth in the United States, of itself, confers citizenship.
Although eligibility for the Presidency was not an issue in any 19th - century litigation, there have been a few cases that shed light on the definitions of natural born and native born citizen. The leading case, Lynch v. Clarke of 1844, indicated that citizens born "within the dominions and allegiance of the United States '' are citizens regardless of parental citizenship. This case dealt with a New York law (similar to laws of other states at that time) that only a U.S. citizen could inherit real estate. The plaintiff, Julia Lynch, had been born in New York while her parents, both British, were briefly visiting the U.S., and shortly thereafter all three left for Britain and never returned to the U.S. The New York Chancery Court determined that, under common law and prevailing statutes, she was a U.S. citizen by birth and nothing had deprived her of that citizenship, notwithstanding that both her parents were not U.S. citizens or that British law might also claim her through her parents ' nationality. In the course of the decision, the court cited the Constitutional provision and said:
Suppose a person should be elected president who was native born, but of alien parents; could there be any reasonable doubt that he was eligible under the Constitution? I think not. The position would be decisive in his favor, that by the rule of the common law, in force when the Constitution was adopted, he is a citizen.
And further:
Upon principle, therefore, I can entertain no doubt, but that by the law of the United States, every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, is a natural born citizen. It is surprising that there has been no judicial decision upon this question.
The decision in Lynch was cited as persuasive or authoritative precedent in numerous subsequent cases, and reinforced the interpretation that "natural born citizen '' meant born "within the dominions and allegiance of the United States '' regardless of parental citizenship. For example, in an 1884 case, In re Look Tin Singg, the federal court held, that despite laws preventing naturalization of Chinese visitors, Chinese persons born in the United States were citizens by birth, and remained such despite any long stay in China. Citing Lynch, Justice Stephen J. Field wrote:
After an exhaustive examination of the law, the Vice-Chancellor said that he entertained no doubt that every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, was a natural - born citizen, and added that this was the general understanding of the legal profession, and the universal impression of the public mind.
The Lynch case was also cited as a leading precedent in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), which similarly held a child born in the United States of two Chinese parents became "at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States ''.
Consistent with the earlier decisions, in 1939, the U.S. Supreme Court stated in its decision in Perkins v. Elg that a person born in America and raised in another country was a natural born citizen, and specifically stated that they could "become President of the United States ''. The case was regarding a young woman, born in New York a year after her father became a naturalized U.S. citizen. However, when she was about four her parents returned to Sweden taking her with them, and they stayed in Sweden. At age 20, she contacted the American embassy in Sweden and, shortly after her 21st birthday, returned to the United States on a U.S. passport and was admitted as a U.S. citizen. Years later, while she was still in America, her father in Sweden relinquished his American citizenship, and, because of that, the Department of Labor (then the location of the Immigration & Naturalization Service) declared her a non-citizen and tried to deport her. The young woman filed suit for a declaratory judgment that she was an American citizen by birth. She won at the trial level, and at the circuit court -- where she was repeatedly described as "a natural born citizen '' -- and finally in the U.S. Supreme Court, where the court decision quoted at length from the U.S. Attorney General 's opinion in Steinkauler 's Case (mentioned above) including the comment that a person born in America and raised in another country could yet "become President of the United States ''.
Some federal cases argued for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment, according to which U.S. citizens were necessarily either born or naturalized in the United States, and any citizen who was not born in the United States must have been naturalized by operation of law, even if such naturalization was "automatic '' at birth. In this view, such a person should not be considered a natural born citizen, but rather a "naturalized '' citizen who is not eligible for the Presidency.
In 1951, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit noted in Zimmer v. Acheson that "(t) here are only two classes of citizens of the United States, native - born citizens and naturalized citizens '', quoting a dictum by Justice Gray from United States v. Wong Kim Ark and Elk v. Wilkins. The court ruled that Zimmer, who was born abroad in 1905 to a U.S. citizen father and a noncitizen mother, was himself a citizen under the nationality law in force at the time of his birth, but "his status as a citizen was that of a naturalized citizen and not a native - born citizen ''. In the 1956 case of Wong Kam Wo v. Dulles, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit quoted Zimmer v. Acheson and United States v. Wong Kim Ark in support of a ruling that the statute that was in effect prior to 1940 granting citizenship to foreign - born children of U.S. citizens was a naturalization law rather than a provision for nationality at birth. In 1940, however, the federal law was amended to explicitly define "naturalization '' as conferring nationality after birth.
In 1961, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Montana v. Kennedy that an individual who was born in 1906 in Italy to a U.S. citizen mother and a noncitizen father was not a U.S. citizen by birth under the nationality laws in force at the time of his birth. It observed that automatic citizenship was granted to children of U.S. citizen fathers and noncitizen mothers by an 1855 act of Congress, but the reverse situation was only addressed, non-retroactively, in 1934. In 1971, the Court encountered a similar situation in Rogers v. Bellei, where the individual in question was born after 1934 and so was granted automatic U.S. citizenship, though subject to residence requirements and was subject to expatriation. The Court "appeared to assume or imply that such persons became citizens at birth by way of naturalization ''.
More recent cases, particularly Nguyen v. INS and Robinson v. Bowen, relaxed this view, suggesting that the Fourteenth Amendment merely establishes a "floor '' for birthright citizenship, and this category may be expanded by Congress.
In 2009 in Ankeny v. Governor, the Indiana Court of Appeals reaffirmed that persons born within the borders of the United States are "natural born Citizens '', regardless of the citizenship of their parents. The court referred to the case of Wong Kim Ark, and provides a compilation of the arguments pertaining to this topic.
A clarification to this interpretation was made in 2010, where a three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that natural born citizens can lose their citizenship if their territory of birth later ceases to be U.S. territory. The case involved a Philippine - born litigant who could not claim U.S. citizenship on the basis of his parents, who lived all their lives in the Philippines, because they were born while the Philippines was U.S. territory prior to being given its independence. The Courts for the Second, Third, and Ninth Circuits have also held that birth in the Philippines at a time when the country was a territory of the United States does not constitute birth "in the United States '' under the Citizenship Clause, and thus did not give rise to United States citizenship.
In a 2012 New York case, Strunk v. N.Y. State Board of Elections, the pro se plaintiff challenged Barack Obama 's presence on the presidential ballot, based on his own interpretation that "natural born citizen '' required the president "to have been born on United States soil and have two United States born parents '' (emphasis added). To this the Court responded, "Article II, section 1, clause 5 does not state this. No legal authority has ever stated that the Natural Born Citizen clause means what plaintiff Strunk claims it says... Moreover, President Obama is the sixth U.S. President to have had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil ''. The opinion then listed Andrew Jackson, James Buchanan, Chester A. Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert Hoover.
William Rawle, formerly the U.S. Attorney for Pennsylvania (1791 -- 1799) defined natural born citizen as every person born within the United States, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. In an 1825 treatise, A View of the Constitution of the United States of America, he wrote:
The citizens of each state constituted the citizens of the United States when the Constitution was adopted... (He) who was subsequently born the citizen of a State, became at the moment of his birth a citizen of the United States. Therefore every person born within the United States, its territories or districts, whether the parents are citizens or aliens, is a natural born citizen in the sense of the Constitution, and entitled to all the rights and privileges appertaining to that capacity... Under our Constitution the question is settled by its express language, and when we are informed... no person is eligible to the office of President unless he is a natural born citizen, the principle that the place of birth creates the relative quality is established as to us.
James F. Wilson agreed with Rawle 's opinion, but added the exclusion of visiting foreign diplomats. During an 1866 House debate, he quoted Rawle 's opinion, and also referred to the "general law relating to subjects and citizens recognized by all nations '', saying:
... and that must lead us to the conclusion that every person born in the United States is a natural - born citizen of such States, except it may be that children born on our soil to temporary sojourners or representatives of foreign Governments, are native - born citizens of the United States.
Supreme Court Justice Peter Vivian Daniel disagreed with this position and considered natural born citizen as every person born of citizen parents within the United States. In 1857, in a concurring opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford, he quoted an English - language translation of Emerich de Vattel 's 1758 treatise The Law of Nations (Le Droit des gens), stating that "The natives, or natural - born citizens, are those born in the country of parents who are citizens ''.
This was quoted again in 1898 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller in his dissenting opinion in United States v. Wong Kim Ark. However, two paragraphs later, Justice Vattel disagrees and states, "§ 214... there are states, as, for instance, England, where the single circumstance of being born in the country naturalizes the children of a foreigner. ''
Joseph Story, an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, believed that the term native citizen is synonymous with natural born citizen, though he does not define either term. In his 1840 guidebook to the Constitution, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States, about the natural - born - citizen clause he wrote "It is not too much to say that no one, but a native citizen, ought ordinarily to be (e) ntrusted with an office so vital to the safety and liberties of the people. '' This same wording also appeared in his 1834 work The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools.
Alexander Porter Morse, the lawyer who represented Louisiana in Plessy v. Ferguson, considered this connection between native born and natural born to signify that only a child of citizens should be allowed to run for President. In the Albany Law Journal, he wrote:
If it was intended that anybody who was a citizen by birth should be eligible, it would only have been necessary to say, "no person, except a native - born citizen ''; but the framers thought it wise, in view of the probable influx of European immigration, to provide that the president should at least be the child of citizens owing allegiance to the United States at the time of his birth. It may be observed in passing that the current phrase "native - born citizen '' is well understood; but it is pleonasm and should be discarded; and the correct designation, "native citizen '' should be substituted in all constitutional and statutory enactments, in judicial decisions and in legal discussions where accuracy and precise language are essential to intelligent discussion.
Black 's Law Dictionary (9th Edition) defines "Natural Born Citizen '' as "A person born within the jurisdiction of a national government ''.
In 2000, the Congressional Research Service (CRS), in one of its reports, wrote that most constitutional scholars interpret the natural born citizen clause to include citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens. This same CRS report also asserts that citizens born in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, are legally defined as "natural born '' citizens and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President.
This opinion was reaffirmed in a 2009 CRS report, which stated:
Considering the history of the constitutional qualifications provision, the common use and meaning of the phrase "natural - born subject '' in England and in the Colonies in the 1700s, the clause 's apparent intent, the subsequent action of the first Congress in enacting the Naturalization Act of 1790 (expressly defining the term "natural born citizen '' to include a person born abroad to parents who are United States citizens), as well as subsequent Supreme Court dicta, it appears that the most logical inferences would indicate that the phrase "natural born Citizen '' would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship "at birth '' or "by birth ''.
The interpretation of natural born being the equivalent of a citizen at birth was repeated in a 2011 CRS report and a 2016 CRS report. The 2011 report stated:
The weight of legal and historical authority indicates that the term "natural born '' citizen would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship "by birth '' or "at birth, '' either by being born "in '' the United States and under its jurisdiction, even those born to alien parents; by being born abroad to U.S. citizen - parents; or by being born in other situations meeting legal requirements for U.S. citizenship "at birth ''. Such term, however, would not include a person who was not a U.S. citizen by birth or at birth, and who was thus born an "alien '' required to go through the legal process of "naturalization '' to become a U.S. citizen.
The 2016 report similarly stated:
Although the eligibility of U.S. born citizens has been settled law for more than a century, there have been legitimate legal issues raised concerning those born outside of the country to U.S. citizens. From historical material and case law, it appears that the common understanding of the term "natural born '' in England and in the American colonies in the 1700s included both the strict common law meaning as born in the territory (jus soli), as well as the statutory laws adopted in England since at least 1350, which included children born abroad to British fathers (jus sanguinis, the law of descent). Legal scholars in the field of citizenship have asserted that this common understanding and legal meaning in England and in the American colonies was incorporated into the usage and intent of the term in the U.S. Constitution to include those who are citizens at birth.
Gabriel J. Chin, Professor of Law at UC Davis School of Law, held the opinion that the term "natural born '' is ambiguous and citizenship - granting authority has changed over the years. He notes that persons born outside the United States to U.S. - citizen parents have not always been born citizens. For example, foreign - born children of persons who became citizens between April 14, 1802 and 1854 were aliens. He also believed that children born in the Panama Canal Zone to at least one U.S. then - citizen before August 4, 1937, when Congress granted citizenship to all such persons, were born without American citizenship.
In 2009, G. Edward "Ted '' White, Professor of Law at the University of Virginia, stated the term refers to anyone born on U.S. soil or anyone born on foreign soil to American citizen parents.
Unlike Chin and White, Mary McManamon, Professor of Law at Widener University School of Law, has argued in the Catholic University Law Review that, aside from children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, a natural born citizen must be born in the United States. She claims that common law provides an exception for the children of U.S. ambassadors born abroad and the children of American soldiers while engaged in hostilities. Thus, with these two limited exceptions, she equates "natural born '' with "native born ''.
Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard Law School agrees with Professor McManamon that "natural born '' means "native born '' and therefore the wording of the Constitution "does not permit his (Ted Cruz 's) candidacy, '' referring to a candidate who was born in Canada to one U.S. citizen parent. Professor Robert Clinton at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University is also of the opinion that "natural born citizen '' means "born in the United States. '' University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner also concludes that "natural born citizen '' means a "person born in the (United States) ''. Former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, Sol Wachtler, concludes the same. Their conclusion is consistent with the position that the eighteenth century legal usage of the term "shall be considered as natural born '' in the Naturalization Act of 1790 merely naturalized persons or granted them limited rights of the natural born.
There is consensus among academics that those born on American soil, except children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, are natural born citizens, or jus soli, regardless of parental citizenship status.
In a 2008 article published by the Michigan Law Review, Lawrence Solum, Professor of Law at the University of Illinois, stated that "there is general agreement on the core of (the) meaning (of the Presidential Eligibility Clause). Anyone born on American soil whose parents are citizens of the United States is a ' natural born citizen ' ''. In April 2010, Solum republished the same article as an online draft, in which he clarified his original statement so that it would not be misunderstood as excluding the children of one citizen parent. In a footnote he explained, "based on my reading of the historical sources, there is no credible case that a person born on American soil with one American parent was clearly not a ' natural born citizen '. '' He further extended natural born citizenship to all cases of jus soli as the "conventional view ''. Although Solum stated elsewhere that the two - citizen - parents arguments were not "crazy '', he believes "the much stronger argument suggests that if you were born on American soil that you would be considered a natural born citizen. ''
Ronald Rotunda, Professor of Law at Chapman University, has remarked "There 's (sic) some people who say that both parents need to be citizens. That 's never been the law. ''
Polly Price, Professor of Law at Emory University, has commented "It 's a little confusing, but most scholars think it 's a pretty unusual position for anyone to think the natural born citizen clause would exclude someone born in the U.S. ''
Chin concurred with that assessment, stating, "there is agreement that ' natural born citizens ' include those made citizens by birth under the 14th Amendment. ''
Similarly, Eugene Volokh, Professor of Law at UCLA, found "quite persuasive '' the reasoning employed by the Indiana Court of Appeals, which had concluded "that persons born within the borders of the United States are ' natural born Citizens ' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents ''.
Daniel Tokaji, Professor of Law at Ohio State University, agrees the citizenship status of a U.S. - born candidate 's parents is irrelevant.
Several courts have ruled that private citizens do not have standing to challenge the eligibility of candidates to appear on a presidential election ballot. Alternatively, there is a statutory method by which the eligibility of the president - elect of the United States to take office may be challenged in Congress. Some legal scholars assert that, even if eligibility challenges are nonjusticiable in federal courts, and are not undertaken in Congress, there are other avenues for adjudication, such as an action in state court in regard to ballot access.
Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of the former group, all except one had two parents with citizenship in what would become the U.S. (Andrew Jackson). Of those in the latter group, every president except two (Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama) had two U.S. - citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his U.S. - citizen parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover and Donald Trump).
Some presidential candidates were not born in a U.S. state or lacked two U.S. - citizen parents. In addition, one U.S. vice president (Al Gore) was born in Washington, D.C., and another (Charles Curtis) was born in the Kansas Territory. This does not necessarily mean that these officeholders or candidates were ineligible, only that there was some controversy about their eligibility, which may have been resolved in favor of eligibility.
Chester A. Arthur, who was sworn in as president when James A. Garfield died after being shot, was rumored to have been born in Canada.
Chester A. Arthur was born in Vermont on October 5, 1829 to a Vermont - born mother and a father from Ireland (who later became a U.S. citizen, 14 years after Chester A. Arthur was born). His mother, Malvina Stone Arthur, was a native of Berkshire, Vermont, who moved with her family to Quebec, where she met and married the future president 's father, William Arthur, on April 12, 1821. After the family had settled in Fairfield, Vermont, somewhere between 1822 and 1824, William Arthur traveled with his eldest daughter to East Stanbridge, Canada, in October 1830 and commuted to Fairfield on Sundays to preach. "It appears that he traveled regularly between the two villages, both of which were close to the Canada -- US border, for about eighteen months, holding two jobs '', which may well explain the confusion about Chester A. Arthur 's place of birth, as perhaps did the fact that he was born in Franklin County, and thus within a day 's walk of the Vermont -- Quebec border. Moreover, Chester A. Arthur himself added a bit of confusion into the record by sometimes reporting his birth year as 1830.
No evidence of his having been born in Canada was ever demonstrated by his Democratic opponents, although Arthur Hinman, an attorney who had investigated Chester A. Arthur 's family history, raised the allegation as an objection during his vice-presidential campaign and, after the end of his presidency, published a book on the subject.
Christopher Schürmann (born in New York City) entered the Labor primaries during the 1896 presidential election. His eligibility was questioned in a New York Tribune article, because he was born to parents of German nationality. It was stated that "various Attorney - Generals (sic) of the United States have expressed the opinion that a child born in this country of alien parents, who have not been naturalized, is, by the fact of birth, a native - born citizen entitled to all rights and privileges as such. '' But due to a lack of any statute on the subject, Schürmann 's eligibility was "at best an open question, and one which should have made (his) nomination under any circumstances an impossibility '', because questions concerning his eligibility could have been raised after the election.
The eligibility of Charles Evans Hughes was questioned in an article written by Breckinridge Long, one of Woodrow Wilson 's campaign workers, and published on December 7, 1916 in the Chicago Legal News -- a full month after the U.S. presidential election of 1916, in which Hughes was narrowly defeated by Woodrow Wilson. Long claimed that Hughes was ineligible because his father was not yet naturalized at the time of his birth and was still a British citizen (in fact, both his parents were British citizens and never became U.S. citizens). Observing that Hughes, although born in the United States, was also (according to British law) a British subject and therefore "enjoy (ed) a dual nationality and owe (d) a double allegiance '', Long argued that a native born citizen was not natural born without a unity of U.S. citizenship and allegiance and stated: "Now if, by any possible construction, a person at the instant of birth, and for any period of time thereafter, owes, or may owe, allegiance to any sovereign but the United States, he is not a ' natural - born ' citizen of the United States. ''
Barry Goldwater was born in Phoenix, in what was then the incorporated Arizona Territory of the United States. During his presidential campaign in 1964, there was a minor controversy over Goldwater 's having been born in Arizona three years before it became a state.
George W. Romney, who ran for the Republican party presidential nomination in 1968, was born in Mexico to U.S. parents. Romney 's grandfather, a member of the LDS Church, had emigrated to Mexico in 1886 with his three wives and their children, after the U.S. federal government outlawed polygamy. However Romney 's parents (monogamous under new church doctrine) retained their U.S. citizenship and returned to the United States with him and his siblings in 1912. Romney 's eligibility for President became moot when Richard Nixon was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate.
Lowell P. Weicker entered the race for the Republican party nomination of 1980 but dropped out before voting in the primaries began; he was also suggested as a possible vice-presidential nominee in 1976, to replace retiring Vice President Nelson Rockefeller under the Republican ticket of incumbent President Gerald Ford. However Senator Bob Dole from Kansas was later chosen as the nominee. He was born in Paris, France, to parents who were U.S. citizens. His father was an executive for E.R. Squibb & Sons and his mother was born in India, the daughter of a British general.
John McCain was born in 1936 at Coco Solo, Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone. McCain 's eligibility was not challenged during his 2000 campaign, but it was challenged during his 2008 campaign.
McCain never released his birth certificate to the press or independent fact - checking organizations, but in 2008 one was shown to Washington Post reporter Michael Dobbs, who wrote, "(A) senior official of the McCain campaign showed me a copy of (McCain 's) birth certificate issued by the ' family hospital ' in the Coco Solo submarine base. '' A lawsuit filed by Fred Hollander in 2008 alleged McCain was actually born in a civilian hospital in Colón, Panama. Dobbs wrote that in his autobiography, Faith of My Fathers, McCain wrote that he was born "in the Canal Zone '' at the U.S. Naval Air Station in Coco Solo, which was under the command of his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. "The senator 's father, John S. McCain Jr., was an executive officer on a submarine, also based in Coco Solo. His mother, Roberta McCain, has said that she has vivid memories of lying in bed listening to raucous celebrations of her son 's birth from the nearby officers ' club. The birth was announced days later in the English - language Panamanian American newspaper. ''
The former unincorporated territory of the Panama Canal Zone and its related military facilities were not regarded as United States territory at the time, but 8 U.S.C. § 1403, which became law in 1937, retroactively conferred citizenship on individuals born within the Canal Zone on or after February 26, 1904, and on individuals born in the Republic of Panama on or after that date who had at least one U.S. citizen parent employed by the U.S. government or the Panama Railway Company; 8 U.S.C. § 1403 was cited in Judge William Alsup 's 2008 ruling, described below. A March 2008 paper by former Solicitor General Ted Olson and Harvard Law Professor Laurence H. Tribe opined that McCain was eligible for the Presidency. In April 2008, the U.S. Senate approved a non-binding resolution recognizing McCain 's status as a natural - born citizen. In September 2008, U.S. District Judge William Alsup stated obiter in his ruling that it is "highly probable '' that McCain is a natural - born citizen from birth by virtue of 8 U.S.C. § 1401, although he acknowledged the alternative possibility that McCain became a natural - born citizen retroactively, by way of 8 U.S.C. § 1403.
These views have been criticized by Chin, who argues that McCain was at birth a citizen of Panama and was only retroactively declared a born citizen under 8 U.S.C. § 1403, because at the time of his birth and with regard to the Canal Zone the Supreme Court 's Insular Cases overruled the Naturalization Act of 1795, which would otherwise have declared McCain a U.S. citizen immediately at birth. The U.S. State Department 's Foreign Affairs Manual states that children born in the Panama Canal Zone at certain times became U.S. nationals without citizenship. In Rogers v. Bellei, the Supreme Court ruled that children "born abroad of American parents '' are not citizens within the citizenship clause of the 14th Amendment but did not elaborate on their natural - born status. Similarly, legal scholar Lawrence Solum concluded in an article on the natural born citizen clause that the question of McCain 's eligibility could not be answered with certainty, and that it would depend on the particular approach of "constitutional construction ''. The urban legend fact checking website Snopes.com considers McCain 's eligibility "undetermined ''.
Arguments over McCain 's eligibility became moot after he lost the United States presidential election in 2008.
Barack Obama was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii (which had become a U.S. state in 1959). His mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was a British subject from British Kenya.
Before and after the 2008 presidential election, arguments were made that Obama was not a natural - born citizen. On June 12, 2008, the Obama presidential campaign launched a website to counter what it described as a smear campaign by his opponents, including conspiracy theories challenging his eligibility. The most prominent issue raised against Obama was the claim made in several lawsuits that he was not actually born in Hawaii. The Supreme Court declined without comment to hear two lawsuits in which the plaintiffs argued it was irrelevant whether Obama was born in Hawaii. Most of the cases were dismissed because of the plaintiff 's lack of standing; however, several courts have given guidance on the question.
In Ankeny v. Governor, a three - member Indiana Court of Appeals stated,
Based upon the language of Article II, Section 1, Clause 4 and the guidance provided by Wong Kim Ark, we conclude that persons born within the borders of the United States are ' natural born Citizens ' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents.
Administrative Law Judge Michael Malihi in Georgia decided a group of eligibility challenge cases by saying, "The Indiana Court rejected the argument that Mr. Obama was ineligible, stating that the children born within the United States are natural born citizens, regardless of the citizenship of their parents... This Court finds the decision and analysis of Ankeny persuasive. '' Federal District Judge John A. Gibney, Jr. wrote in his decision in the case of Tisdale v. Obama:
The eligibility requirements to be President of the United States are such that the individual must be a "natural born citizen '' of the United States... It is well settled that those born in the United States are considered natural born citizens. See, e.g. United States v. Ark (sic)...
On October 31, 2008, Hawaii Health Director Chiyome Fukino issued a statement saying,
I... have personally seen and verified that the Hawai'i State Department of Health has Sen. Obama 's original birth certificate on record in accordance with state policies and procedures.
On July 27, 2009, Fukino issued an additional statement:
I... have seen the original vital records maintained on file by the Hawaii State Department of Health verifying Barack Hussein Obama was born in Hawaii and is a natural - born American citizen.
Attempts to prevent Obama from participating in the 2012 Democratic primary election in several states failed.
Ted Cruz announced on March 22, 2015, that he was running for the Republican Party 's nomination for president in the 2016 election. Cruz was born in Calgary, Canada. Cruz 's mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was born in Cuba, but his father eventually became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2005. This gave Cruz dual Canadian - American citizenship, as he was granted U.S. citizenship at the time of his birth by the virtue of his mother 's citizenship, and Canada grants birthright citizenship to every person born in Canada. Cruz applied to formally renounce his Canadian citizenship and ceased being a citizen of Canada on May 14, 2014.
Former Solicitor General Paul Clement, former Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal, University of California, Irvine School of Law Dean Erwin Chemerinsky, Professor Chin (see above), Temple University Law School Professor Peter Spiro, Professor Akhil Amar, Georgetown University Law Center Professor Randy Barnett, Yale Law School Professor Jack Balkin, and University of San Diego Professor Michael Ramsey believe Cruz meets the constitutional requirements to be eligible for the presidency. Similarly, Bryan Garner, the editor of Black 's Law Dictionary, believes the U.S. Supreme Court would find Cruz to be eligible, and Case Western Reserve University School of Law professor Jonathan H. Adler agrees that no court will rule against Cruz 's eligibility.
Laurence Tribe of Harvard, however, described Cruz 's eligibility as "murky and unsettled ''. Harvard Law Professor Cass Sunstein believes that Cruz is eligible, but agrees with Ramsey that Cruz 's eligibility is not "an easy question ''. Sunstein believes concerns over standing and the political - question doctrine make it unlikely that courts would rule against Cruz.
Mary McManamon (see above) writing in the Catholic University Law Review believes that Cruz is not eligible because he was not born in the United States. Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard, Professor Robert Clinton of Arizona State University, University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner, former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals Sol Wachtler, and Professor Victor Williams of Catholic University of America 's law school agree that Cruz is not eligible. Alan Grayson, a Democratic Member of Congress from Florida, does not believe Cruz is a natural - born citizen, and stated he would have filed a lawsuit if Cruz had become the Republican nominee. Orly Taitz, Larry Klayman, and Mario Apuzzo, who each filed multiple lawsuits challenging Obama 's eligibility, have also asserted that Cruz is not eligible.
Cruz 's eligibility was questioned by some of his primary opponents, including Donald Trump, Mike Huckabee, Rick Santorum, Carly Fiorina, and Rand Paul. Marco Rubio, however, believes Cruz is eligible.
Two November 2015 ballot challenges in New Hampshire alleging that Cruz was not a natural - born citizen were unsuccessful. In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. In January 2016, similar lawsuits were unsuccessfully filed in Texas and Utah, and two similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Illinois. In February, two similar unsuccessful lawsuits were filed in Pennsylvania and one was filed in Arkansas; a similar lawsuit was filed in Alabama; similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Indiana; and similar ballot challenges and an unsuccessful similar lawsuit were also filed in New York. In March, a similar lawsuit was filed in New York. In April, a similar ballot challenge was unsuccessfully filed in New Jersey.
No lawsuit or challenge has been successful, and in February 2016, the Illinois Board of Elections ruled in Cruz 's favor, stating, "The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth. ''
The question of Cruz 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his campaign on May 3, 2016.
Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal both announced in 2015 that they were running for the Republican Party 's nomination for president in the 2016 election. Taitz and Apuzzo each have claimed neither Rubio nor Jindal is eligible because both were born (albeit in the United States) to parents who were not U.S. citizens at the time of their respective births.
The question of Jindal 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in November 2015. Nonetheless, a lawsuit filed in December 2015 in Vermont and a ballot challenge filed in February 2016 in New York challenged Jindal 's eligibility.
A November 2015 ballot challenge in New Hampshire alleging that Rubio was not a natural - born citizen was unsuccessful. In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. In January 2016, a similar unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Illinois. In February, a similar unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Arkansas; a similar ballot challenge was filed in New York; and an unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Indiana.
The question of Rubio 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in March 2016.
Arnold Schwarzenegger was reported as considering challenging the prevailing interpretation of the clause. In 2003, Senator Orrin Hatch unsuccessfully put forth the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment, intending to allow eligibility for Arnold Schwarzenegger. In October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger -- who is originally from Austria and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1983, also retaining Austrian citizenship -- was exploring a future run for the American presidency. He reportedly lobbied legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Cornell University law professor Michael C. Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger 's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, "The law is very clear, but it 's not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process ''. Schwarzenegger subsequently denied that he was running.
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who were the two chinese travellers who visited india and left their account | Xuanzang - Wikipedia
Xuanzang (/ ˈʃwɑːnˈtsæŋ /; Chinese: 玄 奘; pinyin: Xuánzàng; Wade -- Giles: Hsüan - tsang (ɕɥɛ̌ntsâŋ); fl. c. 602 -- 664) was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India in the seventh century and described the interaction between Chinese Buddhism and Indian Buddhism during the early Tang dynasty. Born in what is now Henan province around 602, from boyhood he took to reading religious books, including the Chinese classics and the writings of ancient sages.
While residing in the city of Luoyang (in Henan in Central China), Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk) at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan, where he was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang, where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India. He knew about Faxian 's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China.
He became famous for his seventeen - year overland journey to India (including Nalanda), which is recorded in detail in the classic Chinese text Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, which in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang 's death.
Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang '' include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien - tsang, Hsyan - tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade -- Giles, which represents the s - or sh - like (ɕ) in today 's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h - like (x) in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h.
Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang, '' written 元 奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang.
Tang Monk (Tang Seng) is also transliterated / Thang Seng /.
Another of Xuanzang 's standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (simplified Chinese: 三藏 法师; traditional Chinese: 三藏 法師; pinyin: Sānzàngfǎshī; literally: "Sanzang Dharma (or Law) Teacher ''): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma '' or Pali / Pakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being "Buddhism ''.
"Sanzang '' is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka, and in some English - language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West, Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka. ''
Xuanzang was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) around 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (Chinese: 緱 氏 鎮), Luozhou (near present - day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664 in Yuhua Palace (玉 華 宮, in present - day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi (陳 寔, 104 - 186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great - grandfather Chen Qin (陳 欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上 黨; present - day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳 康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳 惠) was a conservative Confucian who served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty, but later gave up office and withdrew into seclusion to escape the political turmoil that gripped China towards the end of the Sui. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, amazing his father by his careful observance of the Confucian rituals at the age of eight. Along with his brothers and sister, he received an early education from his father, who instructed him in classical works on filial piety and several other canonical treatises of orthodox Confucianism.
Although his household was essentially Confucian, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like one of his elder brothers. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù (Chinese: 陳 素) (later known as Zhǎng jié Chinese: 長 捷) for five years at Jingtu Monastery (Chinese: 淨土 寺) in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools, preferring the former.
In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma - kośa Śāstra. When Xuanzang requested to take Buddhist orders at the age of thirteen, the abbot Zheng Shanguo made an exception in his case because of his precocious knowledge.
Xuanzang was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the texts at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He subsequently left his brother and returned to Chang'an to study foreign languages and to continue his study of Buddhism. He began his mastery of Sanskrit in 626, and probably also studied Tocharian. During this time, Xuanzang also became interested in the metaphysical Yogacara school of Buddhism.
In 627, Xuanzang reportedly had a dream that convinced him to journey to India. Tang China and the Göktürks were at war at the time and Emperor Taizong of Tang had prohibited foreign travel. Xuanzang persuaded some Buddhist guards at Yumen Pass and slipped out of the empire through Liangzhou (Gansu) and Qinghai in 629. He subsequently travelled across the Gobi Desert to Kumul (modern Hami City), thence following the Tian Shan westward.
He arrived in Turpan in 630. Here he met the king of Turpan, a Buddhist who equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. The hottest mountain in China, the Flaming Mountains, is located in Turpan and was depicted in the Journey to the West.
Moving further westward, Xuanzang escaped robbers to reach Karasahr, then toured the non-Mahayana monasteries of Kucha. Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan 's Bedel Pass into modern Kyrgyzstan. He skirted Issyk Kul before visiting Tokmak on its northwest, and met the great Khagan of the Göktürks, whose relationship to the Tang emperor was friendly at the time. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. From here, he crossed the desert further west to Samarkand. In Samarkand, which was under Persian influence, the party came across some abandoned Buddhist temples and Xuanzang impressed the local king with his preaching. Setting out again to the south, Xuanzang crossed a spur of the Pamirs and passed through the famous Iron Gates. Continuing southward, he reached the Amu Darya and Termez, where he encountered a community of more than a thousand Buddhist monks.
Further east he passed through Kunduz, where he stayed for some time to witness the funeral rites of Prince Tardu, who had been poisoned. Here he met the monk Dharmasimha, and on the advice of the late Tardu made the trip westward to Balkh (modern Afghanistan), to see the Buddhist sites and relics, especially the Nava Vihara, which he described as the westernmost vihara in the world. Here Xuanzang also found over 3,000 non-Mahayana monks, including Prajnakara (般若 羯 羅 or 慧 性), a monk with whom Xuanzang studied early Buddhist scriptures. He acquired the important text of the Mahāvibhāṣa (Chinese: 大 毗 婆 沙 論) here, which he later translated into Chinese.
Prajñakara then accompanied the party southward to Bamyan, where Xuanzang met the king and saw tens of non-Mahayana monasteries, in addition to the two large Buddhas of Bamiyan carved out of the rockface. The party then resumed their travel eastward, crossing the Shibar Pass and descending to the regional capital of Kapisi (about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north of modern Kabul), which sported over 100 monasteries and 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana. This was part of the fabled old land of Gandhara. Xuanzang took part in a religious debate here, and demonstrated his knowledge of many Buddhist schools. Here he also met the first Jains and Hindu of his journey. He pushed on to Adinapur (later named Jalalabad) and Laghman, where he considered himself to have reached India. The year was 630.
Xuanzang left Adinapur, which had few Buddhist monks, but many stupas and monasteries. His travels included, passing through Hunza and the Khyber Pass to the east, reaching the former capital of Gandhara, Purushapura (Peshawar), on the other side. Peshawar was nothing compared to its former glory, and Buddhism was declining in the region. Xuanzang visited a number of stupas around Peshawar, notably the Kanishka Stupa. This stupa was built just southeast of Peshawar, by a former king of the city. In 1908, it was rediscovered by D.B. Spooner with the help of Xuanzang 's account.
Xuanzang left Peshawar and travelled northeast to the Swat Valley. Reaching Oḍḍiyāna, he found 1,400 - year - old monasteries, that had previously supported 18,000 monks. The remnant monks were of the Mahayana school. Xuanzang continued northward and into the Buner Valley, before doubling back via Shahbaz Garhi to cross the Indus river at Hund. He visited Taxila which was desolate and half - ruined, and found most of its sangharamas still ruined and desolate with the state having become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. Only a few monks remained there. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of Kapisa. He went to Kashmir in 631 where he met a talented monk Samghayasas (僧 伽耶 舍), and studied there. In Kashmir, he found himself in another center of Buddhist culture and describes that there were over 100 monasteries and over 5,000 monks in the area. Between 632 and early 633, he studied with various monks, including 14 months with Vinītaprabha (毘 膩 多 缽 臘婆 or 調伏 光), 4 months with Candravarman (旃 達 羅 伐 摩 or 月 胃), and "a winter and half a spring '' with Jayagupta (闍 耶 毱 多). During this time, Xuanzang wrote about the Fourth Buddhist council that took place nearby, ca. 100 AD, under the order of King Kanishka of Kushana. He visited Chiniot and Lahore as well and provided the earliest writings available on the ancient cities. In 634, Xuanzang arrived in Matipura (秣 底 補 羅), known as Mandawar today.
In 634, he went east to Jalandhar in eastern Punjab, before climbing up to visit predominantly non-Mahayana monasteries in the Kulu valley and turning southward again to Bairat and then Mathura, on the Yamuna river. Mathura had 2,000 monks of both major Buddhist branches, despite being Hindu - dominated. Xuanzang travelled up the river to Shrughna, also mentioned in the works of Udyotakara, before crossing eastward to Matipura, where he arrived in 635, having crossed the river Ganges. At Matipura Monastery, Xuanzang studied under Mitrasena. From here, he headed south to Sankasya (Kapitha, then onward to Kannauj, the grand capital of the Empire of Harsha under the northern Indian emperor Harsha. It is believed he also visited Govishan present day Kashipur in the Harsha era, in 636, Xuanzang encountered 100 monasteries of 10,000 monks (both Mahayana and non-Mahayana), and was impressed by the king 's patronage of both scholarship and Buddhism. Xuanzang spent time in the city studying early Buddhist scriptures, before setting off eastward again for Ayodhya (Saketa), homeland of the Yogacara school. Xuanzang now moved south to Kausambi (Kosam), where he had a copy made from an important local image of the Buddha.
Xuanzang now returned northward to Shravasti Bahraich, travelled through Terai in the southern part of modern Nepal (here he found deserted Buddhist monasteries) and thence to Kapilavastu, his last stop before Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha.
In 637, Xuanzang set out from Lumbini to Kusinagara, the site of Buddha 's death, before heading southwest to the deer park at Sarnath where Buddha gave his first sermon, and where Xuanzang found 1,500 resident monks. Travelling eastward, at first via Varanasi, Xuanzang reached Vaisali, Pataliputra (Patna) and Bodh Gaya. He was then accompanied by local monks to Nalanda, the greatest Indian university of Indian state of Bihar, where he spent at least the next two years, He visited Champa Monastery, Bhagalpur. He was in the company of several thousand scholar - monks, whom he praised. Xuanzang studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda. René Grousset notes that it was at Nalanda (where an "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full - blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade '') that Xuanzang met the venerable Silabhadra, the monastery 's superior. Silabhadra had dreamt of Xuanzang 's arrival and that it would help spread far and wide the Holy Law. Grousset writes: "The Chinese pilgrim had finally found the omniscient master, the incomparable metaphysician who was to make known to him the ultimate secrets of the idealist systems... The founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu... Dignaga... Dharmapala had in turn trained Silabhadra. Silabhadra was thus in a position to make available to the Sino - Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist idealism, and the Siddhi Xuanzang 's great philosophical treatise... is none other than the Summa of this doctrine, the fruit of seven centuries of Indian (Buddhist) thought. ''
From Nalanda, Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms, including Pundranagara, to the capital of Pundravardhana, identified with modern Mahasthangarh, in present - day Bangladesh. There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3,000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. One of them was the Vāśibhã Monastery (Po Shi Po), where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India. He also visited Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur in the district of Naogaon, in modern - day Bangladesh.
Xuanzang turned southward and travelled to Andhradesa to visit the Viharas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. He stayed at Amaravati and studied ' Abhidhammapitakam '. He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted. He later proceeded to Kanchi, the imperial capital of Pallavas and a strong centre of Buddhism. He continued traveling to Nasik, Ajanta, Malwa, from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again.
At the invitation of Hindu king Kumar Bhaskar Varman, he went east to the ancient city of Pragjyotishpura in the kingdom of Kamarupa after crossing the Karatoya and spent three months in the region. Before going to Kamarupa he visited Sylhet what is now a modern city Of Bangladesh. He gives detailed account about culture and people of Sylhet. Later, the king escorted Xuanzang back to the Kannauj at the request of king Harshavardhana, who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman, to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighbouring kingdoms, buddhist monks, Brahmans and Jains. King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha 's generous distribution of gifts to the poor.
After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha. Traveling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush, Xuanzang passed through Kashgar, Khotan, and Dunhuang on his way back to China. He arrived in the capital, Chang'an, on the seventh day of the first month of 645, 16 years after he left Chinese territory, and a great procession celebrated his return.
On his return to China in AD 645, Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still - reigning emperor, Emperor Taizong of Tang. Instead, he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy in translating Buddhist texts until his death in AD 664. According to his biography, he returned with, "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics. '' In celebration of Xuanzang 's extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts, Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang (褚 遂良) and inscriber Wan Wenshao (萬 文 韶) to install two stele stones, collectively known as The Emperor 's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (雁 塔 聖教 序), at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.
During Xuanzang 's travels, he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. With the emperor 's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present - day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra (瑜伽 行 派), or Consciousness - only (唯識).
The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school (法相 宗) in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, Karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang 's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (窺基) who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang 's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.
Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese, which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies. He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects; as well, this translation of the Heart Sutra was generally admired within the traditional Chinese gentry and is still widely respected as numerous renowned past and present Chinese calligraphers have penned its texts as their artworks. He also founded the short - lived but influential Faxiang school of Buddhism. Additionally, he was known for recording the events of the reign of the northern Indian emperor, Harsha.
Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE, using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 chapters.
In 646, under the Emperor 's request, Xuanzang completed his book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (大 唐 西域 記), which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India. This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857.
There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili (慧 立). Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal, in 1884 and 1911 respectively. An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and S.W. Bushell, and published posthumously in London in 1905.
A half - monk at thirteen restless to find the truth one night I saw in my dream an azure pool a blue lotus dazzling red flowers thick mango groves wrinkled face of a Bhikchhu I set out for Yintu secretly escaping the Middle Kingdom at night, like the young Siddhartha against the Emperor 's diktats I travelled alone for years a fakir along the Silk Road hungry, naked but blessed...
"Hiuen Tsang: A Poem by Abhay K.
Xuanzang 's work, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India, he ended up doing much more. He has preserved the records of political and social aspects of the lands he visited.
His record of the places visited by him in Bengal -- mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna, Pundranagara and its environs, Samatata, Tamralipti and Harikela -- have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal what is now. His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal, especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka, although at times he can be quite partisan.
Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works. He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India. Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji, the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili, entitled the Life of Xuanzang.
His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra, and recitations throughout China, Korea and Japan. His style was, by Chinese standards, cumbersome and overly literal, and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology; usually, where another version by the earlier translator Kumārajīva exists, Kumārajīva 's is more popular.
Xuanzang 's journey along the so - called Silk Road, and the legends that grew up around it, inspired the Ming novel Journey to the West, one of the great classics of Chinese literature. The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, and is protected on his journey by three powerful disciples. One of them, the monkey, was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime (including the popular Dragon Ball and Saiyuki series), and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley 's translation and later the cult TV series Monkey.
In the Yuan Dynasty, there was also a play by Wu Changling (吳昌齡) about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures.
A skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion, Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda - allegedly by the Dalai Lama - and presented to India. The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007. The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang 's skull.
Part of Xuanzang 's remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942, and are now enshrined at Yakushi - ji in Nara, Japan.
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who won season 2 of total drama island | Total Drama Action - wikipedia
Total Drama Action is a Canadian animated television series. It is the second season of the Total Drama series, which began with Total Drama Island. The show premiered in Teletoon at 6: 30 pm ET / PT on January 11, 2009. This series was also created by the makers of 6teen, another Teletoon program. This is the only season for Teletoon to not air a new episode every week.
Like Total Drama Island, the previous season, much of Total Drama Action chronicles the events of the eponymous fictional reality shows. The Total Drama series itself is an "animated reality television series '', which stars the cast and crew of the fictional series, parodying many aspects of reality television in general. After last season 's winner, Owen (Scott McCord), forgoes his prize money of C $ 100,000 for a challenge (open to all 22 of Total Drama Island 's contestants) in which the winner would receive C $1,000,000, the money was left in limbo after a situation resulted in a 14 - way tie.
As such, show host Chris McLean (Christian Potenza) had no choice but to commission a second competition with all 14 tied contestants. The contestants are told to arrive at an abandoned movie studio lot in Toronto, Ontario, where the new competition, titled "Total Drama Action '', would take place. Because of its location, Chris tells the contestants that the challenges would all be in the form of various movie genres. The accommodations of the contestants are handled by Chef Hatchet (Clé Bennett) in a similar manner to how it was handled in the previous season. The outhouse which was used as a confessional in Total Drama Island has been replaced with a makeup trailer for the cast to use, although Chris and Chef do use it in various episodes during the TDA season.
After a quick elimination of two contestants, the couple Bridgette (Kristin Fairlie) and Geoff (Dan Petronijevic), a second challenge determined the team captains of the two competing teams: the Screaming Gaffers, headed by Gwen (Megan Fahlenbock), and the Killer Grips, headed by Trent (Scott McCord). From then on, challenges would alternate between "reward challenges '' where winners would receive a special prize, and "elimination challenges '' where the losing team would vote off one of its own in an elaborate "Gilded Chris Ceremony ''.
The pattern of reducing the contestants down was briefly interrupted on two occasions: once when Izzy (Katie Crown) was reinstated following a voting irregularity where her alter - ego, "E-Scope '', was voted off, and another time when Courtney (Emilie - Claire Barlow), a contestant who did not originally qualify for Total Drama Action, successfully sued the show and was added into the game. The players eliminated would make the "walk of shame '' and into the "Lame - o - sine '', where they leave the movie studio.
Once seven contestants were left, the Screaming Gaffers and the Killer Grips were dissolved, and the challenges became individual - oriented in nature. Chris hired Owen as his ringer to sabotage the other contestants and to create drama. Eventually, two contestants were left standing: Duncan (Drew Nelson) and Beth (Sarah Gadon), with Duncan being the original winner, and Beth the runner - up. Beth does win in the alternate ending.
Total Drama Action premiered on January 11, 2009, at 6: 30 p.m. on Teletoon and premiered on June 11, 2009, on Cartoon Network. In the U.S., Cartoon Network creates a disclaimer with a TV - PG - D rating before the previous show 's recap. In the UK it aired on April 11, 2011, at 10: 00 GMT as part of Disney XD 's Easter Shows.
The main Total Drama Action cast consists of host Chris McLean, assistant Chef Hatchet, and the contestants that make up the castmates. The remaining contestants from Total Drama Island also appear in the show, but serving in lesser capacities as commentators on The Aftermath. Also, one other character in the show is Brady, Beth 's boyfriend whom she talks about constantly throughout the show, but is only seen in the final episode. The characters are Bridgette, Geoff, Izzy, Trent, Gwen, DJ, Owen, Heather, Leshawna, Justin, Lindsay, Harold, Courtney, Beth, and Duncan.
The show 's producers created two alternate endings for the final episode, such that the winner seen in one country 's broadcasts is the runner - up in other countries (and vice versa) where the show airs. In Canada, Duncan was aired as the original winner. Duncan was also shown as the winner in Denmark, Latin America, Norway, the Philippines, and in the United States. Beth is the original runner - up, but she is also depicted as the winner in airings from Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, France, Hungary, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Like Total Drama Island, Total Drama Action was developed and produced by Fresh TV, targeting an age group of 10 - to 16 - year - olds. Many of the show 's settings, as well as the show 's opening sequence, are deliberately made to be as close as to their Total Drama Island counterparts as possible; Camp Wawanakwa, the setting of Total Drama Island, was also revisited on several occasions, most notably as the site of some of the season 's challenges. All of the cast of Total Drama Island return in the same roles as that of Total Drama Island, though some had their roles reduced as their characters were not as prominent in this season. As with Total Drama Island, two endings were commissioned for the series, one with each of the final two competitors winning; after the airing of the penultimate episode and prior to the season finale, viewers were prompted to the show 's website (either at Teletoon for viewers in Canada or Cartoon Network for American viewers) to vote for the desired ending. Unlike Total Drama Island, however, the alternate ending was available as a webcast on the show 's website immediately following its airing.
Total Drama Action has received mixed reviews from critics and fans. Most critics agree the season does not live up to the first season, Total Drama Island, and others say the season was more "childish '' and "bad ''. However some critics and fans did enjoy Total Drama Action as much as the first season along with a majority of critics praising the character development of the characters who had small roles in the first season. Total Drama Action received a 7.6 on Metacritic by fans, which indicates "generally favorable reviews ''. Like the critics, many fans believed that this season did not live up to the previous season, Total Drama Island.
Australia is the only country in the world that has released Total Drama Action on DVD. They have released the first half of the season on a Region 4 DVD on November 2, 2011 which includes the Total Drama Island special, "Total Drama Drama Drama Drama Island ''. Australia then released the second half of Total Drama Action on July 4, 2012.
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who sang backup on bat out of hell | Ellen Foley - wikipedia
Ellen Foley (born June 5, 1951) is an American singer and actress who has appeared on Broadway and television, where she co-starred in the sitcom Night Court. In music, she has released four solo albums but is best known for her collaborations with rock singer Meat Loaf.
Foley was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the daughter of John and Virginia B. Foley. Foley attended Webster University. Foley gained high public recognition singing the duet with Meat Loaf on the hit single "Paradise by the Dashboard Light '' from the 1977 album Bat Out of Hell. Although Karla DeVito (who toured with Meat Loaf in support of the album) is featured in the music video, DeVito is lip synching to Foley 's vocals.
Her debut album Night Out was released in 1979; the album 's single "What 's a Matter Baby '' reached No. 7 in the Dutch Charts but was a minor hit on the US Charts, reaching No. 92. However the single "We Belong To The Night '' went on to reach No. 1 in Holland The album itself peaked at No. 152, and was produced by Ian Hunter and Mick Ronson. Foley recorded a memorable duet with Ian Hunter in 1980, "We Gotta Get Outta Here ''. Her creative relationship with Hunter also led her to singing backing vocals on the Iron City Houserockers ' 1980 album Have a Good Time but Get Out Alive!, produced by Hunter, Ronson, and The E Street Band 's Steven Van Zandt.
She can also be heard on the 1979 Blue Öyster Cult album Mirrors singing on the title cut, and also on The Clash album Sandinista! (Released in 1980), in the songs "Hitsville UK '' and "Corner Soul '', and on the unreleased track "Blonde Rock ' n ' Roll ''. In 1981, all four members of The Clash appeared on her second album The Spirit of St. Louis, and Mick Jones and Joe Strummer co-wrote a number of songs for the album. Jones produced the album, which also featured members of The Blockheads, and peaked at No. 137 on the US charts. In 1982, she provided backing vocals on The Clash 's song "Car Jamming '' from the album Combat Rock. The Clash 's hit song "Should I Stay or Should I Go '', written and sung by Jones, was about the turbulent relationship he shared with Foley at the time.
She released her third solo album Another Breath in 1983; it failed to chart. In 1984, she sang backing vocals on Joe Jackson 's album Body & Soul and had a large role in the music video for Utopia 's "Crybaby ''.
Foley was one of four female vocalists to front the band Pandora 's Box, formed by Jim Steinman in 1989. Their album Original Sin was the first to feature the song "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now '' (vocals by Elaine Caswell); both Meat Loaf and Celine Dion had separate chart successes with that song, years later.
Foley lives on the Upper West Side of Manhattan and continues an active career in music and has appeared on Broadway in such shows as Me and My Girl and the revival of Hair, and off - Broadway in Beehive. She originated the role of The Witch in Stephen Sondheim 's Into the Woods at the Old Globe Theater in San Diego, but was replaced by Bernadette Peters before the musical opened on Broadway. Foley did eventually play the role on Broadway, as of August 1, 1989.
Her best known television acting role is that of Billie Young on Night Court for one season (1984 -- 85), after which she was succeeded by Markie Post as Christine Sullivan, who had always been Reinhold Weege 's first choice for the public defender part, but Post had been unavailable while under contract on the television series The Fall Guy on ABC. Foley was reportedly let go from the series because producers felt her relationship with star Harry Anderson was more like that of a brother and sister. She had roles in Miloš Forman 's film adaptation of the stage musical Hair (1979), as well as the films Fatal Attraction (1987), Married to the Mob (1988) and Cocktail (1988). She was also in the short - lived 1977 series 3 Girls 3, co-starring with Debbie Allen and Mimi Kennedy.
In 1990, Foley married the writer Doug Bernstein, co-author of the Off - Broadway revue Showing Off and graduate of Amherst College. The couple live in Manhattan with their two sons, Timothy and Henry. As of the mid-2000s, she teaches voice at The Paul Green School of Rock Music in Manhattan, New York City.
Note: all of these were originally issued by Epic within the U.S. on vinyl LP. They have been reissued on Compact Disc by Wounded Bird Records.
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where is the security code located on a debit card | Card security code - wikipedia
A card security code (CSC; also called card verification data (CVD) or a card verification number, card verification value (CVV), card verification value code, card verification code (CVC), verification code (V - code or V code), card code verification, or signature panel code (SPC)) is a security feature for "card not present '' payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.
The CSC is in addition to the bank card number which is embossed or printed on the card. The CSC is used as a security feature, in situations where a PIN can not be used. The PIN is not printed or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the cardholder during point - of - sale (card present) transactions. Contactless card and chip cards may electronically generate their own code, such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV.
CSC was originally developed in the UK as an 11 character alphanumeric code by Equifax employee Michael Stone in 1995. After testing with the Littlewoods Home Shopping group and NatWest bank, the concept was adopted by APACS (the UK Association of Payment Clearing Services) and streamlined to the three - digit code known today. MasterCard started issuing CVC2 numbers in 1997 and Visa in the United States issued them by 2001. American Express started to use the CSC in 1999, in response to growing internet transactions and card member complaints of spending interruptions when the security of a card has been brought into question.
In 2016, a new e-commerce technology called Motioncode was introduced, designed to automatically refresh the CVV code to a new one every hour or so.
The codes have different names:
There are several types of security codes:
The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed, not embossed like the card number, on the signature strip on the back of the card. On American Express cards, the card security code is the four digits printed (not embossed) on the front towards the right. The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat.
As a security measure, merchants who require the CVV2 for "card not present '' payment card transactions are required by the card issuer not to store the CVV2 once the individual transaction is authorized. This way, if a database of transactions is compromised, the CVV2 is not included, and the stolen card numbers are less useful. Virtual terminals and payment gateways do not store the CVV2 code, therefore employees and customer service representatives with access to these web - based payment interfaces who otherwise have access to complete card numbers, expiration dates, and other information still lack the CVV2 code.
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) also prohibits the storage of CSC (and other sensitive authorisation data) post transaction authorisation. This applies globally to anyone who stores, processes or transmits card holder data. Since the CSC is not contained on the magnetic stripe of the card, it is not typically included in the transaction when the card is used face to face at a merchant. However, some merchants in North America, such as Sears and Staples, require the code. For American Express cards, this has been an invariable practice (for "card not present '' transactions) in European Union (EU) countries like Ireland and the United Kingdom since the start of 2005. This provides a level of protection to the bank / cardholder, in that a fraudulent merchant or employee can not simply capture the magnetic stripe details of a card and use them later for "card not present '' purchases over the phone, mail order or Internet. To do this, a merchant or its employee would also have to note the CVV2 visually and record it, which is more likely to arouse the cardholder 's suspicion.
Supplying the CSC code in a transaction is intended to verify that the customer has the card in their possession. Knowledge of the code proves that the customer has seen the card, or has seen a record made by somebody who saw the card.
The CSC for each card (form 1 and 2) is generated by the card issuer when the card is issued. It is calculated by encrypting the bank card number and expiration date (two fields printed on the card) with encryption keys known only to the card issuer, and decimalising the result.
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where does switch belong to in osi layer | Network switch - wikipedia
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is a computer networking device that connects devices together on a computer network by using packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the destination device.
A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to process and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also process data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality that most commonly uses IP addresses to perform packet forwarding; such switches are commonly known as layer - 3 switches or multilayer switches.
Switches for Ethernet are the most common form, and the first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990. Switches also exist for other types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand.
Unlike less advanced repeater hubs, which broadcast the same data out of each of its ports and let the devices decide what data they need, a network switch forwards data only to the devices that need to receive it.
A switch is a device in a computer network that electrically and logically connects together other devices. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different networked devices. Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended. Each networked device connected to a switch can be identified by its network address, allowing the switch to regulate the flow of traffic. This maximizes the security and efficiency of the network.
When a Ethernet hub is replaced with an Ethernet switch, the single large collision domain used by the hub is split up into smaller ones, reducing or eliminating the possibility and scope of collisions and, as a result, increasing the potential throughput. A switch is more intelligent than a repeater hub, which simply retransmits packets out of every port of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to distinguish different recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency. Because broadcasts are still being forwarded to all connected devices by the switch, the newly formed network segment continues to be a broadcast domain.
An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. Each device connected to a switch port can transfer data to any of the other ones at a time, and the transmissions will not interfere -- with the limitation that, in half duplex mode, each switch port can only either receive from or transmit to its connected device at a certain time. In full duplex mode, each switch port can simultaneously transmit and receive, assuming the connected device also supports full duplex mode.
In the case of using a repeater hub, only a single transmission could take place at a time for all ports combined, so they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex. Necessary arbitration would also result in collisions, requiring retransmissions.
The network switch plays an integral role in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to - large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office / home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all - purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office / home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end - user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for Voice over IP (VoIP) protocol.
Segmentation involves the use of a bridge or a switch (or a router) to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability, and to improve overall network throughput. In the extreme case (i.e. micro-segmentation), each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point - to - point connections to the network and also to run in full - duplex without collisions. Full - duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver per "collision domain '', making collisions impossible.
Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including the data link and network layers. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.
In switches intended for commercial use, built - in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, RapidIO, ATM, ITU - T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While the layer - 2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth - shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is performed easier at layer 3 or via routing. Devices that interconnect at the layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer 3 switches can also be regarded as relatively primitive and specialized routers.
Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.
In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for fanning out data to several read - only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.
