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who wrote most of the songs in the beatles | List of songs recorded by the Beatles - Wikipedia
The following is a table of songs recorded by the Beatles. While Bill Wyman of Vulture.com lists a set 213 Beatles compositions, there are a total of 305 songs listed on this page, with 69 of them being cover songs and 236 being original compositions.
(with Lennon)
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what is the climate in the central valley | Central Valley (California) - wikipedia
The Central Valley is a flat valley that dominates the geographical center of the U.S. state of California. It is 40 to 60 miles (60 to 100 km) wide and stretches approximately 450 miles (720 km) from north - northwest to south - southeast, inland from and parallel to the Pacific Ocean coast. It covers approximately 18,000 square miles (47,000 km), about 11 % of California 's total land area (or about the size of Denmark). The valley is bounded by the Sierra Nevada to the east and the Coast Ranges to the west.
It is California 's single most productive agricultural region and one of the most productive in the world, providing more than half of the fruits, vegetables and nuts grown in the United States. More than 7 million acres (28,000 km) of the valley are irrigated via an extensive system of reservoirs and canals. The valley also has many major cities, including the state capital Sacramento; as well as Redding, Stockton, Modesto, Fresno and Bakersfield.
The Central Valley watershed comprises 60,000 square miles (160,000 km), or over a third of California. Its three main drainage systems are the Sacramento Valley in the north, which receives well over 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; the drier San Joaquin Valley in the south, and the Tulare Basin and its semi-arid desert climate at the southernmost end. The Sacramento and San Joaquin river systems drain their respective valleys and meet to form the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta, a large expanse of interconnected canals, stream beds, sloughs, marshes and peat islands. The delta empties into the San Francisco Bay, and then ultimately flows into the Pacific. The waters of the Tulare Basin essentially never flow to the ocean (with the exception of Kings River waters diverted northward for irrigation), though they are connected by man - made canals to the San Joaquin and could drain there again naturally if they were ever to rise high enough.
The valley encompasses all or parts of 18 Northern California counties: Butte, Colusa, Glenn, El Dorado, Fresno, Kings, Madera, Merced, Placer, San Joaquin, Sacramento, Shasta, Stanislaus, Sutter, Tehama, Tulare, Yuba, Yolo, and the Southern California county of Kern.
The Central Valley is commonly known to residents simply as "the Valley ''. Older names include "the Great Valley '', a name still often seen in scientific references (e.g. Great Valley Sequence), and "Golden Empire '', a booster name which is still referred to by some organizations (e.g. Golden Empire Transit, Golden Empire Council, etc.).
The Central Valley is outlined by the Cascade, Sierra Nevada, and Tehachapi mountain ranges on the east, and the California Coast Ranges and San Francisco Bay on the west. The broad valley floor is carpeted by vast agricultural regions, and dotted with numerous population centers. Subregions and their counties commonly associated with the valley include:
There are four main population centers in the Central Valley, each roughly equidistant from the next, from south to north: Bakersfield, Fresno, Sacramento, and Redding. While there are many communities large and small between these cities (see below), these four cities act as hubs for regional commerce and transportation.
About 6.5 million people live in the Central Valley today, and it is the fastest growing region in California. There are 12 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) and 1 Micropolitan Statistical Area (μSA) in the Central Valley. Below, they are listed by MSA and μSA population. The largest city is Fresno, followed by the state capital, Sacramento. The following metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas listed from largest to smallest:
The flatness of the valley floor contrasts with the rugged hills or gentle mountains that are typical of most of California 's terrain. The valley is thought to have originated below sea level as an offshore area depressed by subduction of the Farallon Plate into a trench further offshore. The San Joaquin Fault is a notable seismic feature of the Central Valley.
The valley was enclosed by the uplift of the Coast Ranges, with its original outlet into Monterey Bay. Faulting moved the Coast Ranges, and a new outlet developed near what is now San Francisco Bay. Over the millennia, the valley was filled by the sediments of these same ranges, as well as the rising Sierra Nevada to the east; that filling eventually created an extraordinary flatness just barely above sea level; before California 's massive flood control and aqueduct system was built, the annual snow melt turned much of the valley into an inland sea.