While switches may learn about topologies at many layers, and forward at one or more layers, they do tend to have common features. Other than for high - performance applications, modern commercial switches use primarily Ethernet interfaces.
At any layer, a modern switch may implement power over Ethernet (PoE), which avoids the need for attached devices, such as a VoIP phone or wireless access point, to have a separate power supply. Since switches can have redundant power circuits connected to uninterruptible power supplies, the connected device can continue operating even when regular office power fails.
A network hub, or a repeater, is a simple network device that does not manage any of the traffic coming through it. Any packet entering a port is flooded out or "repeated '' on every other port, except for the port of entry. Specifically, each bit or symbol is repeated as it flows in (with a minimum delay for the line interface). Due to this, a repeater hub can only receive and forward at a single speed. Since every packet is repeated on every other port, packet collisions affect the entire network, limiting its overall capacity.
There are specialized applications in which a network hub can be useful, such as copying traffic to multiple network sensors. High - end network switches usually have a feature called port mirroring that provides the same functionality.
A network switch creates the layer 1 end - to - end connection only virtually, while originally it was mandatory. The bridging function of a switch uses information taken from layer 2 to select for each packet the particular port (s) it has to be forwarded to, removing the requirement that every node is presented with all traffic. As a result, the connection lines are not "switched '' literally, instead they only appear that way on the packet level.
By the early 2000s, there was little price difference between a hub and a low - end switch.
A network bridge, operating at the data link layer, may interconnect a small number of devices in a home or the office. This is a trivial case of bridging, in which the bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device. Bridges also buffer an incoming packet and adapt the transmission speed to that of the outgoing port.
Classic bridges may also interconnect using a spanning tree protocol that disables links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. The older IEEE 802.1 D spanning tree protocol could be quite slow, with forwarding stopping for 30 seconds while the spanning tree reconverged. A Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol was introduced as IEEE 802.1 w. The newest standard Shortest path bridging (IEEE 802.1 aq) is the next logical progression and incorporates all the older Spanning Tree Protocols (IEEE 802.1 D STP, IEEE 802.1 w RSTP, IEEE 802.1 s MSTP) that blocked traffic on all but one alternative path. IEEE 802.1 aq (Shortest Path Bridging SPB) allows all paths to be active with multiple equal cost paths, provides much larger layer 2 topologies (up to 16 million compared to the 4096 VLANs limit), faster convergence, and improves the use of the mesh topologies through increased bandwidth and redundancy between all devices by allowing traffic to load share across all paths of a mesh network.
While layer 2 switch remains more of a marketing term than a technical term, the products that were introduced as "switches '' tended to use microsegmentation and full duplex to prevent collisions among devices connected to Ethernet. By using an internal forwarding plane much faster than any interface, they give the impression of simultaneous paths among multiple devices. ' Non-blocking ' devices use a forwarding plane or equivalent method fast enough to allow full duplex traffic for each port simultaneously.
Once a bridge learns the addresses of its connected nodes, it forwards data link layer frames using a layer 2 forwarding method. There are four forwarding methods a bridge can use, of which the second through fourth methods were performance - increasing methods when used on "switch '' products with the same input and output port bandwidths:
While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth.
Within the confines of the Ethernet physical layer, a layer - 3 switch can perform some or all of the functions normally performed by a router. The most common layer - 3 capability is awareness of IP multicast through IGMP snooping. With this awareness, a layer - 3 switch can increase efficiency by delivering the traffic of a multicast group only to ports where the attached device has signalled that it wants to listen to that group.
While the exact meaning of the term layer - 4 switch is vendor - dependent, it almost always starts with a capability for network address translation, but then adds some type of load distribution based on TCP sessions.
The device may include a stateful firewall, a VPN concentrator, or be an IPSec security gateway.
Layer - 7 switches may distribute the load based on uniform resource locators (URLs), or by using some installation - specific technique to recognize application - level transactions. A layer - 7 switch may include a web cache and participate in a content delivery network (CDN).
Switches are available in many form factors, including stand - alone, desktop units which are typically intended to be used in a home or office environment outside a wiring closet; rack - mounted switches for use in an equipment rack or an enclosure, also as large chassis units with swappable module cards; DIN rail mounted for use in industrial environments; and small installation switches, mounted into a cable duct, floor box or communications tower, as found, for example, in FTTO Infrastructures.
Unless port mirroring or other methods such as RMON, SMON or sFlow are implemented in a switch, it is difficult to monitor traffic that is bridged using a switch because only the sending and receiving ports can see the traffic. These monitoring features are rarely present on consumer - grade switches.
Two popular methods that are specifically designed to allow a network analyst to monitor traffic are:
Another method to monitor may be to connect a layer - 1 hub between the monitored device and its switch port. This will induce minor delay, but will provide multiple interfaces that can be used to monitor the individual switch port.
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who is the actor that plays sirius black | Gary Oldman - wikipedia
Gary Leonard Oldman (born 21 March 1958) is an English actor and filmmaker who has performed in theatre, film, and television. Known for his versatility and expressive acting style, Oldman is regarded as one of the greatest screen actors of his generation. Among other accolades, he has won an Academy Award, three BAFTA Awards, two Critics ' Choice Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award, along with nominations for an Emmy Award and the Palme d'Or. In 2011, Empire readers voted him the recipient of the Empire Icon Award.
Oldman began acting in theatre in 1979, and made his earliest film appearances in Remembrance (1982) and Meantime (1983). He continued to lead a stage career, during which he performed at London 's Royal Court and was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company, with credits including Cabaret (1979), The Massacre at Paris (1980), Entertaining Mr Sloane (1983), Saved (1983), The Country Wife (1987) and Hamlet (1987). Oldman 's portrayals of Sid Vicious and Joe Orton, in the films Sid and Nancy (1986) and Prick Up Your Ears (1987), respectively, prompted critic Roger Ebert to describe him as "the best young British actor around ''. Identified with the "Brit Pack '', Oldman gained further domestic recognition as a football firm leader in The Firm (1989) and the titular Rosencrantz in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (1990). He increasingly starred as offshore characters during the early 1990s, playing a Hell 's Kitchen gangster in State of Grace (1990), Lee Harvey Oswald in JFK (1991) and Count Dracula in Bram Stoker 's Dracula (1992).
Oldman went on to star as the antagonists of films such as True Romance (1993), The Fifth Element (1997), Air Force One (1997) and The Contender (2000); corrupt DEA agent Norman Stansfield, whom Oldman portrayed in Léon: The Professional (1994), has been ranked as one of cinema 's greatest villains. He meanwhile gave an acclaimed reading of Ludwig van Beethoven in Immortal Beloved (1994). In the 21st century, Oldman is known for his roles as Sirius Black in the Harry Potter series, James Gordon in The Dark Knight Trilogy, Lord Shen in Kung Fu Panda 2 (2011), George Smiley in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011), a human leader in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014), and Winston Churchill in Darkest Hour (2017), which earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor. Films in which he has starred have grossed over $11 billion.
In addition to acting in film, Oldman wrote and directed Nil by Mouth (1997); featured in television shows, such as Fallen Angels, Tracey Takes On... and Friends; appeared in music videos for David Bowie, Guns N ' Roses and Annie Lennox; and provided the voice of Viktor Reznov in the Call of Duty video game series.
Oldman was born in New Cross, London, the son of Leonard Bertram Oldman (1921 -- 1985), a former sailor who also worked as a welder, and Kathleen (née Cheriton; 1919 -- 2018). He has stated that Leonard was an alcoholic who left the family when Oldman was seven years old. Oldman attended West Greenwich School in Deptford, leaving school at the age of 16 to work in a sports shop. He was a pianist as a child, and later a singer, but gave up his musical aspirations to pursue an acting career after seeing Malcolm McDowell 's performance in the 1971 film The Raging Moon. In a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose, Oldman said: "Something about Malcolm just arrested me, and I connected, and I said, ' I wan na do that '. ''
Growing up in south London, Oldman supported his local football club Millwall, and also followed Manchester United so that he could watch his idol, George Best. In 2011, Oldman would learn from his mother that his father represented Millwall after World War II, with Oldman stating: "Just after the war, she ran a boarding house, for football players, Millwall players. And I knew that my dad was involved somehow with the reserve team. But two weeks ago my mum said, ' Oh yeah, your dad played for Millwall. When he was young he had a couple of first team games. ''
Oldman studied with the Young People 's Theatre in Greenwich during the mid-1970s, while working jobs on assembly lines, as a porter in an operating theatre, selling shoes and beheading pigs in an abattoir. He unsuccessfully applied to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), which welcomed him to try again the following year, but advised him to find something else to do for a living. When asked by Charlie Rose if he had reminded RADA of this, Oldman joked that "the work speaks for itself ''.
He won a scholarship to attend the Rose Bruford College in Sidcup, Southeast London, from which he graduated with a BA in Acting in 1979. Oldman describes himself as ' shy but diligent worker ' during his time there, where he performed roles such as Puck in Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream.
After leaving school, Oldman was the first in his class to receive professional work. Oldman stated on The South Bank Show that it had nothing to do with being better than someone else, rather his diligence and application.
He made his professional stage debut in 1979 as Puss, alongside Michael Simkins and Peter Howitt, in Dick Whittington and His Cat, at York 's Theatre Royal. The play then ran in Colchester, then with Glasgow 's Citizens Theatre; Oldman 's work ethic and trademark intensity would make him a favourite with audiences in Glasgow during the 1980s. Also in 1979, he starred in Cabaret.
From 1980 to 1981, he appeared in The Massacre at Paris (Christopher Marlowe), Desperado Corner (Shaun Lawton), and Robert David MacDonald 's plays Chinchilla and A Waste of Time. He performed in a 6 - month West End run of MacDonald 's Summit Conference, opposite Glenda Jackson, in 1982. Also that year, Oldman made his film debut in Colin Gregg 's Remembrance, and would have starred in Don Boyd 's Gossip if that film had not collapsed. The following year, he landed a starring role as a skinhead in Mike Leigh 's film Meantime, and moved on to Chesterfield to assume the lead role in Entertaining Mr Sloane (Joe Orton). Afterwards, he went to Westcliffe to star in Saved (Edward Bond).
Saved proved to be a major breakthrough for Oldman. Max Stafford - Clark, artistic director of the Royal Court Theatre, had seen Oldman 's performance and cast him as Scopey, the lead role of Bond 's The Pope 's Wedding, in 1984. For his acclaimed performance, he won two of British theatre 's top honours: the Time Out Fringe Award for Best Newcomer, and the Drama Theatre Award for Best Actor -- the latter of which was shared with future film co-star Anthony Hopkins for his performance in Pravda. Oldman 's turn in The Pope 's Wedding led to a run of work with the Royal Court, and from 1984 to 1986 he appeared in Rat in the Skull (Ron Hutchinson), The Desert Air (Nicholas Wright), Cain and Abel, The Danton Affair (Pam Gems), Women Beware Women (Thomas Middleton), Real Dreams (Trevor Griffiths) and all three of Bond 's The War Plays: Red Black and Ignorant, The Tin Can People and Great Peace. Oldman was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1985 to 1986.
The 1984 production of The Pope 's Wedding had been seen by director Alex Cox, who offered Oldman the part of ill - fated rocker Sid Vicious in the 1986 film Sid and Nancy. He twice turned down the role before accepting it, because, in his own words: "I was n't really that interested in Sid Vicious and the punk movement. I 'd never followed it. It was n't something that interested me. The script I felt was banal and ' who cares ' and ' why bother ' and all of that. And I was a little bit sort - of with my nose in the air and sort - of thinking ' well the theatre -- so much more superior ' and all of that. '' He reconsidered based on the salary and the urging of his agent. In 1987, Oldman gained his third starring film role as Joe Orton in Prick Up Your Ears, for which he received a BAFTA nomination for Best Actor. That same year, he appeared in the plays The Country Wife (William Wycherley) and Serious Money (Caryl Churchill). Director Luc Besson told how, on the set of The Fifth Element (1997), Oldman could recite any scene from Hamlet (William Shakespeare), in which he had starred a decade earlier.
Oldman 's performances in Sid and Nancy and Prick Up Your Ears paved the way for work in Hollywood, garnering acclaim from prominent United States film critic Roger Ebert. Ebert wrote: "There is no point of similarity between the two performances; like a few gifted actors, (Oldman) is able to re-invent himself for every role. On the basis of these two movies, he is the best young British actor around. '' Vicious 's bandmate John Lydon, despite criticising Sid and Nancy, described Oldman as a "bloody good actor ''. Oldman lost considerable weight for the role and was hospitalised. His performance would go on to be ranked No. 62 in Premiere magazine 's "100 Greatest Performances of All Time '' and No. 8 in Uncut magazine 's "10 Best actors in rockin ' roles '', the latter describing his portrayal as a "hugely sympathetic reading of the punk figurehead as a lost and bewildered manchild. ''
In late 1988, he starred opposite long - time hero Alan Bates in We Think the World of You, and alongside Dennis Hopper and Frances McDormand in the 1989 film Chattahoochee. In 1989, Oldman also starred as football hooligan Clive "Bex '' Bissel in British drama The Firm, a performance which Total Film numbered as his best and called "stunning '' and "fearless '' in 2011. In 1990 he costarred with Tim Roth in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead, Tom Stoppard 's film adaptation of his own play of the same name. Total Film also praised the movie, calling Oldman 's character "a blitz of brilliant comedy timing and pitch perfect line delivery. '' Oldman starred opposite Sean Penn and Ed Harris in State of Grace (1990), his first prominent US film; Roger Ebert described Oldman 's turn as the highlight. Janet Maslin, another noted US film critic, referred to his work as "phenomenal ''. He was offered, but turned down, the lead role in that year 's Edward Scissorhands. Oldman moved to the United States in the early 1990s, where he has resided since. Oldman and other young British actors of the 1980s who were becoming established Hollywood film actors, such as Tim Roth, Bruce Payne, Colin Firth, Daniel Day - Lewis and Paul McGann, were dubbed the "Brit Pack '', of which Oldman was de facto leader.
In 1991, Oldman starred in his first US blockbuster, playing Lee Harvey Oswald in Oliver Stone 's JFK. According to Oldman, very little was written about Oswald in the script. Stone gave him several plane tickets, a list of contacts and told him to do his own research. Oldman met with Oswald 's wife, Marina, and her two daughters to prepare for the role. The following year, he starred as Count Dracula in Francis Ford Coppola 's romance - horror Bram Stoker 's Dracula. A commercially successful film adaptation of Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel, it was a box office success worldwide. Oldman 's performance was recognised as the best male performance of 1992 by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, which awarded Oldman its Best Actor award. Oldman later became a popular portrayer of villains: He played violent pimp Drexl Spivey in the Tony Scott - directed, Quentin Tarantino - written True Romance (1993), a role which MSN Movies described as "one of cinema 's most memorable villains ''; a sadistic prison warden in Murder in the First (1995); futuristic corporate tyrant Jean - Baptiste Emanuel Zorg in The Fifth Element (1997); and Dr. Zachary Smith / Spider Smith in the commercially successful but critically panned Lost in Space (1998). He was considered for two roles in Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction (1994), but neither were realised. Tarantino contemplated Oldman as gangster Jules Winnfield (played by Samuel L. Jackson), while TriStar executives recommended him for drug dealer Lance (portrayed by Eric Stoltz).
In 1994 's Léon: The Professional, he played corrupt DEA officer Norman Stansfield, which has since been named by multiple publications as one of the best villains in cinema. Oldman also portrayed various accents; along with the Transylvanian Count Dracula, he gave a critically acclaimed reading of German - born Viennese composer Ludwig van Beethoven in Immortal Beloved, and played Russian terrorist Egor Korshunov in the 1997 blockbuster Air Force One. He portrayed another historical figure, Pontius Pilate, in Jesus (1999). Oldman was considered for the role of Morpheus in The Matrix. He served as a member of the Jury at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. In 1998, MTV 's Celebrity Deathmatch aired a match between claymation representations of Oldman and Christopher Walken to determine the greatest cinematic villain.
Oldman appeared opposite Jeff Bridges as zealous Republican congressman Sheldon Runyon in The Contender (2000), in which he was also credited as a producer. Oldman received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for his performance, although some claimed he was dissatisfied with DreamWorks ' supposed editing of the film to reflect pro-Democratic leanings. These reports were declared "sloppy sensationalism '' by his manager, Douglas Urbanski, who said that Oldman was "the least political person I know ''. He stressed that neither he nor Oldman had made the statements attributed to them, that they had "produced this film, every last cut and frame '', and that DreamWorks "did not influence the final cut or have anything to do with it. '' Urbanski asserted that Oldman received "creepy phone calls advising him that he was ruining his chances of an Oscar nomination ''. The notion of Oldman criticising DreamWorks was dispelled as a "myth '' by critic Roger Ebert.
In 2001, he starred opposite Anthony Hopkins in Hannibal, as Mason Verger, the only surviving victim of Hannibal Lecter. He reportedly spent six hours per day in the make - up room to achieve the character 's hideously disfigured appearance. It marked the second time that Oldman had appeared opposite Hopkins, a personal friend who was part of the supporting cast of Bram Stoker 's Dracula. Oldman is uncredited in the film, reportedly over a dispute regarding top billing, which was going to co-stars Anthony Hopkins and Julianne Moore. He received an Emmy Award nomination for two guest appearances in Friends in May 2001, appearing in the two - part episode "The One With Chandler and Monica 's Wedding '' as Richard Crosby, a pedantic actor who insists that "real '' actors spit on one another when they enunciate, leading to tension, then friendship, with Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc). Oldman had previously worked with LeBlanc on Lost in Space.
Following his Friends appearance, Oldman did not appear in any major roles until 2004; it was suggested that he was blacklisted in Hollywood during this time, following the controversy that had surrounded the release of The Contender. In 2002, he starred in the generally well - received Interstate 60, and played the Devil in the BMW short film, The Hire: Beat the Devil. Guardian writer Xan Brooks described the early 2000s as Oldman 's "low point '', recalling "barrel - scraping roles '' in the critically maligned 2003 films Tiptoes and Sin. Although the film failed to impress reviewers, Oldman did garner praise for his portrayal of a man with dwarfism in Tiptoes: Lisa Nesselson in Variety described his work as "astonishingly fine '', and the performance was later mentioned in Mark Kermode 's "Great Acting in Bad Films ''.
In 2004, Oldman returned to prominence when he landed a significant role in the Harry Potter film series, playing Harry Potter 's godfather Sirius Black. The following year, he starred as James Gordon in Christopher Nolan 's commercially and critically successful Batman Begins, a role that he reprised in the even more successful sequel The Dark Knight (2008) and once more in the conclusion, The Dark Knight Rises (2012). Prominent film critic Mark Kermode, in reviewing The Dark Knight, downplayed claims that Heath Ledger 's Joker was the highlight of the film, saying, "the best performance in the film, by a mile, is Gary Oldman 's... it would be lovely to see him get a (n Academy Award) nomination because actually, he 's the guy who gets kind of overlooked in all of this. '' Oldman co-starred with Jim Carrey in the 2009 version of A Christmas Carol in which Oldman played three roles. He had a starring role in David Goyer 's supernatural thriller The Unborn, released in 2009. In 2010, Oldman co-starred with Denzel Washington in The Book of Eli. He also played a lead role in Catherine Hardwicke 's Red Riding Hood. Oldman voiced the role of villain Lord Shen and was nominated for an Annie Award for his performance in Kung Fu Panda 2.
Oldman received strong reviews and earned his first Academy Award nomination and a BAFTA Award nomination for his portrayal of British spy George Smiley in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011), an adaptation of the John le Carré novel, directed by Tomas Alfredson. To prepare for the role of George Smiley, Oldman gained 15 pounds, watched Alec Guinness ' performance in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, took accent lessons to improve his British accent, and paid a visit to Smiley 's creator John le Carré.
In 2012, Oldman played Floyd Banner, a big - hitting mobster, in John Hillcoat 's Lawless, alongside Tom Hardy, Shia LaBeouf, Guy Pearce and Jessica Chastain. In 2013, he portrayed Nicholas Wyatt, a ruthless CEO, in Robert Luketic 's Paranoia, along with Harrison Ford and Liam Hemsworth. In 2014, Oldman starred alongside Joel Kinnaman, Abbie Cornish, Michael Keaton, and Samuel L. Jackson in the remake of RoboCop, as Norton, the scientist who creates RoboCop.
Also that year, Oldman starred in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as one of the leads alongside Jason Clarke and Keri Russell. In an interview in the July / August issue of Playboy magazine while promoting the film, Oldman mocked what he saw as excessive political correctness in American media and the entertainment industry 's own discriminating hypocrisy, and argued in support of controversial celebrities Mel Gibson and Alec Baldwin. He stressed that he did not relate with most of their viewpoints, but regarding the former, agreed, "Gibson is in a town that 's run by Jews '' (referring to Hollywood). After criticism from the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), Oldman apologised to them in an open letter. ADL director Abraham Foxman acknowledged that Oldman was remorseful, but felt his letter was insufficient and asked for "a little more introspection, a little more understanding and a little more education ''. Oldman then made a public apology on the 25 June edition of late - night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live!, where he stressed that he was "profoundly sorry '' for his "insensitive, pernicious and ill - informed '' remarks.
In 2015, Oldman played the head of police that investigates Tom Hardy 's character in Child 44, alongside Noomi Rapace and Joel Kinnaman, and had a supporting role in the post-apocalyptic American thriller Man Down, directed by Dito Montiel, and starring alongside Shia LaBeouf and Kate Mara. In 2016, Oldman played a CIA chief in Criminal, directed by Ariel Vromen, and starring Kevin Costner, Tommy Lee Jones, Ryan Reynolds, Alice Eve, and Gal Gadot.
In 2017, Oldman played three film roles: a billionaire entrepreneur in The Space Between Us, a dictatorial President in The Hitman 's Bodyguard, and former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Darkest Hour -- his portrayal of Churchill garnered critical acclaim. Oldman 's transformation into the wartime Prime Minister took 200 hours in the makeup chair, 14 pounds of foam silicon, and $20,000 worth of Cuban cigars, which caused him nicotine poisoning. In 2018, he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama, Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor, Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor, and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role.
In 2018, in his first post-Oscar role, Oldman voiced an evil artificial intelligence in Netflix 's independent film Tau and stars in Hunter Killer with Gerard Butler. Oldman is slated to direct a biopic about Eadweard Muybridge entitled Flying Horse. Oldman is also starring in horror - thriller Mary directed by Michael Goi, as well as in an adaptation of John Le Carre 's Smiley 's People. He is set to star alongside Dylan O'Brien as a hitman in The Bayou, appear in Steven Soderbergh 's The Laundromat opposite Meryl Streep, and star in Joe Wright 's The Woman in the Window alongside Amy Adams. Oldman is set to star in Peter Briggs 's Panzer 88 alongside Jay Baruchel and Thomas Kretschmann.
In 1997, Oldman directed, produced, and wrote the award - winning Nil by Mouth, a film partially based on his own childhood. Nil by Mouth went on to win the BAFTA Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film (shared with Douglas Urbanski) and also the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay, the Channel 4 Director 's Award, and an Empire Award. In 1999, it was adjudged by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts as one of the hundred best British films of the 20th century. Nil By Mouth was listed by Time Out as number twenty - one of the top 100 best British films ever.
Oldman and producing partner Douglas Urbanski formed the SE8 GROUP to produce Nil by Mouth. The company also produced The Contender, which also starred Oldman. He has finished his latest screenplay, Chang & Eng, co-written with Darin Strauss, based on the author 's book of the same name; SE8 Group will produce. In September 2006, Nokia Nseries Studio released the Oldman - directed short film Donut, with music by Tor Hyams. The film was shot with an N93 to promote the phone. Juliet Landau made a 25 - minute documentary about the making of the video. In 2011, he directed a music video for Alex Eden 's first single, "Kiss Me Like the Woman You Loved ''.
Oldman has had a keen interest in music from an early age. He is a proficient pianist and stated in a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose that he would rather be a musician than an actor. Oldman sang several tracks on the Sid and Nancy soundtrack, on which he performed alongside original Sex Pistols bassist Glen Matlock, and sang and played live piano in the 1988 movie Track 29. He traced over Beethoven compositions in 1994 's Immortal Beloved. He also tutored Harry Potter star Daniel Radcliffe on bass guitar. Oldman appeared on Reeves Gabrels ' album The Sacred Squall of Now, performing a vocal duet with David Bowie on the track "You 've Been Around ''. He produced a live performance by former White Stripes member Jack White in conjunction with Vevo and YouTube. At the 2016 Brit Awards in London, Oldman paid tribute to Bowie, before receiving the Brits "Icon Award '' on behalf of the singer and his family.
Oldman participated in the creation of The Legend of Spyro games, produced by Sierra Entertainment. He provided the voice of the Fire Guardian, Ignitus. He voices Sergeant Viktor Reznov and scientist Daniel Clarke in the Call of Duty games. He also provides the narration of Sergeant Jack Barnes in the Spearhead expansion for Medal of Honor: Allied Assault. In 2015 he voiced Lord Vortech, the evil mastermind who seeks to control the LEGO Multiverse, in the Lego Dimensions video game. Oldman will also be portraying Admiral Ernst Bishop in the upcoming single - player campaign of the Chris Roberts - designed crowdfunded video game, Star Citizen.
In 2015, Oldman and his manager Douglas Urbanski signed a deal with the Simon & Schuster / Atria Publishing label Emily Bestler Books for Blood Riders, a vampire book series.
Oldman was almost typecast as a criminal early in his film career. The necessity to express villainous characters in an overtly physical manner led to the cultivation of his ' big ' acting style, which hearkened back to his classical theatre training and would become his trademark; this encompassed "playing everything '' via layered performances that vividly express each character 's emotions and internal conflicts. Oldman remarked: "(Al) Pacino seemed like a valid reference point: I thought he was wonderful. Then there was (Robert) De Niro, John Hurt, Tony Hopkins, Malcolm McDowell (...) All I know is I wanted to develop a style, rather than just read lines by the book, like a million other drama school grads. Whatever I came up with has, fortunately, kept me in work and given me a lot of fans, both in cinemas and behind typewriters. ''
Oldman has conceded that his approach involves an element of overacting, saying: "(I) t 's my influence on those roles that probably they feel bigger than life and a little over-the - top. I mean, I do go for it a bit as an actor, I must admit. '' Stuart Heritage of The Guardian wrote: "Finding the definitive Gary Oldman ham performance is like trying to choose which of your children you prefer... The man is a long - term devotee of the art of ham. '' Conversely, Oldman noted that he enjoys "playing characters where the silence is loud '', such as with George Smiley in 2011 's Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy.
Oldman has portrayed various accents and a wide range of characters. He is known for his in - depth research of roles as well as his devotion to them; he was hospitalised after losing significant weight for Sid and Nancy. In a 2017 interview, Oldman differentiated between immersion and impression:
"I have a relatively good ear and can do a few impressions of people. I do n't study them, but I think what happens with an impressionist is that they 're looking at one particular source. Impressionists have to paint with a very broad stroke because you 've got to see it within a couple of seconds... As an actor, though, you look at different aspects of a character. I try to completely surround myself with the assignment. It 's like being in a big cloud and then some of it rains through -- for instance, looking at not only (Winston) Churchill 's way of walking and mannerisms and the way he sounds, but also looking into the psychology. ''
Oldman has long established a cult following among film fans. He is known for playing the primary antagonist in a number of popular motion pictures, which has seen him referenced in popular culture. At the peak of his popularity in the 1990s, Oldman was dubbed by Empire magazine Hollywood 's "psycho deluxe '', and was spoofed on popular television shows such as Fox comedy series In Living Color and MTV 's Celebrity Deathmatch, as well as drafted in to appear on the first ever cover of Loaded magazine. In 1993, he appeared prominently in the music video for Annie Lennox 's international hit "Love Song for a Vampire '', written for the soundtrack to Bram Stoker 's Dracula, and had a cameo role as the Devil in the video for Guns N ' Roses single "Since I Do n't Have You '' -- Oldman also played the Devil in the 2002 BMW short Beat The Devil, alongside Clive Owen, James Brown and Marilyn Manson. He starred as a sleazy priest in the controversial religious - themed video for David Bowie 's 2013 single "The Next Day ''. In contrast to his often dark on - screen roles, Oldman 's affable real - life demeanour has been noted, and he was named as one of Empire 's "100 Sexiest Stars in Film History '' in 2007. In 2011, Oldman was voted as a film icon by Empire readers, with the award presented by Colin Firth.
Independent critic Demetrios Matheou wrote that Oldman "is rightly cited as the best British actor of his generation ''. Of his diversity, Yahoo! Movies noted that Oldman had "gained a well - earned reputation as a brilliant chameleon ''; the Houston Chronicle dubbed him "the face of versatility ''. Oldman is noted for his avoidance of the Hollywood celebrity scene, often being referred to as an "actor 's actor ''. His work has been acclaimed by many Hollywood figures: Tom Hardy has described Oldman as his "absolute complete and utter hero '' and "hands down, the greatest actor that 's ever lived ''; Brad Pitt, Daniel Radcliffe and Ryan Gosling have also cited Oldman as their favourite actor. Hardy recalled Oldman 's influence on students at drama school, stating that "everybody used to quote him in all of his films ''. Jessica Chastain, Jennifer Lawrence, Joseph Gordon - Levitt, Tom Hiddleston and Chris Pine have also named Oldman as one of their favourite actors.
Other actors such as Hugh Jackman, Christian Bale, Benedict Cumberbatch, Shia LaBeouf, Ben Mendelsohn, Johnny Depp, Jason Isaacs, and Michael Fassbender have cited Oldman as an influence. Peers have praised his talents: Anthony Hopkins, Ralph Fiennes, Keanu Reeves and Ray Winstone have used the term "genius '' in reference to Oldman. John Hurt called him "the best of the bunch ''; Colin Firth hailed him as "a very strong candidate for the world 's best living actor '' and a "hero '' of his; and Alec Baldwin described him as "preternaturally gifted '' and "the greatest film actor of his generation ''. Kristin Scott Thomas referred to Oldman as "the most amazing, generous actor ''. Collaborating directors Luc Besson and Christopher Nolan have lauded his work; the former in 1997 called him "one of the top five actors in the world. '' David Cronenberg said that Oldman "really is a fabulous actor '' who gave "the best version '' of James Gordon (in Nolan 's Dark Knight trilogy).
Prominent film critics have also been outspoken in their appreciation of Oldman. Roger Ebert hailed him as "one of the great actors, able to play high, low, crass, noble ''; while Gene Siskel called him "wonderful '' and one of his favourite actors. Peter Travers described Oldman as "one of the best actors on the planet ''. Prior to his first Academy Award nomination for Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, Oldman was widely regarded as one of the greatest actors never nominated for the award; Leigh Singer of The Guardian called him "arguably the best actor never Oscar - nominated. '' Before winning for Darkest Hour, he also carried the label of the greatest actor never to win the Oscar. In 2011, Oldman received a Tribute Award from the Gotham Awards. In that same year, the Palm Springs International Film Festival announced that Oldman would be receiving its International Star Award, which honours "an actor or actress who has achieved both critical and commercial international recognition throughout their body of work. '' The PSIFF chairman called Oldman "a performer whose ability to portray the most extreme of characters is a testament to the enormity of his talent. '' In 2012, The Hollywood Reporter named Oldman the highest - grossing actor in history, based on lead and supporting roles. To date, films in which he has starred have grossed over $4.1 billion in the United States, and over $11 billion worldwide.
In 2012, Oldman was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork -- the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover -- to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires to mark his 80th birthday. In 2014, he received the Dilys Powell Award For Excellence In Film by the London Film Critics.
In 2018, Oldman received the Variety Award at the British Independent Film Awards, which recognizes a director, actor, writer or producer who has made a global impact and helped to focus the international spotlight on the U.K. Variety 's Vice President, Steven Gaydos, remarked that Oldman "has blazed a path as one of international cinema 's most versatile and valued actors. '' In the same year, the Santa Barbara International Film Festival awarded Oldman the Maltin Modern Master Award, the highest accolade awarded by SPIFF that honors an individual who has enriched our culture through accomplishments in the motion picture industry. Leonard Maltin claimed Oldman has "once again proven that he is a force to be reckoned with, and a true master of his craft ''. Oldman was also awarded his first Career Achievement Award by the Hollywood Film Awards. The Make - up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards as well honored him with the Distinguished Artisan Award, which IATSE President Susan Cabral - Ebert proclaimed him as a "a chameleon, an actor who changes his appearance, his voice, everything about himself from film to film ''.
After establishing himself as an actor, Oldman moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s. Despite numerous lead and supporting roles in major Hollywood films, he is intensely private about his personal life and is known for his stance on celebrity and the ideals of Hollywood, stating: "Being famous, that 's a whole other career. And I have n't got any energy for it. ''
Oldman 's problems with alcohol were well known during the early 1990s: he checked himself into rehab for alcoholism treatment in 1995. In subsequent interviews Oldman acknowledged his problems with alcohol, and called himself a recovering alcoholic in a 2001 interview with Charlie Rose. Oldman lives a teetotal lifestyle and attributes his success in beating his addiction to attending meetings with Alcoholics Anonymous, whom he has publicly praised.
Oldman is a libertarian.
Oldman has been married five times. He wed English actress Lesley Manville in 1987, and their son, Alfie, was born the following year. The couple split in 1989. Oldman met American actress Uma Thurman on the set of State of Grace; they were married in 1990, but divorced two years later.
From 1997 to 2001, Oldman was married to Donya Fiorentino, with whom he had two sons: Gulliver (born 1997) and Charlie (born 1999). During their divorce, Fiorentino claimed that Oldman physically assaulted her in front of the pair 's children ― Oldman denied the accusation. Police investigated but filed no charges, and Oldman was awarded sole legal and physical child custody. Gulliver later asserted that the alleged incident was a fabrication on the part of his "sad and very troubled '' mother.
On 31 December 2008, Oldman married English singer and actress Alexandra Edenborough in Santa Barbara, California. Edenborough filed for divorce on 9 January 2015. In September 2017, Oldman married writer and art curator Gisele Schmidt in a low - key ceremony at the home of Oldman 's manager, Douglas Urbanski.
Oldman has two grandchildren, Matilda and Ozzy Oldman, through his eldest son Alfie.
His sister Maureen (known professionally as Laila Morse) is an actress. She had a role in Oldman 's directorial debut, Nil by Mouth (1997), before going on to play Mo Harris in the long - running BBC series EastEnders.
Oldman has been a critic of the Golden Globes and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association (HFPA). In 2009, he spoke of an earlier row with the HFPA at a press conference, in which he criticised the awards for being a television ratings vehicle, rather than a celebration of art. He believed he was disqualified from Globes contention due to his comments. In a 2012 interview, he described the ceremony as "bent '', while unfavourably comparing the integrity of its voting process to that of the Academy and BAFTA awards. Two years later, Oldman called the Globes "meaningless '', called for a boycott, and reinforced his position on the Academy Awards being more credible. In 2018, Oldman won the Golden Globe Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama category, for his performance as Winston Churchill in Darkest Hour. He noted that he was "amazed, flattered and very proud '' to be nominated.
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where does the money go from the met gala | Met Gala - wikipedia
The Met Gala, formally called the Costume Institute Gala and also known as the Met Ball, is an annual fundraising gala for the benefit of the Metropolitan Museum of Art 's Costume Institute in New York City. It marks the grand opening of the Costume Institute 's annual fashion exhibit. Each year 's event celebrates the theme of that year 's Costume Institute exhibition, and the exhibition sets the tone for the formal dress of the night, since guests are expected to choose their fashion to match the theme of the exhibit.
Institute Gala is a major fundraising benefit that serves as an opening celebration for the Institute 's annual fashion exhibit. Following the event, the exhibition runs for several months. The 2014 exhibition was scheduled to run from May 8 until August 10, 2014. The Gala is widely regarded as one of the most exclusive social events in New York and one of the biggest fundraising nights in the city with $9 million raised in 2013 and a record of $12 million the following year. It is one of the most notable sources of funding for the Institute. The affair, attended by personalities from the arts, fashion, high - society, film, and music, has been held at the Met since 1948 and is considered to be the fashion industry 's premier annual red carpet event. Its red carpet fashions are widely photographed, reviewed, critiqued, and emulated. The museum is closed to the general public on the first Monday of May due to the gala occurring.
Anna Wintour, Vogue editor - in - chief and a chair of the event since 1995 (excluding 1996 and 1998), oversees both the benefit committee and the guest list, with Vogue staffers helping assemble the list of invitees. According to Cathy Horyn of The New York Times, the gathering rivals the West Coast 's Vanity Fair Oscar Party, which is said to have more "star power '' but less fashion panache. In 2014, the individual tickets cost $30,000 for those outside the official guest list, after prices were raised $10,000 to increase the exclusivity of the event. The annual guest list includes only 650 -- 700 people.
Each year the event has a theme, and includes a cocktail hour and a formal dinner. During the cocktail hour, guests arrive to walk on the red carpet, tour the year 's special themed exhibition, and be seated before the dinner party that includes entertainment from the preeminent entertainers of the day. The theme not only sets the tone for the annual exhibit, but also for the guests who attempt to dress to uphold the theme of the year, oftentimes causing runs on certain fashion themes among the world 's leading fashion retailers. Sometimes, such as in 2013, the theme is a bit befuddling because it does not provide a clear stylistic directive, while at other times, such as 2014 the theme may be far more challenging to one gender than the other.
Guo Pei gown displayed at "China: Through the Looking Glass '' in 2015
Balenciaga dress with a Chinese floral motif
Savage Beauty exhibition
The 2015 Gala and its theme of "China: Through the Looking Glass '' became the subject of a documentary -- The First Monday in May ' directed by Andrew Rossi produced by Condé Nast Entertainment, Vogue, and Relativity Studios. 225 approved photographers, reporters, and social media participants documented the event for the documentary. All other attendees were forbidden from using social media at the event. Guests received notices about the restriction of selfies and social media inside the gala. The no - selfie ordinance was extended to the following editions of the Met Gala.
In addition to Wintour 's role of chairing the whole event, there are annual chairs and co-chairs for the day of the event. The list of past honorary event day chairs includes the following:
In 2015, the theme "China: Through the Looking Glass '' was previously named "Chinese Whispers: Tales of the East in Art, Film and Fashion ''. The same year 's theme was met with critics saying it was "A reminder of the subtle institutionalised racism that 's been compounded by centuries of Asian isolationism across the board, and enduring Western stereotypes exacerbated by ignorance and the meme - able nature of social media. ''
In 2016, Madonna, whilst channeling the theme "Manus x Machina: Fashion in an Age of Technology '', provided one of the most controversial outfits in the gala 's history. She appeared in an ensemble designed by Givenchy creative director Riccardo Tisci exposing both her breasts and buttocks. Madonna hit back on her official social media channels by stating "We have fought and continue to fight for civil rights and gay rights around the world. When it comes to women 's rights we are still in the dark ages. My dress at the Met Ball was a political statement as well as a fashion statement ''.
The 2018 Gala had a Roman Catholic theme, and included Rihanna wearing a papal mitre. Critics on social media called it "blasphemous '' and "sacrilegious cosplay '', even though the Catholic Church lent more than forty papal vestments from the Vatican and Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan attended. Kyle Smith argued that the Catholic Church was in fact "abetting the mockery of its symbols ''. Catholic apologist Michael Voris has criticized Cardinal Dolan for attending the 2018 Met Gala.
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who is the best nfl receiver of all time | List of National Football League career receiving yards leaders - wikipedia
In American football, yards gained on a forward pass play are credited to the receiver as receiving yards. In the National Football League (NFL), 45 players have gained at least 10,000 receiving yards in their career: 41 wide receivers and 4 tight ends. Wide receiver Jerry Rice is the NFL 's all - time leader in receiving yards, with 22,895. He is the only player to surpass 20,000 yards, with nearly 7,000 more yards than the next highest player on the list, Terrell Owens.
Through end of 2017 season.
Through end of 2017 season.
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who is considered to be the first pharaoh of egypt | Narmer - wikipedia
Narmer was an ancient Egyptian king of the Early Dynastic Period. He probably was the successor to the Protodynastic king Ka, or possibly Scorpion. Some consider him the unifier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty, and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt.
Narmer 's identity is the subject of ongoing debates, although the dominant opinion among Egyptologists identifies Narmer with the pharaoh Menes, who is renowned in the ancient Egyptian written records as the first king, and the unifier of Ancient Egypt. Narmer 's identification with Menes is based on the Narmer Palette (which shows Narmer as the unifier of Egypt) and the two necropolis seals from the Umm el - Qa'ab cemetery of Abydos that show him as the first king of the First Dynasty.
The date commonly given for the beginning of Narmer 's reign is c. 3100 BC. Other mainstream estimates, using both the historical method and radiocarbon dating, are in the range c. 3273 -- 2987 BC.
The complete spelling of Narmer 's name consists of the hieroglyphs for a catfish (n'r) and a chisel (mr), hence the reading "Narmer '' (using the rebus principle). This word is sometimes translated as "raging catfish ''. However, there is no consensus on this reading. Other translations include '' angry, fighting, fierceful, painful, furious, bad, evil, biting, menacing '', or "stinging catfish ''. Some scholars have taken entirely different approaches to reading the name that do not include "catfish '' in the name at all, but these approaches have not been generally accepted.
Rather than incorporating both hieroglyphs, Narmer 's name is often shown in an abbreviated form with just the catfish symbol, sometimes stylized, even, in some cases, represented by just a horizontal line. This simplified spelling appears to be related to the formality of the context. In every case that a serekh is shown on a work of stone, or an official seal impression, it has both symbols. But, in most cases, where the name is shown on a piece of pottery or a rock inscription, just the catfish, or a simplified version of it appears.
Two alternative spellings of Narmer 's name have also been found. On a mud sealing from Tarkhan, the symbol for the ṯꜣj - bird (Gardiner sign G47 "duckling '') has been added to the two symbols for '' Narmer '' within the serekh. This has been interpreted as meaning "Narmer the masculine ''; however, according to Ilona Regulski, "The third sign (the (ṯꜣj) - bird) is not an integral part of the royal name since it occurs so infrequently. '' Godron suggested that the extra sign is not part of the name, but was put inside the serekh for compositional convenience.
In addition, two necropolis seals from Abydos show the name in a unique way: While the chisel is shown conventionally where the catfish would be expected, there is a symbol that has been interpreted by several scholars as an animal skin. According to Dreyer, it is probably a catfish with a bull 's tail, similar to the image of Narmer on the Narmer Palette in which he is shown wearing a bull 's tail as a symbol of power.
Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who was Menes? '' and "who unified Egypt? '' are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with the unification of Egypt by means of the conquest of Lower Egypt by Upper Egypt. While Menes is traditionally considered the first king of Ancient Egypt, Narmer has been identified by the majority of Egyptologists as the same person as Menes. Although vigorously debated (Hor - Aha, Narmer 's successor, is the primary alternative identified as Menes by many authorities), the predominant opinion is that Narmer was Menes.
The issue is confusing because "Narmer '' is a Horus name while "Menes '' is a Sedge and Bee name (personal or birth name). All of the King Lists which began to appear in the New Kingdom era list the personal names of the kings, and almost all begin with Menes, or begin with divine and / or semi-divine rulers, with Menes as the first "human king ''. The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus Names with the King Lists that list personal names.
Two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor - Aha was Menes. The first is the "Naqada Label '' which shows a serekh of Hor - Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by some scholars as the name "Menes ''. The second is the seal impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, "mn '', which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor - Aha being Menes, but in neither case, are the arguments conclusive.
The second document, the seal impression from Abydos, shows the serekh of Narmer alternating with the gameboard sign (mn) sign, together with its phonetic compliment, the n sign, which is always shown when the full name of Menes is written, again representing the name "Menes ''. At first glance, this would seem to be strong evidence that Narmer was Menes. However, based on an analysis of other early First Dynasty seal impressions, which contain the name of one or more princes, the seal impression has been interpreted by other scholars as showing the name of a prince of Narmer named Menes, hence Menes was Narmer 's successor, Hor - Aha, and thus Hor - Aha was Menes. This was refuted by Cervelló - Autuori 2005, pp. 42 -- 45; but opinions still vary, and the seal impression can not be said to definitively support either theory.
Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos, in or near the tombs of Den and Qa'a, show Narmer as the first king on each list, followed by Hor - Aha. The Qa'a sealing lists all eight of the kings of what scholars now call the First Dynasty in the correct order, starting with Narmer. These necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty -- hence is the same person as Menes.
The famous Narmer Palette, discovered by James E. Quibell in the 1897 -- 1898 season at Hierakonpolis, shows Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt on one side of the palette, and the crown of Lower Egypt on the other side, giving rise to the theory that Narmer unified the two lands. Since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic. Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an actual historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance.
In 1993, Günter Dreyer discovered a "year label '' of Narmer at Abydos, depicting the same event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. In the First Dynasty, years were identified by the name of the king and an important event that occurred in that year. A "year label '' was typically attached to a container of goods and included the name of the king, a description or representation of the event that identified the year, and a description of the attached goods. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an actual historical event. Support for this conclusion (in addition to Dreyer) includes Wilkinson and Davies & Friedman. Although this interpretation of the year label is the dominant opinion among Egyptologists, there are exceptions including Baines and Wengrow.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns of Ka and Iry - Hor (Narmer 's immediate predecessors), and perhaps as early as Scorpion I (several generations before Iry - Hor). Tax collection is probably documented for Ka and Iry - Hor. The evidence for a role for Scorpion I in Lower Egypt comes from his tomb Uj in Abydos (Upper Egypt), where labels were found identifying goods from Lower Egypt. These are not tax documents, however, so they are probably indications of trade rather than subjugation. There is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt and Canaan (which was reached through Lower Egypt), compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. Ka 's inscriptions have been found in three sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan. Iry - Hor inscriptions have also been found in two sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan. This must be compared to Narmer, whose serekhs have been found in ten sites in Lower Egypt and nine sites in Canaan (see discussion in "Tomb and Artifacts '' section). This demonstrates a qualitative difference between Narmer 's role in Lower Egypt compared to his two immediate predecessors. There is no evidence in Lower Egypt of any Upper Egyptian king 's presence before Iry - Hor. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the North - West Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette.
The importance that Narmer attached to his "unification '' of Egypt is shown by the fact that it is commemorated not only on the Narmer Palette, but on a cylinder seal, the Narmer Year Label, and the Narmer Boxes; and the consequences of the event are commemorated on the Narmer Macehead. The importance of the unification to ancient Egyptians is shown by the fact that Narmer is shown as the first king on the two necropolis seals, and under the name Menes, the first king in the later King Lists. Although there is archaeological evidence of a few kings before Narmer, none of them are mentioned in any of those sources. It can be accurately said that from the point of view of Ancient Egyptians, history began with Narmer and the unification of Egypt, and that everything before him was relegated to the realm of myth.
According to Manetho (quoted in Eusebius (Fr. 7 (a)), "Menes made a foreign expedition and won renown. '' If this is correct (and assuming it refers to Narmer), it was undoubtedly to the land of Canaan where Narmer 's serekh has been identified at nine different sites. An Egyptian presence in Canaan predates Narmer, but after about 200 years of active presence in Canaan, Egyptian presence peaked during Narmer 's reign and quickly declined afterwards. The relationship between Egypt and Canaan "began around the end of the fifth millennium and apparently came to an end sometime during the Second Dynasty when it ceased altogether. '' It peaked during the Dynasty 0 through the reign of Narmer. Dating to this period are 33 Egyptian serekhs found in Canaan, among which 20 have been attributed to Narmer. Prior to Narmer, only one serekh of Ka and one inscription with Iry - Hor 's name have been found in Canaan. The serekhs earlier than Iry - Hor are either generic serekhs that do not refer to a specific king, or are for kings not attested in Abydos. Indicative of the decline of Egyptian presence in the region after Narmer, only one serekh attributed to his successor, Hor - Aha, has been found in Canaan. It should be noted that even this one example is questionable, Wilkinson does not believe there are any serekhs of Hor - Aha outside Egypt and very few serekhs of kings for the rest of the first two dynasties have been found in Canaan.
The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan, as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.
The nature of Egypt 's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasion and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. Although latter has gained predominance, the presence of fortifications at Tell es - Sakan dating to the Dynasty 0 through early Dynasty 1 period, and built almost entirely using an Egyptian style of construction, demonstrate that there must have also been some kind of Egyptian military presence.
Regardless of the nature of Egypt 's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt 's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmer serekhs found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer 's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan. It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.
Narmer and Hor - Aha 's names were both found in what is believed to be Neithhotep 's tomb, which led Egyptologists to conclude that she was Narmer 's queen and mother of Hor - Aha. Neithhotep 's name means "Neith is satisfied ''. This suggests that she was a princess of Lower Egypt (based on the fact that Neith is the patron goddess of Sais in the Western Delta, exactly the area Narmer conquered to complete the unification of Egypt), and that this was a marriage to consolidate the two regions of Egypt. The fact that her tomb is in Naqada, in Upper Egypt, has led some to the conclusion that she was a descendent of the predynastic rulers of Naqada who ruled prior to its incorporation into a united Upper Egypt. It has also been suggested that the Narmer Macehead commemorates this wedding. However, the discovery in 2012 of rock inscriptions in Sinai by Pierre Tallet raise questions about whether she was really Narmer 's wife.
Narmer 's tomb in Umm el - Qa'ab near Abydos in Upper Egypt consists of two joined chambers (B17 and B18), lined in mud brick. Although both Émile Amélineau and Petrie excavated tombs B17 and B18, it is only in 1964 that Kaiser identified them as being Narmer 's. Narmer 's tomb is located next to the tombs of Ka, who likely ruled Upper Egypt just before Narmer, and Hor - Aha, who was his immediate successor.
As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, and has been pillaged, repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeated disturbances in Umm el - Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer 's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings, were recovered in Narmer 's grave. However, Flinders Petrie during the period 1899 - 1903, and, starting in the 1970s, the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el - Qa'ab.
Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens of flint arrowheads (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds '' of arrowheads were discovered by "the French '', presumably Amélineau. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.) Flint knives and a fragment of an ebony chair leg were also discovered in Narmer 's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funerary assemblage. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie 's publications, but are now at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology (University College London), registration numbers UC35679, UC52786, and UC35682. According to Dreyer, these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.
It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el - Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos ' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified. While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.
Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southern Canaan and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites. At Abydos and Hierakonpolis Narmer 's name appears both within a serekh and without reference to a serekh. At every other site except Coptos, Narmer 's name appears in a serekh.In Egypt, his name has been found at 17 sites: 4 in Upper Egypt (Hierakonpolis, Naqada, Abydos, and Coptos); ten in Lower Egypt (Tarkhan, Helwan, Zawyet el'Aryan, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Ezbet el - Tell, Minshat Abu Omar, Saqqara, Buto, Tell el - Farkha, and Kafr Hassan Dawood); one in the Eastern Desert (Wadi el - Qaash); and two in the Western Desert (Kharga Oasis and Gebel Tjauti).
During Narmer 's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Pottery sherds have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials.
Twenty serekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. These serekhs came from eight different sites: Tel Arad, En Besor (Ein HaBesor), Tel es - Sakan, Nahal Tillah (Halif Terrace), Tel Erani (Tel Gat), Small Tel Malhata, Tel Ma'ahaz, and Tel Lod,
Narmer 's serekh, along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi ' Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.
The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London, exhibits a limestone head of an early Egyptian king which the Museum identifies as being a depiction of Narmer on the basis of the similarity (according to Petrie) to the head of Narmer on the Narmer Palette. This has not been generally accepted. According to Trope, Quirke & Lacovara, the suggestion that it is Narmer is "unlikely ''. Alternatively, they suggest the Fourth Dynasty king Khufu. Stevenson also identifies it as Khufu. Charron identifies it as a king of the Thinite Period (the first two dynasties), but does not believe it can be assigned to any particular king. Wilkinson describes it as "probably Second Dynasty ''.
First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carving at Nag el - Hamdulab near Aswan was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then. Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to the white crown of Upper Egypt and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on the Scorpion Macehead and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man -- armed with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter) can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, Darnell attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus '' ritual. In an interview in 2012, Gatto also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer 's royal name in the inscription.
Alabaster statue of a baboon divinity with the name of the pharaoh Narmer inscribed on its base, on display at the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin.
A mud jar sealing indicating that the contents came from the estate of the pharaoh Narmer. Originally from Tarkhan, now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
The Narmer Macehead, on display at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK.
Pottery sherd inscribed with the serekh and name of the pharaoh Narmer, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Narmer wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt on the Narmer Palette.
Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming king Narmer; Petrie Museum UC 16083.
Narmer serekh in its full formal format on an alabaster vase from Abydos, Petrie, 1901, RT II, p. 44, fig. 52.359 (detail).
Drawing of Narmer serekh on pottery vessel with stylized catfish and without chisel or falcon, copyright Kafr Hassan Dawood Mission.
Arrowheads from Narmer 's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV. 14. According to Dreyer, these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.
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where is columnar epithelial tissue found in the body | Simple columnar epithelium - wikipedia
A simple columnar epithelium is a columnar epithelium that is uni-layered. In humans, a simple columnar epithelium lines most organs of the digestive tract including the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Simple columnar epithelia line the uterus.
Simple columnar epithelium is further divided into two categories: ciliated and non-ciliated.
Non-ciliated types are found in the digestive tract. Ciliated types are found within bronchioles of the respiratory tract and in the oviduct of the female reproductive tract.
Ciliated columnar epithelium moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is found in the upper respiratory tract, the Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary target of infection for "common cold viruses '' such as coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses. These viruses may kill the ciliated cells or stop the cilia beating. In either case, mucus builds up and forms a good site for secondary bacterial infections, resulting in mucus.
A ciliated columnar epithelium lines the lumen of the uterine tube, where currents generated by the cilia propel the egg cell toward the uterus.
This is found lining sections of the gastrointestinal tract and may be brush bordered.
Vertical section of a villus from the dog 's small intestine. X 80. (Simple columnar epithelium labeled at right, third from top.)
Transverse section of a villus, from the human intestine. X 350. a. Basement membrane, here somewhat shrunken away from the epithelium. b. Lacteal. c. Columnar epithelium. d. Its striated border. e. Goblet cells. f. Leucocytes in epithelium. f '. Leucocytes below epithelium. g. Bloodvessels. h. Muscle cells cut across.
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who plays who in the quarter finals world cup | 2018 FIFA World Cup knockout stage - wikipedia
The knockout stage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. It began on 30 June with the round of 16 and ended on 15 July with the final match, held at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. The top two teams from each group (16 in total) advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single - elimination style tournament. A third place play - off was also played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.
France won the final 4 -- 2 against Croatia for their second title.
All times listed are local time.
In the knockout stage, if a match was level at the end of 90 minutes of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of 15 minutes each), where each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution. If still tied after extra time, the match was decided by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
The top two placed teams from each of the eight groups qualified for the knockout stage.
The teams had faced each other in 11 previous matches, including two World Cup group stage matches, both won by Argentina (1 -- 0 in 1930, and 2 -- 1 in 1978).
After nine minutes, Antoine Griezmann 's 25 - yard free - kick crashed back off Franco Armani 's crossbar. After picking the ball up deep inside his own half, Kylian Mbappé set off on a run that was halted when Marcos Rojo hauled him down just inside the area. Griezmann stepped up and converted from the spot, sending the ball low to Armani 's right. Four minutes before the interval, Ángel Di María shot from distance with his left foot to beat Hugo Lloris into the top right corner of the net. Three minutes after the restart, Éver Banega 's free - kick was headed out towards Lionel Messi whose effort towards goal from the right was diverted past Lloris by Gabriel Mercado with his left leg. Nine minutes later, Lucas Hernández 's cross from the left found Benjamin Pavard, who shot a half - volley from outside the area, sending it into Armani 's top - right corner. Mbappé put France ahead again in the 64th minute when he picked up a loose ball in the left of the area, found a yard of space and fired in low with his left foot under Armani. His second -- a first - time low finish from the right of the penalty area with his right foot -- followed just four minutes later. Sergio Agüero nodded home in the third minute of stoppage time from a Messi cross from the right. Argentina had a final chance to score, but the ball was deflected, dumping them out of the World Cup. This game was hailed as "one of the greatest World Cup games of all time '' by The Independent.
Didier Deschamps is now the longest - serving coach in the history of the French national team, with his 80th game in charge of France, moving ahead of his predecessor Raymond Domenech. Mbappé became the first teenager to score at least twice in a World Cup tournament since Michael Owen in 1998, and the first teenager to score at least twice in a single World Cup match since Pelé netted twice for Brazil against Sweden in the 1958 final. Argentina are the first team to score at least three goals but still lose a World Cup match since the Soviet Union vs Belgium in 1986. Pavard 's strike was later voted as goal of the tournament.
Man of the Match: Kylian Mbappé (France)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Julio Bascuñán (Chile) Reserve assistant referee: Christian Schiemann (Chile) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in two previous matches, most recently in Brazil Independence Cup in 1972, the match ending in a 1 -- 1 draw.
In the seventh minute, Edinson Cavani switched play from right to left with a sweeping pass out to Luis Suárez, who delivered a cross which the former crashed home at the back post from six yards out. In the 55th minute, Raphaël Guerreiro delivered a cross from a short corner on the left, which Pepe finished with a downward header. Just seven minutes later, Rodrigo Bentancur collected the ball around 30 yards out and slipped a pass out to Cavani on the left side of the penalty area, Cavani then shot a curling right - foot strike into the right corner of the net to reclaim the lead for Uruguay. Bernardo Silva shot off - target with the goal gaping after Fernando Muslera 's mistake, with Cavani seeming to pick up an injury in the scramble.
Pepe, aged 35 years and 124 days, became Portugal 's oldest goal - scorer at a FIFA World Cup. This is the first time Uruguay have won their opening four games at a World Cup tournament since 1930, with the fourth game in that run being their 4 -- 2 victory over Argentina in the final.
Man of the Match: Edinson Cavani (Uruguay)
Assistant referees: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Miguel Hernández (Mexico) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had met in six previous games, most recently in a friendly in 2017, which ended in a 3 -- 3 draw. Playing as the Soviet Union, the teams had faced each other five times. Russia has only had one victory over Spain.
In the 12th minute, Isco 's free - kick from deep on the right saw Sergei Ignashevich grappling with Sergio Ramos at the back post, the ball bouncing past Igor Akinfeev off the defender 's heel. Russia were then awarded a penalty when Gerard Piqué handled in the box after a corner from the right. Artem Dzyuba shot home to the right of the net from 12 yards to send the sides into half - time level. In the 85th minute, Akinfeev got down low to his right to save a shot from Andrés Iniesta, the goalkeeper then denied Iago Aspas on the rebound. Piqué and Ramos both appeared to be held from a set - piece but, after a VAR check, the referee waved away Spain 's appeals. In the penalties, Akinfeev kept out a Koke effort and saw Aspas ' effort diverted away by his leg to give Russia the win; as all Russia 's penalty kicks ended up successful.
Spain have now lost three of their four World Cup penalty shootouts (after losing to Belgium in 1986, beating the Republic of Ireland in 2002 and losing to South Korea in 2002), and still have never defeated a host nation at FIFA World Cup, after losing to Italy 0 -- 1 in 1934, Brazil 1 -- 6 in 1950, and South Korea after penalties in 2002. Russia have reached the quarter - final of the World Cup for the first time since the break - up of the Soviet Union. Ignashevich became the oldest player to score an own goal at the World Cup, aged 38 years and 352 days. The match marked the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup in which a fourth substitution was made during extra time, after Aleksandr Yerokhin of Russia entered the pitch in the 97th minute.
Man of the Match: Igor Akinfeev (Russia)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Clément Turpin (France) Reserve assistant referee: Nicolas Danos (France) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had met in five matches, which includes two matches played in 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification, the first fixture ending in a 1 -- 1 draw and the reverse fixture a 3 -- 1 Denmark win.
In the first minute, a long throw into the Croatia penalty area by Jonas Knudsen, allowed a run to Thomas Delaney who touched the ball on to Mathias Jørgensen, who side - footed it into the net via deflections off goalkeeper Danijel Subašić and the post. After three minutes, Šime Vrsaljko 's ball into the box reached Henrik Dalsgaard, whose clearance hit Andreas Christensen in the face and saw Mario Mandžukić tucking the ball between Kasper Schmeichel and the left post with a shot on the turn from six yards. During extra time, Ante Rebić burst clear of the Denmark defence and was felled by Mathias Jørgensen when he was clean through on goal, only for Schmeichel to save Luka Modrić 's spot - kick by diving down to his left and clutching the ball to his chest. In the shoot - out, Subašić tipped off Christian Eriksen 's penalty onto the post but Schmeichel saved from Milan Badelj to bring the sides level. Lasse Schöne 's shot was saved by Subašić and Josip Pivarić was denied by an acrobatic Schmeichel stop. On the final spot kicks for both the teams, Nicolai Jørgensen took a shot from a staggered run - up which Subašić saved with his feet, before Ivan Rakitić slotted the ball into the bottom left corner of the net.
Croatia have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1998.
Man of the Match: Kasper Schmeichel (Denmark)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Enrique Cáceres (Paraguay) Reserve assistant referee: Eduardo Cardozo (Paraguay) Video assistant referee: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Assistant video assistant referees: Gery Vargas (Bolivia) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had met in 40 previous matches including two games at CONCACAF Gold Cup finals (1996 and 2003, both won by Mexico), the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup Final (won 4 -- 3 by Mexico), and four times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, three won by Brazil and one ending in a draw (4 -- 0 in 1950, 5 -- 0 in 1954, 2 -- 0 in 1962 and 0 -- 0 in 2014).
Hirving Lozano 's half - volley was well blocked by Miranda, while at the other end, Guillermo Ochoa saved Neymar 's drive from just outside the penalty area. After 25 minutes, Neymar raced past Edson Álvarez in the area and forced Ochoa into a save with his left hand. Gabriel Jesus went close in the 33rd minute, finding space in a crowded area and drilling in a left - footed strike that Ochoa palmed away. In the 51st minute, Neymar 's back - heel on the edge of the area teed up Willian for a burst into the box and his scuffed cross from the left was slid into an empty net by Neymar from close range. With two minutes remaining, Neymar powered through on the left and his low effort was diverted by Ochoa 's foot into the path of Roberto Firmino, who tapped the ball into an empty net from close range.
Since the introduction of the round of 16 in 1986, Mexico have been eliminated at this stage of the World Cup seven times -- more than twice as many as any other nation. This was also Mexico 's fourth defeat on the hand of Brazil, and moreover, Mexico had never scored a single goal against Brazil in the FIFA World Cup.
Man of the Match: Neymar (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Elenito Di Liberatore (Italy) Mauro Tonolini (Italy) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in 5 previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 2002, which ended in a 2 -- 2 draw. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2017, a 1 -- 0 Belgium win and also Belgium 's first victory over Japan.
In the 48th minute, Gaku Shibasaki slipped a pass through to Genki Haraguchi, who rifled a shot across Thibaut Courtois from the right which went into the left corner of the net. After 4 minutes, Japan scored a second, Shinji Kagawa collecting a loose ball and feeding Takashi Inui, the midfielder working himself a yard of space before arrowing home from 25 - yards into the bottom right corner of the net. Jan Vertonghen 's looping header from the left eluded goalkeeper Eiji Kawashima and landed in the right corner of the net after a corner caused chaos in the Japan penalty area -- and five minutes later they were back on level terms. Eden Hazard twisted and turned to create space on the left wing, his cross delivered for Marouane Fellaini to climb above his marker and crash in a downward header. In the last minute of stoppage time, Courtois found Kevin De Bruyne with a long throw, who freed Thomas Meunier with a pass, Meunier squared a low cross from the right and, when Romelu Lukaku dummied the ball, substitute Nacer Chadli was on hand to complete the comeback for Belgium with a low finish.
Belgium are the first team to come from two or more goals down to win a World Cup knockout stage match within 90 minutes since Portugal beat North Korea in the 1966 quarter - final (3 -- 0 down, 5 -- 3 win); and for the first time comeback from two goals down since West Germany 's comeback 3 -- 2 victory over England at 1970. Japan scored six goals at Russia 2018, their highest ever tally in a single World Cup tournament. Belgium have reached the World Cup quarter - finals in successive tournaments for the first time.
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Djibril Camara (Senegal) El Hadji Samba (Senegal) Fourth official: Bakary Gassama (Gambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jean Claude Birumushahu (Burundi) Video assistant referee: Felix Zwayer (Germany) Assistant video assistant referees: Clément Turpin (France) Mark Borsch (Germany) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had faced each other in 28 previous matches, which includes three matches in 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification, Switzerland winning twice (3 -- 2 and 2 -- 1) and Sweden winning once (4 -- 0), and also twice in 1978 FIFA World Cup qualification, both matches ending in a 2 -- 1 Sweden win.
Stephan Lichtsteiner and Fabian Schär were both ruled out through suspension. Albin Ekdal 's volley missed the target prior to the break from a Mikael Lustig cross. Ola Toivonen fired over when well positioned inside the penalty area before Emil Forsberg finally broke the deadlock, his right foot shot from just outside the penalty area clipping Manuel Akanji to beat Yann Sommer. Switzerland sent on forwards Breel Embolo and Haris Seferović, and the latter tested Sweden goalkeeper Robin Olsen with a header in the closing stages. Sweden were denied the chance to double their lead from the spot following Michael Lang 's late dismissal for taking out Martin Olsson, with Sommer beating away Toivonen 's driven free - kick after a lengthy delay.
Sweden have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1994. Sweden have won back - to - back World Cup matches for the first time since 1958, when they won the quarter - final and semi-final on their way to the final as host nation that year. Olsen has kept three clean sheets at Russia 2018, a joint - record for a Swedish goalkeeper in World Cup finals history (also three clean sheets for Ronnie Hellström in 1974 and Kalle Svensson in 1958).
Man of the Match: Emil Forsberg (Sweden)
Assistant referees: Jure Praprotnik (Slovenia) Robert Vukan (Slovenia) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Reserve assistant referee: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Massimiliano Irrati (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in five previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 1998, a 2 -- 0 England win. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2005, a 3 -- 2 England win.
In the 16th minute, Harry Kane arrived beyond the back post to meet a Kieran Trippier cross, but was unable to direct his header on target. Wílmar Barrios was booked when he appeared to headbutt Jordan Henderson in the build - up to a free - kick Trippier bent narrowly wide. Colombia gave away a penalty early in the second half when Carlos Sánchez dragged Kane down in the box after a corner from the right. Kane scored from 12 yards, shooting down the middle to give England the lead. Colombia forced their way into extra-time, Yerry Mina scoring a downward header from a Juan Cuadrado corner from the right. Eric Dier scored the final penalty in the shoot - out, England came from 3 -- 2 down after Mateus Uribe and Carlos Bacca failed to convert their spot - kicks.
This was the first time that England had won a penalty shoot - out at the FIFA World Cup, and only the second time they had won on penalties at any major tournament (the previous occasion being against Spain at Euro 1996). Kane became the first player to score in six consecutive England appearances since Tommy Lawton did so in 1939. England conceded in injury time at the end of the second half for the first time in World Cup history, with Mina 's goal coming after 92 minutes and 33 seconds.
Man of the Match: Harry Kane (England)
Assistant referees: Joe Fletcher (Canada) Frank Anderson (United States) Fourth official: Matthew Conger (New Zealand) Reserve assistant referee: Tevita Makasini (Tonga) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Mauro Vigliano (Argentina)
The teams had met in eight previous matches including three times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, one won by Uruguay and the other two ending in a draw (2 -- 1 in 1966, 0 -- 0 in 2002 and 0 -- 0 in 2010).
In the 15th minute, after latching on to Olivier Giroud 's knockdown in the box, Kylian Mbappé headed the ball over Fernando Muslera 's crossbar. Five minutes before the break, Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging free - kick from the right was met by Raphaël Varane, who headed the ball into the bottom left corner. Four minutes later, Martín Cáceres ' header was saved by Hugo Lloris low to his right and Diego Godín shot the rebound over. In the 61st minute, Griezmann 's left footed shot from outside the penalty area slipped through Muslera 's hands and into the net as France doubled their lead. Mbappé went down softly under a challenge from Cristian Rodríguez, prompting angry confrontations involving Godín, Nahitan Nández and Paul Pogba. In the 73rd minute, Corentin Tolisso 's shot curled over, while Griezmann also flashed a late free - kick over the top.
France have become only the second team to beat three different South American sides in a single World Cup tournament, after the Netherlands in 1974. France are unbeaten in 10 World Cup matches against South American sides (W6 D4), since a 2 -- 1 loss v Argentina in 1978 -- the joint longest run alongside Italy (1982 to 2010).
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Alireza Faghani (Iran) Reserve assistant referee: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in four previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a World Cup knockout stage match in 2002, Brazil winning 2 -- 0 to advance to the quarter - finals. That match was also the only time the two sides had previously met in a World Cup.
Belgium scored from their first corner of the game in the 13th minute, Vincent Kompany flicked on Eden Hazard 's left - wing delivery but the decisive touch came from Fernandinho, who turned the ball past Alisson via his arm. Belgium doubled their lead by breaking from a Brazil corner in the 31st minute, Kevin De Bruyne arrowed a right foot drive across Alisson and into the left corner of the net from the edge of the penalty area after Romelu Lukaku collected the ball, turned and embarked on a 40 - yard run with a pass at the end to free De Bruyne. Brazil 's third change yielded a goal three minutes and 14 seconds after his introduction, Renato Augusto gliding between two Belgium defenders to nod a flicked header past Thibaut Courtois from a Philippe Coutinho cross. Coutinho 's first - time shot flew wide and yet another Neymar penalty appeal was rejected, before he drew a fingertip save from Courtois in the 94th minute.
De Bruyne became the 100th player to score at Russia 2018 (excluding own goals). Belgium have reached the World Cup semi-finals for only the second time, losing out to eventual winners Argentina in 1986. Belgium 's victory was only their second ever against Brazil, and first since a 1963 friendly match in Brussels. This was the first time in 30 matches in all competitions that Brazil had conceded more than once in a game, since a 2 -- 2 draw with Paraguay in March 2016.
Man of the Match: Kevin De Bruyne (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Milovan Ristić (Serbia) Dalibor Đurđević (Serbia) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in 23 previous matches, including two times in the group stage of the World Cup, both matches ending in a draw (1 -- 1 in 2002 and 2 -- 2 in 2006). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2012, a 4 -- 2 Sweden win.
England took the lead in the 30th minute, Ashley Young 's outswinging corner from the left found Harry Maguire, goalkeeper Robin Olsen and Ola Toivonen on the line were unable to stop the defender 's downward header. Olsen did well with a strong hand to deny Raheem Sterling, who dallied with the rebound and allowed Andreas Granqvist to make a vital block. Shortly after the restart, Jordan Pickford dived to his left to palm away a header from Marcus Berg, who climbed above Young at the back post. In the 58th minute, another England set - piece caused chaos and, although Sweden initially cleared their lines when Jesse Lingard delivered a cross from the right to the back post, Dele Alli was there to double his side 's advantage with a header. John Guidetti teed up strike partner Berg in the 71st minute but Pickford, tipped the effort over the crossbar.
Alli 's goal was England 's 11th at Russia 2018, equalling the country 's record of most goals at a single World Cup set in 1966. Alli is the second youngest player to score for England at the World Cup (22 years and 87 days), behind only Michael Owen (18 years and 190 days against Romania in 1998). Maguire became the first player to score their first England goal in a World Cup knockout match since Rio Ferdinand in 2002 against Denmark. Pickford made three saves in this match and became the youngest England goalkeeper to keep a clean sheet in a World Cup match (24 years and 122 days). England qualified for their first World Cup semi-final since 1990.
Man of the Match: Jordan Pickford (England)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in three previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 3 -- 1 Croatia win.
In the 31st minute, Denis Cheryshev came in from the left and, after a one - two with Artem Dzyuba, skipped away from Luka Modrić to curl a left foot effort beyond Danijel Subašić and into the left of the net. Six minutes before half - time, Mario Mandžukić advanced down the left to set up the chance for Andrej Kramarić to head home the equaliser. In the first period of extra time, Croatia took the lead as Domagoj Vida nodded down past Igor Akinfeev and into the right corner of the net after a corner from the right. Mário Fernandes drew his team level, converting Alan Dzagoev 's free - kick with a glancing header to the left corner of the net after a free - kick from the right. Penalties were required and while Fyodor Smolov 's Panenka attempt with the first effort was foiled by Subašić, parity was restored when Akinfeev got down to his left to keep out Mateo Kovačić 's second kick for Croatia. After Fernandes ' failure, Modrić 's strike found the net, following touches off Akinfeev 's glove and the post. The decisive penalty fell to Ivan Rakitić, who rolled the ball into the bottom - left corner to give Croatia the win.
Russia became the first country in World Cup history to contest two shoot - outs while hosting the event. There were three headed goals in this match -- the most in a World Cup match since Germany 8 -- 0 Saudi Arabia in 2002 (5 headers). Croatia are the second team to win two penalty shootouts at a single World Cup tournament -- the other was Argentina in 1990 (against Yugoslavia and Italy). Croatia has qualified for the semifinal for the first time since 1998 (their first World Cup tournament).
Man of the Match: Luka Modrić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Emerson de Carvalho (Brazil) Marcelo Van Gasse (Brazil) Fourth official: Janny Sikazwe (Zambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jerson Dos Santos (Angola) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Wilton Sampaio (Brazil) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
For the first time since 1966, all multiple World Cup winners were eliminated before the semi-final stage. This is only the second time that neither Brazil nor Germany were in the last four, the other being the inaugural 1930 tournament. With Uruguay and Brazil eliminated in the quarter - finals, an all - European semi-final line up was completed for the fifth time (after the 1934, 1966, 1982, and 2006 tournaments). This also ensured that a European side would win the World Cup for the fourth tournament in a row.
The teams had faced each other in 73 previous matches, including two times in the World Cup, France winning both matches (3 -- 1 in the round of 16 in 1938 and 4 -- 2 in the third place play - off in 1986). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 4 -- 3 Belgium win.
Eden Hazard twice went close, narrowly missing the target with a low, left - footed drive before seeing a curler with his right deflected over the crossbar by the head of Raphaël Varane. Hugo Lloris ' full - length dive kept out a first - time strike on the turn from Toby Alderweireld, while Thibaut Courtois blocked Benjamin Pavard 's attempt from a tight angle on the right at the other end. Six minutes after the break, Vincent Kompany 's block turned away Olivier Giroud 's shot, and Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging delivery from the right to the front post was turned in by Samuel Umtiti, who outjumped his marker, Marouane Fellaini, to head beyond Courtois. Dries Mertens 's cross from the right flank saw Fellaini narrowly miss the target with a header. Axel Witsel 's long - range drive was pushed away by Lloris as France secured their place into the finals.
Didier Deschamps has now managed more games for France at the World Cup than any other previous France manager, overtaking Raymond Domenech and Michel Hidalgo after this match. This was Belgium 's first defeat of any kind since a friendly loss against Spain in September 2016. France have reached their third World Cup final, also doing so in 1998 and 2006. Only Germany (8) and Italy (6) have reached more among European nations.
Man of the Match: Samuel Umtiti (France)
Assistant referees: Nicolás Tarán (Uruguay) Mauricio Espinosa (Uruguay) Fourth official: César Arturo Ramos (Mexico) Reserve assistant referee: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in seven previous matches, which includes two matches played in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, England winning on both occasions (4 -- 1 and 5 -- 1).
Luka Modrić stopped a Dele Alli run, by fouling him at the edge of the area. Kieran Trippier found the top right corner of the net from the resulting free kick with his right foot. After half - time, Ivan Perišić met Šime Vrsaljko 's deep cross from the right with a flying left - footed finish to the left of the net. Soon after, Perišić shot against the right - hand post from the left before Ante Rebić put the rebound into Jordan Pickford 's hands. In extra-time, John Stones had a header cleared off the line by Vrsaljko in the 98th minute. Pickford at the other end, denied Mario Mandžukić at point - blank range after the striker met Perišić 's cross from the left. But Mandžukić came out on top soon after the break, latching on to Perišić 's headed pass on the left and sending a left - footed effort across Pickford to find the bottom - right corner, securing Croatia 's entrance into their first ever World Cup final.
Croatia are the first team to avoid defeat after trailing in three knockout matches at a single World Cup. They become the 13th different nation to reach their first World Cup Final. Trippier became the first player to score a direct free - kick for England at the World Cup since David Beckham in 2006 against Ecuador. Trippier 's goal after four minutes and 44 seconds was the fastest goal scored in a World Cup semi-final since 1958 (Vavá after two minutes for Brazil v France). Croatia became the first team to play extra time in three consecutive World Cup matches since England in 1990. England scored nine goals from set - pieces at the 2018 World Cup -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Man of the Match: Ivan Perišić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Bahattin Duran (Turkey) Tarık Ongun (Turkey) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The two teams had met in 22 matches, including three matches at the World Cup, one round of 16 game at the 1990 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 1 -- 0 victory for England, one group stage game at the 1954 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 4 -- 4 draw and their most recent encounter in Group G of this tournament which Belgium won 1 -- 0.
After four minutes, Thomas Meunier raced into the box to get across Danny Rose and tucked home Nacer Chadli 's low cross in from the left from six yards out. Harry Kane scuffed wide of the left post, from a Raheem Sterling lay - off. In the 70th minute, Eric Dier burst through for a one - on - one and dinked over Thibaut Courtois, only to see a retreating Toby Alderweireld hack the ball off the line. Jordan Pickford made a one - handed save to deny Meunier in the 80th minute. Eden Hazard scored the second with a near - post finish with his right foot, having been sent clean through by Kevin De Bruyne.
Meunier was the 10th player to score for Belgium at Russia 2018. No other team has had more, equalling France in 1982 and Italy in 2006. This is Belgium 's best finish at a World Cup, having previously finished fourth in 1986. This was England 's 100th match at a major tournament -- 69 at the World Cup, 31 at the European Championship. Since 1966, no player has been involved in more World Cup goals for Belgium than Hazard (seven -- three goals and four assists), level with Jan Ceulemans (also four goals and three assists).
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Malang Diedhiou (Senegal) Reserve assistant referee: Djibril Camara (Senegal) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The match was the sixth meeting between France and Croatia, with France undefeated in the previous fixtures with three wins and two draws. The two sides first met in the 1998 World Cup semi-final, with hosts France winning 2 -- 1. Their only other competitive meeting was during the group stage of Euro 2004, which finished as a 2 -- 2 draw. Their next and most recent meeting was in a March 2011 friendly match, which finished as a 0 -- 0 draw.
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
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what is the area code for louisville kentucky | Area code 502 - Wikipedia
Area code 502 serves north central Kentucky, primarily Louisville, its suburbs, and the state capital, Frankfort. Its service area encompasses the following Kentucky counties (the boundary closely, but not exactly, tracks county lines):
Parts of Hardin and Meade counties are also served by this area code, specifically:
Besides Louisville and Frankfort, other cities within the 502 area code boundary include Georgetown, Shelbyville, and Bardstown. Georgetown is a long - distance call to other cities in the 502 area code, but is a free local call to Lexington, which is in the 859 area code.
The area code was one of the first established in October 1947, initially covering the entire state of Kentucky. The eastern half of the state split off as area code 606 in 1954, while the western half split off as 270 in 1999.
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who played jeremy renner's wife in avengers age of ultron | Jeremy Renner - wikipedia
Jeremy Lee Renner (born January 7, 1971) is an American actor. He appeared largely in independent films, such as Dahmer (2002) and Neo Ned (2005). Renner appeared in supporting roles in bigger films, such as S.W.A.T. (2003) and 28 Weeks Later (2007). He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his much - praised performance in The Town (2010).
Renner was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in The Hurt Locker (2008), and he played Hawkeye in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films, Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) and Captain America: Civil War (2016). He also appeared in commercially successful films, such as Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol (2011), The Bourne Legacy (2012), Hansel and Gretel: Witch Hunters (2013), American Hustle (2013), Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation (2015) and Arrival (2016).
Renner was born in Modesto, California, to mother Valerie Cearley (née Tague) and father Lee Renner, who managed McHenry Bowl, a Modesto bowling alley, in the 1980s. His parents married as teenagers and divorced when he was ten. He is the oldest of seven siblings. His ancestry includes German, English, Scottish, Swedish, Irish, and Panamanian.
Renner graduated from Fred C. Beyer High School in Modesto in 1989. He attended Modesto Junior College, where he studied computer science and criminology, before he took a drama class as an elective and decided to pursue acting.
Renner 's made his film debut as an underachieving student in the comedy film National Lampoon 's Senior Trip. Although the film was critically panned, he went on to guest star on two television shows, Deadly Games and Strange Luck and had a minor role in the television film, A Friend 's Betrayal as the friend of Paul Hewitt (Brian Austin Green). Over the next few years, Renner had guest roles in Zoe, Duncan, Jack and Jane (1999), The Net (1999), The Time of Your Life (1999) and Angel (2000). Renner had a small role on an episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation in 2001. Aside from acting, Renner worked as a makeup artist to make ends meet.
In 2002, Renner starred in a leading role in Dahmer, as the eponymous serial - killer Jeffrey Dahmer. He found the role a challenge to cope with after he had finished shooting and seeing how Dahmer killed seventeen victims. His performance was well received, and he gained a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Male. He also appeared in Pink 's 2003 music video for her song "Trouble '' as a Bad Boy Sheriff. Renner went on to appear in S.W.A.T. as the former police partner of Colin Farrell 's character in 2003 and The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things in 2004.
In 2005, Renner starred with Julia Stiles and Forest Whitaker in A Little Trip to Heaven, with roles in North Country and 12 and Holding. He next starred as a neo-Nazi skinhead who is admitted into a psychiatric hospital in Neo Ned with Gabrielle Union. The film won all of the awards it was nominated for at festivals, including the Palm Beach International Film Festival Award for Best Actor. Renner also had a small (though uncredited) role in skateboard film Lords of Dogtown as the manager of Emile Hirsch 's character. In 2006, he starred with Ginnifer Goodwin in Love Comes to the Executioner.
Renner had supporting roles in 2007 in the critically acclaimed The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford as Wood Hite, the cousin of outlaw Jesse James portrayed by Brad Pitt, and as Sergeant Doyle in 28 Weeks Later. He starred with Minnie Driver in Take and guest starred as a patient in an episode of House as a reckless rock musician. Renner had a role in the pilot of The Oaks but the series was not picked up.
After starring with Dallas Roberts in the comedy - drama Ingenious and starring in the short - lived television series The Unusuals, Renner went on to achieve critical success for his portrayal of bomb disposal expert, Sergeant William James in the 2009 Iraq war thriller The Hurt Locker (directed by Kathryn Bigelow). The role earned him several awards in the Best Actor category and his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor as well a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination.
In 2010, Renner 's performance in Ben Affleck 's The Town alongside Jon Hamm, Blake Lively, Slaine and Michael Yebba garnered him rave reviews and his second Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. He also gained his first Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actor and his second Screen Actors Guild nomination. The Hollywood Reporter named Renner as one of the young male actors who are "pushing -- or being pushed '' into taking over Hollywood as the new "A-List ''.
In 2011, Renner had an uncredited cameo appearance as Hawkeye in Thor for familiarity with his character for The Avengers, which was released in May 2012. In the fourth installment of the Mission: Impossible series, Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol, he played William Brandt, the sidekick of Ethan Hunt (Tom Cruise).
In 2012, Renner starred as Hawkeye in the Marvel film, The Avengers. The same year, he also starred in the fourth film in the Bourne franchise, The Bourne Legacy, which was written and directed by Tony Gilroy. Renner played a new lead character, Aaron Cross, in place of Jason Bourne, who was played by Matt Damon in the first three films. Renner has expressed interest in doing a Bourne film with Damon in the future, stating that "(it) would be kick - ass. I love Matt ''.
Renner starred in the action horror film Hansel & Gretel: Witch Hunters (released in January 2013), in which he and Gemma Arterton played Hansel and Gretel, respectively. The 3 - D film was set 15 years after Hansel and Gretel killed the witch who kidnapped them.
Renner was also featured in the ensemble cast of David O. Russell 's dramedy American Hustle based on the controversial FBI ABSCAM operation of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The film, which was released in December 2013, also starred Christian Bale, Bradley Cooper, Amy Adams and Jennifer Lawrence in principal roles. The film earned much critical acclaim, including the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture. In October 2014, Renner starred as journalist Gary Webb in the Focus Features film Kill the Messenger, based on Webb 's book Dark Alliance. Renner also co-produced the film. In December 2014, Crackle aired The Throwaways, a film for which he served as executive producer.
In 2015, Renner reprised his role as Hawkeye in Avengers: Age of Ultron, the sequel to The Avengers. He returned to the Mission: Impossible franchise in Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation, released in July 2015. In 2016, Renner played Hawkeye again in the summer blockbuster film Captain America: Civil War, and starred with Amy Adams in the sci - fi film Arrival. Renner is a producer of the 2016 film The Founder starring Michael Keaton as Ray Kroc who turned McDonald 's into one of the world 's largest restaurant chains.
In spring 2016, History announced their new historical drama, Knightfall, executive produced by Renner, who is expected to guest star.
In 2017, while working on the film Tag, Renner fractured his right elbow and his left wrist.
As well as acting, Renner is a singer - songwriter, guitarist, keyboardist, and drummer. Early in his acting career, he performed in the Sons of Ben. For the soundtrack of North Country he performed "I Drink Alone ''. In the 2006 films Love Comes to the Executioner and The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford, Renner performed the songs "American Pie '' and "Good Ole Rebel ''. He also appeared in music videos for "Trouble '' by P! nk and "Scenes on Sunset '' by Brother Sal.
Renner married Canadian model Sonni Pacheco on January 13, 2014. Renner and Pacheco have a daughter, Ava Berlin (born March 28, 2013). On December 30, 2014, Pacheco filed for divorce from Renner, citing irreconcilable differences. They share custody of their daughter.
Renner also runs a house - renovating business with his best friend and fellow actor, Kristoffer Winters. In addition to acting, he studied Arnis (Filipino martial arts) and Muay Thai martial arts, mainly as preparation for his roles in the Mission Impossible and Avengers franchises.
Renner is a supporter of the San Francisco 49ers. He narrated the NFL Network documentary series The Timeline episode "A Tale of Two Cities '', which chronicles the history of the team 's notable rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys, and the introductory video for the grand opening of Levi 's Stadium.
Renner is a third cousin of his American Hustle co-star, Jennifer Lawrence.
Notes
Further reading
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who built and flew the first glider capable of carrying a person | Early flying machines - wikipedia
Early flying machines include all forms of aircraft studied or constructed before the development of the modern aeroplane by 1910. The story of modern flight begins more than a century before the first successful manned aeroplane, and the earliest aircraft thousands of years before.
From the earliest times there have been legends of men mounting flying devices or strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest to come down to us. According to Ovid, Daedalus tied feathers together to mimic the wings of a bird. Other ancient legends include the Indian Vimana flying palace or chariot, Ezekiel 's Chariot, various stories about magic carpets, and mythical British King Bladud, who conjured up flying wings.
Eventually some tried to build real flying devices, typically birdlike wings, and attempted to fly by jumping off a tower, hill, or cliff. During this early period physical issues of lift, stability, and control were not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury or death when the apparatus lacked an effective horizontal tail, or the wings were simply too small.
In the 1st century AD, Chinese Emperor Wang Mang recruited a specialist scout to be bound with bird feathers; he is claimed to have glided about 100 meters. In 559 AD, Yuan Huangtou is said to have landed safely following an enforced tower jump.
In medieval Europe, the earliest recorded tower jump dates from 852 AD, when Abbas ibn Firnas made a jump in Cordoba, Spain, reportedly covering his body with vulture feathers and attaching two wings to his arms; on landing he is said to have crashed and sustained a back injury which some critics attributed to a lack of a tail. In 1010 AD, English monk Eilmer of Malmesbury flew from the tower of Malmesbury Abbey in a primitive glider. Eilmer was said to have flown over 200 yards (180 m) before landing, breaking both his legs. Eilmer later remarked that the only reason he did not fly further was that he forgot to give his machine a tail. This burst of activity was followed by a lull of several centuries.
Jumping revived in 1496 with Seccio breaking both arms in Nuremberg. In 1507, John Damian strapped on wings covered with chicken feathers and jumped from the walls of Stirling Castle in Scotland, breaking his thigh, later blaming it on not using eagle feathers.
Similar attempts continued until the early 19th century, with never more than partial success. Francis Willughby 's suggestion, published in 1676, that human legs were more comparable to birds ' wings in strength than arms, had only occasional influence. On 15 May 1793, the Spanish inventor Diego Marín Aguilera, jumped with his glider from the highest part of the castle of Coruña del Conde, reaching a height of approximately 5 or 6 m, and gliding for approximately 360 metres. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.
The kite was invented in China, possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi (also Mo Di) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban). These leaf kites were constructed by stretching silk over a split bamboo framework. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat (not bowed) and often rectangular. Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying.
In 549 AD, a kite made of paper was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signalling, and communication for military operations.
After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite. Traditionally these are small, unstable single line flat kites where line tension alone is used for control, and an abrasive line is used to cut down other kites.
Kites also spread throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand. Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and wood were used in religious ceremonies to send prayers to the gods.
By 1634 kites had reached the West, with an illustration of a diamond kite with a tail appearing in Bate 's Mysteries of nature and art.
Man - carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, for both civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment.
Stories of man - carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD. It is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man - carrying kites.
In 1282, the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current and commented on the hazards and cruelty involved. To foretell whether a ship should sail, a man would be strapped to a kite having a rectangular grid framework and the subsequent flight pattern used to divine the outlook.
The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo - copter, an ancient Chinese toy. The bamboo - copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The philosopher Ge Hong 's book the Baopuzi (Master Who Embraces Simplicity), written around 317, describes the apocryphal use of a possible rotor in aircraft: "Some have made flying cars (feiche 飛車) with wood from the inner part of the jujube tree, using ox - leather (straps) fastened to returning blades so as to set the machine in motion ''.
The similar "moulinet à noix '' (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.
From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang, who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.
There is evidence the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation '' using balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century.
Eventually some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of scientific aircraft design. Powered designs were either still driven by man - power or used a metal spring. The Englishman Roger Bacon predicted future designs for a balloon filled with an unspecified aether and a man - powered ornithopter in his book De mirabili potestate carto et naturae (Secrets of Art and Nature), 1250.
Leonardo da Vinci studied bird flight for many years, analyzing it rationally and anticipating many principles of aerodynamics. He understood that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object ''. Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.
From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote about and sketched many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed - wing gliders, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were man - powered types including ornithopters and rotorcraft, however he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring.
In 1488, he drew a hang glider design in which the inner parts of the wings are fixed, and some control surfaces are provided towards the tips (as in the gliding flight in birds). While his drawings exist and are deemed flight - worthy in principle, he himself never flew in it. A model he built for a test flight in 1496 did not fly, and some other designs, such as the four - person screw - type helicopter, have severe flaws. He drew and wrote about a design for an ornithopter in c. 1490.
Da Vinci 's work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments over the next three hundred years. Nor were his designs based on particularly good science.
The modern era of lighter - than - air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileo 's experiments in which he showed that air has weight. Around 1650, Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy novels in which he described the principle of ascent using a substance (dew) he supposed to be lighter than air, and descending by releasing a controlled amount of the substance. Francesco Lana de Terzi measured the pressure of air at sea level and in 1670 proposed the first scientifically credible lifting medium in the form of hollow metal spheres from which all the air had been pumped out. These would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, and by venting the lifting containers to lose height. In practice de Terzi 's spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases.
The first documented balloon flight in Europe was of a model made by the Brazilian priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão. On 8 August 1709, in Lisbon, he made a small hot - air balloon of paper with a fire burning beneath it, lifting it about 4 metres (13 ft) in front of king John V and the Portuguese court.
In the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers began experimenting with parachutes and balloons in France. Their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short - lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke for a kind of steam, they began filling their balloons with hot smoky air which they called "electric smoke ''. Despite not fully understanding the principles at work they made some successful launches and in December 1782 flew a 20 m (710 cu ft) balloon to a height of 300 m (980 ft). The French Académie des Sciences soon invited them to Paris to give a demonstration.
Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black to propose its use as a lifting gas in about 1780, though practical demonstration awaited a gastight balloon material. On hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers ' invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon and this was accepted. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a gastight material of rubberised silk and set to work.
1783 was a watershed year for ballooning. Between June 4 and December 1 five separate French balloons achieved important aviation firsts:
The Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their free flight, De Rozier and d'Arlandes took buckets of water and sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern. As a result of these exploits, the hot - air balloon became known as the Montgolfière type and the hydrogen balloon the Charlière.
Charles and the Robert brothers ' next balloon, La Caroline, was a Charlière that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier 's proposals for an elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an outer envelope with the gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September 1784, it completed the first flight of over 100 kilometres (62 mi), between Paris and Beuvry, despite the man - powered propulsive devices proving useless.
In January the next year Jean Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries crossed the English Channel from Dover to the Bois de Felmores in a Charlière. But a similar attempt the other way ended in tragedy. In an attempt to provide both endurance and controllability, de Rozier developed a balloon with both hot air and hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as the Rozière. His idea was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift and to navigate vertically by heating and allowing to cool the hot air section, in order to catch the most favourable wind at whatever altitude it was blowing. The balloon envelope was made of goldbeaters skin. Shortly after the flight began, de Rozier was seen to be venting hydrogen when it was ignited by a spark and the balloon went up in flames, killing those on board. The source of the spark is not known, but suggestions include static electricity or the brazier for the hot air section.
Ballooning quickly became a major "rage '' in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first detailed understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere. By the early 1900s, ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used coal gas as the lifting gas. This has about half the lifting power of hydrogen, so the balloons had to be larger; however, coal gas was far more readily available, and the local gas works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events.
Tethered balloons were used during the American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. In 1863, the young Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who was acting as a military observer with the Union Army of the Potomac, first flew as a balloon passenger in a balloon that had been in service with the Union army. Later that century, the British Army would make use of observation balloons during the Boer War.
Work on developing a dirigible (steerable) balloon, nowadays called an airship, continued sporadically throughout the 19th century.
The first sustained powered, controlled flight in history is believed to have taken place on 24 September 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France from Paris to Trappes with the Giffard dirigible, a non-rigid airship filled with hydrogen and powered by a 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) steam engine driving a 3 bladed propeller.
In 1863, Solomon Andrews flew his aereon design, an unpowered, controllable dirigible in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. He flew a later design in 1866 around New York City and as far as Oyster Bay, New York. His technique of gliding under gravity works by changing the lift to provide propulsive force as the airship alternately rises and sinks, and so does not need a powerplant.
A further advance was made on 9 August 1884, when the first fully controllable free flight was made by Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs in a French Army electric - powered airship, La France. The 170 - foot (52 m) long, 66,000 - cubic - foot (1,900 m) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with the aid of an 8.5 horsepower (6.3 kW) electric motor, returning to its starting point. This was the first flight over a closed circuit.
These aircraft were not practical. Besides being generally frail and short - lived, they were non-rigid or at best semi-rigid. Consequently, it was difficult to make them large enough to carry a commercial load.
Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin realised that a rigid outer frame would allow a much bigger airship. He founded the Zeppelin firm, whose rigid Luftschiff Zeppelin 1 (LZ 1) first flew from the Bodensee on the Swiss border on 2 July 1900. The flight lasted 18 minutes. The second and third flights, in October 1900 and on 24 October 1900 respectively, beat the 6 m / s (13 mph) speed record of the French airship La France by 3 m / s (6.7 mph).
The Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont became famous by designing, building, and flying dirigibles. He built and flew the first fully practical dirigible capable of routine, controlled flight. With his dirigible No. 6 he won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize on 19 October 1901 with a flight that took off from Saint - Cloud, rounded the Eiffel Tower and returned to its starting point.
By now, the airship was established as the first practicable form of air travel.
Da Vinci 's design for a pyramid - shaped parachute remained unpublished for centuries. The first published design was the Croatian Fausto Veranzio 's homo volans (flying man) which appeared in his book Machinae novae (New machines) in 1595. Based on a ship 's sail, it comprised a square of material stretched across a square frame and retained by ropes. The parachutist was suspended by ropes from each of the four corners.
Louis - Sébastien Lenormand is considered the first human to make a witnessed descent with a parachute. On 26 December 1783, he jumped from the tower of the Montpellier observatory in France, in front of a crowd that included Joseph Montgolfier, using a 14 feet (4.3 m) parachute with a rigid wooden frame.
Between 1853 and 1854, Louis Charles Letur developed a parachute - glider comprising an umbrella - like parachute with smaller, triangular wings and vertical tail beneath. Letur died after it crashed in 1854.
Kites are most notable in the recent history of aviation primarily for their man - carrying or man - lifting capabilities, although they have also been important in other areas such as meteorology.
The Frenchman Gaston Biot developed a man - lifting kite in 1868. Later, in 1880, Biot demonstrated to the French Society for Aerial Navigation a kite based on an open - ended cone, similar to a windsock but attached to a flat surface. The man - carrying kite was developed a stage further in 1894 by Captain Baden Baden - Powell, brother of Lord Baden - Powell, who strung a chain of hexagonal kites on a single line. A significant development came in 1893 when the Australian Lawrence Hargrave invented the box kite and some man - carrying experiments were carried out both in Australia and in the United States. On Dec. 27, 1905, Neil MacDearmid was carried aloft in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, Canada by a large box kite named the Frost King, designed by Alexander Graham Bell.
Balloons were by then in use for both meteorology and military observation. Balloons can only be used in light winds, while kites can only be used in stronger winds. The American Samuel Franklin Cody, working in England, realised that the two types of craft between them allowed operation over a wide range of weather conditions. He developed Hargrave 's basic design, adding additional lifting surfaces to create powerful man - lifting systems using multiple kites on a single line. Cody made many demonstrations of his system and would later sell four of his "war kite '' systems to the Royal Navy. His kites also found use in carrying meteorological instruments aloft and he was made a fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society. In 1905, Sapper Moreton of the British Army 's balloon section was lifted 2,600 feet (790 m) by a kite at Aldershot under Cody 's supervision. In 1906, Cody was appointed Chief Instructor in Kiting at the Army School of Ballooning in Aldershot. He soon also joined the newly established Army Balloon Factory at Farnborough and continued developing his war kites for the British Army. In his own time, he developed a manned "glider - kite '' which was launched on a tether like a kite and then released to glide freely. In 1907, Cody next fitted an aircraft engine to a modified unmanned "power - kite '', the precursor to his later aeroplanes, and flew it inside the Balloon Shed, along a wire suspended from poles, before the Prince and Princess of Wales. The British Army officially adopted his war kites for their Balloon Companies in 1908.
Leonardo da Vinci 's realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight was rediscovered independently in the 17th century by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke. Hooke realised that some form of engine would be necessary and in 1655 made a spring - powered ornithopter model which was apparently able to fly.
Attempts to design or construct a true flying machine began, typically comprising a gondola with a supporting canopy and spring - or man - powered flappers for propulsion. Among the first were Hautsch and Burattini (1648). Others included de Gusmão 's "Passarola '' (1709 on), Swedenborg (1716), Desforges (1772), Bauer (1764), Meerwein (1781), and Blanchard (1781) who would later have more success with balloons. Rotary - winged helicopters likewise appeared, notably from Lomonosov (1754) and Paucton. A few model gliders flew successfully although some claims are contested, but in any event no full - size craft succeeded.
Italian inventor, Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647. Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate ' dragon ' '', it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself. He promised that "only the most minor injuries '' would result from landing the craft. His "Dragon Volant '' is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century ''.
Bartolomeu de Gusmão 's "Passarola '' was a hollow, vaguely bird - shaped glider of similar concept but with two wings. In 1709, he presented a petition to King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his invention of an "airship '', in which he expressed the greatest confidence. The public test of the machine, which was set for 24 June 1709, did not take place. According to contemporary reports, however, Gusmão appears to have made several less ambitious experiments with this machine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gusmão was working on this principle at the public exhibition he gave before the Court on 8 August 1709, in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball to the roof by combustion. He also demonstrated a small airship model before the Portuguese court, but never succeeded with a full - scale model.
However, both understanding and a power source were still lacking. This was recognised by Emanuel Swedenborg in his "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air '' published in 1716. His flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest ''. The Editor of the Royal Aeronautical Society journal wrote in 1910 that Swedenborg 's design was "... the first rational proposal for a flying machine of the aeroplance (heavier - than - air) type... ''
Meanwhile, rotorcraft were not wholly forgotten. In July 1754, Mikhail Lomonosov demonstrated a small coaxial twin - rotor system, powered by a spring, to the Russian Academy of Sciences. The rotors were arranged one above the other and spun in opposite directions, principles still used in modern twin - rotor designs. In his 1768 Théorie de la vis d'Archimède, Alexis - Jean - Pierre Paucton suggested the use of one airscrew for lift and a second for propulsion, nowadays called a gyrodyne. In 1784, Launoy and Bienvenu demonstrated a flying model with coaxial, contra - rotating rotors powered by a simple spring similar to a bow saw, now accepted as the first powered helicopter.
Attempts at man - powered flight still persisted. Paucton 's rotorcraft was man - powered, while another approach, also originally studied by da Vinci, was the use of flap valves. The flap valve is a simple hinged flap over a hole in the wing. In one direction it opens to allow air through and in the other it closes to allow an increased pressure difference. An early example was designed by Bauer in 1764. Later in 1808, Jacob Degen built an ornithopter with flap valves, in which the pilot stood on a rigid frame and worked the wings with a movable horizontal bar. His 1809 attempt at flight failed, so he then added a small hydrogen balloon and the combination achieved some short hops. Popular illustrations of the day depicted his machine without the balloon, leading to confusion as to what had actually flown. In 1811, Albrecht Berblinger built an ornithopter based on Degen 's design but omitted the balloon, plunging instead into the Danube. The fiasco did have an upside: George Cayley, also taken in by the illustrations, was spurred to publish his findings to date "for the sake of giving a little more dignity to a subject bordering upon the ludicrous in public estimation '', and the modern era of aviation was born.
Throughout the 19th century, tower jumping was replaced by the equally fatal but equally popular balloon jumping as a way to demonstrate the continued uselessness of man - power and flapping wings. Meanwhile, the scientific study of heavier - than - air flight began in earnest.
Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane '' in 1846. During the last years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later design the first modern heavier - than - air craft. Among his many achievements, his most important contributions to aeronautics include:
From the age of ten Cayley began studying the physics of bird flight and his school notebooks contained sketches in which he was developing his ideas on the theories of flight. It has been claimed that these sketches show that Cayley modeled the principles of a lift - generating inclined plane as early as 1792 or 1793.
In 1796 Cayley made a model helicopter of the form commonly known as a Chinese flying top, unaware of Launoy and Bienvenu 's model of similar design. He regarded the helicopter as the best design for simple vertical flight, and later in his life in 1854 he made an improved model. He gave a Mr. Cooper credit for being the first person to improve on "the clumsy structure of the toy '' and reports Cooper 's model as ascending twenty or thirty feet. Cayley made one and a Mr. Coulson made a copy, described by Cayley as "a very beautiful specimen of the screw propellor in the air '' and capable of flying over ninety feet high.
Cayley 's next innovations were twofold: the adoption of the whirling arm test rig, invented in the previous century by Benjamin Robbins to investigate aerodynamic drag and used soon after by John Smeaton to measure the forces on rotating windmill blades, for use in aircraft research together with the use of aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a model of a complete design. He initially used a simple flat plane fixed to the arm and inclined at an angle to the airflow.
In 1799, he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed - wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. On a small silver disc dated that year, he engraved on one side the forces acting on an aircraft and on the other a sketch of an aircraft design incorporating such modern features as a cambered wing, separate tail comprising a horizontal tailplane and vertical fin, and fuselage for the pilot suspended below the center of gravity to provide stability. The design is not yet wholly modern, incorporating as it does two pilot - operated paddles or oars which appear to work as flap valves.
He continued his researches and in 1804 constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier - than - air flying machine, having the layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. The wing was just a toy paper kite, flat and uncambered. A movable weight allowed adjustment of the model 's centre of gravity. It was "very pretty to see '' when flying down a hillside, and sensitive to small adjustments of the tail.
By the end of 1809, he had constructed the world 's first full - size glider and flown it as an unmanned tethered kite. In the same year, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark three - part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation '' (1809 -- 1810). In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air ''. He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He argued that manpower alone was insufficient, and while no suitable power source was yet available he discussed the possibilities and even described the operating principle of the internal combustion engine using a gas and air mixture. However he was never able to make a working engine and confined his flying experiments to gliding flight. He also identified and described the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.
In 1848, he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known.
He went on to publish the design for a full - size manned glider or "governable parachute '' to be launched from a balloon in 1852 and then to construct a version capable of launching from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853. The identity of the aviator is not known. It has been suggested variously as Cayley 's coachman, footman or butler, John Appleby who may have been the coachman or another employee, or even Cayley 's grandson George John Cayley. What is known is that he was the first to fly in a glider with distinct wings, fuselage and tail, and featuring inherent stability and pilot - operated controls: the first fully modern and functional heavier - than - air craft.
Minor inventions included the rubber - powered motor, which provided a reliable power source for research models. By 1808, he had even re-invented the wheel, devising the tension - spoked wheel in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage.
Drawing directly from Cayley 's work, Henson 's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke new ground. Henson proposed a 150 feet (46 m) span high - winged monoplane, with a steam engine driving two pusher configuration propellers. Although only a design, (scale models were built in 1843 or 1848 and flew 10 or 130 feet) it was the first in history for a propeller - driven fixed - wing aircraft. Henson and his collaborator John Stringfellow even dreamed of the first Aerial Transit Company.
In 1856, Frenchman Jean - Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel '' pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.
The British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857, Félix du Temple built several large models together with his brother Luis. One of them was able to fly, first using a clockwork mechanism as an engine, and then using a miniature steam engine. The two brothers managed to make the models take off under their own power, fly a short distance and land safely
Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial Locomotion. He took Cayley 's work on cambered wings further, making important findings about both the wing aerofoil section and lift distribution. To test his ideas, from 1858 he constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He concluded correctly that long, thin wings would be better than the bat - like ones suggested by many, because they would have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a wing.
The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the "gentleman scientists '' who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist - philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who wrote an important paper in 1864, On Aërial Locomotion, which also described lateral flight control. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.
In 1864, Le Comte Ferdinand Charles Honore Phillipe d'Esterno published a study On The Flight Of Birds (Du Vol des Oiseaux, and the next year Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de l'Air).
1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the world 's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London, where Stringfellow was awarded a £ 100 prize for the steam engine with the best power - to - weight ratio.
In 1871 Wenham and Browning made the first wind tunnel. Members of the Society used the tunnel and learned that cambered wings generated considerably more lift than expected by Cayley 's Newtonian reasoning, with lift - to - drag ratios of about 5: 1 at 15 degrees. This clearly demonstrated the possibility of building practical heavier - than - air flying machines: what remained were the problems of controlling and powering the craft.
Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman living from 1850 to 1880, made significant contributions to aeronautics. He advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871, he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed - wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore '', a distance of 40 metres (130 ft). Pénaud 's model incorporated several of Cayley 's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics.
By the 1870s, lightweight steam engines had been developed enough for their experimental use in aircraft.
Félix du Temple eventually achieved a short hop with a full - size manned craft in 1874. His "Monoplane '' was a large aircraft made of aluminium, with a wingspan of 42 ft 8 in (13 m) and a weight of only 176 pounds (80 kg) without the pilot. Several trials were made with the aircraft, and it achieved lift - off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered hop in history, a year ahead of Moy 's flight.
The Aerial Steamer, made by Thomas Moy, sometimes called the Moy - Shill Aerial Steamer, was an unmanned tandem wing aircraft driven by a 3 hp (2.25 kW) steam engine using methylated spirits as fuel. It was 14 ft (4.27 m) long and weighed about 216 lb, (98 kg) of which the engine accounted for 80 lb (36 kg), and ran on three wheels. It was tested in June 1875 on a circular rolled gravel track of nearly 300 ft (90 m) diameter. It did not reach a speed of above 12 mph (19 kph), but a speed of around 35 mph (56 kph) would be necessary to lift off. However it is credited with being the first steam - powered aircraft to have left the ground under its own power by the historian Charles Gibbs - Smith.
Pénaud 's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor airscrews, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.
Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud 's fellow countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879, he flew a model which, like Pénaud 's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air, with the air tank forming the fuselage.
In Russia Alexander Mozhaiski constructed a steam - powered monoplane driven by one large tractor and two smaller pusher propellers. In 1884, it was launched from a ramp and remained airborne for 98 feet (30 m).
That same year in France, Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly.
Sir Hiram Maxim was an American who moved to England and adopted English nationality. He chose to largely ignore his contemporaries and built his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel. In 1889 he built a hangar and workshop in the grounds of Baldwyn 's Manor at Bexley, Kent, and made many experiments. He developed a biplane design which he patented in 1891 and completed as a test rig three years later. It was an enormous machine, with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound steam engines each delivering 180 horsepower (130 kW). Overall weight was 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg). Later modifications would add more wing surfaces as shown in the illustration. Its purpose was for research and it was neither aerodynamically stable nor controllable, so it ran on a 1,800 feet (550 m) track with a second set of restraining rails to prevent it from lifting off, somewhat in the manner of a roller coaster. In 1894, the machine developed enough lift to take off, breaking one of the restraining rails and being damaged in the process. Maxim then abandoned work on it, but would return to aeronautics in the 20th century to test a number of smaller designs powered by internal combustion engines.
One of the last of the steam - powered pioneers, like Maxim ignoring his contemporaries who had moved on (see next section), was Clément Ader. His Éole of 1890 was a bat - winged tractor monoplane which achieved a brief, uncontrolled hop, thus becoming the first heavier - than - air machine to take off under its own power. However his similar but larger Avion III of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly at all: Ader would later claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt.
The glider constructed with the help of Massia and flown briefly by Biot in 1879 was based on the work of Mouillard and was still bird - like in form. It is preserved the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man - carrying flying machine still in existence.
In the last decade or so of the 19th century a number of key figures were refining and defining the modern aeroplane. The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. The German Otto Lilienthal and the American Octave Chanute worked independently on gliding flight. Lillienthal published a book on bird flight and went on, from 1891 to 1896, to construct a series of gliders, of various monoplane, biplane and triplane configurations, to test his theories. He made thousands of flights and at the time of his death was working on motor - powered gliders.
Phillips conducted extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, using steam as the working fluid. He proved the principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham and, from 1884, took out several patents on aerofoils. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design. Phillips would later develop theories on the design of multiplanes, which he went on to show were unfounded.
Starting in the 1880s, advances were made in construction that led to the first truly practical gliders. Four people in particular were active: John J. Montgomery, Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute. One of the first modern gliders was built by John J. Montgomery in 1883; Montgomery later claimed to have made a single successful flight with it in 1884 near San Diego and Montgomery 's activities were documented by Chanute in his book Progress in Flying Machines. Montgomery discussed his flying during the 1893 Aeronautical Conference in Chicago and Chanute published Montgomery 's comments in December 1893 in the American Engineer & Railroad Journal. Short hops with Montgomery 's second and third gliders in 1885 and 1886 were also described by Montgomery. Between 1886 and 1896 Montgomery focused on understanding the physics of aerodynamics rather than experiment with flying machines. Another hang - glider had been constructed by Wilhelm Kress as early as 1877 near Vienna.
Otto Lilienthal was known as the "Glider King '' or "Flying Man '' of Germany. He duplicated Wenham 's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst). He also produced a series of gliders of a type now known as the hang glider, including bat - wing, monoplane and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting in 1891 he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier - than - air machine, stimulating interest around the world. He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. He also promoted the idea of "jumping before you fly '', suggesting that researchers should start with gliders and work their way up, instead of simply designing a powered machine on paper and hoping it would work. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash. Lilienthal had also been working on small engines suitable for powering his designs at the time of his death.
Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896, his team flew several of their designs many times at Miller Beach, Indiana, eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he documented his work and also photographed it, and was busy corresponding with like - minded researchers around the world. Chanute was particularly interested in solving the problem of aerodynamic instability of the aircraft in flight, which birds compensate for by instant corrections, but which humans would have to address either with stabilizing and control surfaces or by moving the center of gravity of the aircraft, as Lilienthal did. The most disconcerting problem was longitudinal instability (divergence), because as the angle of attack of a wing increases, the center of pressure moves forward and makes the angle increase yet more. Without immediate correction, the craft will pitch up and stall. Much more difficult to understand was the relationship between lateral and directional control.
In Britain, Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim and had built and successfully flown several gliders during the mid to late 1890s, constructed a prototype powered aircraft in 1899 which, recent research has shown, would have been capable of flight. However, like Lilienthal he died in a glider accident before he was able to test it.
Publications, particularly Octave Chanute 's Progress in Flying Machines of 1894 and James Means ' The Problem of Manflight (1894) and Aeronautical Annuals (1895 -- 1897) helped bring current research and events to a wider audience.
The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave led to the development of the practical biplane. In 1894, Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and flew 16 feet (4.9 m). By demonstrating to a sceptical public that it was possible to build a safe and stable flying machine, Hargrave opened the door to other inventors and pioneers. Hargrave devoted most of his life to constructing a machine that would fly. He believed passionately in open communication within the scientific community and would not patent his inventions. Instead, he scrupulously published the results of his experiments in order that a mutual interchange of ideas may take place with other inventors working in the same field, so as to expedite joint progress. Octave Chanute became convinced that multiple wing planes were more effective than a monoplane and introduced the "strut - wire '' braced wing structure which, with its combination of rigidity and lightness, would in the form of the biplane come to dominate aircraft design for decades to come. The inventor of the box kite Lawrence Hargrave also experimented in the 1880s with monoplane models and by 1889 had constructed a rotary engine driven by compressed air.
Even balloon - jumping began to succeed. In 1905, Daniel Maloney was carried by balloon in a tandem - wing glider designed by John Montgomery to an altitude of 4,000 feet (1,200 m) before being released, gliding down and landing at a predetermined location as part of a large public demonstration of aerial flight at Santa Clara, California. However, after several successful flights, during an ascension in July 1905, a rope from the balloon struck the glider, and the glider suffered structural failure after release, resulting in Maloney 's death.
Powered, controlled flight was finally achieved around the turn of the century.
Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built flying machines and engines. On 14 August 1901, Whitehead claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. An account of the flight appeared in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald and was repeated in newspapers throughout the world. Whitehead claimed two more flights on 17 January 1902, using his Number 22 monoplane. He described it as having a 40 horsepower (30 kW) motor with twin tractor propellers and controlled by differential propeller speed and rudder. He claimed to have flown a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) circle.
For many years the Whitehead claims were ignored or dismissed by mainstream aviation historians. In March 2013, Jane 's All the World 's Aircraft published an editorial which accepted Whitehead 's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier - than - air craft. The Smithsonian Institution is among those who do not accept that Whitehead flew as reported.
After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in - flight control. On 6 May 1896, Langley 's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine - driven heavier - than - air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring - actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km / h). On both occasions the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.
With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full - scale man - carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man - carrying flying machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled - up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter - scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on 18 June 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903.
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 horsepower (6.0 kW) instead of the 12 horsepower (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley 's assistant, Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design into a five - cylinder water - cooled radial that delivered 52 horsepower (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes.
To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft 's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome 's aerial stability was marginal.
Langley 's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on 8 December, the Wright brothers successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different aircraft in 1914. Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley 's Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight ''.
The Wrights solved both the control and power problems that confronted aeronautical pioneers. They invented roll control using wing warping and combined roll with simultaneous yaw control using a steerable rear rudder. Although wing - warping as a means of roll control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the innovation of combining roll and yaw control was a fundamental advance in flight control. For pitch control, the Wrights used a forward elevator (canard), another design element that later became outmoded.