The one notable exception to the flat valley floor is Sutter Buttes, the remnants of an extinct volcano just to the northwest of Yuba City, which is 44 miles (71 km) north of Sacramento.
Another significant geologic feature of the Central Valley lies hidden beneath the delta. The Stockton Arch is an upwarping of the crust beneath the valley sediments which extends southwest to northeast across the valley.
The Central Valley lies within the California Trough physiographic section, which is part of the larger Pacific Border province, which in turn is part of the Pacific Mountain System.
The "Central Valley grassland '' is the Nearctic temperate and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrub lands ecoregion which was once a diverse grassland containing areas of desert grassland (at the southern end), prairie, savanna, riverside woodland, marsh, several types of seasonal vernal pools, and large lakes such as now - dry Tulare Lake (the largest lake in the United States west of the Mississippi), Buena Vista Lake and Kern Lake. However, much of the Central Valley environment has been removed or altered by human activity including the introduction of exotic plants, especially grasses. The oak woodlands and chaparral that fringe the valley have been categorized as the California interior chaparral and woodlands ecoregion.
The wetlands have been the target of rescue operations to restore areas nearly destroyed by agriculture.
The dominant grass of the valley was Nassella pulchra mixed with other species, but today only 1 % of the grassland in the valley is original and intact. Grassland flowers include California poppy (Eschscholzia californica), lupins, and purple owl 's clover (Castilleja exserta) which can still be seen, especially in Antelope Valley in the Tehachapi hills. Riverside trees include willows, western sycamore (Platanus racemosa), box elder (Acer negundo), Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii), and the endemic valley oak (Quercus lobata).
The Central Valley was once home to large populations of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana), elk including the endemic tule elk subspecies (Cervus elaphus nannodes), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), California ground squirrels, gophers, mice, hare, rabbits and kangaroo rats, along with their predators including the San Joaquin kit fox which is now an endangered subspecies surviving on the hillsides of the San Joaquin Valley. The wetlands of the Valley were an important habitat for wintering waterbirds and migrating birds of other kinds. Reptiles and amphibians of the valley include the endemic San Joaquin coachwhip snake (Masticophis flagellum ruddocki), blunt - nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia sila), Gilbert 's skink (Eumeces gilberti) and the western aquatic garter snake (Thamnophis couchii). There are also a number of endemic invertebrates. The Central Valley is also home to a wide variety of endemic fish species, including the Sacramento Pikeminnow, Sacramento Perch, Sacramento Blackfish, and Sacramento Splittail, among others.
Agriculture, especially the creation of grazing land, and the draining of lakes and rivers have radically altered the habitats of the Valley. Most of the grassland has been overtaken by new species, most of the vernal pools have been drained or otherwise destroyed with only those on the higher slopes remaining, the marshland has mostly been drained too, and the riverbank woodlands have nearly all been affected.
The Great Valley Grasslands State Park preserves an example of the native grass habitat in the valley, while oak savanna habitats remain near Visalia. There are areas of wetland and riverside woodland in the north especially on the Sacramento River system including the Nature Conservancy 's Cosumnes River Preserve just south of Sacramento, Gray Lodge Wildlife Area, Butte Sink Wildlife Management Area, and other patches in the delta area. Remaining vernal pools include Pixley National Wildlife Refuge between Tulare, California and Bakersfield and Jepson Prairie Preserve in the delta. There are large blocks of desert scrubland in the southern San Joaquin Valley and in the Carrizo Plain which is just outside the valley but has a similar landscape.
All these patches of natural habitat are disconnected and this is particularly damaging for wildlife that is used to migrating along the rivers of the valley, birds such as warblers and cuckoos, and reptiles and amphibians. Meanwhile, clearance and alteration are ongoing.
The valley gives its name to Valley fever which is primarily a disease of the lungs that is common in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It is caused by the fungus Coccidioides immitis, which grows in soils in areas of low rainfall, high summer temperatures, and moderate winter temperatures. These fungal spores become airborne when the soil is disturbed by winds, construction, or farming. This illness frequently takes many weeks or months to resolve. Occasionally Valley Fever is life - threatening and even fatal.