The Wrights made rigorous wind - tunnel tests of airfoils and flight tests of full - size gliders. They not only built a working powered aircraft, the Wright Flyer, but also significantly advanced the science of aeronautical engineering.
They concentrated on the controllability of unpowered aircraft before attempting to fly a powered design. From 1900 to 1902, they built and flew a series of three gliders. The first two were much less efficient than the Wrights expected, based on experiments and writings of their 19th - century predecessors. Their 1900 glider had only about half the lift they anticipated, and the 1901 glider performed even more poorly, until makeshift modifications made it serviceable.
Seeking answers, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and equipped it with a sophisticated measuring device to calculate lift and drag of 200 different model - size wing designs they created. As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations of lift and drag and used this knowledge to construct their 1902 glider, third in the series. It became the first manned, heavier - than - air flying machine that was mechanically controllable in all three axes: pitch, roll and yaw. Its pioneering design also included wings with a higher aspect ratio than the previous gliders. The brothers successfully flew the 1902 glider hundreds of times, and it performed far better than their earlier two versions.
To obtain adequate power for their engine - driven Flyer, the Wrights designed and built a low - powered internal combustion engine. Using their wind tunnel data, they designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. The Flyer 's design was also influenced by the desire of the Wrights to teach themselves to fly safely without unreasonable risk to life and limb, and to make crashes survivable. The limited engine power resulted in low flying speeds and the need to take off into a headwind.
According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier - than - air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, 4 miles (6.4 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on 17 December 1903. The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. Modern analysis by Professor Fred E.C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider.
The Wrights continued developing their flying machines and flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904 -- 05. After a crash in 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers '') between the elevators, and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing - warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. The Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and using a launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds ".
Eventually the Wrights would abandon the foreplane altogether, with the Model B of 1910 instead having a tail plane in the manner which was by then becoming conventional.
According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine, the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier - than - air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier - than - air flying machine.
Once powered, controlled flight had been achieved, progress was still needed to create a practical flying machine for general use. This period leading up to World War I is sometimes called the pioneer era of aviation.
The history of early powered flight is very much the history of early engine construction. The Wrights designed their own engines. They used a single flight engine, a 12 horsepower (8.9 kW) water - cooled four - cylinder inline type with five main bearings and fuel injection. Whitehead 's craft was powered by two engines of his design: a ground engine of 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) which drove the front wheels in an effort to reach takeoff speed and a 20 horsepower (15 kW) acetylene engine powering the propellers. Whitehead was an experienced machinist, and he is reported to have raised funds for his aircraft by making and selling engines to other aviators. Most early engines were neither powerful nor reliable enough for practical use, and the development of improved engines went hand - in - hand with improvements in the airframes themselves.
In Europe, Léon Levavasseur 's Antoinette 8V pioneering example of the V - 8 engine format, first patented in 1902, dominated flight for several years after it was introduced in 1906, powering many notable craft of that era. Incorporating direct fuel injection, evaporative water cooling and other advanced features, it generated around 50 horsepower (37 kW).
The British Green C. 4 of 1908 followed the Wright 's pattern of a four - cylinder inline water - cooled design but produced 52 horsepower (39 kW). It powered many successful pioneer aircraft including those of A.V. Roe.
Horizontally opposed designs were also produced. The four - cylinder water - cooled de Havilland Iris achieved 45 horsepower (34 kW) but was little used, while the successful two - cylinder Nieuport design achieved 28 hp (21 kW) in 1910.
1909 saw radial engine forms rise to significance. The Anzani 3 - cylinder semi-radial or fan engine of 1909 (also built in a true, 120 ° cylinder angle radial form) developed only 25 horsepower (19 kW) but was much lighter than the Antoinette, and was chosen by Louis Blériot for his cross-Channel flight. More radical was the Seguin brothers ' series of Gnôme rotary radial engines, starring with the Gnome Omega 50 horsepower (37 kW) air - cooled seven - cylinder rotary engine in 1906. In a rotary engine, the crankshaft is fixed to the airframe and the whole engine casing and cylinders rotate with the propeller. Although this type had been introduced as long ago as 1887 by Lawrence Hargrave, improvements made to the Gnome created a robust, relatively reliable and lightweight design which revolutionised aviation and would see continuous development over the next ten years. Fuel was introduced into each cylinder direct from the crankcase meaning that only an exhaust valve was required. The larger and more powerful nine - cylinder, 80 horsepower Le Rhône 9C rotary was introduced in 1913 and was widely adopted for military use.
Inline and vee types remained popular, with the German company Mercedes producing a series of water - cooled six - cylinder models. In 1913, they introduced the highly successful 75 kilowatts (101 hp) D.I series.
The lightness and strength of the biplane is offset by the inefficiency inherent in placing two wings so close together. Biplane and monoplane designs vied with each other, with both still in production by the outbreak of war in 1914.
A notable development, although a failure, was the first cantilever monoplane ever built. The Antoinette Monobloc of 1911 had a fully enclosed cockpit and faired undercarriage but its V - 8 engine 's 50 horsepower (37 kW) output was not enough for it to fly for more than a few feet at most. More successful was the Deperdussin braced monoplane, which won the inaugural 1913 Schneider Trophy race flown by Maurice Prévost, completing 28 circuits of the 10 km (6.2 mi) course with an average speed of 73.63 kilometres per hour (45.75 mph).
Triplanes too were experimented with, notably a series built between 1909 and 1910 by the British pioneer A.V. Roe. Going one better with four wings the quadruplane too made rare appearances. The Multiplane, having large numbers of very thin wings, was also experimented with, most successfully by Horatio Phillips. His final prototype confirmed the inefficiency and poor performance of the idea.
Other radical approaches to wing design were also being tried. The Scottish - born inventor Alexander Graham Bell devised a cellular octahedral wing form which, like the multiplane, proved disappointingly inefficient. Other lacklustre performers included the Edwards Rhomboidal, the Lee - Richards annular wing and varying numbers of wings one after the other in tandem.
Many of these early experimental forms were in principle quite practical and have since reappeared.
Early work had focused primary on making a craft stable enough to fly but failed to offer full controllability, while the Wrights had sacrificed stability in order to make their Flyer fully controllable. A practical aircraft requires both. Although stability had been achieved by several designs, the principles were not fully understood and progress was erratic. The aileron slowly replaced wing warping for lateral control although designers sometimes, as with the Blériot XI, returned briefly to wing warping. Similarly, all - flying tail surfaces gave way to fixed stabilizers with hinged control surfaces attached. The canard pusher configuration of the early Wright Flyers was supplanted by tractor propeller aircraft designs.
In France, progress was relatively rapid.
In 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont made public flights in France with his 14 - bis. A canard pusher biplane with pronounced wing dihedral, it had a Hargrave - style box - cell wing with a forward - mounted "boxkite '' assembly which was movable to act as both elevator and rudder. He later added auxiliary surfaces between the wings as primitive ailerons to provide lateral control. His flight was the first made by a powered heavier - than - air machine to be verified by the Aéro - Club de France, and won the Deutsch - Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight of more than 25 metres (82 ft). It later set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 metres (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.
The next year Louis Blériot flew the Blériot VII, a tractor monoplane with full three - axis control using the horizontal tail surfaces as combined elevators and ailerons. Its immediate descendant, the Blériot VIII, was the very first airframe to bring together the recognizable elements of the modern aircraft flight control system in April 1908. Where Horatio Phillips and Traian Vuia had failed, Blériot 's was the first practical tractor monoplane and marked the start of a trend in French aviation. By 1909, he had developed this configuration to the point where the Blériot XI was able to cross the English Channel, among other refinements using the tail surfaces only as elevators and using wing warping for lateral control. Another design that appeared in 1907 was the Voisin biplane. This lacked any provision for lateral control, and could only make shallow turns using only rudder control, but was flown with increasing success during the year by Henri Farman, and on 13 January 1908 he won the 50,000 francs Deutsch de la Meurthe - Archdeacon Grand Prix de l'Aviation for being the first aviator to complete an officially observed 1 kilometre closed circuit flight, including taking off and landing under the aircraft 's own power.
The designs of the French pioneer Léon Levavasseur are better known by the name of the Antoinette company which he founded. His Antoinette IV of 1908 was a monoplane of what is now the conventional configuration, with tailplane and fin each bearing movable control surfaces, and ailerons on the wings. The ailerons were not sufficiently effective and on later models were replaced by wing warping.
At the end of 1908, the Voisin brothers sold an aircraft ordered by Henri Farman to J.T.C. Moore - Brabazon. Angered, Farman built his own aircraft, adapting the Voisin design by adding ailerons. Following further modifications to the tail surfaces and ailerons, the Farman III became the most popular aeroplane sold between 1909 and 1911, and was widely imitated. In Britain the American expatriate Samuel Cody flew an aircraft similar in layout to the Wright flyer in 1908, incorporating a tailplane as well as a large front elevator. In 1910 an improved model fitted with between - wing ailerons won the Michelin Cup competition, while Geoffrey de Havilland 's second Farman - style aircraft had ailerons on the upper wing and became the Royal Aircraft Factory F.E. 1. The Bristol Boxkite, a copy of the Farman III, was manufactured in quantity. In the USA Glenn Curtiss had flown first the AEA June Bug and then his Golden Flyer, which in 1910 achieved the first naval deck landing and takeoff. Meanwhile, the Wrights themselves had also been wrestling with the problem of achieving both stability and control, experimenting further with the foreplane before first adding a second small plane at the tail and then finally removing the foreplane altogether. They announced their two - seat Model B in 1910 and licensed it for production in 1911 as the Burgess Model F.
Many other more radical layouts were tried, with only a few showing any promise. In the United Kingdom, J.W. Dunne developed a series of tailless pusher designs having swept wings with a conical upper surface. His D. 5 biplane flew in 1910 and proved fully stable. Dunne deliberately avoided full three - axis control, devising instead a system which was easier to operate and which he regarded as far safer in practice. Dunne 's system would not be widely adopted. His tailless design reached its peak with the D. 8 which was manufactured under license in France by Nieuport and in the USA as the Burgess - Dunne, however it was rejected as a practical warplane by the British Army, in which Dunne was an officer, because it was too stable and hence not manoeuvrable enough in battle.
1901 in Austria, Wilhelm Kress fails to take off in his underpowered Drachenflieger, a floatplane featuring twin pontoons made of aluminium and three wings in tandem.
1910 in France, Henri Fabre makes the first seaplane flight in his Hydravion. It was a monoplane with a biplane foreplane and three short floats in tricycle layout.
1912 The world 's first seaplane carrier, the French Navy 's Foudre, embarks her first floatplane, a Voisin Canard.
A problem with early seaplanes was the tendency for suction between the water and the aircraft as speed increased, holding the aircraft down and hindering takeoff. The British designer John Cyril Porte invented the technique of placing a step in the bottom of the aircraft to break the suction, and this was incorporated in the 1914 Curtiss Model H.
In 1909 aeroplanes remained frail and of little practical use. The limited engine power available meant that the effective payload was extremely limited. The basic structural and materials technology of the airframes mostly consisted of hardwood materials or steel tubing, braced with steel wires and covered in linen fabric doped with a flammable stiffener and sealant. The need to save weight meant that most aircraft were structurally fragile, and not infrequently broke up in flight especially when performing violent manoeuvres, such as pulling out of a steep dive, which would be required in combat.
However these evolving flying machines were recognised to be not just toys, but weapons in the making. In 1909 the Italian staff officer Giulio Douhet remarked:
The sky is about to become another battlefield no less important than the battlefields on land and sea... In order to conquer the air, it is necessary to deprive the enemy of all means of flying, by striking at him in the air, at his bases of operation, or at his production centers. We had better get accustomed to this idea, and prepare ourselves.
In 1911 Captain Bertram Dickson, the first British military officer to fly and the first British military officer to perform an aerial reconnaissance mission in a fixed - wing aircraft during army manoeuvres in 1910, predicted the military use of aircraft and the ensuing development and escalation of aerial combat in a submission to the UK Technical Sub-Committee for Imperial Defence.
Missiles were dropped from an aeroplane for the first time when United States Army Lieutenant Paul W. Beck dropped sandbags simulating bombs over Los Angeles, California.
Aeroplanes were first used in warfare during the Italo - Turkish War of 1911 -- 1912. The first operational use took place on 23 October 1911, when Captain Carlo Piazza made a flight near Benghazi in a Blériot XI. The first aerial bombardment followed shortly afterwards on 1 November, when Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti dropped four bombs on two oases held by the Turks. The first photographic reconnaissance flight took place in March 1912, also flown by Captain Piazza.
Some types developed during this period would see military service into, or even throughout, World War I. These include the Etrich Taube of 1910, Fokker Spin of 1911, Royal Aircraft Factory BE. 2, Sopwith Tabloid / Schneider and a variety of obsolescent types that would be used for pilot training. The Sikorsky Ilya Muromets was the first four - engined aircraft to ever enter production and the largest of its day, the prototype first flying in 1914 just before the outbreak of war. The type would go on to see service in both bomber and transport roles.
The early work on powered rotor lift was followed up by later investigators, independently from the development of fixed - wing aircraft.
In 19th century France an association was set up to collaborate on helicopter designs, of which there were many. In 1863 Gustave de Ponton d'Amécourt constructed a model using the established counter-rotating rotors. Initially powered by steam it failed, but a clockwork version did fly. Other designs, covering a wide variety of forms, included Pomés and De la Pauze (1871), Pénaud, Achenbach (1874), Dieuaide (1887), Melikoff (1877), Forlanini (1877), Castel (1878), and Dandrieux (1878 -- 79). Of these, Forlanini 's steam - powered contra - rotating model flew for 20 seconds, reaching a height of 13 metres (43 ft), and Dandrieux ' rubber - powered model also flew.
Hiram Maxim 's father conceived of a helicopter powered by two counter-rotating rotors, but was unable to find a powerful enough engine to build it. Hiram himself sketched out plans for a helicopter in 1872 before turning his attention to fixed - wing flight.
In 1907, the French Breguet - Richet Gyroplane No. 1 lifted off in a "tethered '' test flight, becoming the first manned helicopter to rise from the ground. It rose about 60 centimetres (24 in) and hovered for a minute. However, the flight proved to be extremely unsteady.
Two months later at Lisenux, France, Paul Cornu made the first free flight in a manned rotary - winged craft in his Cornu helicopter, lifting to 30 centimetres (12 in) and remaining aloft for 20 seconds.
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have i got news for you female presenter | List of have I Got News for You presenters - wikipedia
Have I Got News for You was originally presented by British comedian Angus Deayton between 1990 and 2002. Following a string of tabloid allegations about his personal life, he was dismissed in October 2002 after presenting two shows of the 24th series. Regular team captain Paul Merton stood in as the host of the first episode following Deayton 's departure, following which the programme was presented by a different guest host each week (many of which have presented several editions of the show). This was initially intended as a short - term solution while producers were looking for a full - time replacement; however, having a different guest host each week proved successful, with average audience figures increasing from 6 million to 7 million. It was therefore announced in June 2003 that this feature would continue. As of 15 December 2017, 110 people (not including Deayton himself) have presented, or co-presented, at least one episode of Have I Got News for You.
The following is a list of the guest presenters in the order they first appeared. Many have previously appeared as guest panellists; apart from Merton, who continued his regular role as team captain after hosting the first post-Deayton episode, there are twelve other people who have appeared as a panellist after being a guest presenter: Clive Anderson, Gyles Brandreth, Marcus Brigstocke, Jimmy Carr, Jeremy Clarkson (who subsequently appeared as a guest host again), Alan Johnson, Charles Kennedy, Richard Madeley, Richard Osman, Robert Peston, John Prescott and Liza Tarbuck. Of these, Clarkson, Johnson, Madeley and Prescott had not appeared as panellists before being guest presenters.
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where do canadian geese migrate to in winter from uk | Canada goose - wikipedia
The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is a large wild goose species with a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. Native to arctic and temperate regions of North America, its migration occasionally reaches northern Europe. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands. Like most geese, the Canada goose is primarily herbivorous and normally migratory; it tends to be found on or close to fresh water.
Extremely successful at living in human - altered areas, Canada geese have proven able to establish breeding colonies in urban and cultivated areas, which provide food and few natural predators, and are well known as a common park species. Their success has led to them often being considered a pest species because of their depredation of crops and issues with their noise, droppings, aggressive territorial behavior, and habit of begging for food (caused by human hand feeding), especially in their introduced range. Canada geese are also among the most commonly hunted waterfowl in North America.
The Canada goose was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th - century work Systema Naturae. It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey species of the Anser genus.
Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás, "burnt (black) goose '' and the specific epithet canadensis is a New Latin word meaning "from Canada ''. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first citation for the ' Canada goose ' dates back to 1772. The Canada goose is also colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose ''.
The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or a subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004, the American Ornithologists ' Union 's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists ' Union followed suit in June 2005.
The AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. The subspecies of the Canada goose were listed as:
The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada goose '' was believed to be a partly hybrid population, with the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis, and B. c. parvipes. In addition, the barnacle goose has been determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose is derived from the Canada goose.
The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap '' distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a black breast and gray rather than brownish body plumage).
The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose, which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of Richardson 's cackling goose, B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose, B. h. minima, is scarcely larger than a mallard. In addition to the size difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese '' (i.e. the genera Anser, Branta or Chen), the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier such as the spur - winged goose and Cape Barren goose.
Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm (30 to 43 in) in length and have a 127 -- 185 cm (50 -- 73 in) wingspan. Among standard measurements, the wing chord can range from 39 to 55 cm (15 to 22 in), the tarsus can range from 6.9 to 10.6 cm (2.7 to 4.2 in) and the bill can range from 4.1 to 6.8 cm (1.6 to 2.7 in). The largest subspecies is the B. c. maxima, or the giant Canada goose, and the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) is B. c. parvipes, or the lesser Canada goose. An exceptionally large male of race B. c. maxima, which rarely exceed 8 kg (18 lb), weighed 10.9 kg (24 lb) and had a wingspan of 2.24 m (7.3 ft). This specimen is the largest wild goose ever recorded of any species.
The male Canada goose usually weighs 2.6 -- 6.5 kg (5.7 -- 14.3 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.9 kg (8.6 lb). The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at 2.4 -- 5.5 kg (5.3 -- 12.1 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.6 kg (7.9 lb), and generally 10 % smaller in linear dimensions than the male counterparts. The female also possesses a different, and less sonorous, honk than the male.
This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a variety of habitats. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada geese. Canada geese occur year - round in the southern part of their breeding range, including most of the eastern seaboard and the Pacific coast. Between California and South Carolina in the southern United States and northern Mexico, Canada geese are primarily present as migrants from further north during the winter.
By the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th century and early 20th century had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. The giant Canada goose subspecies was believed to be extinct in the 1950s until, in 1962, a small flock was discovered wintering in Rochester, Minnesota, by Harold Hanson of the Illinois Natural History Survey. In 1964, the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center was built near Jamestown, North Dakota. Its first director, Harvey K. Nelson, talked Forrest Lee into leaving Minnesota to head the center 's Canada goose production and restoration program. Forrest soon had 64 pens with 64 breeding pairs of screened, high - quality birds. The project involved private, state, and federal resources and relied on the expertise and cooperation of many individuals. By the end of 1981, more than 6,000 giant Canada geese had been released at 83 sites in 26 counties in North Dakota. With improved game laws and habitat recreation and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations, especially of the subspecies B. c. occidentalis, may still be declining.
In recent years, Canada goose populations in some areas have grown substantially, so much so that many consider them pests for their droppings, bacteria in their droppings, noise, and confrontational behavior. This problem is partially due to the removal of natural predators and an abundance of safe, man - made bodies of water near food sources, such as those found on golf courses, in public parks and beaches, and in planned communities. Due in part to the interbreeding of various migratory subspecies with the introduced nonmigratory giant subspecies, Canada geese are frequently a year - around feature of such urban environments.
Contrary to its normal migration routine, large flocks of Canada geese have established permanent residence in Esquimalt, British Columbia, on Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia 's James River regions, and in the Triangle area of North Carolina (Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill), and nearby Hillsborough. Some Canada geese have taken up permanent residence as far south as Florida, in places such as retention ponds in apartment complexes. Large resident populations of Canada geese are also present in much of the San Francisco Bay area in Northern California. In 2015, the Ohio population of Canada geese was reported as roughly 130,000, with the number likely to continue increasing. Many of the geese, previously migratory, reportedly had become native, remaining in the state even in the summer. The increase was attributed to a lack of natural predators, an abundance of water, and plentiful grass in manicured lawns in urban areas. Canada geese were eliminated in Ohio following the American Civil War, but were reintroduced in 1956 with 10 pairs. The population was estimated at 18,000 in 1979. The geese are considered protected, though a hunting season is allowed from September 1 -- 15, with a daily bag limit of five.
Canada geese have reached Northern Europe naturally, as has been proved by ringing recoveries. The birds include those of the subspecies B. c. parvipes, and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on the Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia, and eastern China.
Canada geese have also been introduced in Europe, and had established populations in Great Britain in the middle of the eighteenth century, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Finland. Most European populations are not migratory, but those in more northerly parts of Sweden and Finland migrate to the North Sea and Baltic coasts. Semitame feral birds are common in parks, and have become a pest in some areas. In the early 17th century, explorer Samuel de Champlain sent several pairs of geese to France as a present for King Louis XIII. The geese were first introduced in Britain in the late 17th century as an addition to King James II 's waterfowl collection in St. James 's Park. They were introduced in Germany and Scandinavia during the 20th century, starting in Sweden in 1929. In Britain, they were spread by hunters, but remained uncommon until the mid-20th century. Their population grew from 2200 -- 4000 birds in 1953 to an estimated 82,000 in 1999, as changing agricultural practices and urban growth provided new habitat. European birds are mostly descended from the subspecies B. c. canadensis, likely with some contributions from the subspecies B. c. maxima.
Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They have become a problem in some areas by fouling pastures and damaging crops. They were protected under the Wildlife Act 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand, which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds.
Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturally migratory with the wintering range being most of the United States. The calls overhead from large groups of Canada geese flying in V - shaped formation signal the transitions into spring and autumn. In some areas, migration routes have changed due to changes in habitat and food sources. In mild climates from California to the Great Lakes, some of the population has become nonmigratory due to adequate winter food supply and a lack of former predators.
Males exhibit agonistic behaviour both on and off breeding and nesting grounds. This behavior rarely involves interspecific killing. One documented case involved a male defending his nest from a brant goose that wandered into the area; the following attack lasted for one hour until the death of the brant. The cause of death was suffocation or drowning in mud as a direct result of the Canada goose 's pecking the head of the brant into the mud. Researchers attributed it to high hormone levels and the brant 's inability to leave the nesting area.
Canada geese are primarily herbivores, although they sometimes eat small insects and fish. Their diet includes green vegetation and grains. The Canada goose eats a variety of grasses when on land. It feeds by grasping a blade of grass with the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eats beans and grains such as wheat, rice, and corn when they are available. In the water, it feeds from silt at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plants, such as seaweeds. In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also commonly hand fed a variety of grains by humans in parks all over America.
During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find a mate. They are monogamous, and most couples stay together all of their lives. If one dies, the other may find a new mate. The female lays from two to nine eggs with an average of five, and both parents protect the nest while the eggs incubate, but the female spends more time at the nest than the male.
Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water such as streams, lakes, ponds, and sometimes on a beaver lodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down.
The incubation period, in which the female incubates while the male remains nearby, lasts for 24 -- 28 days after laying. As the annual summer molt also takes place during the breeding season, the adults lose their flight feathers for 20 -- 40 days, regaining flight about the same time as their goslings start to fly.
As soon as the goslings hatch, they are immediately capable of walking, swimming, and finding their own food (a diet similar to the adult geese). Parents are often seen leading their goslings in a line, usually with one adult at the front, and the other at the back. While protecting their goslings, parents often violently chase away nearby creatures, from small blackbirds to lone humans who approach, after warning them by giving off a hissing sound and then attack with bites and slaps of the wings if the threat does not retreat or has seized a gosling. Canada geese are especially protective animals, and will sometimes attack any animal nearing its territory or offspring, including humans. Most of the species that prey on eggs also take a gosling. Although parents are hostile to unfamiliar geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, called crèches.
The offspring enter the fledgling stage any time from 6 to 9 weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace.
Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November. The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops. Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the East Coast.
Canada geese fly in a distinctive V - shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,000 feet) for migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).
Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more quickly than the summer grounds. Elevated thyroid hormones, such as T and T, have been measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in migration the thyroid gland sends out more T which help the body cope with the longer journey. The increased T levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T to help the goose 's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the temperature at which the muscles work. Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such as corticosterone rise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.
The lifespan in the wild of geese that survive to adulthood ranges from 10 to 24 years. The British longevity record is held by a specimen tagged as a nestling, which was observed alive at the University of York at the age of 31.
Known predators of eggs and goslings include coyotes, Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), large gulls (Larus species), common ravens (Corvus corax), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), carrion crows (in Europe, Corvus corone) and both brown (Ursus arctos) and American black bears (Ursus americanus).
Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and gray wolves (Canis lupus). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), and gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.
Salinity plays a role in the growth and development of goslings. Moderate to high salinity concentrations without fresh water results in slower development, growth, and saline - induced mortality. Goslings are susceptible to saline - induced mortality before their nasal salt glands become functional, with the majority occurring before the sixth day of life.
Canada geese are susceptible to avian bird flus, such as H5N1. A study carried out using the HPAI virus, a H5N1 virus, found that the geese were susceptible to the virus. This proved useful for monitoring the spread of the virus through the high mortality of infected birds. Prior exposure to other viruses may result in some resistance to H5N1.
In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human - altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches. An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks. A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.
Since 1999, the United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services agency has been engaged in lethal culls of Canada geese primarily in urban or densely populated areas. The agency responds to municipalities or private land owners, such as golf courses, which find the geese obtrusive or object to their waste. Addling goose eggs and destroying nests are promoted as humane population control methods.
Canada geese are protected from hunting and capture outside of designated hunting seasons in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and in Canada under the Migratory Birds Convention Act. In both countries, commercial transactions such as buying or trading are mostly prohibited and the possession, hunting, and interfering with the activity of the animals are subject to restrictions. In the UK, as with native bird species, the nests and eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the defined open season.
Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings.
Canada geese have been implicated in a number of bird strikes by aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the United States, the Canada goose is the second-most damaging bird strike to airplanes, with the most damaging being turkey vultures. Canada geese can cause fatal crashes when they strike an aircraft 's engine. In 1995, a U.S. Air Force E-3 Sentry aircraft at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, struck a flock of Canada geese on takeoff, losing power in both port side engines. It crashed 2 mi (3.2 km) from the runway, killing all 24 crew members. The accident sparked efforts to avoid such events, including habitat modification, aversion tactics, herding and relocation, and culling of flocks. In 2009, a collision with a flock of migratory Canada geese resulted in US Airways Flight 1549 suffering a total power loss after takeoff causing the crew of the aircraft to land the plane on the Hudson River with no loss of human life.
As a large, common wild bird, the Canada goose is a common target of hunters, especially in its native range. Drake Larsen, a researcher in sustainable agriculture at Iowa State University, described them to Atlantic magazine as "so yummy... good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef. '' The British Trust for Ornithology, however, has described them as "reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds. '' The US goose harvest for 2013 -- 14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken. Canada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation, and slaughterhouses ' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese culled near New York airports have been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania. As of 2011, the sale of wild Canada goose meat was not permitted in the UK; some landowners have lobbied for this ban to be withdrawn to allow them income from sale of game meat.
In 2000, the North American population for the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds. A 20 - year study from 1983 to 2003 in Wichita, Kansas, found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increase from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.
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when were the olympic games held in china | 2008 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
The 2008 Summer Olympic Games, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (Chinese: 第 二 十 九 届 夏季 奥林匹克 运动会; pinyin: Dì Èrshíjiǔ Jiè Xiàjì Àolínpǐkè Yùndònghuì) and commonly known as Beijing 2008, was an international multi-sport event that was held from 8 to 24 August 2008 in Beijing, China. A total of 10,942 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) competed in 28 sports and 302 events (one event more than those scheduled for the 2004 Games). This was the first time that China had hosted the Summer Olympics, but the third time that the Games had been held in East Asia, following the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, and the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, South Korea.
Beijing was awarded the 2008 Games over four competitors on 13 July 2001, having won a majority of votes from members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after two rounds of voting. The Government of the People 's Republic of China promoted the Games and invested heavily in new facilities and transportation systems. A total of 37 venues were used to host the events, including twelve constructed specifically for use at the Games. The equestrian events were held in Hong Kong, making this the third Olympics for which the events were held under the jurisdiction of two different NOCs. The sailing events were contested in Qingdao, while the football events took place in several different cities.
The official logo for the 2008 Games, titled "Dancing Beijing '', featured a stylized calligraphic character jīng (京, meaning capital) in reference to the host city. Some entities criticized the choice of China as Olympic host because of the country 's human rights record, and political protests (particularly focused on Tibet) marred the international portion of the Olympic torch relay. Despite this, the Beijing Olympics were also the most watched Olympics in history, attracting 4.7 billion viewers worldwide and gaining an entry in the Guinness World Records as the "Largest TV audience for an Olympic Games ''.
An unprecedented 86 countries won at least one medal during the Games. China won the most gold medals, with 48, and became only the 7th different Olympic team to top an overall medal tally, winning a total of 100 medals overall. The United States won the highest number of medals, with a total of 111, and placed second in the gold medal tally, also the United States set a gold medal record by U.S. swimmer Michael Phelps, who won 8 golds. The next highest medal count was followed by Russia at the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Beijing has been selected to host the 2022 Winter Olympics; it will be the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Games.
Beijing was elected as the host city for the 2008 Summer Olympics on 13 July 2001, during the 112th IOC Session in Moscow, defeating bids from Toronto, Paris, Istanbul, and Osaka. Prior to the session, five other cities (Bangkok, Cairo, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and Seville) had submitted bids to the IOC, but failed to make the short list chosen by the IOC Executive Committee in 2000. After the first round of voting, Beijing held a significant lead over the other four candidates. Osaka received only six votes and was eliminated. In the second round, Beijing was supported by a majority of voters, eliminating the need for subsequent rounds. Toronto 's bid was their 5th failure since 1960 (failed bid for 1960, 1964, 1976 and 1996 games losing to Rome, Tokyo, Montreal and Atlanta).
Members of the IOC did not disclose their votes, but news reports speculated that broad international support led to China 's selection, especially from developing nations who had received assistance from China in the construction of stadiums. The size of China, its increased enforcement of doping controls, and sympathy concerning its loss of the 2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney were all factors in the decision. Eight years earlier, Beijing had led every round of voting for the 2000 Summer Olympics before losing to Sydney by two votes in the final round.
Human rights concerns expressed by Amnesty International and politicians in both Europe and the United States were considered by the delegates, according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard. Carrard and others suggested that the selection might lead to improvements in human rights in China. In addition, a number of IOC delegates who had formerly been athletes expressed concern about heat and air quality during the Games, considering the high levels of air pollution in Beijing. China outlined plans to address these environmental concerns in its bid application.
The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics at USD 6.8 billion in 2015 - dollars and cost overrun at 2 % in real terms. This includes sports - related costs only, that is, (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are not included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The Beijing Olympics ' cost of USD 6.8 billion compares with costs of USD 4.6 billion for Rio 2016 and USD 15 billion for London 2012. Average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is USD 5.2 billion.
On 6 March 2009, the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games reported that total spending on the games was "generally as much as that of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games '', which was equivalent to about US $15 billion. They went on to claim that surplus revenues from the Games would exceed the original target of $16 million. Other reports, however, estimated the total costs from $40 billion to $44 billion, which would make the Games "far and away the most expensive ever ''.
Its budget has since been exceeded by the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, which suffered from major cost overruns, causing the budget to exceed US $51 billion.
Canadian Solar Constructed the 2000m Landscape Avenue Project for the Beijing Olympic Games Stadium in 2008.
By May 2007 the construction of all 31 Beijing - based Olympic Games venues had begun. The Chinese government renovated and constructed six venues outside Beijing as well as 59 training centres. The largest structures built were the Beijing National Stadium, Beijing National Indoor Stadium, Beijing National Aquatics Center, Olympic Green Convention Center, Olympic Green, and Beijing Wukesong Culture & Sports Center. Almost 85 % of the construction budget for the six main venues was funded by $2.1 billion (RMB ¥ 17.4 billion) in corporate bids and tenders. Investments were expected from corporations seeking ownership rights after the Olympics. Some events were held outside Beijing, namely football in Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shenyang, and Tianjin; sailing in Qingdao; and, because of the "uncertainties of equine diseases and major difficulties in establishing a disease - free zone '', the equestrian events were held in Hong Kong.
The centrepiece of the 2008 Summer Olympics was the Beijing National Stadium, nicknamed "The Bird 's Nest '' because of its nest - like skeletal structure. The stadium hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the athletics competition. Construction of the venue began on 24 December 2003. The Guangdong Olympic Stadium was originally planned, constructed, and completed in 2001 to help host the Games, but a decision was made to construct a new stadium in Beijing. In 2001, the city held a bidding process to select the best arena design. Several criteria were required of each design, including flexibility for post-Olympics use, a retractable roof, and low maintenance costs. The entry list was narrowed to thirteen final designs. The bird 's nest model submitted by architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron in collaboration with Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group (CADG) was selected as the top design by both a professional panel and by a broader audience during a public exhibition. The selection of the design became official in April 2003. Construction of the stadium was a joint venture among the original designers, project architect Stefan Marbach, artist Ai Weiwei, and a group of CADG architects led by Li Xinggang. Its $423 million cost was funded by the state - owned corporate conglomerate CITIC and the Beijing State - Owned Assets Management Company.
The 2008 Beijing Olympics caused traditional Hutong neighborhoods to be cleared for the construction of modern Olympic stadiums. In an effort to ensure success for the games, the government invested billions in building new infrastructure, although clearance to tiny, outdated neighborhoods in Beijing called hutongs resulted (Petrun). Jim Yardley, a New York Times reporter interviews Pan Jinyu, a 64 - year - old local resident: "They (the government) do n't want foreigners to see this scarred old face ''. Feng Shuqin and her husband, Zheng Zhanlin have lived in their house for 50 years and the family has owned the property before the Communists took control in 1949. The government, trying to clear the area, has offered them to move with a compensatory sum of $175,000 USD, but the family insists the land is worth $1.4 million USD (Yardley). Michael Meyer, an American who lives in the hutongs reported that a total of 500,000 residents were relocated from their homes before the Olympics began (Meyer).
To prepare for Olympic visitors, Beijing 's transportation infrastructure was expanded. Beijing 's airport underwent a major renovation with the addition of the new Terminal 3, designed by architect Norman Foster. Within the city itself, Beijing 's subway was doubled in capacity and length, with the addition of 7 lines and 80 stations to the previously existing 4 lines and 64 stations. Included in this expansion was a new link connecting to the city 's airport. A fleet of thousands of buses, minibuses, and official cars transported spectators, athletes, and officials between venues.
In an effort to improve air quality, the city placed restrictions on construction sites and gas stations, and limited the use of commercial and passenger vehicles in Beijing. From 20 June through 20 September, passenger vehicle restrictions were placed on alternate days depending on the terminal digit of the car 's license plate. It was anticipated that this measure would take 45 % of Beijing 's 3.3 million cars off the streets. The boosted public transport network was expected to absorb the demand created by these restrictions and the influx of visitors, which was estimated at more than 4 million additional passengers per day.
The 2008 Summer Olympics emblem was known as Dancing Beijing. The emblem combined a traditional Chinese red seal and a representation of the calligraphic character jīng (京, "national capital '', also the second character of Beijing 's Chinese name) with athletic features. The open arms of the calligraphic word symbolized the invitation from China to the world to share in its culture. IOC president Jacques Rogge was very happy with the emblem, saying, "Your new emblem immediately conveys the awesome beauty and power of China which are embodied in your heritage and your people. ''
The official motto for the 2008 Olympics was "One World, One Dream '' (同 一个 世界 同 一个 梦想). It called upon the whole world to join in the Olympic spirit and build a better future for humanity, and was chosen from over 210,000 entries submitted from around the world. Following the announcement of the motto, the phrase was used by international advocates of Tibetan secession. Banners reading "One World, One Dream, Free Tibet '' were unfurled from various structures around the globe in the lead up to the Beijing Olympics, such as from the San Francisco Golden Gate Bridge and the Sydney Opera House in Australia.
The mascots of Beijing 2008 were the five Fuwa, each representing both a colour of the Olympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture. In 2006, the Beijing Organizing Committee released pictograms of 35 Olympic disciplines (for some multi-discipline sports, such as cycling, a single pictogram was released). This set of sport icons was named the beauty of seal characters, because of each pictogram 's likeness to Chinese seal script.
The 2008 Games were the first to be produced and broadcast entirely in high definition by the host broadcaster. In comparison, American broadcaster NBC broadcast only half of the 2006 Turin Winter Games in HD. In their bid for the Olympic Games in 2001, Beijing stated to the Olympic Evaluation Commission that there would be, "(N) o restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists up to and including the Olympic Games. '' However, some media outlets claimed that organizers ultimately failed to live up to this commitment.
According to Nielsen Media Research, 4.7 billion viewers worldwide tuned into some of the television coverage, one - fifth larger than the 3.9 billion who watched the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. American broadcaster NBC produced only 2 hours of online streaming video for the 2006 Winter Games but produced approximately 2,200 hours of coverage for the 2008 Summer Games. CNN reported that, for the first time, "live online video rights in some markets for the Olympics have been separately negotiated, not part of the overall ' broadcast rights. ' '' The new media of the digital economy was said to be growing "nine times faster than the rest of the advertising market. ''
The international European Broadcasting Union (EBU) provided live coverage and highlights of all arenas only for certain territories on their website, Eurovisionsports.tv. Many national broadcasters likewise restricted the viewing of online events to their domestic audiences. The General National Copyright Administration of China announced that "individual (sic) and websites will face fines as high as 100,000 yuan for uploading recordings of Olympic Games video to the internet '', part of an extensive campaign to protect the pertinent intellectual property rights. The Olympic Committee also set up a separate YouTube channel at Beijing 2008.
The theme song of the 2008 Olympic Games was "You and Me, '' which was composed by Chen Qigang, the musical director of the opening ceremony. It was performed during the opening ceremony by Chinese singer Liu Huan and British singer Sarah Brightman.
The design of the 2008 Olympic Torch was based on traditional scrolls and used a traditional Chinese design known as the "Propitious Clouds '' (祥云). The torch was designed to remain lit in 65 km / h (40 mph) winds, and in rain of up to 50 mm (2 in) per hour.
The relay, with the theme "Journey of Harmony '', was met with protests and demonstrations by pro-Tibet supporters throughout its journey. It lasted 130 days and carried the torch 137,000 km (85,000 mi) -- the longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since the tradition began at the 1936 Berlin Games. The torch relay was described as a "public relations disaster '' for China by USA Today, with protests against China 's human rights record, particularly focused on Tibet. The IOC subsequently barred future Olympics organizers from staging international torch relays.
The relay began 24 March 2008, in Olympia, Greece. From there, it traveled across Greece to Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, and then to Beijing, arriving on 31 March. From Beijing, the torch followed a route passing through every continent except Antarctica. The torch visited cities on the Silk Road, symbolizing ancient links between China and the rest of the world. A total of 21,880 torchbearers were selected from around the world by various organizations and entities.
The international portion of the relay was problematic. The month - long world tour encountered wide - scale anti-Chinese protests. After trouble in London involving attempts by protesters to put out the flame, the torch was extinguished in Paris the following day. The American leg in San Francisco on 9 April was altered without prior warning to avoid such disturbances, although there were still demonstrations along the original route. The relay was further delayed and simplified after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake hit western China.
The flame was carried to the top of Mount Everest on a 108 km (67 mi) long "highway '' scaling the Tibetan side of the mountain, built especially for the relay. The $19.7 million blacktop project spanned from Tingri County of Xigazê Prefecture to the Everest Base Camp. In March 2008, China banned mountaineers from climbing its side of Mount Everest, and later persuaded the Nepalese government to close their side as well, officially citing environmental concerns. It also reflected concerns by the Chinese government that Tibet activists may try to disrupt its plans to carry the Olympic torch up the world 's tallest peak.
The originally proposed route would have taken the torch through Taipei after leaving Vietnam and before heading for Hong Kong. However, the government of Taiwan (then led by the independence - leaning Democratic Progressive Party) objected to this proposal, claiming that this route would make the portion of the relay in Taiwan appear to be part of the torch 's domestic journey through China, rather than a leg on the international route. This dispute, as well as Chinese demands that the flag and the national anthem of the Republic of China be banned along the route led the government of Taiwan to reject the proposal that it be part of the relay route, and the two sides of the Taiwan Strait subsequently blamed each other for injecting politics into the event.
In the following calendar for the 2008 Olympic Games, each blue box represents an event competition, such as a qualification round, on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which medal - awarding finals for a sport were held. Each bullet in these boxes is an event final, the number of bullets per box representing the number of finals that were contested on that day. On the left the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games, and at the right how many gold medals were won in that sport. There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader.
125 Olympic records including 37 world records were set in various events at the Games. In swimming, sixty - five Olympic swimming records including 25 world records were broken due to the use of the LZR Racer, a specialized swimming suit developed by NASA and the Australian Institute of Sport. Only two swimming Olympic records remained intact after the Games.
The opening ceremony officially began at 8: 00 pm China Standard Time (UTC + 8) on 8 August 2008 in the Beijing National Stadium. The number 8 is associated with prosperity and confidence in Chinese culture, and here it was a triple eight for the date and one extra for time (close to 08: 08: 08 pm). The ceremony was co-directed by Chinese filmmaker Zhang Yimou and Chinese choreographer Zhang Jigang and featured a cast of over 15,000 performers. The ceremony lasted over four hours and was reported to have cost over US $100 million to produce.
A rich assembly of ancient Chinese art and culture dominated the ceremony. It opened with the beating of Fou drums for the countdown. Subsequently, a giant scroll was unveiled and became the show 's centerpiece. The official song of the 2008 Olympics, titled "You and Me '', was performed by Britain 's Sarah Brightman and China 's Liu Huan, on a large spinning rendition of the globe. The last recipient in the Olympic Torch relay, former Chinese gymnast Li Ning ignited the cauldron, after being suspended into the air by wires and completing a lap of the National Stadium at roof height.
The opening ceremony was lauded by spectators and various international presses as "spectacular '' and "spellbinding ''. Hein Verbruggen, chairman of the IOC Coordination Commission for the XXIX Olympiad, called the ceremony "a grand, unprecedented success. ''
The program for the Beijing Games was quite similar to that of the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. There were 28 sports and 302 events at the 2008 Games. Nine new events were held, including two from the new cycling discipline of BMX. Women competed in the 3000 metre steeplechase for the first time. Open water swimming events for men and women, over the distance of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), were added to the swimming discipline. Team events (men and women) in table tennis replaced the doubles events. In fencing, women 's team foil and women 's team sabre replaced men 's team foil and women 's team épée. Two sports were open only to men, baseball and boxing, while one sport and one discipline were open only to women, softball and synchronized swimming. Equestrian and mixed badminton are the only sports in which men and women compete together, although three events in the Sailing allowed the opportunity for both males and female participants. However, only male participants took part in all three events.
The following were the 302 events in 28 sports that were contested at the Games. The number of events contested in each sport is indicated in parentheses (in sports with more than one discipline, as identified by the IOC, these are also specified).
In addition to the official Olympic sports, the Beijing Organising Committee was given special dispensation by the IOC to run a wushu competition in parallel to the Games. The Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008 saw 128 athletes from 43 countries participate, with medals awarded in 15 separate events; however, these were not to be added to the official medal tally since Wushu was not on the programme of the 2008 Olympic Games.
The 2008 Summer Olympics Closing Ceremony concluded the Beijing Games on 24 August 2008. It began at 8: 00 pm China Standard Time (UTC + 8), and took place at the Beijing National Stadium.
The Ceremony included handover of the Games from Beijing to London. Guo Jinlong, the Mayor of Beijing handed over the Olympic flag to the Mayor of London Boris Johnson, followed by a performance organized by the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games (LOCOG). This presentation included performances by guitarist Jimmy Page, and recording artist Leona Lewis. Footballer David Beckham was also featured during London 's presentation.
Eighty - seven nations earned medals, 54 of which won gold medals, both setting new records for Olympic Games. 118 participating countries did not win a medal. Athletes from China won 48 gold medals, the most of any nation at these Olympics, becoming the first nation other than the United States and Russia (Soviet Union, Unified Team) to lead in medals since Germany at the 1936 Summer Olympics. The United States team won the most medals overall, with 111. Afghanistan, Mauritius, Sudan, Tajikistan and Togo won their first Olympic medals. Athletes from Mongolia (which previously held the record for most medals without a gold) and Panama won their nation 's first gold medals. An athlete from Serbia won its first medal under that name, having previously won medals as part of Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro.
American swimmer Michael Phelps received a total of eight gold medals, more than any other Olympian in a single Olympic games, setting numerous world and Olympic records in the process. Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt also set records in multiple events, completing the 100 m final with a time of 9.69 seconds, surpassing his own previous world record. Russian - born American gymnast Nastia Liukin won the all - around gold medal in artistic gymnastics, becoming the third American woman to do so, following Mary Lou Retton in 1984 and Carly Patterson in 2004.
These are the top ten nations that won medals in the 2008 Games.
Host nation
All but one of the 205 recognized National Olympic Committees (NOCs) that existed as of 2008 participated in the 2008 Summer Olympics, the exception being Brunei. Three countries participated in the Olympic Games for their first time: the Marshall Islands, Montenegro and Tuvalu.
While not a full member recognized by the IOC and thus not allowed to compete formally in the Olympics, the Macau Sports and Olympic Committee sent a delegation to participate in the Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008, being the only unrecognized National Olympic Committee to have taken part in the 2008 Summer Olympics. It also coordinated efforts with the Chinese Olympic Committee to organize the torch relay through Macau.
The Marshall Islands and Tuvalu gained National Olympic Committee status in 2006 and 2007 respectively, and 2008 was the first games in which they were eligible to participate. The states of Serbia and Montenegro, which participated at the 2004 Games jointly as Serbia and Montenegro, competed separately for the first time. The Montenegrin Olympic Committee was accepted as a new National Olympic Committee in 2007. Neighboring Kosovo, however, did not participate. After the declaration of independence in Kosovo, the IOC specified requirements that Kosovo needs to meet before being recognized by the IOC; most notably, it has to be recognized as independent by the United Nations. China and the United States had the largest teams, with 639 athletes for China and 596 for the United States.
More than 100 sovereigns, heads of state and heads of government as well as 170 Ministers of Sport attended the Beijing Olympic Games.
Athletes from the Republic of China (Taiwan) competed at the 2008 Games as Chinese Taipei (TPE) under the Chinese Taipei Olympic flag and used the National Banner Song as their official anthem. The participation of Taiwan was briefly in doubt because of disagreements over the name of their team in the Chinese language and concerns about Taiwan marching in the Opening Ceremony next to the special administrative region of Hong Kong. A compromise on the naming was reached, and Taiwan was referred to during the games as "Chinese Taipei, '' rather than "Taipei, China, '' as the mainland China government had proposed. In addition, the Central African Republic was placed between Chinese Taipei and the Special Administrative Regions during the march of nations.
Starting in 2005, North Korea and South Korea held meetings to discuss the possibility of sending a united team to the 2008 Olympics. The proposal failed, because of disagreements about how athletes would be chosen; North Korea was demanding a certain percentage representation for its athletes. A subsequent attempt to broker an agreement for the two nations to walk together during the March of Nations failed as well, despite their having done so during the 2000 and 2004 Games.
On 24 July 2008, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) banned Iraq from competing in the 2008 Olympic Summer Games because of "political interference by the government in sports. '' The IOC reversed its decision five days later and allowed the nation to compete after a pledge by Iraq to ensure "the independence of its national Olympics panel '' by instituting fair elections before the end of November. In the meantime, Iraq 's Olympic Organisation was run by "an interim committee proposed by its national sports federations and approved by the IOC. ''
Brunei Darussalam was due to take part in the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. However, they were disqualified on 8 August, having failed to register either of their two athletes. The IOC spokeswoman Emmanuelle Moreau said in a statement that "it is a great shame and very sad for the athletes who lose out because of the decision by their team not to register them. The IOC tried up until the last minute, midday Friday August 8, 2008, the day of the official opening, to have them register, but to no avail. '' Brunei 's Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports issued a press release stating that their decision not to participate was due to an injury to one of their athletes.
Georgia announced on 9 August 2008, that it was considering withdrawing from the Beijing Olympic Games because of the 2008 South Ossetia war, but it went on to compete while the conflict was still ongoing.
South African swimmer Natalie du Toit, whose left leg was amputated following a motor scooter accident, qualified to compete at the Beijing Olympics. The five time gold medalist at the Athens Paralympics in 2004 made history by becoming the first amputee to qualify for the Olympic Games since Olivér Halassy in 1936. She was able to compete in the Olympics rather than the Paralympics because she does not use a prosthetic leg while swimming. Polish athlete Natalia Partyka, who was born without a right forearm, competed in Table Tennis in both the 2008 Olympic Games and 2008 Paralympic Games.
A variety of concerns over the Games, or China 's hosting of the Games, had been expressed by various entities, including allegations that China violated its pledge to allow open media access, various alleged human rights violations, its continuous support of repressive regimes (such as Zimbabwe, Myanmar, Sudan and North Korea), air pollution in both the city of Beijing and in neighbouring areas, proposed boycotts, warnings of the possibility that the Beijing Olympics could be targeted by terrorist groups, disruption from pro-Tibetan protesters, and religious persecutions.
There were also reports that several members of China 's women 's gymnastics team, including double gold medal winner He Kexin, were too young to compete under the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique 's rules for Olympic eligibility, but all were exonerated after an official IOC investigation.
Collectively, the Beijing Olympics are associated with a variety of problematic topics: the ecological impact, residential displacement due to construction, treatment of migrant workers, the government 's political stance on Tibet, etc. In the lead - up to the Olympics, the government allegedly issued guidelines to the local media for their reporting during the Games: most political issues not directly related to the games were to be downplayed; topics such as pro-Tibetan independence and East Turkestan movements were not to be reported on, as were food safety issues such as "cancer - causing mineral water. '' As the 2008 Chinese milk scandal broke in September 2008, there was widespread speculation that China 's desire for a perfect Games may have been a factor contributing towards the delayed recall of contaminated infant formula.
The 2008 Olympic Games have been generally accepted by the world 's media as a logistical success. Many of the worst fears about the games failed to materialize: no terrorists struck Beijing; no athlete protested at the podium (though Swedish wrestler Ara Abrahamian tossed his bronze medal in disgust over judging), and the air quality -- due largely to favorable weather patterns -- was not as bad as many had feared beforehand despite being the worst in Olympics history. Hopes that hosting the Games would lead to improvements in human rights protections and rule of law in China, however, went unfulfilled.
Many in China viewed the Olympics as "an affirmation of a single nationalistic dream '' and saw protests during the international torch relay as an insult to China. The Games also bolstered domestic support for the Chinese government, and for the policies of the Communist Party, giving rise to concerns that the Olympics would give the state more leverage to suppress political dissent, at least temporarily. Efforts to quell any unrest before and during the Games also contributed to a rapid expansion in the size and political clout of China 's internal security forces, and this growth continued through the following years. Reports also indicated that the Olympics boosted the political careers of pro-Beijing politicians in Hong Kong, as many Chinese gold medal winners campaigned on behalf of the pro-Beijing DAB during the 2008 election, although any trend towards greater identification by Hong Kongers with Mainland China appears to have been short - lived.
The long - term economic impact of the games on China and Beijing in particular is not yet clear. Some sectors of the economy may have benefited from the influx of tourists, and other sectors such as manufacturing lost revenue because of plant closings related to the government 's efforts to improve air quality. Four years after the Games, many of the specially constructed facilities were underused or even deserted. It is generally expected by economists that there will be no lasting effects on Beijing 's economy from the games.
Seven years after the 2008 Games, Beijing was awarded the 2022 Winter Olympics. It will thus be the first city to host both the Summer and Winter Games.
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in which of the following ways are the bulge and halo of the milky way most similar | Milky Way - wikipedia
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk - shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and 180,000 light - years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light - years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral - shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars in the inner ≈ 10,000 light - years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A *, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter ''. The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The "Milky Way '' can be seen as a hazy band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Although all the individual naked - eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way, the light in this band originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where light from distant stars is blocked by interstellar dust. The area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance.
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen. It should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6.1. This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from any brightly lit urban or suburban location, but very prominent when viewed from a rural area when the Moon is below the horizon. The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness shows that more than one - third of Earth 's population can not see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.
As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way 's Galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations. The center of the Galaxy lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius; it is here that the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the Galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius. The band divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.
The Galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth 's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth 's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the Galactic plane. The north Galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12 49, declination + 27.4 ° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south Galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the arc of the Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from approximately 65 degrees north to 65 degrees south on Earth 's surface, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.
The Milky Way is the second - largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100,000 ly (30 kpc) in diameter, and, on average, approximately 1,000 ly (0.3 kpc) thick. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States. A ring - like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of 150,000 -- 180,000 light - years (46 -- 55 kpc).
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. At the low end of the estimate range, the mass of the Milky Way is 5.8 × 10 solar masses (M), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy. Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way. Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 10 M within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center. In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kilo parsecs is 7 × 10 M. According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 M, which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Much of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1 -- 1.5 × 10 M. Recent studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5 × 10 M and as small as 8 × 10 M.
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6 × 10 M and 6.43 × 10 M. In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass, with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one - third as molecular hydrogen. The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas.
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets. The exact figure depends on the number of very - low - mass stars, which are hard to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (10) stars. Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars, whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas.
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 ly (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius. Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc). At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20.9.
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way, and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars. The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100 -- 400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five - planet star system Kepler - 32 with the Kepler space observatory. A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth - sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun - like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun - like stars. The nearest such planet may be 4.2 light - years away, according to a 2016 study. Such Earth - sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets '', comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.
360 - degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO. The galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up.
The Milky Way consists of a bar - shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas, dust and stars. The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms. Astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1990s. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought.
A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.
Quadrants are described using ordinals -- for example, "1st galactic quadrant '', "second galactic quadrant '', or "third quadrant of the Milky Way ''. Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees (°) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are as follows:
The Sun is 25,000 -- 28,000 ly (7.7 -- 8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric - based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range. In the inner few kpc (around 10,000 light - years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge. It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar.
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1 -- 4.5 million times the mass of the Sun. The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at around 6995100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 M y. Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies.
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half - length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000 -- 16,000 ly) and 10 -- 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. However, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 - kpc ring '' that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way 's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way. X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge.
In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light - years (7.7 kpc); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night - sky of the southern hemisphere. Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.
Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record - breaker, from Sagittarius A *. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A *.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity. The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 °. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Two spiral arms, the Scutum -- Centaurus arm and the Carina -- Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near - infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum -- Centaurus arm but not in the Carina -- Sagittarius arm: the Scutum - Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm. This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum -- Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars. In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star - forming regions matches the four - arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.
The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 - centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen). It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Harvard - Smithsonian CfA). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring, and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90 % lie within 100,000 light - years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center. However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light - years from the Galactic Center. About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation. The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars. Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum - Centaurus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light - years (9 kpc) away.
In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM - Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years, much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself. The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million F).
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one - sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way. If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of 26.4 ± 1.0 kly (8.09 ± 0.31 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is currently 5 -- 30 parsecs (16 -- 98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly). The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light - years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light - years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.
The apex of the Sun 's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth. However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 -- 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s (490,000 mph) or 0.073 % of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km / h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 and 240 km / s (470,000 and 540,000 mph). Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two - body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that can not be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter. The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies. Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.
Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo. The Milky Way is currently accreting material from two of its nearest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high - velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud. However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.
According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star - formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long - lived radioactive elements such as thorium - 232 and uranium - 238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 - 001 and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248. Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80 - billion - year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523 - 0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R - process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology. Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk. Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.
The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed, but seemed to be the result of a break - up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light years in diameter and 50,000 light years wide. Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at right angles to the main disc.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north '', the Sculptor Void to the "left '', the Bootes Void to the "right '' and the Canes - Major Void to the South. These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor, which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14,000 light - years. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light - years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015. There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri.
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km / s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda -- Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.
Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred '' inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km / s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference. The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley supercluster, behind it. The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph) with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, − 24 ° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue - shifted in the direction of the motion and red - shifted in the opposite direction.
In Babylonia, the Milky Way was said to be the tail of Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk after he had slain the salt water goddess. It is believed this account, from the Enuma Elish had Marduk replace an earlier Sumerian story when Enlil of Nippur had slain the goddess.
Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn '') is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn 's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion '') is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod '') being the constellation of Corona Borealis.
In western culture the name "Milky Way '' is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky '' glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) -- from root γαλακτ -, γάλα ("milk '') + - ίας (forming adjectives) -- is also the root of "galaxy '', the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars. In Greek mythology it was supposedly made from the forceful suckling of Heracles, when Hera acted as a wetnurse for the hero.
The Milky Way, or "milk circle '', was just one of 11 "circles '' the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles, and two colure circles passing through both poles.
In Meteorologica (DK 59 A80), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) and Democritus (460 -- 370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. However, Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together '' and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions. '' The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495 -- 570 A.D.) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 -- 1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars ''. The Andalusian astronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence. Ibn Qayyim Al - Jawziyya (1292 -- 1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars '' and that these stars are larger than planets.
According to Jamil Ragep, the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al - Dīn al - Ṭūsī (1201 -- 1274) in his Tadhkira writes: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color. ''
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies '' themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae '' as "island universes '', a term still current up to the 1930s.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral - shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture.