Additionally, Central Valley farm laborers are often unable to afford or physically access healthy foods, which is a form of food insecurity.
Residents of the Central Valley also experience risk of contamination from pesticides when living in proximity of application sites.
The northern Central Valley has a hot Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa); the more southerly parts in rainshadow zones are dry enough to be Mediterranean steppe (BShs, as around Fresno) or even low - latitude desert (BWh, as in areas around Bakersfield). It is hot and dry during the summer and cool and damp in winter, when frequent ground fog known regionally as "tule fog '' can obscure vision. Summer daytime temperatures approach 100 ° F (38 ° C), and common heat waves might bring temperatures exceeding 115 ° F (46 ° C). Mid-autumn to mid-spring comprises the rainy season -- although during the late summer, southeasterly winds aloft can bring thunderstorms of tropical origin, mainly in the southern half of the San Joaquin Valley but occasionally to the Sacramento Valley. The northern half of the Central Valley receives greater precipitation than the semidesert southern half. Frost occurs at times in the fall months, but snow will occur occasionally.
Tule fog / ˈtuːliː / is a thick ground fog that settles along the length of the Great Central Valley. Tule fog forms during the late fall and winter (California 's rainy season) after the first significant rainfall. The official time frame for tule fog to form is from November 1 to March 31. This phenomenon is named after the tule grass wetlands (tulares) of the Central Valley. Accidents caused by the tule fog are the leading cause of weather - related casualties in California.
Two major river systems drain and define the two parts of the Central Valley. The Sacramento River, along with its tributaries the Feather River and American River, flows southwards through the Sacramento Valley for about 447 miles (719 km). In the San Joaquin Valley, the San Joaquin River flows roughly northwest for 365 miles (587 km), picking up tributaries such as the Merced River, Tuolumne River, Stanislaus River and Mokelumne River. The Central Valley watershed encompasses over a third of California at 60,000 square miles (160,000 km), with 46 percent draining into the Sacramento River, 26 percent into the San Joaquin, and 27 percent into Tulare Lake.
In the south part of the San Joaquin Valley, the alluvial fan of the Kings River and another one from Coast Ranges streams have created a divide and resultantly the currently dry Tulare basin of the Central Valley, into which flow four major Sierra Nevada rivers, the Kings, Kaweah, Tule and Kern. This basin, usually endorheic, formerly filled during heavy snowmelt and spilled out into the San Joaquin River. Called Tulare Lake, it is usually dry nowadays because the rivers feeding it have been diverted for agricultural purposes.
The rivers of the Central Valley converge in the Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta, a complex network of marshy channels, distributaries and sloughs that wind around islands mainly used for agriculture. Here the freshwater of the rivers merges with tidewater, and eventually reach the Pacific Ocean after passing through Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay, upper San Francisco Bay and finally the Golden Gate. Many of the islands now lie below sea level because of intensive agriculture, and have a high risk of flooding, which would cause salt water to rush back into the delta, especially when there is too little fresh water flowing in from the Valley.
The Sacramento River carries far more water than the San Joaquin, with an estimated 22 million acre feet (27 km) of virgin annual runoff, as compared to the San Joaquin 's approximately 6 million acre feet (7.4 km). Intensive agricultural and municipal water consumption has reduced the present rate of outflow to about 17 million acre feet (21 km) for the Sacramento and 3 million acre feet (3.7 km) for the San Joaquin; however, these figures still vary widely from year to year. Over 25 million people, living both in the valley and in other regions of the state, rely on the water carried by these rivers.
Runoff from the Sierra Nevada flows into the Central Valley and provides one of the largest water resources of California. The Sacramento River is the second largest river to empty into the Pacific from the Continental United States, behind only the Columbia River and greater than the Colorado River. Combined with the fertile and expansive area of the Central Valley 's floor, the Central Valley is ideal for agriculture.
Today, the Central Valley is one of the most productive growing regions of the United States. But to enable this, water control was needed to prevent rivers from overflowing during the spring snowmelt while drying up in the summer and autumn. As a result, many large dams, including Shasta Dam, Oroville Dam, Folsom Dam, New Melones Dam, Don Pedro Dam, Friant Dam, Pine Flat Dam and Isabella Dam, were constructed on rivers entering the Central Valley, many part of the Central Valley Project. These dams have had a profound impact on the physical, economic, cultural, and ecological state of Central Valley: for example, enabling development of its vast agricultural resources but leading to the loss of the Chinook salmon.
Post-World War II demand for urban development in California 's urban areas, most notably the San Francisco Bay Area and the Los Angeles / Inland Empire / San Diego, required water resources to support it. Moreover, rapid development of agriculture in the southern Central Valley required far more water than available locally. The Feather River in the Sacramento Valley was looked to as a water source, leading to public financing of the California State Water Project. This transports water to the southern San Joaquin Valley and vast urban lands south of the Tehachapi Mountains.
Runoff from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers is intercepted in the delta by the state Department of Water Resources through a series of massive pumps, which divert water into the California Aqueduct that runs south along the entire length of the San Joaquin Valley. In parallel, pumps operated by the Bureau of Reclamation divert water into the Delta Mendota Canal. The flow of the Sacramento River is further supplemented by a tunnel from the Trinity River (a tributary of the Klamath River, northwest of the Sacramento Valley) near Redding. Cities of the San Francisco Bay Area, also needing great amounts of water, built aqueducts from the Mokelumne River and Tuolumne River that run east to west across the middle part of the Central Valley.
Most lowlands of the Central Valley are prone to flooding, especially in the old Tulare Lake, Buena Vista Lake, and Kern Lake rivers. The Kings, Kaweah, Tule and Kern rivers originally flowed into these seasonal lakes, which would expand each spring to flood large parts of the southern San Joaquin Valley. Due to the construction of farms, towns and infrastructure in these lakebeds while preventing them from flooding with levee systems, the risk of floods damaging properties increased greatly.
The Great Flood of 1862 was the worst flood that the Central Valley has experienced in recorded history, flooding most of the valley and putting some places as much as 20 feet under water.
Major public works projects beginning in the 1930s sought to reduce the amount of snowmelt flooding by the building of large dams. In 2003, it was determined that Sacramento had both the least protection against and nearly the highest risk of flooding. Congress then granted a $220 million loan for upgrades in Sacramento County. Other counties in the valley that face flooding often are Yuba, Stanislaus, and San Joaquin.
The Central Valley has been home to many Country, Funk, Jazz, Soul, Nu metal, and Doowop musicians. The Valley has many influences in American music mainly through the "Bakersfield Sound, '' the "Doowop Era '' of the 1950s and 1960s, through the "R&B, '' music scene of the 1980s ' and also through the Bakersfield Rap Music Scene often referred to as: Indie Hip Hop, Central California Hip Hop, West Coast Rap, Underground Rap, or Central Valley Hip Hop.
The Central Valley is known for many famous musicians from Country, R&B, and Doowop to Jazz & Funk artist such as: Buck Owens, Korn, Merle Haggard, Billy Mize, Red Simpson, The Maddox Brothers and Rose, The Paradons, The Colts and the Sons of the San Joaquin. The Central Valley is also home to many west coast bands from Bakersfield, Modesto, Stockton, and Fresno to as far as Sacramento bands.
The Central Valley also houses many rappers, DJs ', and R&B Hip Hop artist such as: DRS, C - BO, Brotha Lynch, T - Nutty, Planet Asia, X-Raided, The Def Dames, Marvaless, Fashawn, Blackalicious, Mozzy and many more.
Agriculture is the primary industry in most of the Central Valley. A notable exception to the predominance of agriculture has been the Sacramento area, where the large and stable workforce of government employees helped steer the economy away from agriculture. Despite state hiring cutbacks and the closure of several military bases, Sacramento 's economy has continued to expand and diversify and now more closely resembles that of the nearby San Francisco Bay Area. Primary sources of population growth are people migrating from the San Francisco Bay Area seeking lower housing costs, as well as immigration from Asia, Central America, Mexico, Ukraine and the rest of the former Soviet Union.