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light - gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.
The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2022.
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where did the green iguana originally come from | Green iguana - wikipedia
The green iguana (Iguana iguana), also known as the American iguana, is a large, arboreal, mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana. It is native to Central, South America, and the Caribbean. Usually, this animal is simply called the iguana. The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area, from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico and the Caribbean islands. They have been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and are very common throughout the island, where they are colloquially known as gallina de palo and considered an invasive species; in the United States feral populations also exist in South Florida (including the Florida Keys), Hawaii, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
A herbivore, it has adapted significantly with regard to locomotion and osmoregulation as a result of its diet. It grows to 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) in length from head to tail, although a few specimens have grown more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) with bodyweights upward of 20 pounds (9.1 kg).
Commonly found in captivity as a pet due to its calm disposition and bright colors, it can be very demanding to care for properly. Space requirements and the need for special lighting and heat can prove challenging to an amateur hobbyist.
The species was first officially described by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. In the two centuries since then, numerous subspecies have been identified, but later classified as merely regional variants of the same species.
Using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA - sequence data to explore the phylogenic history of the green iguana, scientists from Utah Valley State College studied animals collected from 17 different countries. The topology of phylogeny indicated that the species originated in South America and eventually radiated through Central America and the Caribbean. The study revealed no unique mitochondrial DNA haplotypes for subspecific status but did indicate the deep lineage divergence between Central and South American populations.
The word iguana is derived from a Spanish form of the Taíno name for the species: iwana. In some Spanish speaking countries, males of the species are referred to as gorrobo or ministro and juveniles are called iguanita or gorrobito.
The native range of the green iguana extends from southern Mexico to central Brazil, Dominican Republic, Paraguay, and Bolivia and the Caribbean; specifically Grenada, Aruba, Curaçao, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Útila. They have been introduced to Grand Cayman, Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, and the United States Virgin Islands; and colonised the island of Anguilla in 1995 after being washed ashore following a hurricane. Though the species is not native to Martinique, a small wild colony of released or escaped green iguanas endures at historic Fort Saint Louis.
Green iguanas are diurnal, arboreal, and are often found near water. Agile climbers, Iguana iguana can fall up to 50 feet (15 m) and land unhurt (iguanas use their hind leg claws to clasp leaves and branches to break a fall). During cold, wet weather, green iguanas prefer to stay on the ground for greater warmth. When swimming, an iguana remains submerged, letting its four legs hang limply against its side. They propel through the water with powerful tail strokes.
In South and Central America, where the green iguana is native, it is an endangered species in some countries because people have been hunting and eating this "chicken of the trees '' for a long time.
Despite their name, green iguanas can come in different colors. In southern countries of their range, such as Peru, green iguanas appear bluish in color with bold blue markings. On islands such as Bonaire, Curaçao, Aruba, and Grenada, a green iguana 's color may range from green to lavender, black, and even pink. Green iguanas from the western region of Costa Rica are red, and animals of the northern ranges, such as Mexico, appear orange. Juvenile green iguanas from El Salvador are often bright blue as babies, but they lose this color as they get older.
Adult iguanas found on most of St. Lucia, mainly on the northeast coast, Louvette and Grand Anse, have many differences from other green iguana populations. They are light green with predominant black stripes. Instead of the typical orange dewlap, the iguanas of St. Lucia have a black dewlap. When compared to the common green iguana, females lay about half the amount of eggs, 25 instead of 50. Scales to the back of their head, near the jawbone, are smaller. Their iris is white or cream. Other green iguanas have yellow eyes.
Green iguanas possess a row of spines along their backs and along their tails, which helps to protect them from predators. Their whip - like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes and like many other lizards, when grabbed by the tail, the iguana can allow it to break, so it can escape and eventually regenerate a new one. In addition, iguanas have a well - developed dewlap, which helps regulate their body temperature. This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays.
Green iguanas have excellent vision, enabling them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. As green iguanas have only a few rod cells, they have poor vision in low - light conditions. At the same time, they have cells called "double cone cells '' that give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. This ability is highly useful when basking so the animal can ensure that it absorbs enough sunlight in the forms of UVA and UVB to produce vitamin D.
Green iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye (also called third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland), in contrast to most other lizards that have lost this primitive feature. This "eye '' has only a rudimentary retina and lens and can not form images, but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. This helps the iguana detect predators stalking it from above.
Green iguanas have very sharp teeth that are capable of shredding leaves and even human skin. These teeth are shaped like a leaf, broad and flat, with serrations on the edge. The similarity of these teeth to those of one of the first dinosaurs discovered led to the dinosaur being named Iguanodon, meaning "iguana - tooth '', and the incorrect assumption that it had resembled a gigantic iguana. The teeth are situated on the inner sides of the jawbones, which is why they are hard to see in smaller specimens.
Primarily herbivorous, green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram, more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs. As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids, like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland. As a result, green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride.
Green iguanas from Guatemala and southern Mexico predominantly have small horns on their snouts between their eyes and their nostrils, whereas others do not. Naturalists once classified these iguanas as a separate subspecies (Iguana iguana rhinolopha); however, this classification has been found to be invalid based on mitochondrial DNA and iguanas with similar nose projections appear randomly in other populations and interbreed freely with those that do not share this trait.
The green iguana is a large lizard and is probably the largest species in the iguana family, though a few in the genus Cyclura may match or exceed it in weight. Adults typically grow to 1.2 to 1.7 m (3.9 to 5.6 ft) in length from head to tail. As in all iguanas, the tail comprises much of this length, and the snout - to - vent length of most green iguanas is 30 to 42 cm (12 to 17 in). An average adult male will weigh around 4 kg (8.8 lb) while the smaller adult female will typically weigh 1.2 to 3 kg (2.6 to 6.6 lb). A few large males can reach or exceed 6 to 8 kg (13 to 18 lb) in weight and 2 m (6.6 ft) long. Some specimens have even reportedly been measured at a body weight of greater than 20 lb (9.1 kg).
Male green iguanas have highly developed femoral pores on the underside of their thighs which secrete a scent (females have femoral pores, but they are smaller in comparison to those of the males). In addition, the dorsal spines that run along a green iguana 's back are noticeably longer and thicker in males than they are in females, making the animals somewhat sexually dimorphic.
Male green iguanas tend to display more dominant behaviors, such as head bobbing and tail whipping. They also tend to develop a taller dorsal crest than females, as well as taller dorsal spines (or spikes). Large, round, very pronounced jowls are generally a male characteristic. Jowls are located under the jaw and are protected by the subtympanic plate, which is a large, green, circular - shaped scale.
Green iguanas are oviparous with females laying clutches of 20 to 71 eggs once per year during a synchronized nesting period. The female green iguana gives no parental protection after egg laying, apart from defending the nesting burrow during excavation. In Panama, the green iguana has been observed sharing nest sites with American crocodiles and in Honduras with spectacled caimans.
The hatchlings emerge from the nest after 10 -- 15 weeks of incubation. Once hatched, the young iguanas look similar to the adults in color and shape, resembling adult females more so than males and lacking dorsal spines.
Juveniles stay in familial groups for the first year of their lives. Male green iguanas in these groups often use their own bodies to shield and protect females from predators and it appears to be the only species of reptile which does this.
When frightened by a predator, green iguanas will attempt to flee, and if near a body of water, they dive into it and swim away. If cornered by a threat, the green iguana will extend and display the dewlap under its neck, stiffen and puff up its body, hiss, and bob its head at the aggressor. If threat persists the iguana can lash with its tail, bite and use its claws in defense. The wounded are more inclined to fight than uninjured prey.
Green iguanas use "head bobs '' and dewlaps in a variety of ways in social interactions, such as greeting another iguana or to court a possible mate. The frequency and number of head bobs have particular meanings to other iguanas.
Green iguanas are hunted by predatory birds and their fear of these is exploited as a ploy to catch them in the wild. The sound of a hawk 's whistle or scream makes the iguana freeze and it becomes easier to capture.
Green Iguanas are primarily herbivores, with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip greens, mustard greens, dandelion greens, flowers, fruit, and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant. In Panama one of the green iguana 's favorite foods is wild plum, Spondias mombin.
Although they will consume a wide variety of foods if offered, green iguanas are naturally herbivorous and require a precise ratio of minerals (2 to 1 calcium to phosphorus) in their diet. It is important for captive iguanas to have a variety of leafy greens along with fruits and vegetables such as turnip greens, collards, butternut squash, acorn squash, mango, and parsnip. Juvenile iguanas often eat feces from adults in order to acquire the essential microflora to digest their low - quality and hard - to - process vegetarian - only diet.
There is some debate as to whether captive green iguanas should be fed animal protein. There is evidence of wild iguanas eating grasshoppers and tree snails, usually as a byproduct of eating plant material. Wild adult green iguanas have been observed eating birds ' eggs. Zoologists, such as Adam Britton, believe that such a diet containing protein is unhealthy for the animal 's digestive system resulting in severe long - term health damage including kidney failure and leading to premature death. On the other side of the argument is that green iguanas at the Miami Seaquarium in Key Biscayne, Florida, have been observed eating dead fish and individuals kept in captivity have been known to eat mice without any ill effects. De Vosjoli writes that captive animals have been known to survive and thrive on eating nothing but whole rodent block, or monkey chow, and one instance of romaine lettuce with vitamin and calcium supplements. However, it is only recommended that captive iguanas not be fed lettuce or meat, and instead receive the vitamins and minerals they need via a purely herbivore diet.
The American pet trade has put a great demand on the green iguana; 800,000 iguanas were imported into the U.S. in 1995 alone, primarily originating from captive farming operations based in their native countries (Honduras, El Salvador, Colombia, and Panama). However, these animals are demanding to care for properly over their lifetime, and many die within a few years of acquisition.
Although green iguanas in captivity will eat meat if presented with it, excessive consumption of animal protein results in severe kidney problems and possible premature death. Misinformed pet owners tend to feed iguanas iceberg lettuce, which provides iguanas with water but has no other nutritional value. A captive green iguana 's diet should consist of fresh leafy vegetables such as mustard greens, collard greens, dandelion, arugula, or kale and access to fresh water.
Green iguanas will thrive only in temperatures of 79 ° F (26 ° C) to 95 ° F (35 ° C) and must have appropriate sources of UVB and UVA lighting, or else their bodies can not produce vitamin D that promotes calcium absorption, which can result in a metabolic bone disease that can be fatal. In some locales (New York City and Hawaii), iguanas are considered exotic pets, and are prohibited from ownership. Due to the potential impact of an introduced species on Hawaii 's ecosystem, the state has strict regulations regarding the import and possession of green iguanas; violators can spend three years in jail and be fined up to $200,000.
In the aftermath of Hurricane Luis and Hurricane Marilyn in 1995, a raft of uprooted trees carrying fifteen or more green iguanas landed on the east side of Anguilla -- an island where green iguanas had never been recorded before. These iguanas were apparently accidentally caught on the trees and rafted two hundred miles across the ocean from Guadeloupe, where green iguanas are indigenous. Examination of the weather patterns and ocean currents indicated that the iguanas had probably spent three weeks at sea before arriving on Anguilla. This colony began breeding on the new island within two years of its arrival.
In February 2012, the government of Puerto Rico proposed that the islands ' iguanas, which were said to have a population of four million and considered to be a non-native nuisance, be eradicated and sold for meat.
The green iguana is present as an invasive species on some of the islands of Fiji, where it is known as the American iguana. They pose a threat to the native iguanas through the potential spread of disease and to humans by spreading salmonella. They were initially brought to Qamea in 2000 by an American who wanted them to eat the numerous insects on the island, although they are primarily vegetarian. They are now on the islands of Laucala, Matagi and Taveuni.
The green iguana is established on Oahu and Maui, Hawaii, as a feral species (despite strict legislation banning the importation of any reptiles) and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. As most reptiles carry salmonella, this is a concern and a reason legislation has been sought to regulate the trade in green iguanas.
Due to a combination of events, the green iguana is considered an invasive species in South Florida and is found along the east coast as well as the Gulf Coast of Florida from Key West to Pinellas County. The original small populations in the Florida Keys were stowaways on ships carrying fruit from South America. Over the years, other iguanas were introduced into the wild, mostly originating through the pet trade. Some escaped and some were intentionally released by their owners; these iguanas survived and then thrived in their new habitat. They commonly hide in the attics of houses and on beaches. They often destroy gardens and landscaping. They seem to be fond of eating a native endangered plant, Cordia globosa and feeding on nickernut (Caesalpinia) a primary food plant of the endangered Miami blue butterfly (Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri); additionally on Marco Island, green iguanas have been observed using the burrows of the Florida burrowing owl, a species of special concern, all of which can make them more of a serious threat to Florida 's ecosystem than originally believed.
In January 2008, large numbers of iguanas established in Florida dropped from the trees in which they lived, due to uncommonly cold nights that put them in a state of torpor and caused them to lose their grip on the tree branches. Though no specific numbers were provided by local wildlife officials, local media described the phenomenon as a "frozen iguana shower '' in which dozens "littered '' local bike paths. Upon the return of daytime warmth many (but not all) of the iguanas "woke up '' and resumed their normal activities. This occurred again in January 2010 and January 2018 after a prolonged cold front once again hit southern Florida.
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted green iguanas in their art. The green iguana and its relative the black iguana (Ctenosaura similis) have been used as a food source in Central and South America for the past 7,000 years. It is possible that some of the populations in the Caribbean were translocated there from the mainland by various tribes as a food source. In Central and South America, green iguanas are still used as a source of meat and are often referred to as gallina de palo, "bamboo chicken '' or "chicken of the trees, '' because they are said to taste like chicken.
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don henley you'll never make love in this town again | You 'll Never Make Love in This Town Again - wikipedia
You 'll Never Make Love In This Town Again is a book published in January 1996 which describes the stories of three prostitutes and one actress about their sexual encounters with various Hollywood celebrities. The sisters Robin Greer and Liza Greer are contributors along with Linda Hammond and Alexandra D. Datig, identified in the book as "Tiffany ''. The book generated extensive notoriety and sales, and was also the subject of a low - budget documentary.
The book was the subject of several reported lawsuits. On 1 March 1996 the woman referred to as "Tiffany '' sued the publisher Dove Books, and its executive, Michael Viner. The action was dismissed by the Superior Court on October 23, 1996, but on July 15, 1999, it was reinstated and remanded for further proceedings by the California Court of Appeal (Second District). In its published opinion, the court noted that "it appears that defense counsel violated several state wide rules of court and local rules, and that these violations resulted in unnecessary litigation and cost to plaintiff and her attorney in time and money, '' and instructed the Superior Court to consider sanctions against defendants and their attorneys. Linda Hammond sued Viner for sexual harassment. The suit was dropped.
In another case, Viner sued Hollywood madam Heidi Fleiss for slander, based on statements Fleiss made on a radio talk show about Viner and authors of the book. In 2000 a jury ruled in Fleiss 's favor. In another case, one of the authors claimed that she had been forced unfairly to agree to reduced royalties under her contract with the publisher, and she won a jury verdict in her favor.
There were two sequels Once More With Feeling: You 'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again was published in 1996. It told the stories of prostitute Michelle (who appears on the cover), prostitute Lisa, and graphic artist Sophie, among others.
Hooking Up: You 'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again, appeared in 2006. It told the tales of prostitute Olivia, porn publicist Carly Milne, and prostitute Amanda.
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what is the name of the president of united kingdom | Prime Minister of the United Kingdom - Wikipedia
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majesty 's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister (sometimes informally abbreviated to PM) and Cabinet (consisting of all the most senior ministers, most of whom are government department heads) are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party and ultimately to the electorate. The office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current holder of the office, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016.
The office is not established by any statute or constitutional document but exists only by long - established convention, which stipulates that the monarch must appoint as Prime Minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The position of Prime Minister was not created; it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to numerous acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective. The origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement (1688 -- 1720) and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. Although the Sovereign was not stripped of the ancient prerogative powers and legally remained the head of government, politically it gradually became necessary for him or her to govern through a Prime Minister who could command a majority in Parliament.
By the 1830s the Westminster system of government (or cabinet government) had emerged; the Prime Minister had become primus inter pares or the first among equals in the Cabinet and the head of government in the United Kingdom. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of modern political parties, the introduction of mass communication (inexpensive newspapers, radio, television and the internet), and photography. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged; the office had become the pre-eminent position in the constitutional hierarchy vis - à - vis the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet.
Prior to 1902, the Prime Minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister 's authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law - making process.
The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. Certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury.
The Prime Minister is the head of Her Majesty 's Government in the United Kingdom. As the "Head of Her Majesty 's Government '' the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower house of the legislature). As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers. Under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the law - making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity the Prime Minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other cabinet members and ministers, and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The Prime Minister also acts as the public "face '' and "voice '' of Her Majesty 's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments; the conferral of peerages and some knighthoods, decorations and other honours.
The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, meaning that it is not set out in any single document. The British constitution consists of many documents and, most importantly for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice. In 1928, Prime Minister H.H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs:
In this country we live... under an unwritten Constitution. It is true that we have on the Statute - book great instruments like Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King, Lords and Commons. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect.
The relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Minister 's executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still formally vested in the Sovereign, who remains the head of state. Despite its growing dominance in the constitutional hierarchy, the Premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century; the legal fiction was maintained that the Sovereign still governed directly. The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917, in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act. Increasingly during the 20th century, the office and role of Prime Minister featured in statute law and official documents; however, the Prime Minister 's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions. Prime Ministers continue to hold the position of First Lord of the Treasury and, since November 1968, that of Minister for the Civil Service, the latter giving them authority over the civil service.
Under this arrangement, Britain might appear to have two executives: the Prime Minister and the Sovereign. The concept of "the Crown '' resolves this paradox. The Crown symbolises the state 's authority to govern: to make laws and execute them, impose taxes and collect them, declare war and make peace. Before the "Glorious Revolution '' of 1688, the Sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown; afterwards, Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position. Parliament has effectively dispersed the powers of the Crown, entrusting its authority to responsible ministers (the Prime Minister and Cabinet), accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament, in particular the elected House of Commons.
Although many of the Sovereign 's prerogative powers are still legally intact, constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day - to - day governance, with ministers exercising the royal prerogatives, leaving the monarch in practice with three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn.
Because the Premiership was not intentionally created, there is no exact date when its evolution began. A meaningful starting point, however, is 1688 -- 9 when James II fled England and the Parliament of England confirmed William and Mary as joint constitutional monarchs, enacting legislation that limited their authority and that of their successors: the Bill of Rights (1689), the Mutiny Bill (1689), the Triennial Bill (1694), the Treason Act (1696) and the Act of Settlement (1701). Known collectively as the Revolutionary Settlement, these acts transformed the constitution, shifting the balance of power from the Sovereign to Parliament. They also provided the basis for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, which did not exist at that time.
The Revolutionary Settlement gave the Commons control over finances and legislation and changed the relationship between the Executive and the Legislature. For want of money, Sovereigns had to summon Parliament annually and could no longer dissolve or prorogue it without its advice and consent. Parliament became a permanent feature of political life. The veto fell into disuse because Sovereigns feared that if they denied legislation, Parliament would deny them money. No Sovereign has denied royal assent since Queen Anne vetoed the Scottish Militia Bill in 1708.
Treasury officials and other department heads were drawn into Parliament serving as liaisons between it and the Sovereign. Ministers had to present the government 's policies, and negotiate with Members to gain the support of the majority; they had to explain the government 's financial needs, suggest ways of meeting them and give an account of how money had been spent. The Sovereign 's representatives attended Commons sessions so regularly that they were given reserved seats at the front, known as the Treasury Bench. This is the beginning of "unity of powers '': the Sovereign 's Ministers (the Executive) became leading members of Parliament (the Legislature). Today the Prime Minister (First Lord of the Treasury), the Chancellor of the Exchequer (responsible for The Budget) and other senior members of the Cabinet sit on the Treasury bench and present policies in much the same way Ministers did late in the 17th century.
After the Revolution, there was a constant threat that non-government members of Parliament would ruin the country 's finances by proposing ill - considered money bills. Vying for control to avoid chaos, the Crown 's Ministers gained an advantage in 1706, when the Commons informally declared, "That this House will receive no petition for any sum of money relating to public Service, but what is recommended from the Crown. '' On 11 June 1713, this non-binding rule became Standing Order 66: that "the Commons would not vote money for any purpose, except on a motion of a Minister of the Crown. '' Standing Order 66 remains in effect today (though renumbered as no. 48), essentially unchanged for three hundred years.
Empowering Ministers with sole financial initiative had an immediate and lasting impact. Apart from achieving its intended purpose -- to stabilise the budgetary process -- it gave the Crown a leadership role in the Commons; and, the Lord Treasurer assumed a leading position among Ministers.
The power of financial initiative was not, however, absolute. Only Ministers might initiate money bills, but Parliament now reviewed and consented to them. Standing Order 66 therefore represents the beginnings of Ministerial responsibility and accountability.
The term "Prime Minister '' appears at this time as an unofficial title for the leader of the government, usually the head of the Treasury. Jonathan Swift, for example, wrote in 1713 about "those who are now commonly called Prime Minister among us '', referring to Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, Queen Anne 's Lord Treasurers and chief ministers. Since 1721, every head of the Sovereign 's government -- with one exception in the 18th century (William Pitt the Elder) and one in the 19th (Lord Salisbury) -- has been First Lord of the Treasury.
Political parties first appeared during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678 -- 1681. The Whigs, who believed in limited monarchy, wanted to exclude James Stuart from succeeding to the throne because he was a Catholic. The Tories, who believed in the "Divine Right of Kings '', defended James ' hereditary claim.
Political parties were not well organised or disciplined in the 17th century. They were more like factions with "members '' drifting in and out, collaborating temporarily on issues when it was to their advantage, then disbanding when it was not. A major deterrent to the development of opposing parties was the idea that there could only be one "King 's Party '' and to oppose it would be disloyal or even treasonous. This idea lingered throughout the 18th century. Nevertheless it became possible at the end of the 17th century to identify Parliaments and Ministries as being either "Whig '' or "Tory '' in composition.
The modern Prime Minister is also the leader of the Cabinet. A convention of the constitution, the modern Cabinet is a group of ministers who formulate policies. As the political heads of government departments Cabinet Ministers ensure that policies are carried out by permanent civil servants. Although the modern Prime Minister selects Ministers, appointment still rests with the Sovereign. With the Prime Minister as its leader, the Cabinet forms the executive branch of government.
The term "Cabinet '' first appears after the Revolutionary Settlement to describe those ministers who conferred privately with the Sovereign. The growth of the Cabinet met with widespread complaint and opposition because its meetings were often held in secret and it excluded the ancient Privy Council (of which the Cabinet is formally a committee) from the Sovereign 's circle of advisers, reducing it to an honorary body. The early Cabinet, like that of today, included the Treasurer and other department heads who sat on the Treasury bench. However, it might also include individuals who were not members of Parliament such as household officers (e.g. the Master of the Horse) and members of the royal family. The exclusion of non-members of Parliament from the Cabinet was essential to the development of ministerial accountability and responsibility.
Both William and Anne appointed and dismissed Cabinet members, attended meetings, made decisions, and followed up on actions. Relieving the Sovereign of these responsibilities and gaining control over the Cabinet 's composition was an essential part of evolution of the Premiership. This process began after the Hanoverian Succession. Although George I (1714 -- 1727) attended Cabinet meetings at first, after 1717 he withdrew because he did not speak fluent English and was bored with the discussions. George II (1727 -- 1760) occasionally presided at Cabinet meetings but his grandson, George III (1760 -- 1820), is known to have attended only two during his 60 - year reign. Thus, the convention that Sovereigns do not attend Cabinet meetings was established primarily through royal indifference to the everyday tasks of governance. The Prime Minister became responsible for calling meetings, presiding, taking notes, and reporting to the Sovereign. These simple executive tasks naturally gave the Prime Minister ascendancy over his Cabinet colleagues.
Although the first three Hanoverians rarely attended Cabinet meetings they insisted on their prerogatives to appoint and dismiss ministers and to direct policy even if from outside the Cabinet. It was not until late in the 18th century that Prime Ministers gained control over Cabinet composition (see section Emergence of Cabinet Government below).
British governments (or Ministries) are generally formed by one party. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are usually all members of the same political party, almost always the one that has a majority of seats in the House of Commons. Coalition governments (a ministry that consists of representatives from two or more parties) and minority governments (a one - party ministry formed by a party that does not command a majority in the Commons) are relatively rare. "One party government '', as this system is sometimes called, has been the general rule for almost three hundred years.
Early in his reign, William III (1689 -- 1702) preferred "Mixed Ministries '' (or coalitions) consisting of both Tories and Whigs. William thought this composition would dilute the power of any one party and also give him the benefit of differing points of view. However, this approach did not work well because the members could not agree on a leader or on policies, and often worked at odds with each other.
In 1697, William formed a homogeneous Whig ministry. Known as the Junto, this government is often cited as the first true Cabinet because its members were all Whigs, reflecting the majority composition of the Commons.
Anne (1702 -- 1714) followed this pattern but preferred Tory Cabinets. This approach worked well as long as Parliament was also predominantly Tory. However, in 1708, when the Whigs obtained a majority, Anne did not call on them to form a government, refusing to accept the idea that politicians could force themselves on her merely because their party had a majority. She never parted with an entire Ministry or accepted an entirely new one regardless of the results of an election. Anne preferred to retain a minority government rather than be dictated to by Parliament. Consequently, her chief ministers Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, who were called "Prime Minister '' by some, had difficulty executing policy in the face of a hostile Parliament.
William 's and Anne 's experiments with the political composition of the Cabinet illustrated the strengths of one party government and the weaknesses of coalition and minority governments. Nevertheless, it was not until the 1830s that the constitutional convention was established that the Sovereign must select the Prime Minister (and Cabinet) from the party whose views reflect those of the majority in Parliament. Since then, most ministries have reflected this one party rule.
Despite the "one party '' convention, Prime Ministers may still be called upon to lead either minority or coalition governments. A minority government may be formed as a result of a "hung parliament '' in which no single party commands a majority in the House of Commons after a general election or the death, resignation or defection of existing members. By convention the serving Prime Minister is given the first opportunity to reach agreements that will allow them to survive a vote of confidence in the House and continue to govern. The last minority government was led by Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson for eight months after the February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament. In the October 1974 general election, the Labour Party gained 18 seats, giving Wilson a majority of three.
A hung parliament may also lead to the formation of a coalition government in which two or more parties negotiate a joint programme to command a majority in the Commons. Coalitions have also been formed during times of national crisis such as war. Under such circumstances, the parties agree to temporarily set aside their political differences and to unite to face the national crisis. Coalitions are rare: since 1721, there have been fewer than a dozen.
When the general election of 2010 produced a hung parliament, the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties agreed to form the Cameron -- Clegg coalition, the first coalition in seventy years. The previous coalition in the UK before 2010 was led by Conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill during most of the Second World War, from May 1940 to May 1945. Clement Attlee, the leader of the Labour Party, served as deputy Prime Minister. After the general election of 2015, the nation returned to one party government after the Tories won an outright majority.
The Premiership is still largely a convention of the constitution; its legal authority is derived primarily from the fact that the Prime Minister is also First Lord of the Treasury. The connection of these two offices -- one a convention, the other a legal office -- began with the Hanoverian Succession in 1714.
When George I succeeded to the British throne in 1714, his German ministers advised him to leave the office of Lord High Treasurer vacant because those who had held it in recent years had grown overly powerful, in effect, replacing the Sovereign as head of the government. They also feared that a Lord High Treasurer would undermine their own influence with the new King. They therefore suggested that he place the office in "commission '', meaning that a committee of five ministers would perform its functions together. Theoretically, this dilution of authority would prevent any one of them from presuming to be the head of the government. The King agreed and created the Treasury Commission consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury, the Second Lord, and three Junior Lords.
No one has been appointed Lord High Treasurer since 1714; it has remained in commission for three hundred years. The Treasury Commission ceased to meet late in the 18th century but has survived, albeit with very different functions: the First Lord of the Treasury is now the Prime Minister, the Second Lord is the Chancellor of the Exchequer (and actually in charge of the Treasury), and the Junior Lords are government Whips maintaining party discipline in the House of Commons; they no longer have any duties related to the Treasury, though when subordinate legislation requires the consent of the Treasury it is still two of the Junior Lords who sign on its behalf.
Since the office evolved rather than being instantly created, it may not be totally clear - cut who was the first Prime Minister. However, this appellation is traditionally given to Sir Robert Walpole, who became First Lord of the Treasury in 1721.
In 1720, the South Sea Company, created to trade in cotton, agricultural goods and slaves, collapsed, causing the financial ruin of thousands of investors and heavy losses for many others, including members of the royal family. King George I called on Robert Walpole, well known for his political and financial acumen, to handle the emergency. With considerable skill and some luck, Walpole acted quickly to restore public credit and confidence, and led the country out of the crisis. A year later, the King appointed him First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Leader of the House of Commons -- making him the most powerful minister in the government. Ruthless, crude, and hard - working, he had a "sagacious business sense '' and was a superb manager of men. At the head of affairs for the next two decades, Walpole stabilised the nation 's finances, kept it at peace, made it prosperous, and secured the Hanoverian Succession.
Walpole demonstrated for the first time how a chief minister -- a Prime Minister -- could be the actual Head of the Government under the new constitutional framework. First, recognising that the Sovereign could no longer govern directly but was still the nominal head of the government, he insisted that he was nothing more than the "King 's Servant ''. Second, recognising that power had shifted to the Commons, he conducted the nation 's business there and made it dominant over the Lords in all matters. Third, recognising that the Cabinet had become the executive and must be united, he dominated the other members and demanded their complete support for his policies. Fourth, recognising that political parties were the source of ministerial strength, he led the Whig party and maintained discipline. In the Commons, he insisted on the support of all Whig members, especially those who held office. Finally, he set an example for future Prime Ministers by resigning his offices in 1742 after a vote of confidence, which he won by just 3 votes. The slimness of this majority undermined his power, even though he still retained the confidence of the Sovereign.
For all his contributions, Walpole was not a Prime Minister in the modern sense. The King -- not Parliament -- chose him; and the King -- not Walpole -- chose the Cabinet. Walpole set an example, not a precedent, and few followed his example. For over 40 years after Walpole 's fall in 1742, there was widespread ambivalence about the position. In some cases, the Prime Minister was a figurehead with power being wielded by other individuals; in others there was a reversion to the "chief minister '' model of earlier times in which the Sovereign actually governed. At other times, there appeared to be two Prime Ministers. During Britain 's participation in the Seven Years ' War, for example, the powers of government were divided equally between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, leading to them both alternatively being described as Prime Minister. Furthermore, many thought that the title "Prime Minister '' usurped the Sovereign 's constitutional position as "head of the government '' and that it was an affront to other ministers because they were all appointed by and equally responsible to the Sovereign.
For these reasons there was a reluctance to use the title. Although Walpole is now called the "first '' Prime Minister, the title was not commonly used during his tenure. Walpole himself denied it. In 1741, during the attack that led to Walpole 's downfall, Samuel Sandys declared that "According to our Constitution we can have no sole and prime minister. '' In his defence, Walpole said "I unequivocally deny that I am sole or Prime Minister and that to my influence and direction all the affairs of government must be attributed. '' George Grenville, Prime Minister in the 1760s, said it was "an odious title '' and never used it. Lord North, the reluctant head of the King 's Government during the American War of Independence, "would never suffer himself to be called Prime Minister, because it was an office unknown to the Constitution. ''
Denials of the Premiership 's legal existence continued throughout the 19th century. In 1806, for example, one member of the Commons said, "the Constitution abhors the idea of a prime minister ''. In 1829, Lord Lansdowne said, "nothing could be more mischievous or unconstitutional than to recognise by act of parliament the existence of such an office. ''
By the turn of the 20th century the Premiership had become, by convention, the most important position in the constitutional hierarchy. Yet there were no legal documents describing its powers or acknowledging its existence. The first official recognition given to the office had only been in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, when Disraeli signed as "First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister of her Britannic Majesty ''. Incumbents had no statutory authority in their own right. As late as 1904, Arthur Balfour explained the status of his office in a speech at Haddington: "The Prime Minister has no salary as Prime Minister. He has no statutory duties as Prime Minister, his name occurs in no Acts of Parliament, and though holding the most important place in the constitutional hierarchy, he has no place which is recognised by the laws of his country. This is a strange paradox. ''
In 1905 the position was given some official recognition when the "Prime Minister '' was named in the order of precedence, outranked, among non-royals, only by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and the Lord Chancellor.
The first Act of Parliament to mention the Premiership -- albeit in a schedule -- was the Chequers Estate Act on 20 December 1917. This law conferred the Chequers Estate owned by Sir Arthur and Lady Lee, as a gift to the Crown for use as a country home for future Prime Ministers.
Unequivocal legal recognition was given in the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937, which made provision for payment of a salary to the person who is both "the First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister ''. Explicitly recognising two hundred years ' of ambivalence, the Act states that it intended "To give statutory recognition to the existence of the position of Prime Minister, and to the historic link between the Premiership and the office of First Lord of the Treasury, by providing in respect to that position and office a salary of... '' The Act made a distinction between the "position '' (Prime Minister) and the "office '' (First Lord of the Treasury), emphasising the unique political character of the former. Nevertheless, the brass plate on the door of the Prime Minister 's home, 10 Downing Street, still bears the title of "First Lord of the Treasury '', as it has since the 18th century as it is officially the home of the First Lord and not the Prime Minister.
Despite the reluctance to legally recognise the Premiership, ambivalence toward it waned in the 1780s. During the first 20 years of his reign, George III (1760 -- 1820) tried to be his own "prime minister '' by controlling policy from outside the Cabinet, appointing and dismissing ministers, meeting privately with individual ministers, and giving them instructions. These practices caused confusion and dissension in Cabinet meetings; King George 's experiment in personal rule was generally a failure. After the failure of Lord North 's ministry (1770 -- 1782) in March 1782 due to Britain 's defeat in the American Revolutionary War and the ensuing vote of no confidence by Parliament, the Marquess of Rockingham reasserted the Prime Minister 's control over the Cabinet. Rockingham assumed the Premiership "on the distinct understanding that measures were to be changed as well as men; and that the measures for which the new ministry required the royal consent were the measures which they, while in opposition, had advocated. '' He and his Cabinet were united in their policies and would stand or fall together; they also refused to accept anyone in the Cabinet who did not agree. King George threatened to abdicate but in the end reluctantly agreed out of necessity: he had to have a government.
From this time, there was a growing acceptance of the position of Prime Minister and the title was more commonly used, if only unofficially. Associated initially with the Whigs, the Tories started to accept it. Lord North, for example, who had said the office was "unknown to the constitution '', reversed himself in 1783 when he said, "In this country some one man or some body of men like a Cabinet should govern the whole and direct every measure. '' In 1803, William Pitt the Younger, also a Tory, suggested to a friend that "this person generally called the first minister '' was an absolute necessity for a government to function, and expressed his belief that this person should be the minister in charge of the finances.
The Tories ' wholesale conversion started when Pitt was confirmed as Prime Minister in the election of 1784. For the next 17 years until 1801 (and again from 1804 to 1806), Pitt, the Tory, was Prime Minister in the same sense that Walpole, the Whig, had been earlier.
Their conversion was reinforced after 1810. In that year, George III, who had suffered periodically from mental instability (due to a blood disorder now known as porphyria), became permanently insane and spent the remaining 10 years of his life unable to discharge his duties. The Prince Regent was prevented from using the full powers of Kingship. The Regent became George IV in 1820, but during his 10 - year reign was indolent and frivolous. Consequently, for 20 years the throne was virtually vacant and Tory Cabinets led by Tory Prime Ministers filled the void, governing virtually on their own.
The Tories were in power for almost 50 years, except for a Whig ministry from 1806 to 1807. Lord Liverpool was Prime Minister for 15 years; he and Pitt held the position for 34 years. Under their long, consistent leadership, Cabinet government became a convention of the constitution. Although subtle issues remained to be settled, the Cabinet system of government is essentially the same today as it was in 1830.
Under this form of government, called the Westminster system, the Sovereign is head of state and titular head of Her Majesty 's Government. She selects as her Prime Minister the person who is able to command a working majority in the House of Commons, and invites him or her to form a government. As the actual Head of Government, the Prime Minister selects his Cabinet, choosing its members from among those in Parliament who agree or generally agree with his intended policies. He then recommends them to the Sovereign who confirms his selections by formally appointing them to their offices. Led by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet is collectively responsible for whatever the government does. The Sovereign does not confer with members privately about policy, nor attend Cabinet meetings. With respect to actual governance, the monarch has only three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. In practice this means that the Sovereign reviews state papers and meets regularly with the Prime Minister, usually weekly, when she may advise and warn him or her regarding the proposed decisions and actions of Her Government.
The modern British system includes not only a government formed by the majority party (or coalition of parties) in the House of Commons but also an organised and open opposition formed by those who are not members of the governing party. Called Her Majesty 's Most Loyal Opposition, they occupy the benches to the Speaker 's left. Seated in the front, directly across from the ministers on the Treasury Bench, the leaders of the opposition form a "Shadow Government '', complete with a salaried "Shadow Prime Minister '', the Leader of the Opposition, ready to assume office if the government falls or loses the next election.
Opposing the King 's government was considered disloyal, even treasonous, at the end of the 17th century. During the 18th century this idea waned and finally disappeared as the two party system developed. The expression "His Majesty 's Opposition '' was coined by John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton. In 1826, Broughton, a Whig, announced in the Commons that he opposed the report of a Bill. As a joke, he said, "It was said to be very hard on His Majesty 's ministers to raise objections to this proposition. For my part, I think it is much more hard on His Majesty 's Opposition to compel them to take this course. '' The phrase caught on and has been used ever since. Sometimes rendered as the "Loyal Opposition '', it acknowledges the legitimate existence of the two party system, and describes an important constitutional concept: opposing the government is not treason; reasonable men can honestly oppose its policies and still be loyal to the Sovereign and the nation.
Informally recognized for over a century as a convention of the constitution, the position of Leader of the Opposition was given statutory recognition in 1937 by the Ministers of the Crown Act.
British Prime Ministers have never been elected directly by the public. A Prime Minister need not be a party leader; David Lloyd George was not a party leader during his service as prime Minister during World War I, and neither was Ramsay MacDonald from 1931 to 1935. Prime Ministers have taken office because they were members of either the Commons or Lords, and either inherited a majority in the Commons or won more seats than the opposition in a general election.
Since 1722, most Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons; since 1902, all have had a seat there. Like other members, they are elected initially to represent only a constituency. Former Prime Minister Tony Blair, for example, represented Sedgefield in County Durham from 1983 to 2007. He became Prime Minister because in 1994 he was elected Labour Party leader and then led the party to victory in the 1997 general election, winning 418 seats compared to 165 for the Conservatives and gaining a majority in the House of Commons.
Neither the Sovereign nor the House of Lords had any meaningful influence over who was elected to the Commons in 1997 or in deciding whether or not Blair would become Prime Minister. Their detachment from the electoral process and the selection of the Prime Minister has been a convention of the constitution for almost 200 years.
Prior to the 19th century, however, they had significant influence, using to their advantage the fact that most citizens were disenfranchised and seats in the Commons were allocated disproportionately. Through patronage, corruption and bribery, the Crown and Lords "owned '' about 30 % of the seats (called "pocket '' or "rotten boroughs '') giving them a significant influence in the Commons and in the selection of the Prime Minister.
In 1830, Charles Grey, the 2nd Earl Grey and a life - long Whig, became Prime Minister and was determined to reform the electoral system. For two years, he and his Cabinet fought to pass what has come to be known as the Great Reform Bill of 1832. The greatness of the Great Reform Bill lay less in substance than in symbolism. As John Bright, a liberal statesman of the next generation, said, "It was not a good Bill, but it was a great Bill when it passed. '' Substantively, it increased the franchise by 65 % to 717,000; with the middle class receiving most of the new votes. The representation of 56 rotten boroughs was eliminated completely, together with half the representation of 30 others; the freed up seats were distributed to boroughs created for previously disenfranchised areas. However, many rotten boroughs remained and it still excluded millions of working class men and all women.
Symbolically, however, the Reform Act exceeded expectations. It is now ranked with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights as one of the most important documents of the British constitutional tradition.
First, the Act removed the Sovereign from the election process and the choice of Prime Minister. Slowly evolving for 100 years, this convention was confirmed two years after the passage of the Act. In 1834, King William IV dismissed Melbourne as Premier, but was forced to recall him when Robert Peel, the King 's choice, could not form a working majority. Since then, no Sovereign has tried to impose a Prime Minister on Parliament.
Second, the Bill reduced the Lords ' power by eliminating many of their pocket boroughs and creating new boroughs in which they had no influence. Weakened, they were unable to prevent the passage of more comprehensive electoral reforms in 1867, 1884, 1918 and 1928 when universal equal suffrage was established.
Ultimately, this erosion of power led to the Parliament Act of 1911, which marginalised the Lords ' role in the legislative process and gave further weight to the convention that had developed over the previous century that a Prime Minister can not sit in the House of Lords. The last to do so was Robert Gascoyne - Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, from 1895 to 1902. Throughout the 19th century, governments led from the Lords had often suffered difficulties governing alongside ministers who sat in the Commons.
Grey set an example and a precedent for his successors. He was primus inter pares (first among equals), as Bagehot said in 1867 of the Prime Minister 's status. Using his Whig victory as a mandate for reform, Grey was unrelenting in the pursuit of this goal, using every Parliamentary device to achieve it. Although respectful toward the King, he made it clear that his constitutional duty was to acquiesce to the will of the people and Parliament.
The Loyal Opposition acquiesced too. Some disgruntled Tories claimed they would repeal the Bill once they regained a majority. But in 1834, Robert Peel, the new Conservative leader, put an end to this threat when he stated in his Tamworth Manifesto that the Bill was "a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional question which no friend to the peace and welfare of this country would attempt to disturb ''.
The Premiership was a reclusive office prior to 1832. The incumbent worked with his Cabinet and other government officials; he occasionally met with the Sovereign, and attended Parliament when it was in session during the spring and summer. He never went out on the stump to campaign, even during elections; he rarely spoke directly to ordinary voters about policies and issues.
After the passage of the Great Reform Bill, the nature of the position changed: Prime Ministers had to go out among the people. The Bill increased the electorate to 717,000. Subsequent legislation (and population growth) raised it to 2 million in 1867, 5.5 million in 1884 and 21.4 million in 1918. As the franchise increased, power shifted to the people and Prime Ministers assumed more responsibilities with respect to party leadership. It naturally fell on them to motivate and organise their followers, explain party policies, and deliver its "message ''. Successful leaders had to have a new set of skills: to give a good speech, present a favourable image, and interact with a crowd. They became the "voice '', the "face '' and the "image '' of the party and ministry.
Robert Peel, often called the "model Prime Minister '', was the first to recognise this new role. After the successful Conservative campaign of 1841, J.W. Croker said in a letter to Peel, "The elections are wonderful, and the curiosity is that all turns on the name of Sir Robert Peel. It 's the first time that I remember in our history that the people have chosen the first Minister for the Sovereign. Mr. Pitt 's case in ' 84 is the nearest analogy; but then the people only confirmed the Sovereign 's choice; here every Conservative candidate professed himself in plain words to be Sir Robert Peel 's man, and on that ground was elected. ''
Benjamin Disraeli and William Ewart Gladstone developed this new role further by projecting "images '' of themselves to the public. Known by their nicknames "Dizzy '' and the "Grand Old Man '', their colourful, sometimes bitter, personal and political rivalry over the issues of their time -- Imperialism vs. Anti-Imperialism, expansion of the franchise, labour reform, and Irish Home Rule -- spanned almost twenty years until Disraeli 's death in 1881. Documented by the penny press, photographs and political cartoons, their rivalry linked specific personalities with the Premiership in the public mind and further enhanced its status.
Each created a different public image of himself and his party. Disraeli, who expanded the Empire to protect British interests abroad, cultivated the image of himself (and the Conservative Party) as "Imperialist '', making grand gestures such as conferring the title "Empress of India '' on Queen Victoria in 1876. Gladstone, who saw little value in the Empire, proposed an anti-Imperialist policy (later called "Little England ''), and cultivated the image of himself (and the Liberal Party) as "man of the people '' by circulating pictures of himself cutting down great oak trees with an axe as a hobby.
Gladstone went beyond image by appealing directly to the people. In his Midlothian campaign -- so called because he stood as a candidate for that county -- Gladstone spoke in fields, halls and railway stations to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of students, farmers, labourers and middle class workers. Although not the first leader to speak directly to voters -- both he and Disraeli had spoken directly to party loyalists before on special occasions -- he was the first to canvass an entire constituency, delivering his message to anyone who would listen, encouraging his supporters and trying to convert his opponents. Publicised nationwide, Gladstone 's message became that of the party. Noting its significance, Lord Shaftesbury said, "It is a new thing and a very serious thing to see the Prime Minister on the stump. ''
Campaigning directly to the people became commonplace. Several 20th century Prime Ministers, such as David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, were famous for their oratorical skills. After the introduction of radio, motion pictures, television, and the internet, many used these technologies to project their public image and address the nation. Stanley Baldwin, a master of the radio broadcast in the 1920s and 1930s, reached a national audience in his talks filled with homely advice and simple expressions of national pride. Churchill also used the radio to great effect, inspiring, reassuring and informing the people with his speeches during the Second World War. Two recent Prime Ministers, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair (who both spent a decade or more as prime Minister), achieved celebrity status like rock stars, but have been criticised for their more ' presidential ' style of leadership. According to Anthony King, "The props in Blair 's theatre of celebrity included... his guitar, his casual clothes... footballs bounced skilfully off the top of his head... carefully choreographed speeches and performances at Labour Party conferences. ''
In addition to being the leader of a great political party and the head of Her Majesty 's Government, the modern Prime Minister directs the law - making process, enacting into law his or her party 's programme. For example, Tony Blair, whose Labour party was elected in 1997 partly on a promise to enact a British Bill of Rights and to create devolved governments for Scotland and Wales, subsequently stewarded through Parliament the Human Rights Act (1998), the Scotland Act (1998) and the Government of Wales Act (1998).
From its appearance in the fourteenth century Parliament has been a bicameral legislature consisting of the Commons and the Lords. Members of the Commons are elected; those in the Lords are not. Most Lords are called "Temporal '' with titles such as Duke, Marquess, Earl and Viscount. The balance are Lords Spiritual (prelates of the Anglican Church).
For most of the history of the Upper House, Lords Temporal were landowners who held their estates, titles and seats as an hereditary right passed down from one generation to the next -- in some cases for centuries. In 1910, for example, there were nineteen whose title was created before 1500.
Until 1911, Prime Ministers had to guide legislation through the Commons and the Lords and obtain majority approval in both houses for it to become law. This was not always easy, because political differences often separated the chambers. Representing the landed aristocracy, Lords Temporal were generally Tory (later Conservative) who wanted to maintain the status quo and resisted progressive measures such as extending the franchise. The party affiliation of members of the Commons was less predictable. During the 18th century its makeup varied because the Lords had considerable control over elections: sometimes Whigs dominated it, sometimes Tories. After the passage of the Great Reform Bill in 1832, the Commons gradually became more progressive, a tendency that increased with the passage of each subsequent expansion of the franchise.
In 1906, the Liberal party, led by Sir Henry Campbell - Bannerman, won an overwhelming victory on a platform that promised social reforms for the working class. With 379 seats compared to the Conservatives ' 132, the Liberals could confidently expect to pass their legislative programme through the Commons. At the same time, however, the Conservative Party had a huge majority in the Lords; it could easily veto any legislation passed by the Commons that was against their interests.
For five years, the Commons and the Lords fought over one bill after another. The Liberals pushed through parts of their programme, but the Conservatives vetoed or modified others. When the Lords vetoed the "People 's Budget '' in 1909, the controversy moved almost inevitably toward a constitutional crisis.
In 1910, Prime Minister H.H. Asquith introduced a bill "for regulating the relations between the Houses of Parliament '' which would eliminate the Lords ' veto power over legislation. Passed by the Commons, the Lords rejected it. In a general election fought on this issue, the Liberals were weakened but still had a comfortable majority. At Asquith 's request, King George V then threatened to create a sufficient number of new Liberal Peers to ensure the bill 's passage. Rather than accept a permanent Liberal majority, the Conservative Lords yielded, and the bill became law.
The Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the Commons. It provided that the Lords could not delay for more than one month any bill certified by the Speaker of the Commons as a money bill. Furthermore, the Act provided that any bill rejected by the Lords would nevertheless become law if passed by the Commons in three successive sessions provided that two years had elapsed since its original passage. The Lords could still delay or suspend the enactment of legislation but could no longer veto it. Subsequently the Lords "suspending '' power was reduced to one year by the Parliament Act 1949.
Indirectly, the Act enhanced the already dominant position of Prime Minister in the constitutional hierarchy. Although the Lords are still involved in the legislative process and the Prime Minister must still guide legislation through both Houses, the Lords no longer have the power to veto or even delay enactment of legislation passed by the Commons. Provided that he controls the Cabinet, maintains party discipline, and commands a majority in the Commons, the Prime Minister is assured of putting through his legislative agenda.
The classic view of Cabinet Government was laid out by Walter Bagehot in The English Constitution (1867) in which he described the prime minister as the primus ‐ inter ‐ pares ("first among equals ''). The view was questioned by Richard Crossman in The Myths of Cabinet Government (1972) and by Tony Benn. They were both members of the Labour governments of the 1960s and thought that the position of the Prime Minister had acquired more power so that Prime Ministerial Government was a more apt description. Crossman stated that the increase the power of the prime minister resulted from power of centralised political parties, the development of a unified civil service, and the grown of the Prime Minister 's private office and Cabinet secretariat. Graham Allen (a Government Whip during Tony Blair 's first government) made the case in The Last Prime Minister: Being Honest About the UK Presidency (2003) that in fact the office of prime minister has presidential powers, as did the political scientist Michael Foley in The British Presidency (2000).
In Tony Blair 's government, many sources such as former ministers have suggested that decision - making was controlled by him and Gordon Brown, and the Cabinet was no longer used for decision - making. Former ministers such as Clare Short and Chris Smith have criticised the lack of decision - making power in Cabinet. When she resigned, Short denounced "the centralisation of power into the hands of the Prime Minister and an increasingly small number of advisers ''. The Butler Review of 2004 condemned Blair 's style of "sofa government ''.
However the power that a prime minister has over his or her cabinet colleagues is directly proportional to the amount of support that they have with their political parties and this is often related to whether the party considers them to be an electoral asset or liability. Also when a party is divided into factions a Prime Minister may be forced to include other powerful party members in the Cabinet for party political cohesion. The Prime Minister 's personal power is also curtailed if their party is in a power - sharing arrangement, or a formal coalition with another party (as happened in the coalition government of 2010 to 2015).
When commissioned by the Sovereign, a potential Prime Minister 's first requisite is to "form a Government '' -- to create a cabinet of ministers that has the support of the House of Commons, of which they are expected to be a member. The Prime Minister then formally kisses the hands of the Sovereign, whose royal prerogative powers are thereafter exercised solely on the advice of the Prime Minister and Her Majesty 's Government ("HMG ''). The Prime Minister has weekly audiences with the Sovereign, whose rights are constitutionally limited: "to warn, to encourage, and to be consulted ''; the extent of the Sovereign 's ability to influence the nature of the Prime Ministerial advice is unknown, but presumably varies depending upon the personal relationship between the Sovereign and the Prime Minister of the day.
The Prime Minister will appoint all other cabinet members (who then become active Privy Counsellors) and ministers, although consulting senior ministers on their junior ministers, without any Parliamentary or other control or process over these powers. At any time, the PM may obtain the appointment, dismissal or nominal resignation of any other minister; the PM may resign, either purely personally or with the whole government. The Prime Minister generally co-ordinates the policies and activities of the Cabinet and Government departments, acting as the main public "face '' of Her Majesty 's Government.
Although the Commander - in - Chief of the British Armed Forces is legally the Sovereign, under constitutional practice the Prime Minister can declare war, and through the Secretary of State for Defence (whom the PM may appoint and dismiss, or even appoint himself or herself to the position) as chair of the Defence Council the power over the deployment and disposition of British forces. The Prime Minister can authorise, but not directly order, the use of Britain 's nuclear weapons and the Prime Minister is hence a Commander - in - Chief in all but name.
The Prime Minister makes all the most senior Crown appointments, and most others are made by Ministers over whom the PM has the power of appointment and dismissal. Privy Counsellors, Ambassadors and High Commissioners, senior civil servants, senior military officers, members of important committees and commissions, and other officials are selected, and in most cases may be removed, by the Prime Minister. The PM also formally advises the Sovereign on the appointment of Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England, but the PM 's discretion is limited by the existence of the Crown Nominations Commission. The appointment of senior judges, while constitutionally still on the advice of the Prime Minister, is now made on the basis of recommendations from independent bodies.
Peerages, knighthoods, and most other honours are bestowed by the Sovereign only on the advice of the Prime Minister. The only important British honours over which the Prime Minister does not have control are the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Order of Merit, the Royal Victorian Order, and the Venerable Order of Saint John, which are all within the "personal gift '' of the Sovereign.
The Prime Minister appoints officials known as the "Government Whips '', who negotiate for the support of MPs and to discipline dissenters. Party discipline is strong since electors generally vote for individuals on the basis of their party affiliation. Members of Parliament may be expelled from their party for failing to support the Government on important issues, and although this will not mean they must resign as MPs, it will usually make re-election difficult. Members of Parliament who hold ministerial office or political privileges can expect removal for failing to support the Prime Minister. Restraints imposed by the Commons grow weaker when the Government 's party enjoys a large majority in that House, or among the electorate. In most circumstances, however, the Prime Minister can secure the Commons ' support for almost any bill by internal party negotiations, with little regard to Opposition MPs.
However, even a government with a healthy majority can on occasion find itself unable to pass legislation. For example, on 9 November 2005, Tony Blair 's Government was defeated over plans which would have allowed police to detain terror suspects for up to 90 days without charge, and on 31 January 2006, was defeated over certain aspects of proposals to outlaw religious hatred. On other occasions, the Government alters its proposals to avoid defeat in the Commons, as Tony Blair 's Government did in February 2006 over education reforms.
Formerly, a Prime Minister whose government lost a Commons vote would be regarded as fatally weakened, and the whole government would resign, usually precipitating a general election. In modern practice, when the Government party has an absolute majority in the House, only loss of supply and the express vote "that this House has no confidence in Her Majesty 's Government '' are treated as having this effect; dissenters on a minor issue within the majority party are unlikely to force an election with the probable loss of their seats and salaries.
Likewise, a Prime Minister is no longer just "first amongst equals '' in HM Government; although theoretically the Cabinet might still outvote the PM, in practice the PM progressively entrenches his or her position by retaining only personal supporters in the Cabinet. In occasional reshuffles, the Prime Minister can sideline and simply drop from Cabinet the Members who have fallen out of favour: they remain Privy Counsellors, but the Prime Minister decides which of them are summoned to meetings. The Prime Minister is responsible for producing and enforcing the Ministerial Code.
By tradition, before a new Prime Minister can occupy 10 Downing Street, they are required to announce to the country and the world that they have "kissed hands '' with the reigning monarch, and have thus become Prime Minister. This is usually done by saying words to the effect of:
Her Majesty the Queen (His Majesty the King) has asked me to form a government and I have accepted.
Throughout the United Kingdom, the Prime Minister outranks all other dignitaries except members of the Royal Family, the Lord Chancellor, and senior ecclesiastical figures.
In 2010 the Prime Minister received £ 142,500 including a salary of £ 65,737 as a member of parliament. Until 2006, the Lord Chancellor was the highest paid member of the government, ahead of the Prime Minister. This reflected the Lord Chancellor 's position at the head of the judicial pay scale. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 eliminated the Lord Chancellor 's judicial functions and also reduced the office 's salary to below that of the Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister is customarily a member of the Privy Council and thus entitled to the appellation "The Right Honourable ''. Membership of the Council is retained for life. It is a constitutional convention that only a Privy Counsellor can be appointed Prime Minister. Most potential candidates have already attained this status. The only case when a non-Privy Counsellor was the natural appointment was Ramsay MacDonald in 1924. The issue was resolved by appointing him to the Council immediately prior to his appointment as Prime Minister.
According to the now defunct Department for Constitutional Affairs, the Prime Minister is made a Privy Counsellor as a result of taking office and should be addressed by the official title prefixed by "The Right Honourable '' and not by a personal name. Although this form of address is employed on formal occasions, it is rarely used by the media. As "Prime Minister '' is a position, not a title, the incumbent should be referred to as "the Prime Minister ''. The title "Prime Minister '' (e.g. "Prime Minister James Smith '') is technically incorrect but is sometimes used erroneously outside the United Kingdom, and has more recently become acceptable within it. Within the UK, the expression "Prime Minister Smith '' is never used, although it, too, is sometimes used by foreign dignitaries and news sources.
10 Downing Street, in London, has been the official place of residence of the Prime Minister since 1732; they are entitled to use its staff and facilities, including extensive offices. Chequers, a country house in Buckinghamshire, gifted to the government in 1917, may be used as a country retreat for the Prime Minister.
There are four living former British Prime Ministers:
Upon retirement, it is customary for the Sovereign to grant a Prime Minister some honour or dignity. The honour bestowed is commonly, but not invariably, membership of the United Kingdom 's most senior order of chivalry, the Order of the Garter. The practice of creating a retired Prime Minister a Knight (or, in the case of Margaret Thatcher, a Lady) of the Garter (KG and LG respectively) has been fairly prevalent since the mid-nineteenth century. Upon the retirement of a Prime Minister who is Scottish, it is likely that the primarily Scottish honour of Knight of the Thistle (KT) will be used instead of the Order of the Garter, which is generally regarded as an English honour.