After English and Spanish, Hmong is the third most commonly spoken language in the Central Valley.
The Central Valley is one of the world 's most productive agricultural regions. More than 230 crops are grown there. On less than 1 percent of the total farmland in the United States, the Central Valley produces 8 percent of the nation 's agricultural output by value: $43.5 billion USD in 2013. Its agricultural productivity relies on irrigation from both surface water diversions and groundwater pumping from wells. About one - sixth of the irrigated land in the U.S. is in the Central Valley.
Virtually all non-tropical crops are grown in the Central Valley, which is the primary source for a number of food products throughout the United States, including tomatoes, almonds, grapes, cotton, apricots, and asparagus.
There are 6,000 almond growers that produced more than 1.8 million tonnes in 2013, about 60 percent of the world 's supply.
The top four counties in agricultural sales in the U.S. are in the Central Valley (2007 Data). They are Fresno County (# 1 with $3.731 billion in sales), Tulare County (# 2 with $3.335 billion), Kern County (# 3 with $3.204), and Merced County (# 4 with $2.330 billion).
Early farming was concentrated close to the Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta, where the water table was high year round and water transport more readily available, but subsequent irrigation projects have brought many more parts of the valley into productive use. For example, the Central Valley Project was formed in 1935 to redistribute and store water for agricultural and municipal purposes with dams and canals. The even larger California State Water Project was formed in the 1950s and construction continued throughout the following decades.
It was in the Central Valley, especially in and around Delano, that farm labor leaders Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organized Mexican American grape pickers into a union in the 1960s, the National Farmworkers Association (NFWA), in order to improve their working conditions.
Due to the agricultural industry 's large presence in the Valley, there is concern from environmentalists about the pesticide drift and leaching in the Central Valley of California.
Since the 1980s, Bakersfield, Porterville, Fresno, Visalia, Tracy, Modesto and many other towns and cities have exploded in both area and population, as housing values along the coast increased. Many people from Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area relocated to growing San Joaquin Valley suburbs in search of more affordable housing while retaining employment outside the Valley. This has led to traffic congestion between their Valley residences and their Bay Area employment with accompanying air pollution. Air pollution became a principal environmental and health concern as long ago as the 1960s, and resulted in the establishment of the California Air Resources Board in 1967.
Highways Interstate 5 and CA 99 run, roughly parallel, north - south through the valley, meeting at only its south end. The Interstate 80 Business Loop connects the two highways at their closest point. Interstate 80 crosses it northeast - southwest from Rocklin to Vacaville.
The state water project 's Oroville Dam in the Sacramento Valley provides water and power for the California Aqueduct in the San Joaquin Valley. The aqueduct runs from Clifton Court Forebay in the Delta southwards across the Transverse Ranges. The federal (Central Valley Project) includes numerous facilities between Shasta Dam in the north to Bakersfield in the south. Pacific Gas and Electric, Western Area Power Administration, and Southern California Edison have interconnected electric transmission systems connecting the north and south ends of the Central Valley (examples include Path 15, Path 26, and Path 66).
BNSF (Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway) and Union Pacific Railroad both have railway lines in the Central Valley. The BNSF Bakersfield Subdivision runs from Bakersfield to Calwa, four miles (6 km) south of Fresno. From Calwa the BNSF Stockton Subdivision continues to Port Chicago, west of Antioch. The Union Pacific Railroad Martinez Subdivision runs from Port Chicago through Martinez, Richmond and Emeryville to Oakland. The UP 's Fresno Subdivision runs from Stockton to Bakersfield and traffic passes through a large and historical yard in Roseville before heading to Oregon or Nevada. Amtrak operates six daily San Joaquins trains over these lines. California High - Speed Rail, linking northern and southern California, broke ground in the Central Valley in 2015.