Historically it has also been common for Prime Ministers to be granted a peerage upon retirement from the Commons, which elevates the individual to the House of Lords. Formerly, the peerage bestowed was usually an earldom, with Churchill offered a dukedom.
From the 1960s onward, life peerages were preferred, although in 1984 Harold Macmillan was created Earl of Stockton. Sir Alec Douglas - Home, Harold Wilson, James Callaghan and Margaret Thatcher accepted life peerages, although Douglas - Home had previously disclaimed his hereditary title as Earl of Home. Edward Heath did not accept a peerage of any kind and nor have any of the Prime Ministers to retire since 1990; although Heath and Major were later appointed as Knights of the Garter.
The most recent former Prime Minister to die was Margaret Thatcher (served 1979 -- 1990) on 8 April 2013, aged 87.
Prime Minister Theresa May
Chancellor of the Exchequer Philip Hammond
Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson
Home Secretary Amber Rudd
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criteria for creation of local government in nigeria | Local government areas of Nigeria - wikipedia
Nigeria has 774 local government areas (LGAs). Each local government area is administered by a Local Government Council consisting of a chairman who is the Chief Executive of the LGA, and other elected members who are referred to as Councillors. Each of the areas is further subdivided into wards with a minimum of ten and a maximum of fifteen for each area.
The functions of Local Governments are detailed in the Nigerian Constitution and include:
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who started the united states secret service and why | United States Secret Service - wikipedia
The United States Secret Service ("USSS '' or "Secret Service '') is a federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, charged with conducting criminal investigations and protecting the nation 's leaders. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U.S. Department of the Treasury, as the agency was originally founded to combat the then - widespread counterfeiting of U.S. currency.
The U.S. Secret Service is tasked with two distinct and critical national security missions:
The Secret Service 's initial responsibility was to investigate the counterfeiting of U.S. currency, which was rampant following the American Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States ' first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Many of the agency 's missions were later taken over by subsequent agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), and IRS Criminal Investigation Division (IRS - CI).
The Secret Service is mandated by Congress to carry out a unique dual mission: safeguarding the financial and critical infrastructure of the United States, and protecting the nation 's leaders. The two core missions of investigations and protection synergize with the other, providing crucial benefits to special agents during the course of their careers. Skills developed during the course of investigations which are also used in an agent 's protective duties include but are not limited to:
The Secret Service 's primary investigative mission is to protect the payment and financial systems of the United States from a wide range of financial and electronic - based crimes including counterfeit U.S. currency, bank & financial institution fraud, illicit financing operations, cybercrime, identity theft, intellectual property crimes, and any other violations that may affect the United States economy and financial systems. The agency 's key focus is on large, high - dollar economic impact cases involving organized criminal groups. Financial criminals include embezzling bank employees, armed robbers at automatic teller machines, heroin traffickers, and criminal organizations that commit bank fraud on a global scale.
The USSS plays a leading role in facilitating relationships between other law enforcement entities, the private sector, and academia. The Service maintains the Electronic Crimes Task Forces, which focus on identifying and locating international cyber criminals connected to cyber intrusions, bank fraud, data breaches, and other computer - related crimes. Additionally, the Secret Service runs the National Computer Forensics Institute (NCFI), which provides law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges with cyber training and information to combat cybercrime.
Protection of the nation 's highest elected leaders and other government officials remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States.
The Secret Service is authorized by law to protect:
Any of these individuals may decline Secret Service protection except the President, the Vice President (or other officer next in the order of succession to the Office of President), the President - elect, and the Vice President - elect.
When Hillary Clinton became Secretary of State in 2009, the Secret Service continued to protect her at home; however the Diplomatic Security Service protected her while she was performing her duties as the Secretary of State, including foreign travel.
The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents each year of individuals threatening the President of the United States.
In the face of budget pressure, hiring challenges and some high - profile lapses in its protective service role in 2014, the Brookings Institution and some members of Congress are asking whether the agency 's focus should shift more to the protective mission, leaving more of its original mission to other agencies.
With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, the Secret Service was created on July 5, 1865 in Washington, D.C., to suppress counterfeit currency. Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D.C. as the "Secret Service Division '' of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting. The legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincoln 's desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the only other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police, the U.S. Post Office Department 's Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations (now known as the United States Postal Inspection Service), and the U.S. Marshals Service. The Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection. A year later, the Secret Service assumed full - time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, in a road accident while riding in the presidential carriage.
The Secret Service was the first U.S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) upon the FBI 's creation in 1908.
The Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. The U.S. Secret Service is not a part of the U.S. Intelligence Community.
In 1909, President William H. Taft agreed to meet with Mexican President Porfirio Díaz in El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico. But the historic summit resulted in serious assassination threats and other security concerns for the then small Secret Service, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, BOI agents, U.S. marshals, and an additional 250 private security detail led by Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, were all called in by Chief John Wilkie to provide added security. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C.R. Moore, and the two men captured and disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft, preventing the shooting of both Presidents.
In 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1, 1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman. Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, killing Torresola with a single shot to his head. As of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt (Special Agent Tim McCarthy stepped in front of President Ronald Reagan during the assassination attempt of March 30, 1981, and took a bullet to the abdomen but made a full recovery). Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979.
In 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedy 's assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees. In 1965 and 1968, Congress also authorized lifetime protection of the spouses of deceased presidents unless they remarry and of the children of former presidents until age 16.
The Secret Service Presidential Protective Division safeguards the President of the United States and his immediate family. They work with other federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies and the military to safeguard the President when he travels in Air Force One, Marine One and by limousine in motorcades.
Although the most visible role of the Secret Service today, personal protection is an anomaly in the responsibilities of an agency focused on fraud and counterfeiting.
In 1984, the US Congress passed the Comprehensive Crime Control Act, which extended the Secret Service 's jurisdiction over credit card fraud and computer fraud.
In 1990, the Secret Service initiated Operation Sundevil, which they originally intended as a sting against malicious hackers, allegedly responsible for disrupting telephone services across the entire United States. The operation, which was later described by Bruce Sterling in his book The Hacker Crackdown, affected a great number of people unrelated to hacking, and led to no convictions. The Secret Service, however, was sued and required to pay damages.
In 1994 and 1995, it ran an undercover sting called Operation Cybersnare. The Secret Service has concurrent jurisdiction with the FBI over certain violations of federal computer crime laws. They have created 24 Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) across the United States. These task forces are partnerships between the Service, federal / state and local law enforcement, the private sector and academia aimed at combating technology - based crimes.
In 1998, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 62, which established National Special Security Events (NSSE). That directive made the Secret Service responsible for security at designated events. In 1999, the United States Secret Service Memorial Building was dedicated in DC, granting the agency its first headquarters. Prior to this, the agency 's different departments were based in office space around the DC area.
The New York City Field office was located at 7 World Trade Center. Immediately after the World Trade Center was attacked as part of the September 11 attacks, Special Agents and other New York Field office employees were among the first to respond with first aid. Sixty - seven Special Agents in New York City, at and near the New York Field Office, helped to set up triage areas and evacuate the towers. One Secret Service employee, Master Special Officer Craig Miller, died during the rescue efforts. On August 20, 2002, Director Brian L. Stafford awarded the Director 's Valor Award to employees who assisted in the rescue attempts.
Effective March 1, 2003, the Secret Service transferred from the Treasury to the newly established Department of Homeland Security.
The USA Patriot Act, signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001, mandated the Secret Service to establish a nationwide network of ECTFs in addition to the one already active in New York. As such, this mandate expanded on the agency 's first ECTF -- the New York Electronic Crimes Task Force, formed in 1995 -- which brought together federal, state and local law enforcement, prosecutors, private - industry companies, and academia. These bodies collectively provide necessary support and resources to field investigations that meet any one of the following criteria: significant economic or community impact; participation of organized criminal groups involving multiple districts or transnational organizations; or use of schemes involving new technology.
The network prioritizes investigations that meet the following criteria:
Investigations conducted by ECTFs include crimes such as computer generated counterfeit currency; bank fraud; virus and worm proliferation; access device fraud; telecommunications fraud; Internet threats; computer system intrusions and cyber-attacks; phishing / spoofing; assistance with Internet - related child pornography and exploitation; and identity theft.
The network includes ECTFs in the following 28 U.S. cities:
On July 6, 2009, the U.S. Secret Service expanded its fight on cyber-crime by creating the first European Electronic Crime Task Force, based on the successful U.S. domestic model, through a memorandum of understanding with Italian police and postal officials. Over a year later, on August 9, 2010, the agency expanded its European involvement by creating its second overseas ECTF in the United Kingdom.
Both task forces are said to concentrate on a wide range of "computer - based criminal activity, '' including:
The overseas network includes ECTFs in the following European cities:
As of 2010, the Service had over 6,500 employees: 3,200 Special Agents, 1,300 Uniformed Division Officers, and 2,000 technical and administrative employees. Special agents serve on protective details and investigate financial, cyber, and homeland security - related crimes.
In September 2014, the United States Secret Service came under criticism following two high - profile incidents involving intruders at the White House. One such intruder entered the East Room of the White House through an unlocked door.
Another incident involved a violation of procedure in which an armed security guard for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention rode in the same elevator as President Barack Obama during a visit to that agency 's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, to discuss U.S. response to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. The guard used his phone to record a video of Obama and refused to comply with a request to stop. The guard had been arrested multiple times in the past, but had never been convicted of a crime.
Since the 1960s, Presidents John F. Kennedy (killed), Gerald Ford (twice attacked, but uninjured) and Ronald Reagan (seriously wounded) have been attacked while appearing in public. Agents on scene though not injured during attacks on Presidents include William Greer and Roy Kellerman. One of the agents was Robert DeProspero, the Special Agent In Charge (SAIC) of Reagan 's Presidential Protective Division (PPD) from January 1982 to April 1985. DeProspero was deputy to Jerry Parr, the SAIC of PPD during the Reagan assassination attempt on March 30, 1981.
The Kennedy assassination spotlighted the bravery of two Secret Service agents. First, an agent protecting Mrs. Kennedy, Clint Hill, was riding in the car directly behind the presidential limousine when the attack began. While the shooting continued, Hill leapt from the running board of the car he was riding on and jumped onto the back of the President 's moving car and guided Mrs. Kennedy from the trunk back into the rear seat of the car. He then shielded the President and the First Lady with his body until the car arrived at the hospital.
Rufus Youngblood was riding in the vice-presidential car. When the shots were fired, he vaulted over the front seat and threw his body over Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. That evening, Johnson called Secret Service Chief James J. Rowley and cited Youngblood 's bravery. Youngblood would later recall some of this in his memoir, Twenty Years in the Secret Service.
The period following the Kennedy assassination was the most difficult in the modern history of the agency. Press reports indicated that morale among the agents was "low '' for months following the assassination. The agency overhauled its procedures in the wake of the Kennedy killing. Training, which until that time had been confined largely to "on - the - job '' efforts, was systematized and regularized.
The Reagan assassination attempt also highlighted the bravery of several Secret Service agents, particularly agent Tim McCarthy, who spread his stance to protect Reagan as six bullets were being fired by the would - be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. McCarthy survived a. 22 - caliber round in the abdomen. For his bravery, McCarthy received the NCAA Award of Valor in 1982. Jerry Parr, the agent who pushed President Reagan into the limousine, and made the critical decision to divert the presidential motorcade to George Washington University Hospital instead of returning to the White House, was also honored with U.S. Congress commendations for his actions that day. After the near - successful assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan, it was clear that the Secret Service needed to increase its efficiency to protect the President.
Arrest and indictment of Max Ray Butler, co-founder of the Carders Market carding website. Butler was indicted by a federal grand jury in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after his September 5, 2007 arrest, on wire fraud and identity theft charges. According to the indictment, Butler hacked over the Internet into computers at financial institutions and credit card processing centers and sold the tens of thousands of credit card numbers that he acquired in the process.
Operation Firewall: In October 2004, 28 suspects -- located across eight U.S. states and six countries -- were arrested on charges of identity theft, computer fraud, credit - card fraud, and conspiracy. Nearly 30 national and foreign field offices of the U.S. Secret Service, including the newly established national ECTFs, and countless local enforcement agencies from around the globe, were involved in this operation. Collectively, the arrested suspects trafficked in at least 1.7 million stolen credit card numbers, which amounted to $4.3 million of losses to financial institutions. However, authorities estimated that prevented loss to the industry was in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The operation, which started in July 2003 and lasted for more than a year, led investigators to identify three cyber-criminal groups: Shadowcrew, Carderplanet, and Darkprofits.
Arrest and indictment of Albert "Segvec '' Gonzalez and 11 individuals; three U.S. citizens, one from Estonia, three from Ukraine, two from the People 's Republic of China, one from Belarus, and one known only by an online alias. They were arrested on August 5, 2008, for the theft and sale of more than 40 million credit and debit card numbers from major U.S. retailers, including TJX Companies, BJ 's Wholesale Club, OfficeMax, Boston Market, Barnes & Noble, Sports Authority, Forever 21, and DSW. Gonzalez, the main organizer of the scheme, was charged with computer fraud, wire fraud, access device fraud, aggravated identity theft, and conspiracy for his leading role in the crime.
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The Secret Service special agent position is highly competitive. In 2011, the Service accepted less than 1 % of its 15,600 special agent applicants. While the Secret Service has always been a popular career path for former military and law enforcement personnel, the Service seeks to hire agents from a diverse range of backgrounds in fulfilling its dual mission, including accountants, lawyers, scientists, engineers, and foreign language specialists.
At a minimum, a prospective agent must be a U.S. citizen, possess a current valid driver 's license, be in excellent health and physical condition, possess visual acuity no worse than 20 / 60 uncorrected, correctable to 20 / 20 in each eye, and be between the ages of 21 and 37 at the time of appointment. However, preference eligible veterans may apply after age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on the Isabella v. Department of State court decision: OPM Letter.
Prospective agents must also qualify for a TS / SCI (Top Secret / Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance, and undergo an extensive background investigation, to include in - depth interviews, drug screening, medical diagnosis, and full - scope polygraph examination.
Special agents receive training in two locations, totaling approximately 7 months. The first phase, the Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) is conducted at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) at Glynco, GA, lasting approximately 12 weeks. The second phase, the Special Agent Training Course (SATC) is conducted at the Secret Service Academy, James J. Rowley Training Center (JJRTC), just outside Washington, D.C in Laurel, Maryland, lasting approximately 18 weeks.
A typical special agent career path, depending upon performance and promotions that affect individual assignments, begins with the first six to eight years on the job assigned to a field office. Applicants are directed to list their office location preference during the application process, and upon receiving a final job offer, usually have several locations to choose from.
After their field office experience, agents are usually transferred to a protective assignment where they will stay for three to five years. Following their protective assignment, many agents return to a field office for the rest of their careers, or opt for a headquarters based assignment located in Washington, D.C. During their careers, agents also have the opportunity to work overseas in one of the agency 's international field offices. This typically requires foreign language training to ensure language proficiency when working alongside the agency 's foreign law enforcement counterparts.
Special agents are hired at either the GL - 07 or GL - 09 grade level, depending on individual qualifications and / or education. Agents are eligible for promotion on a yearly basis, from GL - 07, to GL - 09, to GS - 11, to GS - 12, to GS - 13 (GL - 08 and GS - 10 grade levels are skipped). The full performance grade level for a journeyman agent is GS - 13, which a GL - 07 and GL - 09 agent may reach in as little as four and three years respectively. GS - 13 agents are eligible for competitive promotion to supervisory agent positions, which compasses the GS - 14, GS - 15, and SES grade levels. GS - 13 agents who wish to remain as senior field agents continue to advance the GS - 13 step level, capping at GS - 13 Step - 10.
Special agents also receive Law Enforcement Availability Pay (LEAP), a type of premium overtime pay which provides them with an additional 25 % bonus pay on top of their salary, as agents are required to work an average workweek of 50 hours as opposed to 40. Therefore, an agent living in the Greater New York City area will earn an annual salary of approximately $65,733 (GL - 07), $74,850 (GL - 09), $87,639 (GS - 11), $105,044 (GS - 12), $124,909 (GS - 13), $147,606 (GS - 14), and $164,200 (GS - 15).
Due to the nature of their work and unique among their federal law enforcement counterparts (e.g. FBI, DEA, ATF, ICE), Secret Service agents are regularly eligible for scheduled overtime pay (SOT pay) in addition to LEAP for hours they work beyond 50 per week, and enjoy a raised statutory pay cap of $189,600 per year (Level II of the Executive Schedule) as opposed to $164,200 per year (Level IV of the Executive Schedule).
The Secret Service Uniformed Division is a security police similar to the U.S. Capitol Police or DHS Federal Protective Service and is in charge of protecting the physical White House grounds and foreign diplomatic missions in the Washington, D.C. area. Established in 1922 as the White House Police, this organization was fully integrated into the Secret Service in 1930. In 1970, the protection of foreign diplomatic missions was added to the force 's responsibilities, and its name was changed to the Executive Protective Service. The name United States Secret Service Uniformed Division was adopted in 1977.
Secret Service Uniformed Division officers provide protection for the White House Complex, the Vice President 's residence, the main Treasury Building and Annex, and foreign diplomatic missions and embassies in the Washington, D.C., area. Additionally, Uniformed Division officers travel in support of presidential, vice presidential and foreign head of state government missions. Officers may, as their careers progress, be selected to participate in one of several specialized units, including the:
Secret Service special officers (not to be confused with Uniformed Division Officers) are federal agents who work within the Special Agent Division and perform a wide range of security functions and support assignments as part of the protective mission for the Secret Service. Whereas special agents alternate between protection and investigative assignments, special officers are hired only to work protection details. They must have a familiarity with all phases of protective responsibilities sufficient to assist in protective movements, cover designated security posts and drive protective vehicles.
Assignments may include
Special officers are sworn law enforcement officers, and are authorized to make arrests in connection with their official duties. They are classified as federal agents but use "special officer '' as their official title much the same way as Deputy US Marshals are special agents but use the title "Deputy US Marshal ''.
Newly appointed special officers must successfully complete eight (8) weeks of intensive training at the Special Officer Basic Training Course at the Secret Service James J. Rowley Training Center just outside Washington, D.C. The training includes courses such as Criminal Law, Laws of Arrest, Search and Seizure, Control Tactics, Civil Liability, Emergency Medicine, Basic Water Safety, Firearms and Weapons Handling, Radio Communications, Emergency Driving and Physical Fitness Training.
Since the agency 's inception, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents.
Initially the firearms were privately procured and there was little if any standardization. In the 1930s, the USSS issued the Colt M1911A1 pistol in. 45 ACP caliber. In the 1950s and 1960s, Special Agents carried the Smith & Wesson Model 36 and Colt Detective Special. 38 - Special revolvers.
Following President Kennedy 's assassination, USSS Special Agents were authorized to carry the. 357 Magnum Smith & Wesson Model 19 revolver.
Between 1981 and 1991, the Secret Service issued the Smith & Wesson Model 19 and the Smith & Wesson Model 66. 357 Magnum revolvers, with 2.5 - inch barrels all the way up to the 4 - inch - barreled models, loaded with hollow - point rounds.
By 1992, the standard issue weapon became the SIG Sauer P228 9mm pistol. This weapon stayed in service through 1999.
The Secret Service replaced the Thompson submachine gun with the Uzi submachine gun in the 1970s. Uzis that the Secret Service used have slightly shorter - than - standard barrels so they could to fit inside the standard size Samsonite briefcases that concealed them. They phased out the Uzi in the mid 1990s and replaced it with the H&K MP5. The Secret Service was the last Federal agency to use the Uzi.
The Counter-Assault Team used the M4 carbine from the early 1990s until 2006.
The current sidearm for USSS agents is the SIG Sauer P229 chambered in. 357 SIG (which entered service in 1999) or FN Five - seveN chambered in FN 5.7 x28mm.
Agents and officers are trained on standard shoulder weapons that include the FN P90 submachine gun, the 9mm Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, and the 12 - gauge Remington 870 shotgun. The agency has initiated a procurement process to ultimately replace the MP5 with a 5.56 mm rifle.
As a non-lethal option, Special Agents, Special Officers, and Uniformed Division Officers are armed with the ASP expandable baton, and Uniformed Division officers also carry pepper spray.
Special Operations Division (SOD) units are authorized to use a variety of non-standard weapons. The Counter Assault Team (CAT) and the Emergency Response Team (ERT) both use the 5.56 mm Knight 's Armament Company SR - 16 CQB assault rifle in an 11.5 '' configuration. CAT also deploys 12 gauge Remington 870 MCS breaching shotguns. Uniform Division technicians assigned to the Counter Sniper (CS) team use custom built. 300 Winchester Magnum - chambered bolt - action rifles referred to as JARs ("Just Another Rifle ''). These rifles are built with Remington 700 long actions in Accuracy International stocks and use Schmidt & Bender optics. CS technicians also use the 7.62 mm KAC SR - 25 / Mk11 Mod 0 semi-automatic sniper rifle with a Trijicon 5.5 × ACOG optic.
The agency uses Motorola XTS and APX radios and surveillance kits in order to maintain communications. These radios are known to use DES encryption keys. When operationally required, members of the Special Operations Division use military grade radios that use Type 1 encryption algorithms.
When transporting the President in a motorcade, the Secret Service uses a fleet of custom - built armored Cadillac Parade Limousines, the newest and largest version of which is known as "The Beast ''. Armored Chevrolet Suburbans are also used when logistics require such a vehicle or when a more low profile appearance is required. For official movement the limousine is affixed with U.S. and presidential flags and the presidential seal on the rear doors. For unofficial events the vehicles are left sterile and unadorned.
Special Agents and Special Officers of the Secret Service wear attire that is appropriate for their surroundings, in order to blend in as much as possible. In most circumstances, the attire of a close protection shift is a conservative suit, but it can range from a tuxedo to casual clothing as required by the environment. Stereotypically Secret Service agents are often portrayed wearing reflective sunglasses and a communication earpiece. Often their attire is customized to conceal the wide array of equipment worn in service. Agents wear a distinctive lapel pin that identifies them to other agents.
The attire for Uniformed Division Officers includes standard police uniforms or utility uniforms and ballistic / identification vests for members of the countersniper team, Emergency Response Team (ERT), and canine officers. The shoulder patch of the Uniformed Division consists of the U.S. coat of arms on white or black, depending on the garment. Also, the shoulder patch is embroidered with "U.S. Secret Service Uniformed Division Police '' around the emblem.
The Secret Service has agents assigned to 136 field offices and field agencies, and the headquarters in Washington, D.C. The Service 's offices are located in cities throughout the United States and in Brazil (Brasilia), Bulgaria (Sofia), Canada (Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver), Colombia (Bogota), China (Hong Kong), France (Paris, Lyon), Germany (Frankfurt), Italy (Rome), Mexico (Mexico City), Netherlands (The Hague), Romania (Bucharest), Russia (Moscow), South Africa (Pretoria), Spain (Madrid), Thailand (Bangkok), and the United Kingdom (London). The offices in Lyon and The Hague are respectively responsible for liaison with the headquarters of Interpol and Europol, located in those cities.
In April 2012, an incident involving the president 's security detail received international press attention. The incident involved 11 agents and personnel from four branches of the U.S. military; they allegedly engaged prostitutes while assigned to protect the U.S. President at the 6th Summit of the Americas in Cartagena, Colombia. As of April 24, 2012, nine employees had resigned or retired.
After the incident was publicized, the Secret Service implemented new rules for its personnel. The rules prohibit personnel from visiting "non-reputable establishments '' and from consuming alcohol fewer than ten hours before starting work. Additionally, they restrict who is allowed in hotel rooms.
A few weeks later, stories emerged of Secret Service agents hiring strippers and prostitutes prior to Obama 's 2011 visit to El Salvador.
In 2015, two inebriated senior service agents drove an official car into the White House complex and collided with a barrier. One of the congressmen in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform that investigated that incident was Jason Chaffetz. In September 2015, it was revealed that 18 Secret Service employees or supervisors, including Assistant Director Ed Lowery, accessed an unsuccessful 2003 application by Chaffetz for employment with the agency and discussed leaking the information to the media in retaliation for Chaffetz ' investigations of agency misconduct. The confidential personal information was later leaked to The Daily Beast. Agency Director Joe Clancy apologized to Chaffetz and said that disciplinary action would be taken against those responsible.
In March 2017, a member of US Vice President Mike Pence 's detail was suspended after he was caught visiting a prostitute at a hotel in Maryland.
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where does blood flow after it passes through the gills of a fish | Fish gill - wikipedia
Most fish exchange gases using gills on both sides of the pharynx (throat). Gills are tissues that are like short threads, protein structures called filaments. These filaments have many functions including the transfer of ions and water, as well as the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, acids and ammonia. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen - rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen - poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum.
Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, are obligated to breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus, only breathe air if they need to and can otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.
All basal vertebrates breathe with gills. The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the esophagus to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch. The gills of vertebrates typically develop in the walls of the pharynx, along a series of gill slits opening to the exterior. Most species employ a countercurrent exchange system to enhance the diffusion of substances in and out of the gill, with blood and water flowing in opposite directions to each other.
The gills are composed of comb - like filaments, the gill lamellae, which help increase their surface area for oxygen exchange. When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular intervals. Then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so that it passes over the gills to the outside. The bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills.
Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, branches, or slender tufted processes that have a highly folded surface to increase surface area. The high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms as water contains only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does. A cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than air and it diffuses more slowly. In a litre of freshwater the oxygen content is 8 cm per litre compared to 210 in the same volume of air. Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous. Oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac - like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than using lungs "Gaseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one - way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is what happens when a fish is taken out of water. ''
Higher vertebrates do not develop gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and lay the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and in mammals the malleus and incus. Fish gill slits may be the evolutionary ancestors of the tonsils, thymus gland, and Eustachian tubes, as well as many other structures derived from the embryonic branchial pouches.
In bony fish, the gills lie in a branchial chamber covered by a bony operculum (branchia is an Ancient Greek word for gills). The great majority of bony fish species have five pairs of gills, although a few have lost some over the course of evolution. The operculum can be important in adjusting the pressure of water inside of the pharynx to allow proper ventilation of the gills, so that bony fish do not have to rely on ram ventilation (and hence near constant motion) to breathe. Valves inside the mouth keep the water from escaping.
The gill arches of bony fish typically have no septum, so that the gills alone project from the arch, supported by individual gill rays. Some species retain gill rakers. Though all but the most primitive bony fish lack a spiracle, the pseudobranch associated with it often remains, being located at the base of the operculum. This is, however, often greatly reduced, consisting of a small mass of cells without any remaining gill - like structure.
Marine teleosts also use gills to excrete electrolytes. The gills ' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of seawater and excrete the salt. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water osmotically through their gills.
In some primitive bony fishes and amphibians, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods.
Sharks and rays typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six or seven pairs. Adjacent slits are separated by a cartilaginous gill arch from which projects a long sheet - like septum, partly supported by a further piece of cartilage called the gill ray. The individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of the septum. The base of the arch may also support gill rakers, small projecting elements that help to filter food from the water.
A smaller opening, the spiracle, lies in the back of the first gill slit. This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills. The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.
Most sharks rely on ram ventilation, forcing water into the mouth and over the gills by rapidly swimming forward. In slow - moving or bottom dwelling species, especially among skates and rays, the spiracle may be enlarged, and the fish breathes by sucking water through this opening, instead of through the mouth.
Chimaeras differ from other cartilagenous fish, having lost both the spiracle and the fifth gill slit. The remaining slits are covered by an operculum, developed from the septum of the gill arch in front of the first gill.
The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of symplesiomorphy. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes '' because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we can not infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.
Lampreys and hagfish do not have gill slits as such. Instead, the gills are contained in spherical pouches, with a circular opening to the outside. Like the gill slits of higher fish, each pouch contains two gills. In some cases, the openings may be fused together, effectively forming an operculum. Lampreys have seven pairs of pouches, while hagfishes may have six to fourteen, depending on the species. In the hagfish, the pouches connect with the pharynx internally. In adult lampreys, a separate respiratory tube develops beneath the pharynx proper, separating food and water from respiration by closing a valve at its anterior end.
Although most fish respire primarily using gills, some fishes can at least partially respire using mechanisms that do not require gills. In some species cutaneous respiration accounts for 5 to 40 percent of the total respiration, depending on temperature. Cutaneous respiration is more important in species that breathe air, such as mudskippers and reedfish, and in such species can account for nearly half the total respiration.
Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended time periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so - called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family.
Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water 's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air - breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air - breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.
Fish gills are the preferred habitat of many ectoparasites (parasites attached to the gill but living out of it); the most commons are monogeneans and certain groups of parasitic copepods, which can be extremely numerous. Other ectoparasites found on gills are leeches and, in seawater, larvae of gnathiid isopods. Endoparasites (parasites living inside the gills) include encysted adult didymozoid trematodes, a few trichosomoidid nematodes of the genus Huffmanela, including Huffmanela ossicola which lives within the gill bone, and the encysted parasitic turbellarian Paravortex. Various protists and Myxosporea are also parasitic on gills, where they form cysts.
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why are my eyes always red in photos | Red - eye effect - wikipedia
The red - eye effect in photography is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs of the eyes of humans and several other animals. It occurs when using a photographic flash very close to the camera lens (as with most compact cameras) in ambient low light.
In flash photography the light of the flash occurs too fast for the pupil to close, so much of the very bright light from the flash passes into the eye through the pupil, reflects off the fundus at the back of the eyeball and out through the pupil. The camera records this reflected light. The main cause of the red color is the ample amount of blood in the choroid which nourishes the back of the eye and is located behind the retina. The blood in the retinal circulation is far less than in the choroid, and plays virtually no role. The eye contains several photostable pigments that all absorb in the short wavelength region, and hence contribute somewhat to the red eye effect. The lens cuts off deep blue and violet light, below 430 nm (depending on age), and macular pigment absorbs between 400 and 500 nm, but this pigment is located exclusively in the tiny fovea. Melanin, located in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the choroid, shows a gradually increasing absorption towards the short wavelengths. But blood is the main determinant of the red color, because it is completely transparent at long wavelengths and abruptly starts absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red - eye effect than dark skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red - eye effect. This is obvious because the red - eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.
The role of melanin in red - eye effect is demonstrated in animals with heterochromia: only the blue eye displays the effect. The effect is still more pronounced in humans and animals with albinism. All forms of albinism involve abnormal production and / or deposition of melanin.
Red - eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children 's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child 's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates the red - eye effect.
Theatrical followspot operators, positioned nearly coincidentally with a very bright light and somewhat distant from the actors, occasionally witness red - eye in actors on stage. The effect is not visible to the rest of the audience because it is reliant on the very small angle between the followspot operator and the light.
Similar effects, some related to red - eye effect, are of several kinds:
Spotted eagle - owl displays red - eye effect only on the eye facing the camera 's ring flash
Canon EOS 100 camera with bright light to contract pupils
Motorola Milestone XT720 camera while capturing image with red - eye reduction and xenon flash.
Demonstration of automated red - eye removal with GIMP software. Before (L); After (R).
The red - eye effect can be prevented in a number of ways.
If direct flash must be used, a good rule of thumb is to separate the flash from the lens by 1 / 20 of the distance of the camera to the subject. For example, if the subject is 2 meters (6 feet) away, the flash head should be at least 10 cm (4 inches) away from the lens.
Professional photographers prefer to use ambient light or indirect flash, as the red - eye reduction system does not always prevent red eyes -- for example, if people look away during the pre-flash. In addition, people do not look natural with small pupils, and direct lighting from close to the camera lens is considered to produce unflattering photographs.
Red - eye removal is built into many popular consumer graphics editing software packages, or is supported through red - eye reduction plug - ins; examples include Adobe Photoshop, Apple iPhoto, Corel Photo - Paint, GIMP, Google Picasa, Paint.NET and Microsoft Windows Photo Gallery. Some can automatically find eyes in the image and perform color correction, and can apply it to many photos at once. Others may require the operator to manually select the regions of the pupils to which correction is to be applied. When performed manually, correction may consist of simply converting the red area of pupils to grayscale (desaturating), leaving surface reflections and highlights intact.
In a photograph of a child 's face, if there is red - eye in one eye but not the other, it may be leukocoria, which may be caused by the cancer retinoblastoma. The child 's eyes should be examined by a general physician.
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who has been the tallest man in history | List of tallest people - wikipedia
This is a list of the tallest people to be measured and verified, living and dead, See also List of humans with gigantism.
Living Deceased Height disputed
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how high are the blue mountains in australia | Blue Mountains (New South Wales) - Wikipedia
The Blue Mountains is a mountainous region and a mountain range located in New South Wales, Australia. The region borders on Sydney 's metropolitan area, its foothills starting about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of the state capital. The public 's understanding of the extent of the Blue Mountains is varied, as it forms only part of an extensive mountainous area associated with the Great Dividing Range. Officially the Blue Mountains region is bounded by the Nepean and Hawkesbury rivers in the east, the Coxs River and Lake Burragorang to the west and south, and the Wolgan and Colo rivers to the north. Geologically, it is situated in the central parts of the Sydney Basin.
The Blue Mountains Range comprises a range of mountains, plateaux and escarpments extending off the Great Dividing Range about 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi) northwest of Wolgan Gap in a generally southeasternly direction for about 96 kilometres (60 mi), terminating at Emu Plains. For about two thirds of its length it is traversed by the Great Western Highway and the Main Western railway line. Several established towns are situated on its heights, including Katoomba, Blackheath, Mount Victoria, and Springwood. The range forms the watershed between Coxs River to the south and the Grose and Wolgan rivers to the north. The range contains the Explorer Range and the Bell Range.
The Blue Mountains area includes the local government areas of the City of Blue Mountains, the City of Hawkesbury, the City of Lithgow and Oberon Shire.
Following European settlement of the Sydney area, the area was named the Carmarthen and Lansdowne Hills by Arthur Phillip in 1788. The Carmarthen Hills were in the north of the region and the Lansdowne Hills were in the south. The name Blue Mountains, however, was preferred and is derived from the blue tinge the range takes on when viewed from a distance. The tinge is believed to be caused by Mie scattering which occurs when incoming light with shorter wavelengths is preferentially scattered by particles within the atmosphere creating a blue - greyish colour to any distant objects, including mountains and clouds. Volatile terpenoids emitted in large quantities by the abundant eucalyptus trees in the Blue Mountains may cause Mie scattering and thus the blue haze for which the mountains were named.
When Europeans arrived in Australia, the Blue Mountains had already been inhabited for several millennia by the Gundungurra people, now represented by the Gundungurra Tribal Council Aboriginal Corporation based in Katoomba, and, in the lower Blue Mountains, by the Darug people, now represented by the Darug Tribal Aboriginal Corporation.
The Gundungurra creation story of the Blue Mountains tells that Dreamtime creatures Mirigan and Garangatch, half fish and half reptile, fought an epic battle which scarred the landscape into the Jamison Valley.
The Gundungurra Tribal Council is a nonprofit organisation representing the Gundungurra traditional owners, promoting heritage and culture and providing a support for Gundungurra people connecting back to Country.
Gundungurra Tribal Council Aboriginal Corporation has a registered Native Title Claim since 1995 over their traditional lands, which include the Blue Mountains and surrounding areas.
Examples of Aboriginal habitation can be found in many places. In the Red Hands Cave, a rock shelter near Glenbrook, the walls contain hand stencils from adults and children. On the southern side of Queen Elizabeth Drive, at Wentworth Falls, a rocky knoll has a large number of grinding grooves created by rubbing stone implements on the rock to shape and sharpen them. There are also carved images of animal tracks and an occupation cave. The site is known as Kings Tableland Aboriginal Site and dates back 22,000 years.
Arthur Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales, first glimpsed the extent of the Blue Mountains from a ridge at the site of today 's Oakhill College, Castle Hill. He named them the Carmarthen Hills, ' some forty to sixty miles distant... '' and he reckoned that the ground was "most suitable for government stock ''. This is the location where Gidley King in 1799 established a prison town for political prisoners from Ireland and Scotland.
The first documented use of the name Blue Mountains appears in Captain John Hunter 's account of Phillip 's 1789 expedition up the Hawkesbury River. Describing the events of about 5 July, Hunter wrote: "We frequently, in some of the reaches which we passed through this day, saw very near us the hills, which we suppose as seen from Port Jackson, and called by the governor the Blue Mountains. '' During the nineteenth century the name was commonly applied to the portion of the Great Dividing Range from about Goulburn in the south to the Hunter Valley in the north, but in time it came to be associated with a more limited area.
The native Aborigines knew two routes across the mountains: Bilpin Ridge, which is now the location of Bells Line of Road between Richmond and Bell, and the Coxs River, a tributary of the Nepean River. It could be followed upstream to the open plains of the Kanimbla Valley, the type of country that farmers prize.
European settlers initially considered that fertile lands lay beyond the mountains, as was China in the belief of many convicts, but that this did n't matter much, since the mountains were impassable. This idea was, to some extent, convenient for local authorities. An "insurmountable '' barrier would deter convicts from trying to escape in that direction.
A former convict, John Wilson, may have been the first European to cross the Blue Mountains. It is also believed that Mathew Everingham, 1795, may have also been partly successful based on letters he wrote at the time which came to light in the late 1980s. Wilson arrived with the First Fleet in 1788 and was freed in 1792. He settled in the bush, living with the Aborigines and even functioning as an intermediary between them and the settlers. In 1797 he returned to Sydney, claiming to have explored up to a hundred miles in all directions around Sydney, including across the mountains. His descriptions and observations were generally accurate, and it is possible that he had crossed the mountains via the southern aspect at the Coxs River corridor, guided by the Aborigines.
Governor Hunter was impressed by Wilson 's skills and sent him on an expedition with John Price and others in January 1798. The party crossed the Nepean River and moved southwest towards the present site of Mittagong. There they turned west and found a route along the ridge where today the Wombeyan Caves Road is located. In the process they found a way to go west of the mountains, by going around them instead of across them. In March of the same year, Wilson and Price ventured to the Camden area, and then continued further south until they discovered Thirlmere Lakes, finally almost reaching the present site of Goulburn.
It is possible that the accomplishments of this expedition were suppressed by Hunter, who may not have wanted convicts to know that there was a relatively easy way out of Sydney. Wilson was killed by Aborigines after abducting one of their women for his personal use, but he had accomplished much as an explorer. He was never recognised as the first person to cross the mountains, possibly because his Coxs River journey could not be verified, while his route west of Mittagong may have been the "long way around '' for a colony that had its eyes fixed on the sandstone fortress west of the Nepean.
Between 1798 and 1813, many people explored various parts of the mountains, from the Bilpin Ridge to the southern regions, today the site of the Kanangra - Boyd National Park. Still, they did not find a definite route across the mountains. The 1813 crossing of the Blue Mountains by Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth is officially credited as the first successful European crossing. Blaxland set out with Lawson and Wentworth on 11 May 1813 and succeeded in crossing the mountains by 31 May. They ventured as far as to what is now Mount Blaxland, just west of Coxs River.
In November 1813, Macquarie sent the surveyor George Evans on an expedition to confirm the discoveries made by Blaxland and his party. He was also told to see if there existed enough arable land to justify settlement. The issue had become more urgent because the colony was in the grips of a drought.
Evans and his party reached the Fish and Macquarie rivers, and the site of Bathurst. On 7 July 1814, construction of a road across the mountains was begun by William Cox. The work was at the behest of Governor Macquarie. 30 convict labourers and 8 guards completed the road on 14 January 1815 after 27 weeks of hard work.
Since the Blue Mountains are rich in coal and shale, mining for these resources began in Hartley Vale in 1865. J.B. North ran a shale mine in the Jamison Valley in the 19th century, and other operations were set up in several places. Locations for mining activities included the Jamison Valley, the upper Grose Valley, Newnes, Glen Davis and the Asgard Swamp area outside Mount Victoria. Shale mining failed in the long run because it was not financially viable.
The climate varies with elevation. At Katoomba, (1,010 m or 3,314 ft) the summer average maximum temperature is around 22 ° C with a few days extending into the 30s (80s -- 90s ° F) although it is quite common to see maximum temperatures stay in the teens when east coast troughs persist. Night - time temperatures are usually in the teens but can drop to single figures at times. During winter, the temperature is typically around 10 to 11 ° C in the daytime with − 1 ° C or so on clear nights and 3 to 4 ° C on cloudy nights. Very occasionally it will get down to − 3 ° C or slightly lower but usually the coldest air drains into the valleys during calm, clear nights. The Blue Mountains is not known for particularly cold mornings compared to other areas on the Central Tablelands, such as Oberon, Bathurst and Orange. There are two to three snowfalls per year, although settled snow has become less common in recent decades. In the lower mountains, however, the climate is significantly warmer.
Annual rainfall is about 1,050 millimetres (41 in) in the Upper Blue Mountains with many misty days.
The predominant natural vegetation of the higher ridges is eucalyptus forest. Heath - like vegetation is present on plateau edges above cliffs. The sheltered gorges often contain temperate rainforests. There are also many hanging swamps with button grass reeds and thick, deep black soil. Wollemia nobilis, the "Wollemi pine '', a relict of earlier vegetation of Gondwana, is found in remote and isolated valleys of the Wollemi National Park.
The main natural disasters to afflict the area are bush fires and severe storms. In recent years the lower mountains have been subjected to a series of bush fires which have caused great loss of property but relatively little loss of life. The upper mountains had not had a major fire for some decades until December 2002 (the Blackheath Glen Fire) and November 2006 when an extensive blaze in the Grose Valley threatened several communities including Bell and Blackheath (the Lawsons Long Alley Fire). This latest fire burned for almost a month but was extinguished, mainly due to a change in the weather, without loss of human life or property. A program of winter burning seems to have been successful in reducing fires in the upper mountains.
The Blue Mountains Range contains two smaller mountain ranges, the Bell Range near The Bells Line of Road and north of the Grose River and the Explorer Range, south of the Grose River extending west towards Mount Victoria. Smaller ranges within the Blue Mountains Range include the Caley Range, Erskine Range, Mount Hay Range, Paterson Range, and the Woodford Range. There are a number of peaks, generally around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) within the range. The major recorded peaks are:
The Blue Mountains are a dissected plateau carved in sandstone bedrock. They are now a series of ridge lines separated by gorges up to 760 metres (2,490 ft) deep. The highest point in the Blue Mountains, as it is now defined, is an unnamed point with an elevation of 1,189 m (3,901 ft) AHD, located 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north - east of Lithgow. However, the highest point in the broader region that was once considered to be the Blue Mountains is Mount Bindo, with an elevation 1,362 m (4,469 ft) AHD. A large part of the Blue Mountains is incorporated into the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Site, consisting of seven national park areas and a conservation reserve.
The Blue Mountains area is a distinct physiographic section of the larger Hunter - Hawkesbury Sunkland province. This is in turn a part of the larger East Australian Cordillera physiographic division.
The Greater Blue Mountains Area was unanimously listed as a World Heritage Area by UNESCO on 29 November 2000, becoming the fourth area in New South Wales to be listed. The area totals roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi), including the Blue Mountains, Kanangra - Boyd, Wollemi, Gardens of Stone, Yengo, Nattai and Thirlmere Lakes National Parks, plus the Jenolan Caves Karst Conservation Reserve.
This site was chosen to be included on the World Heritage list because:
The Greater Blue Mountains Area is inhabited by over 400 different forms of animals. Among them are rare mammal species like spotted - tailed quoll, the koala, the yellow - bellied glider, and long - nosed potoroo. There are also some rare reptiles, like the Blue Mountain water skink. There are also some dingos in the area, which form the top predators and hunt for grey kangaroos.
The Blue Mountains are a popular destination for rock climbers, mountain bikers and hikers as well as canyoning and other adventure sports. These sports are well catered for by guiding companies and equipment stores located mainly in Katoomba.
Popular climbing destinations include the Centennial Glen cliffs near Blackheath, Mount Victoria, Mount Piddington and Mount Boyce. Climbing is currently banned on The Three Sisters.
Mountain biking takes place mainly on the many fire trails that branch away from the main spine of the Great Western Highway, such as Narrow Neck, Anderson 's Fire Trail and others.
Likewise many of the fire trails are popular with day hikers, though many dedicated walking trails exist away from the fire roads.
Canyoning in the Blue Mountains is a popular sport and caters for various skill levels. It carries inherent dangers, yet for those with the appropriate skills or those looking to take a guided trip there are many great opportunities to experience a different view of the Blue Mountains.
There are numerous abseiling options available in the Blue Mountains including single and multipitch routes. There are some restrictions though with certain areas being closed for abseiling.
Cricket is a popular sport in the Blue Mountains, with the Blue Mountains Cattle Dogs representing the district in the Western Zone Premier League, Country Plate and Presidents Cup competitions.
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do i need a visa to go to northern cyprus | Visa policy of Northern Cyprus - Wikipedia
Most of the visitors to Northern Cyprus do not need to obtain a visa in advance for short visits.
Citizens of all countries may enter without a visa for up to 90 days except for the citizens of the following countries:
They must obtain a visa at one of the diplomatic mission of Northern Cyprus.
Nationals of Bangladesh are refused entry to Northern Cyprus by air (it is unclear whether this also applies to sea and land entries)
Visa on arrival was issued when crossing from Southern Cyprus until May 2015.
Visitors given less than 90 days on entry but wishing to stay longer (up to 90 days) can apply for extension at the Immigration Department of the Police Headquarters. To stay longer than 90 days, they have to exit and re-enter the country. Overstayers will be issued a visa penalty fine (100.23 Turkish lira for each day) that has to be paid on a future re-entry.
For visits of up to 90 days (i.e. without obtaining a work or residence permit), citizens of
may enter the TRNC using national ID cards instead of a passport.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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what is the origin of the word bank | Bank - wikipedia
A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates credit. Lending activities can be performed either directly or indirectly through capital markets. Due to their importance in the financial stability of a country, banks are highly regulated in most countries. Most nations have institutionalized a system known as fractional reserve banking under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, known as the Basel Accords.
Banking in its modern sense evolved in the 14th century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but in many ways was a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties -- notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs and the Rothschilds -- have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank.
Banking began with the first prototype banks of merchants of the ancient world, which made grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities and this system is known as barter system. This began around 2000 BC in Assyria and Babylonia. Later, in ancient Greece and during the Roman Empire, lenders based in temples made loans and added two important innovations: they accepted deposits and changed money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows evidence of money lending activity.
The origins of modern banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th - century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. One of the most famous Italian banks was the Medici Bank, set up by Giovanni di Bicci de ' Medici in 1397. The earliest known state deposit bank, Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), was founded in 1407 at Genoa, Italy.
Modern banking practices, including fractional reserve banking and the issue of banknotes, emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the goldsmiths of London, who possessed private vaults, and charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued receipts certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods.
Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend the money out on behalf of the depositor, which led to the development of modern banking practices; promissory notes (which evolved into banknotes) were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. The goldsmith paid interest on these deposits. Since the promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith 's customers were repayable over a longer time period, this was an early form of fractional reserve banking. The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money backed by the goldsmith 's promise to pay, allowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of default. Thus, the goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit.
The Bank of England was the first to begin the permanent issue of banknotes, in 1695. The Royal Bank of Scotland established the first overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century a bankers ' clearing house was established in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The Rothschilds pioneered international finance on a large scale, financing the purchase of the Suez canal for the British government.
The word bank was borrowed in Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banca, meaning "table '', from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter ''. Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Jewish Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.
The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages under for more information.
Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking, which is specified as:
In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking ' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is structured or regulated.
The business of banking is in many English common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:
Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques.
Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers ' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs).
Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.
Banks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account.
Banks can create new money when they make a loan. New loans throughout the banking system generate new deposits elsewhere in the system. The money supply is usually increased by the act of lending, and reduced when loans are repaid faster than new ones are generated. In the United Kingdom between 1997 and 2007, there was an increase in the money supply, largely caused by much more bank lending, which served to push up property prices and increase private debt. The amount of money in the economy as measured by M4 in the UK went from £ 750 billion to £ 1700 billion between 1997 and 2007, much of the increase caused by bank lending. If all the banks increase their lending together, then they can expect new deposits to return to them and the amount of money in the economy will increase. Excessive or risky lending can cause borrowers to default, the banks then become more cautious, so there is less lending and therefore less money so that the economy can go from boom to bust as happened in the UK and many other Western economies after 2007.
Activities undertaken by banks include personal banking, corporate banking, investment banking, private banking, transaction banking, insurance, consumer finance, foreign exchange trading, commodity trading, trading in equities, futures and options trading and money market trading.
Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:
A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.
This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance.
In the past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions.
This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.
Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of equity, retained earnings and subordinated debt.
After the 2007 - 2009 financial crisis, regulators force banks to issue Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when the capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalization gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement.
Some of the main risks faced by banks include:
The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet. The categorization of assets and capital is highly standardized so that it can be risk weighted.
The economic functions of banks include:
Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans).
Banking crises have developed many times throughout history, when one or more risks have emerged for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s.
Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8 % in the 2008 / 2009 financial year to a record US $96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85 % to US $115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalization. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56 % in 2008 / 2009, down from 61 % in the previous year. Asian banks ' share increased from 12 % to 14 % during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11 % to 13 %. Fee revenue generated by global investment banking totalled US $66.3 billion in 2009, up 12 % on the previous year.
The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the USA, resulting in a large number of small to medium - sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China 's top 4 banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC: 18000 +, BOC: 12000 +, CCB: 13000 +, ABC: 24000 +) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches -- more than double the 15,000 branches in the UK.
Currently commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.
Usually the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer 's order -- although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.
Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either a publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government 's central bank.
Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer -- defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.
The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:
These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and / or create new rights, obligations or limitations relevant to the bank - customer relationship.
Some types of financial institution, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.
The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:
Banks ' activities can be divided into:
Most banks are profit - making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit organizations.
The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialized and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC - insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed - member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks; and the Office of Thrift Supervision, or OTS, is the primary federal regulator for thrifts. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator -- the OCC.
Each regulatory agency has their own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing.
In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands - on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States.
The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders.
The management of the banks ' asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today 's economic environment. Loans are a bank 's primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions.
There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of "good times. '' The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are discovered. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs.
Banks also face a host of other challenges such as ageing ownership groups. Across the country, many banks ' management teams and board of directors are ageing. Banks also face ongoing pressure by shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, cheque cashing services, credit card companies, etc.
As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and have become big players in such activities.
To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.
To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:
Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. The bank credits a credit account to increase its balance, and debits a credit account to decrease its balance.
The customer debits his or her savings / bank (asset) account in his ledger when making a deposit (and the account is normally in debit), while the customer credits a credit card (liability) account in his ledger every time he spends money (and the account is normally in credit). When the customer reads his bank statement, the statement will show a credit to the account for deposits, and debits for withdrawals of funds. The customer with a positive balance will see this balance reflected as a credit balance on the bank statement. If the customer is overdrawn, he will have a negative balance, reflected as a debit balance on the bank statement.
One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money '' as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.
Custodial accounts are accounts in which assets are held for a third party. For example, businesses that accept custody of funds for clients prior to their conversion, return or transfer may have a custodial account at a bank for this purposes.
In modern time there has been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world, since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities. However, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalized as some other industries. In the USA, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle -- Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation. One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalized is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small business and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in, since the corporation 's financial information is available around the globe.
Types of institutions:
Terms and concepts:
Terms and concepts:
Crime:
Cyber Crime
Lists:
Banking by country
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where is west palm beach florida on map | West Palm Beach, Florida - wikipedia
West Palm Beach is a city in and the county seat of Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. It is one of the three main cities in South Florida. The population was 100,343 (revised) at the 2010 census. The University of Florida Bureau of Economic and Business Research (BEBR) estimates a 2016 population of 108,896, a 7.9 % increase from 2010. It is the oldest municipality in the Miami metropolitan area, having been incorporated as a city two years before Miami in November 1894. Although West Palm Beach is located approximately 68 miles (109 km) north of Downtown Miami, it is still considered a principal city within the Miami metropolitan area, due to the solid urbanization between both cities. The estimated population of the Miami metropolitan area, which includes all of Palm Beach County, was 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census.
The beginning of the historic period in south Florida is marked by Juan Ponce de León 's first contact with native people in 1513. Europeans found a thriving native population, which they categorized into separate tribes: the Mayaimi in the Lake Okeechobee Basin and the Jaega and Ais people in the East Okeechobee area and on the east coast north of the Tequesta. When the Spanish arrived, there were perhaps about 20,000 Native Americans in south Florida. By 1763, when the English gained control of Florida, the native peoples had all but been wiped out through war, enslavement, or European diseases.
Other native peoples from Alabama and Georgia moved into Florida in the early 18th century. They were of varied ancestry, but Europeans called them all "Creeks. '' In Florida, they were known as the Seminole and Miccosukee Indians. The Seminoles clashed with American settlers over land and over escaped slaves who found refuge among them. They resisted the government 's efforts to move them to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi. Between 1818 and 1858, three wars were fought between Seminoles and the United States government. By 1858, there were very few Seminoles remaining in Florida.
The area that was to become West Palm Beach was settled in the late 1870s and 1880s by a few hundred settlers who called the vicinity "Lake Worth Country. '' These settlers were a diverse community from different parts of the United States and the world. They included founding families such at the Potters and the Lainharts, who would go on to become leading members of the business community in the fledgling city. The first white settlers in Palm Beach County lived around Lake Worth, then an enclosed freshwater lake, named for Colonel William Jenkins Worth, who had fought in the Second Seminole War in Florida in 1842. Most settlers engaged in the growing of tropical fruits and vegetables for shipment the north via Lake Worth and the Indian River. By 1890, the U.S. Census counted over 200 people settled along Lake Worth in the vicinity of what would become West Palm Beach. The area at this time also boasted a hotel, the "Cocoanut House '', a church, and a post office. The city was platted by Henry Flagler as a community to house the servants working in the two grand hotels on the neighboring island of Palm Beach, across Lake Worth in 1893, coinciding with the arrival of the Florida East Coast railroad. Flagler paid two area settlers, Captain Porter and Louie Hillhouse, a combined sum of $45,000 for the original town site, stretching from Clear Lake to Lake Worth.
On November 5, 1894, 78 people met at the "Calaboose '' (the first jail and police station located at Clematis St. and Poinsettia, now Dixie Hwy.) and passed the motion to incorporate the Town of West Palm Beach in what was then Dade County (now Miami - Dade County). This made West Palm Beach the first incorporated municipality in Dade County and in South Florida. The town council quickly addressed the building codes and the tents and shanties were replaced by brick, brick veneer, and stone buildings. The city grew steadily during the 1890s and the first two decades of the 20th century, most residents were engaged in the tourist industry and related services or winter vegetable market and tropical fruit trade. In 1909, Palm Beach County was formed by the Florida State Legislature and West Palm Beach became the county seat. In 1916, a new neo-classical courthouse was opened, which has been painstakingly restored back to its original condition, and is now used as the local history museum.
The city grew rapidly in the 1920s as part of the Florida land boom. The population of West Palm Beach quadrupled from 1920 to 1927, and all kinds of businesses and public services grew along with it. Many of the city 's landmark structures and preserved neighborhoods were constructed during this period. Originally, Flagler intended for his Florida East Coast Railway to have its terminus in West Palm, but after the area experienced a deep freeze, he chose to extend the railroad to Miami instead.
The land boom was already faltering when city was devastated by the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. The Depression years of the 1930s were a quiet time for the area, which saw slight population growth and property values lower than during the 1920s. The city only recovered with the onset of World War II, which saw the construction of Palm Beach Air Force Base, which brought thousands of military personnel to the city. The base was vital to the allied war effort, as it provided an excellent training facility and had unparalleled access to North Africa for a North American city. Also during World War II, German U-Boats sank dozens of merchant ships and oil tankers just off the coast of West Palm Beach. Nearby Palm Beach was under black out conditions to minimize night visibility to German U-boats.
The 1950s saw another boom in population, partly due to the return of many soldiers and airmen who had served in the vicinity during the war. Also, the advent of air conditioning encouraged growth, as year - round living in a tropical climate became more acceptable to northerners. West Palm Beach became the one of the nation 's fastest growing metropolitan areas during the 1950s; the city 's borders spread west of Military Trail and south to Lake Clarke Shores. However, many of the city 's residents still lived within a narrow six - block wide strip from the south to north end. The neighborhoods were strictly segregated between White and African - American populations, a legacy that the city still struggles with today. The primary shopping district remained downtown, centered around Clematis Street.
In the 1960s, Palm Beach County 's first enclosed shopping mall, the Palm Beach Mall, and an indoor arena were completed. These projects led to a brief revival for the city, but in the 1970s and 1980s crime continued to be a serious issue and suburban sprawl continued to drain resources and business away from the old downtown area. By the early 1990s there were very high vacancy rates downtown, and serious levels of urban blight.
Since the 1990s, developments such as CityPlace and the preservation and renovation of 1920s architecture in the nightlife hub of Clematis Street have seen a downtown resurgence in the entertainment and shopping district. The city has also placed emphasis on neighborhood development and revitalization, in historic districts such as Northwood, Flamingo Park, and El Cid. Some neighborhoods still struggle with blight and crime, as well as lowered property values caused by the Great Recession, which hit the region particularly hard. Since the recovery, multiple new developments have been completed. The Palm Beach Mall, located at the Interstate 95 / Palm Beach Lakes Boulevard interchange became abandoned as downtown revitalized - the very mall that initiated the original abandonment of the downtown. The mall was then redeveloped into the Palm Beach Fashion Outlets in February 2014. A station for All Aboard Florida, a high speed passenger rail service serving Miami, Fort Lauderdale, West Palm Beach, and Orlando, is under construction as of July 2015.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the West Palm Beach Canal (C - 51) / Stormwater Treatment Area (STA) 1 East project was authorized by the U.S. Congress under the Flood Control Acts of 1948, 1954, 1962, 1968, and the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1996. The project is located in Palm Beach County and runs east / west from West Palm Beach at Lake Worth to Water Conservation Area (WCA) No. 1 (Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge). The authorized project will provide 30 - year flood protection to the urbanized eastern basin and 10 - year flood protection to the western basin. All eastern basin features have been completed.
During mediation of the Everglades water quality litigation, a technical plan was developed for resolution of the litigation. The technical plan included a substantially modified C - 51 project. The modified plan expands the original 1,600 - acre floodwater detention area into a 6,500 - acre stormwater detention area. In addition to the flood damage reduction benefits provided by the original project, the modified plan provides water quality treatment, reduction of damaging freshwater discharges to Lake Worth, and increased water supply for the Everglades and other users.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the total estimated cost of the West Palm Beach Canal (C51) is $375.47 million, with an estimated $345.04 million as the U.S. Federal Government cost share. $1.05 million was appropriated for this project by the U.S. Congress in Fiscal Year 2015. The Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Request from the U.S. President to the U.S. Congress was for $1 million.
According to the United States Census Bureau, this city has a total area of 58.2 square miles (151 km), of which 55.1 square miles (143 km) is land and 3.1 square miles (8.0 km) (5.26 %) is water.
Due to vast areas of wetland immediately to the west of the city 's downtown, growth took place to the north and south in a linear fashion. Until the 1960s, the city was no more than several blocks wide but over 100 blocks in length. Large scale development finally expanded to the west of the city with improved access and drainage in the 1960s. However, the city boundaries were not expanded much with the exception of the "Water Catchment Area '', an uninhabited area in the northwest part of the city. Known as Grassy Waters, it now serves as a reservoir for the city drinking water as well as a nature preserve.
Bel Air Historic District: Developed from 1925 to 1935 as a neighborhood for tradesmen and real estate salesmen who helped develop Palm Beach County, some of Belair was originally a pineapple plantation owned by Richard Hone. Hones 's frame vernacular house, built around 1895, still stands at 211 Plymouth Road. After Hone was murdered in 1902, his property was sold to George Currie, who created Currie Development Co. But before it was developed, the land was sold to William Ohlhaber, who raised coconut palms and ferns. Eventually, Ohlhaber platted the subdivision and sold off lots. The first house built in the subdivision was Ohlhaber 's mission - style home at 205 Pilgrim. Ohlhaber 's grandson said Ohlhaber bought the tract to provide dockage for his 90 - foot (27 m) yacht, but the yacht ran aground in the Gulf of Mexico and never reached Lake Worth. In 1947 Hone 's house was bought by Max Brombacher, Henry Flagler 's chief engineer, and it remains in the Brombacher family today. Belair became West Palm Beach 's fourth historic district in August 1993.
Central Park: Central Park is a collective name for several subdivisions north of Southern Boulevard. It originally was part of the Estates of South Palm Beach (which went from Wenonah Place to Pilgrim Road east of Dixie Highway). Like other West Palm Beach neighborhoods, the Estates of South Palm Beach boomed after Henry Flagler 's descent on Palm Beach. In 1884, James W. Copp, a bachelor in the boating business, borrowed $367.20 from Valentine Jones to buy the land. The ownership of what is now known as Central Park changed hands many times before being developed. Around 1919, the tropical wilderness was transformed into an exclusive neighborhood with curbed roads, sidewalks and a pier (at the foot of what is now Southern Boulevard). The neighborhood became part of West Palm Beach in 1926, and was named a city historic district in December 1993. In 1999 the neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
El Cid: Noted for its Mediterranean revival and mission - style homes, El Cid developed in the height of Florida 's real estate boom. In the late 19th century, most of the land north of Sunset Road was pineapple fields, but the crop dwindled in the early 20th century. Pittsburgh socialite Jay Phipps subdivided the old pineapple fields in the 1920s. He named it El Cid, after the celebrated Spanish hero, Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, who conquered Valencia in 1094. He was called "Cid '', meaning "lord ''. El Cid became a city historic district in June 1993. In 1995 the neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Flamingo Park: Originally a pineapple plantation, Flamingo Park was established by local contractors and developers, who saw the potential in this area -- one of the highest coastal ridge sections from downtown West Palm Beach to Miami. Some ridge houses even had ocean views from upper floors. Houses cost about $10,000 to $18,000 in the boom era, and many buyers were owners of shops and businesses on fashionable Dixie Highway nearby. Recently, residents rallied to have stop signs installed throughout the neighborhood and have banded together to ward off commercial and industrial zoning. Property values are rising as residents renovate and restore Spanish - style houses. Most of the homes in the neighborhood, developed from 1921 to 1930, are mission style, but nearly every style is represented. There are many Mediterranean revival - style houses along the high ridge line. Only two buildings in the historic district are known to have been designed by architects: 701 Flamingo Drive designed by Harvey and Clarke, and the Armory Arts Center designed by William Manly King. The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in January 1993 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.
Grandview Heights: One of the city 's oldest neighborhoods still intact, Grandview Heights was built as an extension of Palm Beach Heights from around 1910 to 1925. Almost all of Palm Beach Heights and half of Grandview Heights was demolished in 1989 to make way for the proposed Downtown / Uptown project, which became CityPlace. Grandview Heights originally attracted construction workers who helped build the luxury hotels, ministers and store owners. The neighborhood has one of the city 's best collection of early craftsman - style bungalows, as well as some modest, Mediterranean revival - style homes. The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1995 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
Mango Promenade: Mango Promenade became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1995 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. Lies just south of Palm Beach Atlantic University.
Northboro Park: An expansion of Old Northwood, Northboro Park was mostly custom houses for upper - middle - class professionals. Most of the houses are Mediterranean revival, mission and frame vernacular. Developed from 1923 to 1940, the neighborhood became the city 's second historic district (November 1992) and the historic designation may soon expand north to 45th Street. The oldest building in the neighborhood is Northboro Elementary School at 36th Street and Spruce, built in 1925 by DaCamara and Chace. The demolition of Northboro Elementary School began in late 2009. The first home in Northboro Park is 418 36th St., built in 1923.
Northwest: West Palm Beach 's first historic district to be included on the National Register of Historic Places (February 1992), the Northwest neighborhood was first settled in 1894, when the black community was moved from the Styx in Palm Beach to West Palm Beach. It also served as the city 's segregated black community from 1929 to 1960 (along with Pleasant City). Northwest remains a predominantly black community but according to the city planning department, most middle - and upper - class blacks moved to other neighborhoods after desegregation. Tamarind and Rosemary Avenues were the commercial centers for blacks by 1915, but most commercial buildings have been demolished or remodeled so the architecture is no longer significant. There are still good examples of late 19th - and early 20th - century American bungalow / craftsman - style homes in this neighborhood, which also has mission, shotgun, Bahamian vernacular and American Foursquare styles. The Alice Frederick Mickens house, at 801 Fourth St., is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Mickens was a philanthropist and humanitarian who promoted education for black youth. Another notable house is the Gwen Cherry house at 625 Division Ave. Cherry, Florida 's first black woman legislator and a resident of Miami, inherited the house from relative Mollie Holt, who built the house in 1926. Now it is the Palm Beach County Black Historical Society. The Northwest neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. The next year the neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1993.
Old Northwood Historic District: Old Northwood was developed from 1920 to 1927 -- the height of the city 's real estate boom. The Pinewood Development Co., platted and developed the area. Old Northwood became a neighborhood of what was considered extravagant Mediterranean revival, mission and frame vernacular houses, at $30,000 to $36,000. The buyers were professionals, entrepreneurs and tradesmen. Among them was David F. Dunkle, who was mayor of West Palm Beach. There are houses here designed by notable architects John Volk (best known for his Palm Beach houses), William Manly King (who designed Palm Beach High School and the Armory Arts Center) and Henry Steven Harvey (whose Seaboard Railroad Passenger Station on Tamarind Avenue is listed in the National Register of Historic Places). The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1991 and listed in the National Register of Historic Places in June 1994.
Northwood Hills Historic District: On August 4, 2003, the City Commission designated the Northwood Hills neighborhood as the 13th Historic District in the City of West Palm Beach. Northwood Hills comprises the area from 29th Street on the South to 39th Court on the North. The east side of Windsor is the Western boundary, and Greenwood Avenue is the Eastern boundary. The Neighborhood Association has worked several years to achieve the distinction of historic designation. This is the first district to be designated since 1996. Northwood Hills has a number of Mission Revival houses, a significant collection of Post-World War II architecture, a unique street layout, and one of the highest elevations in the city. The Northwood Hills neighborhood has also elected to allow the establishment of Bed and Breakfast establishments within the neighborhood.
Prospect Park: Promoted as a high - end neighborhood patterned after the prominent Prospect Park district in Brooklyn, this area consisted of mostly smaller estates for prominent businesspeople and northern investors. The neighborhood has a high concentration of Mediterranean revival and Mission revival houses. It was developed from 1920 to 1935 and became a city historic district in November 1993.
West Northwood Historic District: Cashing in on the real estate boom, developers of West Northwood built speculative and custom houses for upper - middle - class professionals from 1925 to ' 27. Dominant architectural styles are Mediterranean revival and mission. Although the area was declining, that has reversed in recent years, as more investors buy and restore the houses. West Northwood became a city historic district in August 1993.
The estimated 2012 population of West Palm Beach and the immediately adjacent Census Designated Places is 134,795. Much of this urbanized area lies directly west of the city and includes the neighborhoods of Westgate, Belvedere Homes, Lakeside Green, Century Village, Schall Circle, Lake Belvedere Estates, Plantation Mobile Homes, and Golden Lakes. These neighborhoods are not technically within the boundaries of West Palm Beach, being located in unincorporated Palm Beach County. However, residents possess a "West Palm Beach '' address and urban services, such as police, fire, parks, water and sewer, are provided by a combination of Palm Beach County and the City of West Palm Beach in these areas. The City of West Palm Beach also provides water and sewer service to the Town of Palm Beach. The contiguous "urbanized '' area, of which West Palm Beach is the core city, includes most of eastern Palm Beach County and has an estimated 2008 population of around 1,250,000.
Key incorporated cities and their populations within the West Palm Beach urbanized area include:
Downtown skyline at night
West Palm Beach skyline from Okeechobee Blvd.
Flagler Drive
Downtown shops on Clematis Street
Australian Avenue skyline on Clear Lake
Olive Avenue and Datura Street
North Bridge Centre
View of Palm Beach County Courthouse from Centennial Square
Hibiscus Street, downtown
West Palm Beach has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), with mean temperatures in all months above 64.4 ° F (18 ° C). This tropical climate allows for many species of tropical plants throughout the city.
The wet season -- May through October -- is hot, humid, and wet. The average window for 90 ° F (32 ° C) temperatures is April 20 through October 8, but temperatures of 100 ° F (38 ° C) or higher have only occurred four times since record - keeping began in 1888. During this period, more than half of the days bring afternoon thunderstorms and sea breezes that cool the air for the rest of the day.
The dry season -- November through April -- is warm and mostly dry, with 80 ° F (27 ° C) temperatures remaining fairly commonplace even from December through February. However, the area experiences occasional cold fronts during this period, with daytime temperatures below 65 ° F (18 ° C) and lows dropping to 45 ° F (7 ° C) or further. These fronts last only a few days before high temperatures return to the 70s to 80s and low temperatures to the mid-60s. During a severe and prolonged cold snap in January 2010, the city recorded 12 consecutive days of low temperatures at or below 45 ° F (7 ° C). Nine of the twelve days were below 40 ° F (4 ° C), with several mornings at or near freezing.
Annual average precipitation is 63 in (1,600 mm), making West Palm Beach the fourth wettest city in the country after Mobile, Alabama; Pensacola, Florida; and New Orleans. Most of the precipitation occurs during the wet season of May through October, mainly as short - lived heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Occasionally, stalled cold fronts in the fall and spring can also lead to heavy and prolonged rainfall. The only record of snow was on January 18, 1977, when flurries were reported. West Palm Beach has an average of 133 wet days and 234 sunny days annually. The hurricane season is officially from June 1 through November 30, with the peak months being August, September, and October. The city has received direct or near direct hits from hurricanes in 1928, 1947, 1949, 1964, 1965, 1979, 1992, 1999, 2004, and 2005.
As of the census of 2010, there were 54,179 households, out of which 20.8 % were vacant. As of 2010, 22.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.3 % were married couples living together, 13.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.5 % were non-families. 37.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 3.02.
As of 2000, the population was spread out with 21.3 % under the age of 18, 9.8 % from 18 to 24, 31.5 % from 25 to 44, 21.4 % from 45 to 64, and 16.0 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $36,774, and the median income for a family was $42,074. Males had a median income of $30,221 versus $26,473 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,188. About 14.5 % of families and 18.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.2 % of those under the age of 18 and 14.8 % of those ages 65 and older.
As of 2000, those who spoke only English at home accounted for 72.49 % of all residents, while those who spoke Spanish made up 17.71 %, French Creole (mainly Haitian Creole) 4.46 %, 1.27 % spoke French, German was spoken by 0.62 %, and Italian speakers made up 0.52 % of the population.
The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in the city limits:
The West Palm Beach Post Office, including the window unit, is located in an unincorporated area. The Haverhill BR post office is also in an unincorporated area.
K -- 12 public education is administrated by the School District of Palm Beach County, which is the eleventh - largest school district in the United States by enrollment. Public schools include:
Private schools in the area include:
The original Palm Beach Junior College building was restored and is now adjacent to the campus of the Dreyfoos School of the Arts, a magnet performing and visual arts high school. It is now a satellite building of Palm Beach State College.
Palm Beach Atlantic University (PBAU), a four - year private Christian university with approximately 3,200 students, is located in the city on seven blocks within the south end of downtown. The campus includes several historic structures converted to academic use. PBAU has recently added schools of nursing and of pharmacy.
Northwood University formally had a residential campus in West Palm Beach, Florida. The campus now belongs to Keiser University, a regionally accredited school that offers a variety of degrees at the Associate, Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral levels. It is one of their 16 Florida campuses.
Various private for - profit institutions are located in the city, including the Lincoln College of Technology (formerly known as New England Institute of Technology) and Florida Culinary Institute, owned by the New Jersey - based Lincoln Group of Schools.
The Mandel Public Library of West Palm Beach serves the city. The new city public library opened in April 2009 at 411 Clematis Street, replacing the 1962 building which stood at the intersection of Clematis and Flagler Drive, along the Intracoastal Waterfront. Named for a Mandel Foundation grant received in 2012, the Mandel Public Library provides books, performances, classes, research, entertainment, technology, music and more.
The Main Branch of the Palm Beach County Library System is also located in West Palm Beach, as well as the Okeechobee Branch Library.
Companies based in West Palm Beach include Florida Public Utilities, ION Media Networks, Ocwen, and The Palm Beach Post. Other major employers are Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Sikorsky Aircraft, General Dynamics, Cemex, and CSC.
Norton Museum of Art: is the largest art museum in Florida and also organizes traveling exhibits. The permanent collection features 19th and 20th century European and American art, Chinese, contemporary art and photography.
Raymond F. Kravis Center for the Performing Arts: Built in 1992, the Kravis Center hosts performances of music, dance, opera and theatre.
Meyer Amphitheater: An abandoned Holiday Inn, demolished on New Year 's Eve 1993 and transformed into an outdoor waterfront amphitheater.
Richard and Pat Johnson Palm Beach County History Museum: is operated and maintained by the Historical Society of Palm Beach County, and is in the Historic 1916 Court House in downtown West Palm Beach. The museum provides access to Palm Beach County history through on - site investigation in the Research Library, on - line research on www.pbchistoryonline.org, the Public Programming Series and the Distinguished Lecture Series. The museum is free to visitors and offers Docent - led tours for adults and school groups.
Palm Beach County Convention Center: A complex with 350,000 square feet (33,000 m) of exhibit halls and meeting rooms in downtown West Palm Beach.
Harriet Himmel Theater: is a multi-use theater and historic church, and is the cultural centerpiece of CityPlace
The Carefree Theatre: Built in 1940, in the historic Flamingo Park district, it was variously an art house cinema and alternative music performance venue until severely damaged by Hurricane Wilma.
There is a Jewish community offering learning and cultural activities.
SunFest: an annual music, art, and waterfront festival in Florida, founded in 1982 to draw visitors to the area during the "shoulder season '' of April and May. SunFest has an annual attendance of more than 275,000 people. Artists who have performed include Wilco, Carrie Underwood, John Mayer, Ray Charles, James Brown, Ludacris, Nelly, Lenny Kravitz, Dizzy Gillespie, Bob Dylan, Kenny G, Earth Wind and Fire, Cyndi Lauper, Smashing Pumpkins, MGMT, and The Wailers. SunFest is a 501 (c) 3 non-profit organization.
Palm Beach International Film Festival
Barrett - Jackson Collector Car Auction: Classic car auction held every March in the South Florida Expo Center.
Palm Beach Opera
West Palm Beach does not host any professional sports teams, but the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League play at BB&T Center in Sunrise to the south. Major League Baseball 's Miami Marlins, the National Football League 's Miami Dolphins and the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association all play in nearby Miami - Dade County. In the past West Palm Beach has hosted various professional teams such as Arena Football, minor league hockey and baseball as well as semi-pro football.
Spring Training Baseball: The newly built The Ballpark of The Palm Beaches, which made its debut in 2017, accommodates both the Washington Nationals and Houston Astros for spring training. The Miami Marlins and St. Louis Cardinals conduct spring training in suburban West Palm Beach in the town of Jupiter, Florida at Roger Dean Stadium. In the past West Palm Beach hosted the Atlanta Braves and Montreal Expos at the former Municipal Stadium and the Philadelphia Athletics and St. Louis Browns at Connie Mack Field, which was demolished in 1992.
Collegiate Athletics: Palm Beach Atlantic University competes in NCAA Division II basketball, baseball and soccer. PBAU has recently purchased a large tract of land just west of downtown where there will be built a multi-use athletic stadium. Indoor athletics play their home games at the Greene Complex which is an on campus arena. Florida Atlantic University 's athletic programs are played in neighboring Boca Raton. FAU competes in the highest level of NCAA athletics including football, basketball, baseball, softball and tennis. Northwood University competes at the NAIA level, where their basketball coach Rollie Massimino, has given the athletic program national exposure.
Professional Golf: PGA National Resort & Spa in suburban Palm Beach Gardens hosts the PGA Tour Honda Classic.
Polo and Equestrian: Palm Beach Polo and Country Club counts 7 polo fields among its world - class facilities and many high - goal games are played in the area. The equestrian events at the Palm Beach International Equestrian Center are the world - renowned Winter Equestrian Festival, the Global Dressage Festival and over 40 weeks a year of equestrian competitions, hosted in Wellington.
Tennis: The Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, a hard court stop on the ATP Tour, takes place annually in Delray Beach, slightly to the south of West Palm Beach.
Croquet: The National Croquet Center has 12 full sized croquet lawns, making it the largest dedicated croquet facility in the world. It hosts several national championships and in May 2009 will host the World Championship when representatives of up to 25 countries will be competing for the Wimbledon Cup.
BMX Racing: Okeeheelee park contains one of the most celebrated BMX race tracks in the state of Florida. Insured by USA BMX, the Okeeheelee track is host to State Qualifiers and National Races, it is also home to several National Champions.
Clematis Street: is West Palm Beach 's historic "main street '' and shopping venue, home to Clematis by Night, an outdoor event held on the street with live music and food.
CityPlace: Opened in 2000 on re-developed land where dilapidated single family homes and apartments once stood, CityPlace houses a multi-plex movie theater, night clubs (comedy, dance), restaurants, clothing and home - decor retail outlets and multi-story town houses and apartments.
Antique Row: is a shopping district on the south side of the city along Dixie Highway. Architectural Digest, The New York Times, Art & Antiques, and House Beautiful have all noted Antique Row as one of the east coast 's premier antique districts, considered the "antique design center '' of Florida.
Northwood Village: is an historic commercial district north of downtown. The city invested money in rebuilding the streetscape and promoting the area as an arts district.
Air: The city is served by Palm Beach International Airport, located in unincorporated Palm Beach County. The airport attracts people from all over the county as well as from the Treasure Coast and Space Coast counties to the north. In 2014 there were over 6.5 million passengers who passed through the gates of PBIA making it the 52nd busiest airport in the nation.
Bicycle The city 's flat terrain, paved streets, and year - round climate soon earned it the designation as the "bicyclingest town in the U.S.A. ''. The historic core consists of a dense grid of narrower streets, as laid out by Henry Flagler. Clematis Street was one - lane each direction with a speed limit of 12 mph, and the middle of the street between lanes was used to park bicycles. Although the popularity of bicycling declined during the later half of the 20th century, it has recently increased in popularity. In addition, a bike share program, SkyBike, was introduced in 2015.
Highways: U.S. 1 passes though the city 's downtown, commercial, and industrial districts. Interstate 95 bisects the city from north to south with multiple interchanges serving West Palm Beach, including an entrance to Palm Beach International Airport. Florida 's Turnpike passes through West Palm Beach further west, connecting with the western suburbs of Royal Palm Beach and Wellington. State Road 80, running east - west, is a partial expressway, that runs from Interstate 95 to State Road 7.
Rail: Tri-Rail commuter rail system serves the city from a historical station located on the west side of Tamarind Avenue, just east of I - 95. Tri-Rail provides commuter rides north to Mangonia Park and south to Miami. Amtrak has daily trains arriving and departing to points north. CSX Transportation and the Florida East Coast Railway also serve the city. All Aboard Florida began track upgrades in 2015 in preparation for higher - speed passenger service serving Miami, FL through Orlando, FL. Service on All Aboard Florida 's Brightline is slated to begin to Miami in mid-2017.
Trolley: There is a free downtown trolley that provides transportation around downtown including Clematis, City Place and Waterfront districts of the city.
Bus: Greyhound Lines operates scheduled intercity bus service out of the train station on the west side of Tamarind Avenue. Palm Tran, the Palm Beach County municipal bus service, operates scheduled service throughout the city and the suburban areas of Palm Beach County.
Port: The Port of Palm Beach is located on the northern edge of the city limits. It is the fourth busiest container port in Florida and the 18th busiest in the continental United States. In addition to intermodal capacity, the Port is a major modal point for the shipment of various goods as well as being the home to several small passenger cruise lines.
Water Taxi: As a waterfront city there is specific need for water transportation between points in the city and surrounding areas. Waterway transportation is available to and from the downtown Clematis Street District, Sailfish Marina Resort, waterfront attractions, Peanut Island and special events.
Newspapers The Palm Beach Post is owned by Atlanta - based Cox Enterprises. Its name notwithstanding, the Post is based in West Palm Beach, not Palm Beach. The Post is the 57th highest daily circulation in the country, according to the 2007 BurrellesLuce survey, and is the city 's sole daily newspaper. It serves Palm Beach County and the Treasure Coast, the area north of Palm Beach County that includes Martin and St. Lucie Counties.
Palm Beach Daily News: sister publication of the Palm Beach Post serving the town of Palm Beach, it covers events and social affairs of the celebrities and wealthy residents of Palm Beach. Frequently extends coverage to events taking place in West Palm Beach.
The Palm Beach Times: another daily newspaper covering the city, founded in 1998.
South Florida Sun - Sentinel: is based in Fort Lauderdale and covers portions of Southern Palm Beach County.
New Times Broward - Palm Beach is an alternative weekly publication serving West Palm Beach along with Fort Lauderdale.
WPB Magazine is a quarterly publication serving West Palm Beach.
Radio West Palm Beach is ranked as the 46th largest radio market in the country by Arbitron.
Television West Palm Beach is ranked as the 38th largest television market in the country by Nielsen Media Research. The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WPTV - TV / 5 (NBC), WPEC / 12 (CBS), WTCN - CA / 15 (MYTV), WPBF / 25 (ABC), WFLX / 29 (FOX), WTVX / 34 (CW), WXEL - TV / 42 (PBS), WWHB - CA / 48 (Azteca), WFGC / 61 (CTN), WPXP - TV / 67 (ION) and WBWP - LD / 57 (Ind.).
The area 's official Telemundo affiliate is WSCV in Miami, and WLTV is the area 's Univision affiliate, also in Miami. In addition to those, many Miami / Ft. Lauderdale market TV and radio stations are also available and viewed in West Palm Beach.
West Palm Beach has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:
Violent crime: According to Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) statistics, West Palm Beach is experiencing a steep drop in major crimes. In the past decade, crime has dropped more in West Palm Beach than in any other major city (approximately 100,000 residents or more) in the state of Florida. In 1993, West Palm Beach was featured in a 60 Minutes segment on urban decay. At the time, 80 % of downtown properties were vacant. Since then, the city has done much to improve its image, at least in the physical sense. Occupancy is high, and housing prices have risen rapidly. FDLE stats show that the total crime rate per 100,000 residents has dropped by more than 50 % since 2000, from 13,880 that year to 6,571 in 2008. In 2008 alone, there was a 17.9 % drop in crime. Annual crime rates are always more than three times the national average. However, as of 2006, the city 's crime average has been gradually decreasing while robbery was up 17 percent. West Palm Beach 's northern neighbor, Riviera Beach, has an even higher violent crime rate.
The following are the crime rates, per 100,000 people, for West Palm Beach as of 2005.
Dunbar Village: In 2007, a resident was gang - raped by Jakaris Taylor and a group of 3 other teenagers in one of the city 's public housing developments, Dunbar Village Housing Projects, with her son forced to participate, drawing national outrage.
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where is the mexican little league team from | The Perfect Game - Wikipedia
The Perfect Game is a 2009 American drama film directed by William Dear, based on the 2008 book of the same name written by W. William Winokur. The film is based on the events leading to the 1957 Little League World Series, which was won by the first team from outside the United States, the Industrial Little League of Monterrey, Mexico, who defeated the heavily favored U.S. team. Mexican pitcher Ángel Macías threw the first, and so far only, perfect game in championship game history.
César Faz (Clifton Collins, Jr.), moves to Monterrey, Mexico, after he is let go by the St. Louis Cardinals from his job as a clubhouse attendant. There he meets local children being led by Padre Esteban (Cheech Marin), enjoying baseball; he takes pitcher Ángel Macías (Jake T. Austin), under his wing and brags about his own pitching skills and how he used to coach the Cardinals. Ángel convinces César to help recruit and coach Monterrey 's first - ever Little League team. With César 's skills and Padre Esteban 's support, the boys hone themselves into a competitive team worthy of international competition. At the final game of the World Series of Little League, Monterrey defeated the team of West La Mesa, California, 4 -- 0. Enrique Suárez (Jansen Panettiere), hit a grand slam home run, and Ángel Macías pitched a perfect game, a feat that has not since been repeated in Little League World Series history.
When the team arrives in the United States, they are met with racism, a language barrier, and visa troubles. Though the underdogs, the team scores a series of victories that endear them to the media, and new fans. They befriend a sports reporter, Frankie (Emilie de Ravin), and the groundskeeper, Cool Papa Bell (Louis Gossett Jr.), who then assist the boys in reaching the final game.
The film is based on a true story about a group of boys from Monterrey, Mexico, who became the first non-U.S. team to win the Little League World Series in 1957. Their team was Industriales de Monterrey, nicknamed "Los pequeños gigantes '' (The little giants). Before traveling to the United States, the Little League team of the Industriales de Monterrey Baseball Club, played two seasons on the local 4 team Little League circuit before qualifying, as the second Little League team coming from outside of the United States and Canada; they participated in the southern area regional tournaments, which qualified them for the Little League World Series, held every August in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania.
The Industriales won all qualifying tournaments, to many rather unexpectedly, and advanced to the Little League World Series as the first Mexican team. There, they made it to the finals and defeated the highly favored team from La Mesa, California by a score of 4 - 0. The pitcher from Monterrey, Angel Macías, threw the first and only perfect game in championship history. The Industriales de Monterrey little league team was so dominant that year, that they were able to repeat their success in the following year in the 1958 Little League World Series.
The film scenes in Monterrey, which is the leading industrial center, one of the largest Mexican cities for over 100 years and a major center for science and research in Mexico, depicted the city as a two - burro village where the children played ball in the dirt choked streets with pigs and chickens serving as bases. The border between Mexico and Texas was portrayed as an out - in - the - middle - of - nowhere border crossing along a dirt road, instead of a bridge border - crossing over the Rio Grande. The digital work to recreate the separate looks for the United States and Monterrey in 1957 was done by Post Logic Studios.
The film has received mixed reviews. Patrick Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times said he felt that "the film did a nice job of telling the story of the surprise upset when a youth ball team from Monterrey, Mexico, won the 1957 Little League World Series. '' He also commented that, "although the story seems like a fable, it reflected true events. '' He further expressed concern over Lionsgate 's suspending the original release date. Ben Apatoff of MLB.com felt that the film was a strong family movie that appeals to baseball history buffs or any person who could relate to a child in love with the game. Roger Ebert wrote: "You sort of know how these underdog sports movies turn out. Does n't matter. The Perfect Game so expertly uses the charisma and personalities of the actors, especially the young ones, that it 's thrilling anyway. ''
A.O. Scott of At the Movies said, "(From) the second minute of the movie I knew every single thing that was going to happen and there was not a single surprise. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune wrote, "The movie feels fraudulent, whether it 's sticking to the historical record or going its own way with the customary composites and revisions and fabrications. '' The film ranking website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 54 % of critics have given The Perfect Game positive reviews, based upon a sample of 39.
The film screened at the 2009 Guadalajara International Film Festival, with Eva Longoria invited to the preview. Louis Gossett Jr. was also in attendance for the premiere. The film was originally to be released in theaters on August 8, 2008, but it was bumped from that date, which Lionsgate said was due to marketing monies another party pledged but did not deliver.
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once upon a time robin hood actor change | Robin Hood (once Upon a Time) - Wikipedia
Robin of Locksley, later known as Robin Hood, is a fictional character in ABC 's television series Once Upon a Time. He is portrayed by British actor / singer Sean Maguire, who became a series regular in the fifth season after making recurring appearances in the third and fourth season. He is the second actor to play the role in the series, as it was first played by Tom Ellis in the second season, but scheduling conflicts prevented Ellis from reprising the role, resulting in Maguire taking the role afterwards.
In the Enchanted Forest, Robin of Locksley is a skilled archer who robs from the rich to give to the poor with his group of Merry Men. He is also the father to his and Maid Marian 's son Roland. Prior to his life as a thief, Robin was a tavern owner who was faced with having his establishment taken over by the Sheriff of Nottingham. Robin later becomes the Prince of Thieves and gives himself the name Robin Hood, giving stolen money to the townspeople and setting up his band of Merry Men in Sherwood Forest with his close group of friends. One of his allies Will Scarlet betrays Robin, stealing for himself alone and exiting the group. After his pregnant wife Marian falls ill, Robin uses a necklace which contains a glamour spell from the Land of Oz to change his face when he breaks into Rumplestiltskin 's castle to steal a magic wand. Rumplestiltskin catches and tortures Robin with the intention of killing him, though Belle frees him and he heals Marian.
After Regina loses her love Daniel, Tinker Bell leads her to Robin Hood, claiming he is her true love. However, Regina is scared to love again and refuses to meet him. Marian is later killed by Regina (later known as the Evil Queen) for supporting Snow White, leaving Robin to raise Roland alone. Whilst looking for a globe belonging to Rumplestiltskin, Neal and Mulan encounter Robin Hood in Rumplestiltskin 's castle. He reluctantly uses Roland as bait to call Peter Pan 's shadow to allow Neal to travel to Neverland. When Peter Pan 's curse takes everyone from Storybrooke back to their original worlds, he rescues Regina and Mary Margaret in the Enchanted Forest from a flying monkey. He gradually forms a bond with Regina, and after Snow and Charming reluctantly enact a curse to save their baby, Robin is sent to Storybrooke with no memories of the past year. He again likens to Regina and the two later begin a romantic relationship. However, this relationship is shattered after Emma, who traveled to the past with Captain Hook, unintentionally saved Marian before she could be executed by Regina and brought her back to the present.
Robin Hood and Roland are reunited with Marian, and Robin decides he must remain loyal to Marian, leaving Regina. However, after Marian is cursed with a freezing spell, Robin asks for Regina 's help to save her, with his love for Regina overpowering him. Robin then assists Regina in finding the Author of Henry 's story book in order to find Regina 's happy ending. After Marian is saved by Regina, Robin chooses to be with the latter, though after Marian again appears to suffer with remnants of the spell, she is forced to be taken over the town line to cure herself. Regina informs Robin that he must assist her into the real world, reluctantly giving up her happiness to save Robin 's family. In New York City, Robin learns that Marian is in fact Zelena, the Wicked Witch of the West, and Regina 's half - sister, who killed Marian and posed as her. However, before this knowledge, Zelena announces she is pregnant with Robin 's child. Regina brings Robin, Zelena and Roland back to Storybrooke, and places Zelena in the psychiatric ward of Storybrooke General Hospital.
Robin joins everyone in the quest to find Merlin and vanquish the Darkness forever. However, he is nearly killed by a rogue member of the Knights of the Round Table. He is saved by Emma, but being the Dark One, she accidentally summons a Fury onto him. Back in Storybrooke, he is saved from being sent to the Underworld by Regina, David, Leory, King Arthur and Mary Margaret, who offer portions of their lives to pay off the price of saving his life. When Hook, also a Dark One, is tricked into resurrecting the previous Dark Ones, Robin is one of those marked with Charon 's emblem to be sent back in their place, however Hook has a change of heart and kills himself along with the Dark Ones.
Robin later joins everyone with their rescue mission to the Underworld. When his daughter is dragged there by accident, he remains in hiding to keep her safe, refusing to even name her while in the Underworld, since Hades could use that to have power over her. Though his life is threatened by the deranged Prince James, he is saved by Emma and David. Upon returning to Storybrooke, Robin gives his life to save Regina from Hades, surprisingly being avenged by Zelena. He is given a funeral, leaving Regina broken - hearted once again. At his funeral, Zelena and Regina agreed to name his daughter after him.
After Robin 's death, Regina has a hard time trying to forgive Zelena, given the fact that his killer Hades had been Zelena 's true love.
In the Wish Realm, Regina and Emma encounter an alternate version of Robin. This new Robin tries to rob Regina and Emma, distracting the former long enough for them to miss the portal to Storybrooke. After he robs them he leaves and is later found by Regina drinking at a tavern and is asked by her if he 's happy believing if it was best if they never met back in the real world. After the Sheriff of Nottingham captures both of them this Robin reveals he steals from the rich to make himself rich, Marian died before they were married and his name remained "Robin of Locksley '', so Regina realizes that in the Wish Realm his life is unhappy. After Rumplestilskin rescues them he throws them into his dungeon after the Evil Queen in the Wish Realm left Belle for dead in the tower, Robin then is told about the other realm and how he 's dead and asks did the "other '' Robin had a good life. Robin and Regina both manage to escape and head back to Pinocchio 's house where he 's finished the wardrobe to send them back to Storybrooke and gives Regina a lucky feather from one of his arrows which is what the "other '' Robin wanted her to have and after talking with Emma, Regina asks Robin if he wants to come along and he agrees.
Once they return Regina starts to lose hope as Robin takes long to appear but finally arrives and is hugged by Regina and officially welcomed to Storybrooke. Regina tries to help Robin adjust to his new life in Storybrooke and after a heated agrument with Zelena about Robin not allowed any custody of his daughter, Robin leaves to kill Keith who is the Sheriff of Nottingham. After Regina stops him she tells him about the "other '' Robin 's children and complications he had, this causes Robin to argue with Regina that this new life is not what he wanted and after talking things through they kiss but Regina does n't feel the love and Robin later breaks into her vault and steals a box with potions. Not wanting to live in Storybrooke anymore Robin teams up with Zelena to break the barrier spell to escape to New York, but the attempt to leave fails as the potions do not work and Regina saddened by Robin promises to break barrier so he can leave.
Afterwards when Robin is alone in the woods the Evil Queen snake escapes from her cage and bites Robin 's hand which contains a spell from a potion earlier and turns her back to normal and she tells him she has big plans for Storybrooke and offers to give him a tour from her point of view.
But later, he 's sent back to the Wish Realm where he meets the Evil Queen, who now has repented and changed, and they soon starts a new life with each other. However, in the Wish Realm they are chased by angry villagers and Prince Henry who want the Evil Queen dead so they escape to the Enchanted Forest and start to steal from the rich and give to the poor. He is later mentioned to be with Fiar Tuck when the heroes return to the Enchanted Forest and later shoots an arrow to the Evil Queen with a ring attached to it asking for her hand in marriage and to start a new beginning.
At first, the producers wanted Ellis to continue in the role, but scheduling conflicts prevented Ellis from reprising, resulting in Maguire taking the role afterwards.
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when is episode 2 of life is strange before the storm out | Life is Strange: Before the Storm - Wikipedia
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Deck Nine and published by Square Enix. The first of three episodes was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on 31 August 2017. It is the second entry in the Life Is Strange series, set as a prequel to the first game, focusing on sixteen - year - old Chloe Price and her relationship with schoolmate Rachel Amber. Gameplay concerns itself mostly with the use of branching dialogues.
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is a graphic adventure played from a third - person view. The player assumes control of sixteen - year - old Chloe Price, three years prior to Life Is Strange. Unlike its predecessor, the game does not include time travel. Instead, Before the Storm features the ability "Backtalk '', with which the player can call upon Chloe to get out of certain precarious situations; "Backtalk '' may also make a situation worse. A dialogue tree is used when a conversation or commentary is prompted. Occasional decisions will temporarily or permanently change outcomes. The environment can be interacted with and altered, including marking walls with graffiti.
In her hometown of Arcadia Bay, sixteen - year - old Chloe Price sneaks into a house concert at an old mill. Conflict arises with two men inside, whom she evades when schoolmate Rachel Amber causes a distraction. The next day, Chloe and Rachel reunite at Blackwell Academy and decide to ditch class, stowing away on a cargo train and ending up at a lookout point. They people - watch through a viewfinder and see a man and woman kiss in the park, which apparently upsets Rachel. They steal wine from local campers and take a walk to a scrapyard. Chloe confronts Rachel about her change in mood, but is refused an answer. After Rachel leaves, Chloe discovers the wrecked car in which her father was killed. She meets up with Rachel again, who discloses that she witnessed her father cheating on her mother through the viewfinder. Rachel destroys a family photo in a burning trash bin, and in a fit of rage kicks it over, igniting a wildfire.
The next day, Chloe and Rachel are reprimanded by Principal Wells for ditching school; Chloe is either suspended or expelled depending on player actions. Unwilling to return home and face her mother and step - father, Chloe hides out at the scrapyard where she finds an old truck that she decides to repair. She then receives a call from local drug dealer Frank Bowers, who arranges a meeting to discuss setting her debt with him. Chloe agrees to repay him by helping him steal money from her classmate Drew, who owes Frank a large sum. However, Chloe finds out that Drew is being violently extorted by another drug dealer, and she must decide whether to pay off the dealer with the stolen money to protect Drew or keep it. When later a student is unable to participate in school 's theater production of "The Tempest '' due to road closures from the wildfire, Chloe reluctantly takes on the role opposite Rachel. After the play, they decide to leave Arcadia Bay with the newly repaired truck return to Rachel 's house to pack. There, following a confrontation, Rachel 's father reveals that the woman they saw him kissing was not a mistress, but in fact Rachel 's biological mother.
Publisher Square Enix chose Deck Nine to develop the prequel to Life Is Strange after the developer 's proprietary StoryForge tools had made an impression. Development started in 2016 with the Unity game engine. Rhianna DeVries, who initially did the game 's motion capture for Chloe Price, voices the character, while the original voice actress Ashly Burch serves as writing consultant. Burch did not reprise her role due to the SAG - AFTRA strike. The music was written and performed by the British indie folk band Daughter, and released as an official soundtrack by Glassnote Records on 1 September 2017. Instrumentation was employed to represent different sides of the lead character: piano for isolation, electric guitar for rebelliousness, and layered vocals for friendship. Daughter took the script and concept artwork as inspiration.
Prior to its official announcement, images had leaked online indicating that a prequel to Life Is Strange was in development. Square Enix revealed Life Is Strange: Before the Storm on 11 June during E3 2017, stating that it would be released over three chapters starting on 31 August for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The Deluxe Edition includes the bonus chapter "Farewell '' -- featuring Max Caulfield of the original game as a playable character -- three additional outfits, and Mixtape Mode, allowing players to customise playlists with the game 's soundtrack.
Critics appraised Episode 1: Awake the most on its character development of Chloe Price and Rachel Amber. Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found Chloe 's behaviour "endearing '' and noted that her personality was portrayed with multiple layers. Sam Loveridge at GamesRadar wrote that Rachel was the more authentic character on account of her more "grounded '' dialogue. Despite disparaging Chloe for being "her same tiresomely combative self '' early on, Metro saw her fleshed out by enduring the loss of her father. Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace thought the younger version of Chloe brought a "naivety and vulnerability '' worthy of sympathy. Conversely, the relationship between the leads was said to have formed "at unnatural speed ''. Peeples and Loveridge favoured the "Backtalk '' gameplay feature, while Metro and Wallace cared little for it. Otherwise lauded were the story, graphics, voice acting, and soundtrack.
Reviewers found Episode 2: Brave New World to either be better than the first installment or one of the series ' greatest. Metro praised how choices made a difference with a "profound effect '' on character arc, while Ozzie Mejia of Shacknews relished in Chloe 's "genuine growth '' contrasting her "fiery spirit ''. Similarly, Game Informer 's Joe Juba appreciated the continued comprehension of the character, declaring this "its biggest strength ''. However, Juba 's biggest complaint echoed that of Wallace, in reference to the "forced '' manner with which Chloe and Rachel are made friends. Brett Makedonski, writing for Destructoid, thought that the character exposition was done "to great effect ''. Most noted was The Tempest school play sequence, which Metro stated as their favorite; Mejia called "one of the funniest '' in Before the Storm; and Juba observed as the culmination of all past choices. Metro criticized the script for being "uneven '' and disapproved of the voice acting. Mejia felt the ending could have been done away with, saying it was "a bit drawn out '', though he was impressed with the progression of the Backtalk feature.
Following E3 2017, Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received one of GamesRadar 's Best of E3 awards and was nominated for Hardcore Gamer 's Adventure Game award.
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is it mandatory to provide software codes for getting software patent | Software patent - wikipedia
Software patent Debate Free software List of patents
TRIPS Agreement Patent Cooperation Treaty European Patent Convention
Canada United Kingdom United States
European Patent Office United Kingdom
Business methods
A software patent is a patent on a piece of software, such as a computer program, libraries, user interface, or algorithm.
A patent is a set of exclusionary rights granted by a state to a patent holder for a limited period of time, usually 20 years. These rights are granted to patent applicants in exchange for their disclosure of the inventions. Once a patent is granted in a given country, no person may make, use, sell or import / export the claimed invention in that country without the permission of the patent holder. Permission, where granted, is typically in the form of a license which conditions are set by the patent owner: it may be gratis or in return for a royalty payment or lump sum fee.
Patents are territorial in nature. To obtain a patent, inventors must file patent applications in each and every country in which they want a patent. For example, separate applications must be filed in Japan, China, the United States and India if the applicant wishes to obtain patents in those countries. However, some regional offices exist, such as the European Patent Office (EPO), which act as supranational bodies with the power to grant patents which can then be brought into effect in the member states, and an international procedure also exists for filing a single international application under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), which can then give rise to patent protection in most countries.
These different countries and regional offices have different standards for granting patents. This is particularly true of software or computer - implemented inventions, especially where the software is implementing a business method.
On 21 May 1962, a British patent application entitled "A Computer Arranged for the Automatic Solution of Linear Programming Problems '' was filed. The invention was concerned with efficient memory management for the simplex algorithm, and could be implemented by purely software means. The patent was granted on August 17, 1966 and seems to be one of the first software patents.
Most countries place some limits on the patenting of inventions involving software, but there is no one legal definition of a software patent. For example, U.S. patent law excludes "abstract ideas '', and this has been used to refuse some patents involving software. In Europe, "computer programs as such '' are excluded from patentability, thus European Patent Office policy is consequently that a program for a computer is not patentable if it does not have the potential to cause a "technical effect '' which is by now understood as a material effect (a "transformation of nature ''). Substantive law regarding the patentability of software and computer - implemented inventions, and case law interpreting the legal provisions, are different under different jurisdictions.
Software patents under multilateral treaties:
Software patents under national laws:
In Australia, there is no particular exclusion for patents relating to software. The subject matter of an invention is patentable in Australia, if it is a manner of manufacture within the meaning of section 6 of the Statute of Monopolies. The High Court of Australia has refrained from ruling on the precise definition of manner of manufacture stating that any such attempt is bound to fail for the policy reason of encouraging national development in fields that may be unpredictable. In assessing whether an invention is a manner of manufacture, the High Court has relied on the inquiry of whether the subject of the claims defining the invention has as its end result an artificially created state of affairs.
In a decision of the Federal Court of Australia, on the patentability of an improved method of representing curved images in computer graphics displays, it was held that the application of selected mathematical methods to computers may involve steps which are foreign to the normal use of computers and hence amount to a manner of manufacture. In another unanimous decision by the Full Federal Court of Australia, an invention for methods of storing and retrieving Chinese characters to perform word processing was held to be an artificially created state of affairs and consequently within the concept of a manner of manufacture.
Nevertheless, in a recent decision on the patentability of a computer implemented method of generating an index based on selection and weighing of data based on certain criterion, the Full Federal Court of Australia reaffirmed that mere methods, schemes and plans are not manners of manufacture. The Full Court went on to hold that the use of a computer to implement a scheme did not contribute to the invention or the artificial effect of the invention. The subject matter of the invention was held to be an abstract idea and not a manner of manufacture within the meaning of the term in the Patents Act. The same Full Federal Court in another decision regarding the patentability of an invention regarding a method and system for assessing an individual 's competency in relation to certain criterion, reiterated that a business method or mere scheme were per se are not patentable.
In principle, computer software is still a valid patentable subject matter in Australia. But, in circumstances where patents have been sought over software to merely implement abstract ideas or business methods, the courts and the Commissioner of Patents have resisted granting patent protection to such applications both as a matter of statutory interpretation and policy.
In Canada, courts have held that the use of a computer alone neither lends, nor reduces patentability of an invention. However, it is the position of the Canadian Patent Office that where a computer is an "essential element '' of a patent 's claims, the claimed invention is generally patentable subject matter.
Within European Union member states, the EPO and other national patent offices have issued many patents for inventions involving software since the European Patent Convention (EPC) came into force in the late 1970s. Article 52 EPC excludes "programs for computers '' from patentability (Art. 52 (2)) to the extent that a patent application relates to a computer program "as such '' (Art. 52 (3)). This has been interpreted to mean that any invention that makes a non-obvious "technical contribution '' or solves a "technical problem '' in a non-obvious way is patentable even if that technical problem is solved by running a computer program.
Computer - implemented inventions that only solve a business problem using a computer, rather than a technical problem, are considered unpatentable as lacking an inventive step (see T 258 / 03). Nevertheless, the fact that an invention is useful in business does not mean it is not patentable if it also solves a technical problem.
A summary of the developments concerning patentability of computer programs under the European Patent Convention is given in (see G 3 / 08) as a response of the Enlarged Board of Appeal to questions filed by the President of the European Patent Office according to Art. 112 (1) b) EPC.
Concerns have been raised that the new (2015) Unified Patent Court will be much more open to patents generally and software patents in particular.
In April 2013, the German Parliament adopted a joint motion "against the growing trend of patent offices to grant patents on software programs ''.
United Kingdom patent law is interpreted to have the same effect as the European Patent Convention such that "programs for computers '' are excluded from patentability to the extent that a patent application relates to a computer program "as such ''. Current case law in the UK states that an (alleged) invention will only be regarded as an invention if it provides a contribution that is not excluded and that is also technical. A computer program implementing a business process is therefore not an invention, but a computer program implementing an industrial process may well be.
In India, a clause to include software patents was quashed by the Indian Parliament in April 2005. However, following publication of the new guidelines on the examination of computer - related inventions on 19 February 2016, the Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade marks accepts applications for software patents, as long as the software is not "per se ''.
Software - related inventions are patentable. To qualify as an invention, however, there must be "a creation of technical ideas utilizing a law of nature '' although this requirement is typically met by "concretely realising the information processing performed by the software by using hardware resources ''. Software - related inventions may be considered obvious if they involve the application of an operation known in other fields, the addition of a commonly known means or replacement by equivalent, the implementation in software of functions which were previously performed by hardware, or the systematisation of known human transactions.
In 1999, the allowance rate for business method patents at the Japan Patent Office (JPO) reached an all - time high of roughly 35 percent. Subsequently, the JPO experienced a surge in business method patent filings. This surge was met with a dramatic decrease in the average grant rate of business method patents during the following six years; it lingered around 8 percent between 2003 and 2006 (8 percent is extremely low in comparison to the average of 50 percent across all technical fields). Since 2006, the average grant rate for business method patents has risen to the current rate of roughly 25 percent.
In New Zealand computer programs are to be excluded from patentability under a 2010 Patents Bill, but guidelines permitting embedded software are to be drafted once the bill has passed. From 2013 computer programs ' as such ' are excluded from patentability. The as such wording rules out only those software based patents where novelty lies solely in the software. Similar to Europe.
In the Philippines, "schemes, rules and methods of performing mental acts, playing games or doing business, and programs for computers '' are non-patentable inventions under Sec. 22.2 of Republic Act No. 8293, otherwise known as the "Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines ''.
In the Russian Federation according to article # 1350 of the Civil Code the following are not patentable:
In South Africa, "a program for a computer '' is excluded from recognition as an invention by section 25 (2) of the Patents Act. However, this restriction applies "only to the extent to which a patent or an application for a patent relates to that thing as such '' and should not prevent, for example, a product, process, or method which may be implemented on a computer from being an invention, provided that the requirements of novelty and inventiveness are met.
In South Korea, software is considered patentable and many patents directed towards "computer programs '' have been issued. In 2006, Microsoft 's sales of its "Office '' suite were jeopardized due to a possible patent infringement. A ruling by the Supreme Court of Korea found that patents directed towards automatic language translation within software programs were valid and possibly violated by its software.
The United States Patent and Trademark Office has granted patents that may be referred to as software patents since at least the early 1970s. In Gottschalk v. Benson (1972), the United States Supreme Court ruled that a patent for a process should not be allowed if it would "wholly pre-empt the mathematical formula and in practical effect would be a patent on the algorithm itself '', adding that "it is said that the decision precludes a patent for any program servicing a computer. We do not so hold. '' In 1981, the Supreme Court stated that "a claim drawn to subject matter otherwise statutory does not become nonstatutory simply because it uses a mathematical formula, computer program, or digital computer '' and a claim is patentable if it contains "a mathematical formula (and) implements or applies the formula in a structure or process which, when considered as a whole, is performing a function which the patent laws were designed to protect ''.
Due to different treatment of federal patent rights in different parts of the country, in 1982 the U.S. Congress created a new court (the Federal Circuit) to hear patent cases. Following several landmark decisions by this court, by the early 1990s the patentability of software was well established, and in 1996 the USPTO issued Final Computer Related Examination Guidelines stating that "A practical application of a computer - related invention is statutory subject matter. This requirement can be discerned from the variously phrased prohibitions against the patenting of abstract ideas, laws of nature or natural phenomena '' (emphasis added).
The recent expansion of the Internet and e-commerce has led to many patents being applied for and being granted for business methods implemented in software and the question of whether business methods are statutory subject matter is a separate issue from the question of whether software is. Critics of the Federal Circuit believe that the non-obviousness standard is partly responsible for the large increase in patents for software and business methods. There have been several successful enforcement trials in the United States, some of which are listed in the list of software patents article.
For the U.S., the purpose of patents is laid down in the constitutional clause that gives Congress the power "(t) o promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; '' (Article I, Section 8, Clause 8). For Europe, there is no similar definition. Commonly four patent justification theories are recognised, as laid down for instance by Machlup in 1958, which include justice to the inventor and benefit for society by rewarding inventors. Disclosure is required in return for the exclusive right, and disclosure may promote further development. However, the value of disclosure should not be overestimated: some inventions could not be kept secret otherwise, and patents also prohibit independent reinventions to be exploited.
There is debate as to whether or not these aims are achieved with software patents.
In seeking to find a balance, different countries have different policies as to where the boundary between patentable and non-patentable software should lie. In Europe, a number of different proposals for setting a boundary line were put forward during the debate concerning the proposed Directive on the patentability of computer - implemented inventions, none of which were found acceptable by the various parties to the debate. Two particular suggestions for a hurdle that software must pass to be patentable include:
In the US, Ben Klemens, a Guest Scholar at the Brookings Institution, proposed that patents should be granted only to inventions that include a physical component that is by itself nonobvious. This is based on Justice William Rehnquist 's ruling in the U.S. Supreme Court case of Diamond v. Diehr that stated that "... insignificant postsolution activity will not transform an unpatentable principle into a patentable process. '' By this rule, one would consider software loaded onto a stock PC to be an abstract algorithm with obvious postsolution activity, while a new circuit design implementing the logic would likely be a nonobvious physical device. Upholding an "insignificant postsolution activity '' rule as per Justice Rehnquist 's ruling would also eliminate most business method patents.
A common objection to software patents is that they relate to trivial inventions. A patent on an invention that many people would easily develop independently of one another should not, it is argued, be granted since this impedes development.
Different countries have different ways of dealing with the question of inventive step and non-obviousness in relation to software patents. Europe uses an ' Inventive step test '; see the Inventive step requirement in Europe and, for instance, T 258 / 03.
There are a number of high - profile examples where the patenting of a data exchange standards forced another programming group to introduce an alternative format. For instance, the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format was largely introduced to avoid the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) patent problems, and Ogg Vorbis to avoid MP3. If it is discovered that these new suggested formats are themselves covered by existing patents, the final result may be a large number of incompatible formats. Creating such formats and supporting them costs money and creates inconvenience to users.
Under the EPC, and in particular its Article 52, "programs for computers '' are not regarded as inventions for the purpose of granting European patents, but this exclusion from patentability only applies to the extent to which a European patent application or European patent relates to a computer program as such. As a result of this partial exclusion, and despite the fact that the EPO subjects patent applications in this field to a much stricter scrutiny when compared to their American counterpart, that does not mean that all inventions including some software are de jure not patentable.
Patent and copyright protection constitute two different means of legal protection which may cover the same subject - matter, such as computer programs, since each of these two means of protection serves its own purpose. Software is protected as works of literature under the Berne Convention. This allows the creator to prevent another entity from copying the program and there is generally no need to register code in order for it to be copyrighted.
Patents, on the other hand, give their owners the right to prevent others from using a claimed invention, even if it was independently developed and there was no copying involved. In fact, one of the most recent EPO decisions clarifies the distinction, stating that software is patentable, because it is basically only a technical method executed on a computer, which is to be distinguished from the program itself for executing the method, the program being merely an expression of the method, and thus being copyrighted.
Patents cover the underlying methodologies embodied in a given piece of software, or the function that the software is intended to serve, independent of the particular language or code that the software is written in. Copyright prevents the direct copying of some or all of a particular version of a given piece of software, but does not prevent other authors from writing their own embodiments of the underlying methodologies. Copyright can also be used to prevent a given set of data from being copied while still allowing the author to keep the contents of said set of data a trade secret.
Whether and how the numerus clausus principle shall apply to the legal hybrid software to provide a judicious balance between property rights of the title holders and freedom rights of computing professionals and the society as a whole, is in dispute.
There is a debate over the extent to which software patents should be granted, if at all. Important issues concerning software patents include:
There is strong dislike in the free software community towards software patents. Much of this has been caused by free software or open source projects terminating when the owners of patents covering aspects of a project demanded license fees that the project could not pay, or was not willing to pay, or offered licenses with terms that the project was unwilling to accept, or could not accept, because it conflicted with the free software license in use.
Several patent holders have offered royalty - free patent licenses for a very small portion of their patent portfolios. Such actions have provoked only minor reaction from the free and open source software communities for reasons such as fear of the patent holder changing their mind or the license terms being so narrow as to have little use. Companies that have done this include Apple Inc, IBM, Microsoft, Nokia, Novell, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems.
In 2005 Sun Microsystems announced that they were making a portfolio of 1,600 patents available through a patent license called Common Development and Distribution License.
In 2006, Microsoft 's pledge not to sue Novell Linux customers, openSUSE contributors, and free / open source software developers over patents and the associated collaboration agreement with Novell was met with disdain from the Software Freedom Law Center while commentators from the Free Software Foundation stated that the agreement would not comply with GPLv3. Meanwhile, Microsoft has reached similar agreements with Dell, Inc. and Samsung, due to alleged patent infringements of the GNU / Linux operating system. Microsoft has also derived revenue from Android by making such agreements - not - to - sue with Android vendors.
In the late 1990s, Unisys claimed to have granted royalty free licenses to hundreds of not - for - profit organizations that used the patented LZW compression method and, by extension, the GIF image format. However, this did not include most software developers and Unisys were "barraged '' by negative and "sometimes obscene '' emails from software developers.
Patenting software is widespread in the US. As of 2004, approximately 145,000 patents had issued in the 22 classes of patents covering "computer implemented inventions ''. (see table to the right).
Many software companies cross license their patents to each other. These agreements allow each party to practice the other party 's patented inventions without the threat of being sued for patent infringement. Microsoft, for example, has agreements with IBM, Sun Microsystems (now Oracle Corporation), SAP, Hewlett - Packard, Siemens AG, Cisco, Autodesk and recently Novell. Microsoft cross-licensed its patents with Sun, despite being direct competitors, and with Autodesk even though Autodesk has far fewer patents than Microsoft.
The ability to negotiate cross licensing agreements is a major reason that many software companies, including those providing open source software, file patents. As of June 2006, for example, Red Hat has developed a portfolio of 10 issued US patents, 1 issued European patent, 163 pending US patent applications, and 33 pending international PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) patent applications. Red Hat uses this portfolio to cross license with proprietary software companies so that they can preserve their freedom to operate.
Other patent holders are in the business of inventing new "computer implemented inventions '' and then commercializing the inventions by licensing the patents to other companies that manufacture the inventions. Walker Digital, for example, has generated a large patent portfolio from its research efforts, including the basic patent on the Priceline.com reverse auction technology. US universities also fall into this class of patent owners. They collectively generate about $1.4 billion per year through licensing the inventions they develop to both established and start up companies in all fields of technology, including software.
Still other patent holders focus on obtaining patents from original inventors and licensing them to companies that have introduced commercial products into the marketplace after the patents were filed. Some of these patent holders, such as Intellectual Ventures, are privately held companies financed by large corporations such as Apple, Microsoft, Intel, Google, etc. Others, such as Acacia Technologies, are publicly traded companies with institutional investors being the primary shareholders.
The practice of acquiring patents merely to license them is controversial in the software industry. Companies that have this business model are pejoratively referred to as patent trolls. It is an integral part of the business model that patent licensing companies sue infringers that do not take a license. Furthermore, they may take advantage of the fact that many companies will pay a modest license fee (e.g. $100,000 to $1,000,000) for rights to a patent of questionable validity, rather than pay the high legal fees ($2,000,000 or more) to demonstrate in court that the patent is invalid.
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who sings the beauty and the beast credit song | Beauty and the Beast (2017 Soundtrack) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2017 film Beauty and the Beast. In the film, Belle is taken prisoner by a fearsome Beast in his enchanted castle and learns to look beyond his appearance while evading a narcissistic hunter who seeks to take Belle for himself.
The album, largely based on material from Disney 's previous animated version, features songs and instrumental score composed by Alan Menken with lyrics by Howard Ashman and three new songs composed by Alan Menken with lyrics by Tim Rice. The songs feature vocal performances by the film 's ensemble cast including Emma Watson, Dan Stevens, Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Nathan Mack, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson.
All music composed by Alan Menken. Songs originally written for the 1991 version by Menken and Howard Ashman. Lyrics for original songs are written by Tim Rice.
The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 chart with 57,000 units, 48,000 of which are traditional album sales. It has sold 337,000 copies in the United States as of July 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who holds the record for the most uk christmas number 1s | List of UK Singles chart Christmas number ones - wikipedia
In the United Kingdom, Christmas number ones are singles that are top of the UK Singles Chart in the week in which Christmas Day falls. Novelty songs, charity songs or songs with a Christmas theme have regularly been at the top of Christmas charts. Traditionally the volume of record sales in the UK peaks at Christmas, with the Christmas number one being considered especially prestigious, more so than any other time of year. Many of the Christmas number ones were also the best - selling song of the year. Due to the common practice of dating a chart by the date on which the week ends, the Christmas chart is dated the end of the week containing 25 December, but comprises sales for the week before that. The most recent Christmas number one single is "Perfect '' by Ed Sheeran.
The official UK Singles Chart began in 1952 after appearing in the New Musical Express; the positions of all songs are based on week end sale totals (from Sunday to Saturday until 2015, then from Friday to Thursday). Before 1987 they were released on a Tuesday due to the need for manual calculation. The emergence of a serious contest for the Christmas number - one spot began in 1973, when the glam rock bands Slade and Wizzard deliberately released festive songs in an effort to reach the top of the charts at Christmas, with Slade 's "Merry Xmas Everybody '' beating out Wizzard 's "I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday '' for the number one spot that Christmas.
Since 2002 the Christmas number one has been dominated by reality television contests, with the winners often heading straight to number one in the week before Christmas. This trend began when Popstars: The Rivals contestants released the top three singles on the Christmas chart. From 2005 to 2008, 2010 and 2013 to 2014, the winners of The X Factor took the number - one spot on seven occasions. In 2007, the X Factor single was so much of a prohibitive favourite for number one that bookmakers started taking bets on which song would be the "Christmas Number Two '' instead.
Rage Against the Machine 's 1992 single "Killing in the Name '' outsold Joe McElderry in 2009 following a successful Facebook campaign. This made them the first group to get a Christmas number one with a download - only single, and resulted in the most download sales in a single week in UK chart history. Similar campaigns in 2010 promoting acts such as Biffy Clyro, John Cage and The Trashmen were unsuccessful. The following year, participants from reality television show The Choir outsold X Factor winners Little Mix and a host of social network campaigns for various novelty acts, and in 2012, a supergroup cover of "He Ai n't Heavy, He 's My Brother '', supporting charities associated with the Hillsborough disaster, took the accolade ahead of The X Factor 's James Arthur. Following the UK Charts ' move to Fridays, the 2015 Christmas number one was revealed on Christmas Day; that year 's chart was the first in a decade to not feature the X Factor winner 's single in either first or second.
The Beatles are the only act to have four Christmas number ones, three consecutively starting from 1963. On two occasions, 1963 and 1967, they had both the Christmas number one and the number two, the only act to have achieved this. As part of two acts, George Michael repeated the feat with Band Aid and Wham! in 1984, and Ed Sheeran did so in 2017 with duets with Beyoncé and Eminem. Paul McCartney has been top eight times with various acts. Cliff Richard has spent four Christmasses at number one; two as a solo act, one with The Shadows and one as part of Band Aid II. The Spice Girls later equalled the record of having three consecutive Christmas number ones, from 1996 to 1998. Spice Girl Melanie C achieved a fourth Christmas number one as a member of The Justice Collective in 2012, which also gave Robbie Williams his third.
"Bohemian Rhapsody '' by Queen, which reached the number - one spot at Christmas 1975 and 1991, is the only record to have reached the top twice. "Mary 's Boy Child '' is the only song to be Christmas number one for two different artists (Harry Belafonte in 1957 and Boney M. in 1978), although "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' has been Christmas number one for three generations of Band Aid. The original version of "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' is the second best selling single in UK history.
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in what ways can foreign policy influence domestic policy in the united states | Foreign policy of the United States - Wikipedia
The foreign policy of the United States is the way in which it interacts with foreign nations and sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations and system citizens of the United States.
The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, including all the Bureaus and Offices in the United States Department of State, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community. '' In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial interaction with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad; international commodity agreements; international education; and protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation. '' U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism, both domestically and abroad.
Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into force if ratified by two - thirds of the Senate. The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. The United States Secretary of State acts similarly to a foreign minister and under Executive leadership is the primary conductor of state - to - state diplomacy.
Congress is the only branch of government that has the authority to declare war. Furthermore, Congress writes the civilian and military budget, thus has vast power in military action and foreign aid. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations.
The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemony during and since World War II and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, U.S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations.
Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington 's farewell address; these included among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others '', "steer (ing) clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world '', and advocating trade with all nations. These policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s. But the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. After the 1778 alliance with France, the U.S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by Presidential ' doctrines ', named for them. Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have been made by most presidents.
Jeffersonians vigorously opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801.
Despite two wars with European Powers -- the War of 1812 and the 1898 Spanish -- American War -- American foreign policy was peaceful and marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade during the 19th century. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation 's geographical area; Spain ceded the territory of Florida in 1819; annexation brought in the independent Texas Republic in 1845; a war with Mexico in 1848 added California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and New Mexico. The U.S. bought Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Victory over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U.S. turned its attention to the Panama Canal and the stabilization of regions to its south, including Mexico.
The 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its international reputation. President Wilson 's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism so as to end any wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (really a surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies ' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson 's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. Operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s.
The United States adopted a non-interventionist foreign policy from 1932 to 1938, but then President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved toward strong support of the Allies in their wars against Germany and Japan. As a result of intense internal debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy, that is financing and equipping the Allied armies without sending American combat soldiers. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be enjoyed by people "everywhere in the world ''; these included the freedom of speech and religion, as well as freedom from want and fear. Roosevelt helped establish terms for a post-war world among potential allies at the Atlantic Conference; specific points were included to correct earlier failures, which became a step toward the United Nations. American policy was to threaten Japan, to force it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the loans given to allies in World War I, the United States provided Lend - Lease grants of $50,000,000,000. Working closely with Winston Churchill of Britain, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Roosevelt sent his forces into the Pacific against Japan, then into North Africa against Italy and Germany, and finally into Europe starting with France and Italy in 1944 against the Germans. The American economy roared forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes, ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, the atomic bomb. Much of the American war effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany.
After the war, the U.S. rose to become the dominant non-colonial economic power with broad influence in much of the world, with the key policies of the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine. Almost immediately, however, the world witnessed division into broad two camps during the Cold War; one side was led by the U.S. and the other by the Soviet Union, but this situation also led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement. This period lasted until almost the end of the 20th century and is thought to be both an ideological and power struggle between the two superpowers. A policy of containment was adopted to limit Soviet expansion, and a series of proxy wars were fought with mixed results. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into separate nations, and the Cold War formally ended as the United States gave separate diplomatic recognition to the Russian Federation and other former Soviet states.
In domestic politics, foreign policy is not usually a central issue. In 1945 -- 1970 the Democratic Party took a strong anti-Communist line and supported wars in Korea and Vietnam. Then the party split with a strong dovish element (typified by 1972 presidential candidate George McGovern). Many "hawks '' joined the Neoconservative movement and started supporting the Republicans -- especially Reagan -- based on foreign policy. Meanwhile, down to 1952 the Republican Party was split between an isolationist wing, based in the Midwest and led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and an internationalist wing based in the East and led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 nomination largely on foreign policy grounds. Since then the Republicans have been characterized by a hawkish and intense American nationalism, and strong opposition to Communism, and strong support for Israel.
In the 21st century, U.S. influence remains strong but, in relative terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to rising nations such as China, India, Russia, and the newly consolidated European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of nuclear terrorism. Foreign policy analysts Hachigian and Sutphen in their book The Next American Century suggest all five powers have similar vested interests in stability and terrorism prevention and trade; if they can find common ground, then the next decades may be marked by peaceful growth and prosperity.
In 2017 diplomats from other countries developed new tactics to deal with President Donald Trump. The New York Times reported on the eve of his first foreign trip as president:
Trump has numerous aides giving advice on foreign policy. The chief diplomat is Secretary of State Rex Tillerson. His major foreign policy positions, which sometimes are at odds with Trump, include:
In the United States, there are three types of treaty - related law:
In contrast to most other nations, the United States considers the three types of agreements as distinct. Further, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties afterward. It can overrule an agreed - upon treaty obligation even if this is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including the 1900 Supreme Court decision in Paquete Habana, a late 1950s decision in Reid v. Covert, and a lower court ruling in 1986 in Garcia - Mir v. Meese. Further, the Supreme Court has declared itself as having the power to rule a treaty as void by declaring it "unconstitutional '', although as of 2011, it has never exercised this power.
The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Generally, when the U.S. signs a treaty, it is binding. However, because of the Reid v. Covert decision, the U.S. adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says, in effect, that the U.S. intends to abide by the treaty, but if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, then the U.S. legally ca n't abide by the treaty since the U.S. signature would be ultra vires.
The United States has ratified and participates in many other multilateral treaties, including arms control treaties (especially with the Soviet Union), human rights treaties, environmental protocols, and free trade agreements.
The United States is a founding member of the United Nations and most of its specialized agencies, notably including the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund. The U.S. has at times has withheld payment of dues due to disagreements with the UN.
The United States is also member of:
After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union.
The United States notably does not participate in various international agreements adhered to by almost all other industrialized countries, by almost all the countries of the Americas, or by almost all other countries in the world. With a large population and economy, on a practical level this can undermine the effect of certain agreements, or give other countries a precedent to cite for non-participation in various agreements.
In some cases the arguments against participation include that the United States should maximize its sovereignty and freedom of action, or that ratification would create a basis for lawsuits that would treat American citizens unfairly. In other cases, the debate became involved in domestic political issues, such as gun control, climate change, and the death penalty.
Examples include:
While America 's relationships with Europe have tended to be in terms of multilateral frameworks, such as NATO, America 's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke '' model using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States and do not collaborate with each other. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri - La Dialogue Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. However, in 2011 Gates said that the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation, '' for building multilateral cooperation.
As of 2014, the U.S. currently produces about 66 % of the oil that it consumes. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC. Former U.S. President George W. Bush identified dependence on imported oil as an urgent "national security concern ''.
Two - thirds of the world 's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf. Despite its distance, the Persian Gulf region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II. Petroleum is of central importance to modern armies, and the United States -- as the world 's leading oil producer at that time -- supplied most of the oil for the Allied armies. Many U.S. strategists were concerned that the war would dangerously reduce the U.S. oil supply, and so they sought to establish good relations with Saudi Arabia, a kingdom with large oil reserves.
The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War. Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines -- the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the Nixon Doctrine -- played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its "national interests '' in the Persian Gulf region. Carter 's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the "Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine '', which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War. Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War.
Almost all of Canada 's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.
In 2007 the U.S. was Sub-Saharan Africa 's largest single export market accounting for 28 % of exports (second in total to the EU at 31 %). 81 % of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products.
Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department 's international affairs budget, which is $49 billion in all for 2014. Aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund).
In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor ($23 billion in 2014). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid.
Although the United States is the largest donor in absolute dollar terms, it is actually ranked 19 out of 27 countries on the Commitment to Development Index. The CDI ranks the 27 richest donor countries on their policies that affect the developing world. In the aid component the United States is penalized for low net aid volume as a share of the economy, a large share of tied or partially tied aid, and a large share of aid given to less poor and relatively undemocratic governments.
Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do.
As of 2016, the United States is actively conducting military operations against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al - Qaeda under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, including in areas of fighting in the Syrian Civil War and Yemeni Civil War. The Guantanamo Bay Naval Base holds what the federal government considers unlawful combatants from these ongoing activities, and has been a controversial issue in foreign relations, domestic politics, and Cuba -- United States relations. Other major U.S. military concerns include stability in Afghanistan and Iraq after the recent invasions of those countries, and Russian military activity in Ukraine.
The United States is a founding member of NATO, an alliance of 28 North American and European nations formed to defend Western Europe against the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Under the NATO charter, the United States is compelled to defend any NATO state that is attacked by a foreign power. The United States itself was the first country to invoke the mutual defense provisions of the alliance, in response to the September 11 attacks.
The United States also has mutual military defense treaties with:
The United States has responsibility for the defense of the three Compact of Free Association states: Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau.
In 1989, the United States also granted five nations the major non-NATO ally status (MNNA), and additions by later presidents have brought the list to 28 nations. Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances.
and lesser agreements with:
The U.S. participates in various military - related multi-lateral organizations, including:
The U.S. also operates hundreds of military bases around the world.
The United States has undertaken unilateral and multilateral military operations throughout its history (see Timeline of United States military operations). In the post-World War II era, the country has had permanent membership and veto power in the United Nations Security Council, allowing it to undertake any military action without formal Security Council opposition. With vast military expenditures, the United States is known as the sole remaining superpower after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The U.S. contributes a relatively small number of personnel for United Nations peacekeeping operations. It sometimes acts though NATO, as with the NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and ISAF in Afghanistan, but often acts unilaterally or in ad - hoc coalitions as with the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
The United Nations Charter requires that military operations be either for self - defense or affirmatively approved by the Security Council. Though many of their operations have followed these rules, the United States and NATO have been accused of committing crimes against peace in international law, for example in the 1999 Yugoslavia and 2003 Iraq operations.
The U.S. provides military aid through many different channels. Counting the items that appear in the budget as ' Foreign Military Financing ' and ' Plan Colombia ', the U.S. spent approximately $4.5 billion in military aid in 2001, of which $2 billion went to Israel, $1.3 billion went to Egypt, and $1 billion went to Colombia. Since 9 / 11, Pakistan has received approximately $11.5 billion in direct military aid.
As of 2004, according to Fox News, the U.S. had more than 700 military bases in 130 different countries.
Estimated U.S. foreign military financing and aid by recipient for 2010:
According to a 2016 report by the Congressional Research Service, the U.S. topped the market in global weapon sales for 2015, with $40 billion sold. The largest buyers were Qatar, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Pakistan, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Iraq.
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space - based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars ''. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today.
In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground - Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57 % of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67 % Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland.
Russia threatened to place short - range nuclear missiles on the Russia 's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States.
On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia '', Dmitry Rogozin, Russia 's NATO envoy, said.
Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U.S. missile defenses are designed to secure Washington 's nuclear primacy and are chiefly directed at potential rivals, such as Russia and China. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand - alone shield '':
If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.
This analysis is corroborated by the Pentagon 's 1992 Defense Planning Guidance (DPG), prepared by then Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and his deputies. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival '' either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere. The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by ' international outlaws ' '' and also must "Find ways to integrate the ' new democracies ' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.S. - led system ''. The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy '' which is followed by several blacked out words. "This suggests that some of the heavily excised pages in the still - classified DPG drafts may include some discussion of preventive action against threatening nuclear and other WMD programs. ''
Finally, Robert David English, writing in Foreign Affairs, observes that in addition to the deployment U.S. missile defenses, the DPG 's second recommendation has also been proceeding on course. "Washington has pursued policies that have ignored Russian interests (and sometimes international law as well) in order to encircle Moscow with military alliances and trade blocs conducive to U.S. interests. ''
In United States history, critics have charged that presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics have also charged that the U.S. helped local militaries overthrow democratically elected governments in Iran, Guatemala, and in other instances. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries.
Professor Paul W. Drake argued that the U.S. first attempted to export democracy in Latin America through intervention from 1912 to 1932. Drake argued that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things. '' The study suggested that efforts to promote democracy failed because democracy needs to develop out of internal conditions, and can not be forcibly imposed. There was disagreement about what constituted democracy; Drake suggested American leaders sometimes defined democracy in a narrow sense of a nation having elections; Drake suggested a broader understanding was needed. Further, there was disagreement about what constituted a "rebellion ''; Drake saw a pattern in which the U.S. State Department disapproved of any type of rebellion, even so - called "revolutions '', and in some instances rebellions against dictatorships. Historian Walter LaFeber stated, "The world 's leading revolutionary nation (the U.S.) in the eighteenth century became the leading protector of the status quo in the twentieth century. ''
Mesquita and Downs evaluated 35 U.S. interventions from 1945 to 2004 and concluded that in only one case, Colombia, did a "full fledged, stable democracy '' develop within ten years following the intervention. Samia Amin Pei argued that nation building in developed countries usually unravelled four to six years after American intervention ended. Pei, based on study of a database on worldwide democracies called Polity, agreed with Mesquita and Downs that U.S. intervention efforts usually do n't produce real democracies, and that most cases result in greater authoritarianism after ten years.
Professor Joshua Muravchik argued U.S. occupation was critical for Axis power democratization after World War II, but America 's failure to encourage democracy in the third world "prove... that U.S. military occupation is not a sufficient condition to make a country democratic. '' The success of democracy in former Axis countries such as Italy were seen as a result of high national per - capita income, although U.S. protection was seen as a key to stabilization and important for encouraging the transition to democracy. Steven Krasner agreed that there was a link between wealth and democracy; when per - capita incomes of $6,000 were achieved in a democracy, there was little chance of that country ever reverting to an autocracy, according to an analysis of his research in the Los Angeles Times.
Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country 's democracy. In 69 instances, the country became less democratic after the intervention. In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. However this does not take into account the direction the country would have gone with no U.S. intervention.
Hermann and Kegley found that American military interventions designed to protect or promote democracy increased freedom in those countries. Peceny argued that the democracies created after military intervention are still closer to an autocracy than a democracy, quoting Przeworski "while some democracies are more democratic than others, unless offices are contested, no regime should be considered democratic. '' Therefore, Peceny concludes, it is difficult to know from the Hermann and Kegley study whether U.S. intervention has only produced less repressive autocratic governments or genuine democracies.
Peceny stated that the United States attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 20th - century military interventions. Peceny argued that proliberal policies after military intervention had a positive impact on democracy.
A global survey done by Pewglobal indicated that at (as of 2014) least 33 surveyed countries have a positive view (50 % or above) of the United States. With the top ten most positive countries being Philippines (92 %), Israel (84 %), South Korea (82 %), Kenya (80 %), El Salvador (80 %), Italy (78 %), Ghana (77 %), Vietnam (76 %), Bangladesh (76 %), and Tanzania (75 %). While 10 surveyed countries have the most negative view (Below 50 %) of the United States. With the countries being Egypt (10 %), Jordan (12 %), Pakistan (14 %), Turkey (19 %), Russia (23 %), Palestinian Territories (30 %), Greece (34 %), Argentina (36 %), Lebanon (41 %), Tunisia (42 %). Americans ' own view of the United States was viewed at 84 %.
United States foreign policy also includes covert actions to topple foreign governments that have been opposed to the United States. According to J. Dana Stuster, writing in Foreign Policy, there are seven "confirmed cases '' where the U.S. -- acting principally through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), but sometimes with the support of other parts of the U.S. government, including the Navy and State Department -- covertly assisted in the overthrow of a foreign government: Iran in 1953, Guatemala in 1954, Congo in 1960, the Dominican Republic in 1961, South Vietnam in 1963, Brazil in 1964, and Chile in 1973. Stuster states that this list excludes "U.S. - supported insurgencies and failed assassination attempts '' such as those directed against Cuba 's Fidel Castro, as well as instances where U.S. involvement has been alleged but not proven (such as Syria in 1949).
In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran 's oil, threatening the interests of the Anglo - Persian Oil Company. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1957, the CIA and Israeli Mossad aided the Iranian government in establishing its intelligence service, SAVAK, later blamed for the torture and execution of the regime 's opponents.
A year later, in Operation PBSUCCESS, the CIA assisted the local military in toppling the democratically elected left - wing government of Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and installing the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Árbenz overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated 200,000 people (42,275 individual cases have been documented), mostly through 626 massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.S. - backed Guatemalan military. An independent Historical Clarification Commission found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country 's archaic and unjust socio - economic structure, '' and that the CIA backed illegal counterinsurgency operations.
During the massacre of at least 500,000 alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, U.S. government officials applauded the mass killings while providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military which helped facilitate them. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 2001, the CIA attempted to prevent the publication of the State Department volume Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 -- 1968, which documents the U.S. role in providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military for the express purpose of the extirpation of the PKI. In July 2016, an international panel of judges ruled the killings constitute crimes against humanity, and that the US, along with other Western governments, were complicit in these crimes.
In 1970, the CIA worked with coup - plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General René Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping.
According to one peer - reviewed study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, while the Soviet Union or Russia intervened in 36.
Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy. Congress took the lead in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy, '' Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy:
These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U.S. foreign policy towards the inclusion of Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala and South Africa. The Executive (from Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing regional security in favor of U.S. interests over any behavioral concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. Nevertheless, according to historian Daniel Goldhagen, during the last two decades of the Cold War, the number of American client states practicing mass murder outnumbered those of the Soviet Union. John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler '' of "Latin America 's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region 's worst tendencies. ''
On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia 's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia.
In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.
United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. Those efforts date back to at least 1880, when the U.S. and China completed an agreement that prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries.
Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug - producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People 's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large - scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian - grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S.
Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.
The U.S. has faced criticism for backing right - wing dictators that systematically violated human rights, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, Hissène Habré of Chad Yahya Khan of Pakistan and Suharto of Indonesia. Critics have also accused the United States of supporting Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terror organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America.
Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US - led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on seven different countries throughout 2016: Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Pakistan.
Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Some scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries. A 2013 global poll in 68 countries with 66,000 respondents by Win / Gallup found that the U.S. is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace.
Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the ' realist ' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories.
Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States. See NATO, ANZUS, Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations.
Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders.
Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media.
Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all the human rights violations in nations they have supported. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US - backed regimes during the Cold War. However, the U.S. can not credibly be blamed for all the 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. The U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.S. helped stop a coup in 1993, and that efforts were made to improve the conduct of the security services.
Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health. '' According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies do n't attack each other. '' In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States ' relations with the world ''.
The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools Examples of these tools are as follows:
United States foreign policy affirms its alliance with the United Kingdom as its most important bilateral relationship in the world, evidenced by aligned political affairs between the White House and 10 Downing Street, as well as joint military operations carried out between the two nations. While both the United States and the United Kingdom maintain close relationships with many other nations around the world, the level of cooperation in military planning, execution of military operations, nuclear weapons technology, and intelligence sharing with each other has been described as "unparalleled '' among major powers throughout the 20th and early 21st century.
The United States and Britain share the world 's largest foreign direct investment partnership. American investment in the United Kingdom reached $255.4 billion in 2002, while British direct investment in the United States totaled $283.3 billion.
The bilateral relationship between Canada and the United States is of notable importance to both countries. About 75 -- 85 % of Canadian trade is with the United States, and Canada is the United States ' largest trading partner and chief supplier of oil. While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the two countries share the "world 's longest undefended border. '' The border was demilitarized after the War of 1812 and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War on both a bilateral basis and a multilateral relationship through NATO. A high volume of trade and migration between the United States and Canada since the 1850s has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being culturally overwhelmed by its neighbor, which is nine times larger in terms of population and eleven times larger in terms of economy. The two economies have increasingly merged since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994, which also includes Mexico.
The United States shares a unique and often complex relationship with Mexico. A history of armed conflict goes back to the Texas Revolution in the 1830s, the Mexican -- American War in the 1840s, and an American invasion in the 1910s. Important treaties include the Gadsden Purchase, and multilaterally with Canada, the North American Free Trade Agreement. The central issue in recent years has been illegal immigration, followed by illegal gun sales (from the U.S.), drug smuggling (to the U.S.) and escalating drug cartel violence just south of the U.S. - Mexico border.
The United States ' relationship with Australia is a very close one, with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stating that "America does n't have a better friend in the world than Australia ''. The relationship is formalized by the ANZUS treaty and the Australia -- United States Free Trade Agreement. The two countries have a shared history, both have previously been British Colonies and many Americans flocked to the Australian goldfields in the 19th century. At a strategic level, the relationship really came to prominence in World War II, when the two nations worked extremely closely in the Pacific War against Japan, with General Douglas MacArthur undertaking his role as Supreme Allied Commander based in Australia, effectively having Australian troops and resources under his command. During this period, the cultural interaction between Australia and the U.S. were elevated to a higher level as over 1 million U.S. military personnel moved through Australia during the course of the war. The relationship continued to evolve throughout the second half of the 20th Century, and today now involves strong relationships at the executive and mid levels of government and the military, leading Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Kurt M. Campbell to declare that "in the last ten years, (Australia) has ascended to one of the closest one or two allies (of the U.S.) on the planet ''.
The United States has many important allies in the Greater Middle East region. These allies are Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Jordan, Afghanistan, Israel, Egypt, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Israel and Egypt are leading recipients of United States foreign aid, receiving $2.775 billion and 1.75 billion in 2010. Turkey is an ally of the United States through its membership in NATO, while all of the other countries except Saudi Arabia and Qatar are major non-NATO allies.
The United States toppled the government of Saddam Hussein during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Turkey is host to approximately 90 B61 nuclear bombs at Incirlik Air Base. Other allies include Qatar, where 3,500 U.S. troops are based, and Bahrain, where the United States Navy maintains NSA Bahrain, home of NAVCENT and the Fifth Fleet.
The relationship began in the 1850s as the U.S. was a major factor in forcing Japan to resume contacts with the outer world beyond a very restricted role. In the late 19th century the Japanese sent many delegations to Europe, and some to the U.S., to discover and copy the latest technology and thereby modernize Japan very rapidly and allow it to build its own empire. There was some friction over control of Hawaii and the Philippines, but Japan stood aside as the U.S. annexed those lands in 1898. Likewise the U.S. did not object when Japan took control of Korea. The two nations cooperated with the European powers in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, but the U.S. was increasingly troubled about Japan 's denial of the Open Door Policy that would ensure that all nations could do business with China on an equal basis.
President Theodore Roosevelt admired Japan 's strength as it defeated a major European power, Russia. He brokered an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1905 -- 6. Anti-Japanese sentiment (especially on the West Coast) soured relations in the 1907 -- 24 era. In the 1930s the U.S. protested vehemently against Japan 's seizure of Manchuria (1931), its war against China (1937 -- 45), and its seizure of Indochina (Vietnam) 1940 -- 41. American sympathies were with China and Japan rejected increasingly angry American demands that Japan pull out of China. The two nations fought an all - out war 1941 -- 45; the U.S. won a total victory, with heavy bombing (including two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that devastated Japan 's 50 largest industrial cities. The American army under Douglas MacArthur occupied and ruled Japan, 1945 -- 51, with the successful goal of sponsoring a peaceful, prosperous and democratic nation.
In 1951, the U.S. and Japan signed Treaty of San Francisco and Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan, subsequently revised as Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan in 1960, relations since then have been excellent. The United States considers Japan to be one of its closest allies, and it is both a Major Non-NATO ally and NATO contact country. The United States has several military bases in Japan including Yokosuka, which harbors the U.S. 7th Fleet. The JSDF, or Japanese Self Defense Force, cross train with the U.S. Military, often providing auxiliary security and conducting war games. When the U.S. President Barack Obama met with Japanese Prime Minister Taro Aso in 2009, he said the relationship with Japan as the "cornerstone of security in East Asia ''. After the several years of critical moment during Japan 's Democratic Party administration, President Obama and Prime Minister Shinzō Abe reconfirmed the importance of its alliance and currently the U.S. and Japan negotiating to participate Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.
South Korea -- United States relations have been most extensive since 1945, when the United States helped establish capitalism in South Korea and led the UN-sponsored Korean War against North Korea and China (1950 -- 53). Stimulated by heavy American aid, South Korea 's rapid economic growth, democratization and modernization greatly reduced its U.S. dependency. Large numbers of U.S. forces remain in Korea. At the 2009 G - 20 London summit, U.S. President Barack Obama called South Korea "one of America 's closest allies and greatest friends. ''
American relations with the People 's Republic of China are quite strong, yet complex. A great amount of trade between the two countries necessitates positive political relations, although occasional disagreements over tariffs, currency exchange rates and the Political status of Taiwan do occur. Nevertheless, the United States and China have an extremely extensive partnership. The U.S. criticizes China on human rights issues and in recent years, China has criticized the United States on human rights in return.
Taiwan (officially the Republic of China), does not have official diplomatic relations with America and no longer receives diplomatic recognition from the State Department of the United States, but it conducts unofficial diplomatic relations through its de facto embassy, commonly known as the "American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) '', and is considered to be a strong Asian ally and supporter of the United States.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an important partner for United States in both economic and geostrategic aspects. ASEAN 's geostrategic importance stems from many factors, including: the strategic location of member countries, the large shares of global trade that pass through regional waters, and the alliances and partnerships which the United States shares with ASEAN member states. In July 2009, the United States signed ASEAN 's Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, which establishes guiding principles intended to build confidence among its signatories with the aim of maintaining regional peace and stability. Trade flows are robust and increasing between America and the ASEAN region.
As the largest ASEAN member, Indonesia has played an active and prominent role in developing the organization. For United States, Indonesia is important for dealing with certain issues; such as terrorism, democracy, and how United States project its relations with Islamic world, since Indonesia has the world 's largest Islamic population, and one that honors and respects religious diversity. The U.S. eyes Indonesia as a potential strategic ally in Southeast Asia. During his stately visit to Indonesia, U.S. President Barack Obama has held up Indonesia as an example of how a developing nation can embrace democracy and diversity.
Despite increasingly strained relations under the Mahathir Mohamad government, ties have been thawed under Najib Razak 's administration. Economic ties are particularly robust, with the United States being Malaysia 's largest trading partner and Malaysia is the tenth - largest trading partner of the U.S. Annual two - way trade amounts to $49 billion. The United States and Malaysia launched negotiations for a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) in June 2006.
The United States and Malaysia enjoy strong security cooperation. Malaysia hosts the Southeast Asia Regional Center for Counterterrorism (SEARCCT), where over 2000 officials from various countries have received training. The United States is among the foreign countries that has collaborated with the center in conducting capacity building programmes. The U.S. and Malaysia share a strong military - to - military relationship with numerous exchanges, training, joint exercises, and visits.
Bilateral ties have generally been strained but are slowly improving. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Burma because of the military crackdown in 1988 and the military regime 's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People 's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.
US and European government sanctions against the military government, alongside boycotts and other types direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.
Ongoing reforms have improved relations between Burma and the United States.
The United States ruled the Philippines from 1898 to 1946. The Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish -- American War. The United States finally recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946 in the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until August 4, 1964 when, upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists, President Diosdado Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country 's Independence Day. Since 2003 the U.S. has designated the Philippines as a Major Non-NATO Ally.
Thailand and the U.S. are both former Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) members, being close partners throughout the Cold War, and are still close allies. Since 2003, the U.S. has designated Thailand as a Major Non-NATO Ally.
United States involved in Vietnam War in 1955 to 1975. In 1995, President Bill Clinton announced the formal normalization of diplomatic relations with Vietnam. Today, the U.S. eyes Vietnam as a potential strategic ally in Southeast Asia.
American relations with Eastern Europe are influenced by the legacy of the Cold War. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, former Communist - bloc states in Europe have gradually transitioned to democracy and capitalism. Many have also joined the European Union and NATO, strengthening economic ties with the broader Western world and gaining the military protection of the United States via the North Atlantic Treaty.
The UN Security Council divided on the question of Kosovo 's declaration of independence. Kosovo declared its independence on February 17, 2008, whilst Serbia objected that Kosovo is part of its territory. Of the five members with veto power in the UN Security Council, the US, UK, and France recognized the declaration of independence, and China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it illegal. "In its declaration of independence, Kosovo committed itself to the highest standards of democracy, including freedom and tolerance and justice for citizens of all ethnic backgrounds '', President George W. Bush said on February 19, 2008.
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what jobs did they have in new jersey colony | The impact of geography on colonial America - wikipedia
Before the foundation of the United States in 1776, the Kingdom of Great Britain owned Thirteen Colonies on eastern shore of North America. The geography and climate of the area had a significant impact on the economy and survival of the colonies.
The New England colonies tried to help the Native Americans and also, known as the North - Eastern, included Massachusetts Colony, Rhode Island Colony, Connecticut Colony, and New Hampshire Colony. The region was first found by people from Britain in 1620.
These colonies provided fish, whale products, and lumber. They imported agricultural products from other regions.
The geology of New England includes many mountains, and it is thick with trees and rivers. The forest provided large amounts of lumber for New England and led them to specialize in the shipbuilding industry. However, the landscape was unsuitable for cereal crops, so they were imported from the other colonies. Originally this region had fertile soil, but during the last glacial period, large glaciers scraped away the fertile soil and moved it south, leaving a rocky landscape that was not suitable for farming.
The New England region is located further north and it has longer winters and the coldest weather among the three regions. Summer is mild and short. The growing season is short.
When English people made the Northern colonies they named their region "New England '' for their homeland. Famous people from the region included John Winthrop from Massachusetts, Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson from Rhode Island, Thomas Hooker from Connecticut, and John Mason from New Hampshire. Residents in the northern region were mostly Puritans. That was the only religion throughout the New England Colonies, because the Puritans wanted it that way. There was no religious freedom in the region.
Since the soil and weather in New England was not suitable for farming, many people did not farm. Instead they imported crops from other regions or even other countries. In return, they would trade products they had to other countries. These products included fish, whale products, ships, timber products. Also, they traded furs and livestock products made from animals living in the surrounding forests.
Using the large numbers of trees in the forest, people from New England worked at shipbuilding. People in New England cut down trees for lumber to build ships. They would then use them for fishing and hunting whales. That is also a factor that affected what goods people in New England would trade. There was much trade between New England and other regions or countries such as England. New England would export resources like fish and lumber to Africa, England, and the West Indies. Then from Africa, New England would receive hardworking slaves in return.
The middle colonies were the Delaware Colony, the New Jersey Colony, the New York Colony, and the Pennsylvania Colony. Their climate helped them become the ' breadbasket ' of British North America. Arable land was plentiful and the soil was fertile. The excellent natural harbors helped the middle colonies become traders among the colonies. Due in part to immigration from foreign (Mainland Europe) countries, the people were ethnically and religiously diverse.
These colonies included New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. New York is dominated by farms, forests, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Manhattan Island is a well known location of New York, originally called New Amsterdam. Lake Erie is the great lake that New York shares a border with. The Appalachian Mountains run through the middle of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania is bordered by New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia and Ohio. This region also shares a border with Lake Erie. Many rivers run through the state including the Ohio and Delaware Rivers. On the Eastern Seaboard of the United States, Delaware is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay, as well as by the states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The area of Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New York is known as the Highlands. The Atlantic Coastal Plain is a region along the middle colonies primarily composed of marsh, rivers and swampland.
Since the colonies were further south, the days were longer with a lot of sunlight and plenty of rain. The climate in the coastal region of the middle colonies is moderate year round. Average monthly temperatures range from 76 to 32 degrees. Average temperature in the summer months is 74 degrees. About 57 % of the days are sunny. Annual precipitation is approximately 45 inches. Temperatures along the Atlantic Coast are about 10 degrees warmer in winter and 10 degrees cooler in summer. The average growing season varies from 170 to 200 days. The Coastal Plain is humid in the summers and had temperate winters.
The middle colonies contained Native American tribes of Algonquian and Iroquois language groups as well as a sizable percentage of African slaves during the early years. Unlike solidly Puritan New England, the middle colonies presented an assortment of religions. The presence of Quakers, Mennonites, Lutherans, Dutch Calvinists, and Presbyterians made the dominance of one faith next to impossible. This was because some of the proprietors there believed in religious tolerance and some did not care as long the people paid for the land they inhabited.
Some wealthy people worked in the city although most colonists were farmers. Because of fertile soil and a good growing season, most farmers grew enough for their family and a surplus, which they could sell. They grew wheat, grains, and many other things. New York and Philadelphia were the Middle Colonies ' biggest cities. This was because they were the center of trade with all the harbors to import and export goods. Many people were artisans or merchants with many skills. Other people tried to become apprentices to learn their trade. Other people became laborers. They could find general work such as helping load or unload ships or being house servants. Boys could learn shoe or boat making. Girls could open a cloth shop. However, most parents believed children should learn to run the family farm instead of going to college.
There were considerable differences between the New England, Middle and Southern regions. Economic activities and trade was dependent of the environment in which the Colonists lived. The geography and climate impacted the trade and economic activities of Middle Colonies. The Middle Colonies exported agricultural products and natural resources. The Middle colonies are often called the breadbasket colonies because they grew so many crops, especially wheat. The Middle colonies built flour mills where wheat was ground into flour, then shipped to England. A typical farm was 50 to 150 acres consisting of a house, barn, yard and fields. The Middle Colonies were also able to manufacture iron ore products such as plows, tools, kettles, nails and large blocks of iron which they exported to England. Cottage industries such as weaving, shoe - making, cabinetmaking, and other crafts were prominent in middle colonies, particularly Pennsylvania.
The Middle Colonies were in the prime location for the growth of grains. A predominate feature of the region is the Coastal Plain. This region had humid summers and temperate winters which is prime conditions for agriculture. Due to the climate of temperate summers, the grains were allowed to grow for longer periods of time. In the north, the winters were much too harsh to grow these grains. These grains were then exported to other Colonies due to its prime location to the ocean. The climate was prime for these grains which is a direct correlation to how geography relates to trade goods in the Middle Eastern Colonies.
The southern British colonies in North America were the Colony of Virginia, Province of North Carolina, Province of South Carolina, and Province of Georgia. The first successful English colony in N. America was Jamestown, established off the Chesapeake Bay in 1607. In 1668 King Charles II granted the Carolina charter to eight Lords Proprietor. Georgia was not established as colony until 1732 under a charter granted to James Oglethorpe by King George II.
Located between 40 degrees and 30 degrees latitude, the physiographic makeup of the southern colonies is generally divided into three regions. The Atlantic Coastal Plain (divided into two parts; the Inner Coastal Plain and the Tidewater), the Piedmont, and the Blue Ridge Mountains and Appalachian mountain regions.
The Atlantic Coastal plains developed over the last 6,000 years, flattening out via the global flood as well as the transportation of sediment by river systems from the Appalachian Mountains. Crisscrossed by these river systems, the area became known as the Tidewater region due to the noticeable effect of the ocean 's tides on the rivers that run through it.
French for "foothills '', the Piedmont is characterized by rolling hills stretching between the coastal plain and the Blue Ridge Mountains. It is separated from the coastal plain by the "fall line '', line where elevation falls noticeably, and is the sight of many waterfalls on the rivers in the region.
The Blue Ridge Mountains is a specific region of the Appalachians. The ridgeline of the mountains varies from being 5 to 65 miles wide, with peaks averaging around 2000 to 4000 ft above sea level. The area is covered in forests with hundreds of species of trees found within the range, and today are a source of timber. Beyond the Blue mountains continues the rest of the Appalachians, except in Virginia where the Shenandoah valley opens up.
While the southern coast of the United States is located in similar latitudes of Southern Spain and Morocco, the climate is dominated by weather patterns moving overland as opposed to the oceanic weather patterns that dominate Western Europe. Due to this the east coast of North America is cooler than the regions congruent to it in the "Old World '', with climate in the United States being roughly equivalent to climates 40 - 60 degrees latitude in Europe. During the time of colonization this effect was even more pronounced as the world was in the middle of the "Little Ice Age ''. The soil there is moist, which was perfect for farming.
Colonization of the South during the period of 1600 -- 1650 was mainly confined to Virginia and the Jamestown region in particular. While the majority of people who initially arrived at Jamestown in the first few years of colonization were Englishmen, the Virginia Company did hire artisans from Prussia, the Netherlands and Poland to fill the ranks of colonists, with the hope that they would be able to produce profitable goods for the company to sell in England.
Population growth was very slow at first, and depended on an increasing amount of settlers coming into Jamestown. Besides recruiting foreign artisans, the Virginia company tried many schemes to increase settlement of the colony, including transporting "Vagrant Children '' from England to Virginia and shipping young women to be married to colonists. The Virginia Company also began to use the practice of indentured servitude, promising land at the end of the term to increase immigration to the colonies. 1619 marked the first time African slaves were brought to the colony, when 20 arrived on the White Lion, a Dutch trade ship that had captured them from a Portuguese slave ship. During the English Civil War and the Commonwealth Period of England, Virginia was a haven for cavaliers or royalists still loyal to the crown to live, known as Virginia Cavaliers.
The colonization of the south was greatly affected by the geography of the region. Jamestown Island (then a peninsula) itself was chosen for its physical geographic properties. Located inland a ways the peninsula offered protection from European powers as well as the James River ran deep enough in that the colonists could anchor their ships off shore, providing a simple and easy access. Geography often had a role in playing in settlement selection in the south, with most early settlements only extending as far inland as ships or boat could easily travel. The fall line between the piedmont and tidewater region is marked by settlements on where boats could not travel further due to the waterfalls and rapids common in this region.
Early colonization was marked by disaster and the failure of colonists to provide properly for themselves as well as turn a profit for the Virginia Company. This is in part due to the misconceptions about climate in Europe. Common belief in the "old world '' had it that climates were the same at similar latitudes all across the world. Therefore, the southern United States, and Virginia in particular, were expected to be similar in climate to Southern Spain. Because of this colonists and Virginia Company initially tried to cultivate such plants as mulberry trees and orange trees, which were not sustainable.
While not as prevalent a belief, some European colonial leaders argued that the warmer climates of the southern latitudes would also cause such precious metals to rise towards the surface of the earth. Along with the stories of Spanish conquests finding "cities of gold '', the Virginia Company sent along with their initial colonists equipment for prospecting and mining gold. These beliefs were shown to be wrong and equipment for agriculture and cultivation would have aided the early colonists.
Despite these initial misconceptions, the southern United States was rich geographically in particular for agricultural production. Tobacco, rice, and indigo were the main cash crops of the south during the colonial period. In 1612 John Rolfe introduced Tobacco into Jamestown and by 1640 England was importing 1.5 million pounds of tobacco from Virginia. Tobacco Cultivation was extremely difficult, and simple farmers on an acre of land just could not meet the demands in England on their own. With the introduction of African slaves in 1619, plantations began to arise that could meet the demand in the Europe.
Indigo was mainly cultivated in South Carolina beginning in 1739, due to the efforts of Eliza Lucas Pickney, and became one of the biggest cash crops of the colony up until the end of the war. American indigo reached its peak in 1773 when 1.1 million pounds were exported to England.
South Carolina 's swampy wetlands also made it a prime area for the cultivation of rice. In the 1700s, the South Carolina economy was based upon the exportation of rice from its tidewater region. The first attempts at cultivation were failures, and South Carolinian planters began to pay premiums to have slaves imported from specific regions in Africa where rice was grown.
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how did earth move from the last glacial maximum to the present glacial minimum | Last Glacial Maximum - wikipedia
In the Earth 's climate history the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was the last time period during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension. Vast ice sheets covered much of North America, northern Europe, and Asia. The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought, desertification, and a dramatic drop in sea levels. Growth of the ice sheets reached its maximum at about 26.5 k BP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere at approximately 20 kBP and in Antarctica approximately at 14.5 kBP, which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level at about 14.5 kBP.
The LGM is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington Stadial i. It is dated by Nick Ashton to between 31,000 and 16,000 BP.
The LGM was followed by the Late Glacial.
The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation (snow). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them.
These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to the shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large ' east - west ' mountain ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.
All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel, rainfall could be diminished by up to 90 % from present, with florae diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands.
The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna, and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on the east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact -- probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions.
Most of the world 's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht - e Kavir.
In Australia, shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, whilst the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present - day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, and southern China, where open woodland became dominant due to drier conditions. In northern China -- unglaciated despite its cold climate -- a mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least 20 ° farther south than today.
In the period before the Last Glacial Maximum, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia, where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years Before Present (BP, a formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years, counted from 1950 CE).
During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent storms and a dust - laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than now. This was probably due to a number of factors: reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust from the atmosphere. The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level, exposing continental shelves, joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains. During the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today.
Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and northeastward to occupy the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea and Novaya Zemlya, ending at the Taymyr Peninsula.
In northwestern Russia the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reached its LGM extent 17 ka BP, five thousand years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside the Baltic Shield, and in Russia in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM lobes of Russia followed the Dvina, Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate.
Permafrost covered Europe south of the ice sheet down to present - day Szeged in Southern Hungary. Ice covered the whole of Iceland and almost all of the British Isles but southern England. Britain was no more than a peninsula of Europe, its north capped in ice, and its south a polar desert.
There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh. In Southeast Asia, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing. Because of lowered sea levels, many of today 's islands were joined to the continents: the Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland. Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait.
In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent.
The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur - Shatt (a confluence of the Tigris - Euphrates Rivers) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the Strait of Hormuz into the Gulf of Oman.
Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo - basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may have approached an area of 20,000 km2, comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9000 years ago much of the Gulf floor would have remained exposed, only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago.
It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 ° C lower than at present during the Last Glacial Maximum. This alone would however not have been enough to create a widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands. Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meter or more below the surface. A few small glaciers did however develop during the Last Glacial Maximum, in particular in south - facing slopes. In the Hex River Mountains, in the Western Cape, block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity which likely occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum.
The Australian mainland, New Guinea, Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul.
Between Sahul and Sundaland -- a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present - day Malaysia and western and northern Indonesia -- there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea. The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in number.
In North America, the ice covered essentially all of Canada and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and eastward to Manhattan. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and Montana, alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of the ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia, reshaping their genetic variation by mutation and drift. This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans, and later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups.
On the Island of Hawaii, geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000 to 200,000 years ago are preserved on the volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about 70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on Mauna Loa, they have long since been buried by younger lava flows.
During the Last Glacial Maximum valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38 -- 43 ° S) merged and descended from the Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes. Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most Chiloé glacier advance peaked in 26,000 yrs BP forming a long north - south moraine system along the eastern coast of Chiloé Island (31.5 -- 43 ° S). By that time the glaciation at the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in Chile.
Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice - free during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed caused a slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus species. Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm - climate trees begun to grow in the area. It is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1000 m relative to present day elevations during the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 yr BP. At that time a cold reversal caused a replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species.
Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake District. To the north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel. The western coast of Patagonia was largely glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice - free refugia for some plant species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring, Seno Otway, Inútil Bay, and Beagle Channel. On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda Angostura.
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where is the soma of an upper motor neuron that controls skeletal muscle found | Upper motor neuron - wikipedia
Upper motor neurons are motor neurons that originate either in the motor region of the cerebral cortex or in the brain stem and carry motor information down to the lower motor neurons. The main effector or motor neurons (efferent neurons) for voluntary movement lie within layer V of the primary motor cortex, and are a type of giant pyramidal cell called Betz cells. The cell bodies of these neurons are the largest in the brain, approaching nearly 0.1 mm in diameter.
The primary motor cortex or precentral gyrus, is one of the most important areas in the frontal lobe. The precentral gyrus is the most posterior gyrus of the frontal lobe and it lies anterior to the central sulcus. The pyramidal cells of the precentral gyrus are also called upper motor neurons. The fibers of the upper motor neurons project out of the precentral gyrus ending in the brainstem, where they will decussate (intersect) within the lower medulla oblongata to form the lateral corticospinal tract on each side of the spinal cord. The fibers that do not decussate will pass through the medulla and continue on to form the anterior corticospinal tracts. The upper motor neuron descends in the spinal cord to the level of the appropriate spinal nerve root. At this point, the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron, each of whose axons innervate a fiber of skeletal muscle.
These neurons connect the brain to the appropriate level in the spinal cord, from which point nerve signals continue to the muscles by means of the lower motor neurons. The neurotransmitter glutamate transmits the nerve impulses from upper to lower motor neurons, where it is detected by glutamatergic receptors.
Upper motor neurons travel in several neural pathways through the central nervous system (CNS):
Any upper motor neuron lesion, also known as pyramidal insufficiency, occurs in the neural pathway above the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Such lesions can arise as a result of stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury or other acquired brain injury. The resulting changes in muscle performance that can be wide and varied are described overall as upper motor neuron syndrome. Symptoms can include muscle weakness, decreased motor control including a loss of the ability to perform fine movements, increased vigor (and decreased threshold) of spinal reflexes including spasticity, clonus (involuntary, successive cycles of contraction / relaxation of a muscle), and an extensor plantar response known as the Babinski sign.
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who founded the school of functionalism and what were its primary beliefs | Functional psychology - wikipedia
Functional psychology or functionalism refers to a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behaviour in terms of active adaptation to the person 's environment. As such, it provides the general basis for developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments and for applied psychology.
Functionalism arose in the U.S. in the late 19th century as an alternative to structuralism. While functionalism never became a formal school, it built on structuralism 's concern for the anatomy of the mind and led to greater concern over the functions of the mind, and later to behaviourism.
Functionalism was a philosophy opposing the prevailing structuralism of psychology of the late 19th century. Edward Titchener, the main structuralist, gave psychology its first definition as a science of the study of mental experience, of consciousness, to be studied by trained introspection.
William James is considered to be the founder of functional psychology. Although he would not consider himself as a functionalist, nor did he truly like the way science divided itself into schools. John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Harvey A. Carr, and especially James Rowland Angell were the main proponents of functionalism at the University of Chicago. Another group at Columbia, including notably James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, were also considered functionalists and shared some of the opinions of Chicago 's professors. Egon Brunswik represents a more recent, but Continental, version. The functionalists retained an emphasis on conscious experience.
Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision - making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James.
Evolutionary psychology is based on the idea that knowledge concerning the function of the psychological phenomena affecting human evolution is necessary for a complete understanding of the human psyche. Even the project of studying the evolutionary functions of consciousness is now an active topic of study. Like evolutionary psychology, James 's functionalism was inspired by Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection.
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who is dave bartram of showaddywaddy married to | Showaddywaddy - wikipedia
Showaddywaddy are a pop rock group from Leicester, England. They specialise in revivals of hit songs from the 1950s and early 1960s as well as original material and dress as Teddy Boys. Showaddywaddy spent 209 weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and had 10 Top Ten singles, with one reaching number one.
The band was formed in 1973 by the amalgamation of two groups, Choise and the Golden Hammers, the latter often known simply as The Hammers. This led to an eight - member band, with the unusual feature of having two vocalists, two drummers, two guitarists, and two bassists. They both played at the Fosse Way pub in Leicester and soon discovered shared musical tastes. After playing together in jamming sessions, they joined together permanently and Showaddywaddy was born. The band 's first professional gig was at the Dreamland Ballroom in Margate, Kent on 1 September 1973.
They appeared on the ATV series New Faces, and won one programme in the series in November 1973, and were runners - up in the "All Winners Final '', which was broadcast on 28 December 1973. Their first single, "Hey Rock and Roll '' (written by the band), was released in April 1974. It reached number two in the UK Singles Chart. Showaddywaddy then went on to have a further 22 UK hits until late summer 1982. They had most of their biggest hits with covers of songs from the 1950s and the early 1960s. These cover versions included "Three Steps to Heaven '' (originally by Eddie Cochran in 1960), "Heartbeat '' (originally written and recorded by Buddy Holly), "Under the Moon of Love '' (originally a US hit for Curtis Lee in 1961 and co-written by Tommy Boyce), "When '' (originally by the Kalin Twins), "You Got What It Takes '' (originally by Marv Johnson) and "Dancin ' Party '' (originally by Chubby Checker). These six singles were all produced by Mike Hurst (a former member of the Springfields).
On the South African charts, "Three Steps to Heaven '' reached number 6 in 1975 and "Under the Moon of Love '' number 6 in 1977.
From "Dancin ' Party '' (1977), the band produced their own records with more cover versions including "I Wonder Why '' (originally by Dion and the Belmonts), "Blue Moon '' (based on the Marcels ' interpretation) and another Curtis Lee original "Pretty Little Angel Eyes '', again co-written by Tommy Boyce. Their most recent chart single was "Who Put the Bomp '', a number 37 hit in 1982, which they also promoted in their final Top of the Pops performance.
During their history, Showaddywaddy have made nearly 300 television appearances, including their own BBC TV special, Showaddywaddyshow, broadcast between Christmas and New Year in 1980. The band also appeared in the 1975 film Three for All, where they performed "The Party '' from their 1974 debut album.
In total they had ten Top Ten singles, a solitary number one ("Under the Moon of Love '' in 1976), and spent 209 weeks in the UK Singles Chart. At the peak of their popularity, this tally included having seven successive Top Five entries. Their biggest - selling single was the aforementioned "Under the Moon of Love '', which sold 985,000 copies.,
Malcolm Allured left the group in 1984, followed by Russ Field in 1985, and Buddy Gask in 1987. Gask retired to Spain in 2005, and died in 2011 after suffering with ill health for a number of years. Field runs a guest house with his wife in Beadnell, Northumberland, and still plays guitar in a local covers band, Before The Mast. Allured owns a nightclub called MFN at Shipley Gate, Eastwood, Nottinghamshire, and still plays live in local bands. Field was replaced by Ray Martinez in 1985, who was subsequently replaced by Danny Willson in 1995.
Cherry Red Records began to release Showaddywaddy 's extensive album back catalogue on CD from 2000 on their 7Ts imprint. The reissues featured rare bonus tracks, B - sides and non-album singles.
Early in 2008, the band finished recording their album, The Sun Album (I Betcha Gonna Like It), released on Voiceprint Records. A special limited edition (500 copies only) was available, signed by the whole band and comprised the CD, a DVD, special packaging and extended sleeve notes. In September 2011, lead singer Dave Bartram released his long - lost solo recordings from 1982 -- 85 on Invisible Hands Music. The original tapes had been in his loft for 25 years. The seventeen - track album was entitled Lost and Found.
Al James retired from the band in 2008, playing his last gig with the band at the Cheese & Grain in Frome, Somerset, on 20 December 2008. In early 2009, Trevor Oakes decided to take a break from the band due to ill health. He left the band and officially retired on 1 May 2009, meaning his last gig was also at the Cheese & Grain. Trevor Oakes is the father of footballers Scott Oakes and Stefan Oakes. Challenger is the father of Benjamin Challenger who trialled for Leicester City before playing basketball for Leicester Riders then moving into athletics, gained medals in the high jump at the 1998 and 2002 Commonwealth Games. Danny Willson also left the band during 2009 to join Martin Turner 's Wishbone Ash, and his last gig was in Denmark on 8 August that year.
Lead singer Dave Bartram left Showaddywaddy on 3 December 2011 after 38 years fronting the band, and his last gig was at the Kings Hall Theatre in Ilkley, West Yorkshire. Bartram continues as the band 's manager, a role he has undertaken since 1984. The Ilkley gig also marked saxophonist David Graham 's last gig, who had been touring with the band since August 2009.
Bartram did his first solo post-Showaddywaddy appearance on 1 November 2013, at Upstairs At The Western, a venue above The Western pub in Leicester, where he was interviewed by a compere and took questions from the audience in "an evening with '' type format. He also performed three acoustic numbers on the night, "Smiling Eyes '', "Three Steps To Heaven '' and "Hey Rock And Roll '' - the performance of "Smiling Eyes '' was the song 's first live performance, having been originally released some 38 years earlier on the 1975 Step Two album.
In 2013, the band celebrated its 40th anniversary and undertook a UK wide tour between 11 January and 1 June. On 17 June 2013, the band released a new collection of its entire studio recordings to celebrate their anniversary. The anthology featured the band 's entire 20th century catalogue of recorded material, including all of their original studio albums in mini-vinyl replica wallets, non-album A and B sides, together with a selection of alternative mixes and unreleased rarities unearthed from the vaults, in a 139 - track, 10 - CD box set. A 36 - page booklet included a 7,000 - word liner note from Showaddywaddy expert Steve Thorpe, and an introduction from the former band member Dave Bartram. Also June 2013 saw the release of their only live album to date. It contained 16 of their most famous tracks. This album was only available at live gigs with a pressing of only 1,000 copies.
Despite the hits drying up over three decades ago, Showaddywaddy have continued to tour, and still do around 100 dates a year in the UK and Europe. The band currently consists of the remaining two original members, Challenger and Deas, along with guitarist Ray Hatfield (who joined January 2017 when Paul Dixon left), vocalist Andy Pelos, keyboardist Dean Loach, and drummer Rob Hewins (all of whom joined in October 2011). In June 2014, Showaddywaddy had completed the "Once In A Lifetime '' arena tour, with Bay City Rollers, David Essex, and The Osmonds. The same month saw the reissue of Showaddywaddy 's 2008 The Sun Album (I Betcha Gonna Like It), which contained two new tracks.
Over 20 other compilation albums have been released on budget labels.
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