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the commutative property only works under what two operations | Commutative property - wikipedia
In mathematics, a binary operation is commutative if changing the order of the operands does not change the result. It is a fundamental property of many binary operations, and many mathematical proofs depend on it. Most familiar as the name of the property that says "3 + 4 = 4 + 3 '' or "2 × 5 = 5 × 2 '', the property can also be used in more advanced settings. The name is needed because there are operations, such as division and subtraction, that do not have it (for example, "3 − 5 ≠ 5 − 3 ''); such operations are not commutative, and so are referred to as noncommutative operations. The idea that simple operations such as the multiplication and addition of numbers are commutative, was for many years implicitly assumed. Thus, this property was not named until the 19th century, when mathematics started to become formalized. A corresponding property exists for binary relations; a binary relation is said to be symmetric if the relation applies regardless of the order of its operands; for example, equality is symmetric as two equal mathematical objects are equal regardless of their order.
The commutative property (or commutative law) is a property generally associated with binary operations and functions. If the commutative property holds for a pair of elements under a certain binary operation then the two elements are said to commute under that operation.
The term "commutative '' is used in several related senses.
Two well - known examples of commutative binary operations:
Some noncommutative binary operations:
Subtraction is noncommutative, since 0 − 1 ≠ 1 − 0 (\ displaystyle 0 - 1 \ neq 1 - 0).
Division is noncommutative, since 1 ÷ 2 ≠ 2 ÷ 1 (\ displaystyle 1 \ div 2 \ neq 2 \ div 1).
Some truth functions are noncommutative, since the truth tables for the functions are different when one changes the order of the operands. For example, the truth tables for f (A, B) = A Λ ¬ B (A AND NOT B) and f (B, A) = B Λ ¬ A are
For the eight noncommutative functions, Bqp = Cpq; Mqp = Lpq; Cqp = Bpq; Lqp = Mpq; Fqp = Gpq; Iqp = Hpq; Gqp = Fpq; Hqp = Ipq.
Matrix multiplication is almost always noncommutative, for example:
The vector product (or cross product) of two vectors in three dimensions is anti-commutative; i.e., b × a = − (a × b).
Records of the implicit use of the commutative property go back to ancient times. The Egyptians used the commutative property of multiplication to simplify computing products. Euclid is known to have assumed the commutative property of multiplication in his book Elements. Formal uses of the commutative property arose in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when mathematicians began to work on a theory of functions. Today the commutative property is a well - known and basic property used in most branches of mathematics.
The first recorded use of the term commutative was in a memoir by François Servois in 1814, which used the word commutatives when describing functions that have what is now called the commutative property. The word is a combination of the French word commuter meaning "to substitute or switch '' and the suffix - ative meaning "tending to '' so the word literally means "tending to substitute or switch. '' The term then appeared in English in 1838 in Duncan Farquharson Gregory 's article entitled "On the real nature of symbolical algebra '' published in 1840 in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
In truth - functional propositional logic, commutation, or commutativity refer to two valid rules of replacement. The rules allow one to transpose propositional variables within logical expressions in logical proofs. The rules are:
and
where "⇔ (\ displaystyle \ Leftrightarrow) '' is a metalogical symbol representing "can be replaced in a proof with. ''
Commutativity is a property of some logical connectives of truth functional propositional logic. The following logical equivalences demonstrate that commutativity is a property of particular connectives. The following are truth - functional tautologies.
In group and set theory, many algebraic structures are called commutative when certain operands satisfy the commutative property. In higher branches of mathematics, such as analysis and linear algebra the commutativity of well - known operations (such as addition and multiplication on real and complex numbers) is often used (or implicitly assumed) in proofs.
The associative property is closely related to the commutative property. The associative property of an expression containing two or more occurrences of the same operator states that the order operations are performed in does not affect the final result, as long as the order of terms does n't change. In contrast, the commutative property states that the order of the terms does not affect the final result.
Most commutative operations encountered in practice are also associative. However, commutativity does not imply associativity. A counterexample is the function
which is clearly commutative (interchanging x and y does not affect the result), but it is not associative (since, for example, f (− 4, f (0, + 4)) = − 1 (\ displaystyle f (- 4, f (0, + 4)) = - 1) but f (f (− 4, 0), + 4) = + 1 (\ displaystyle f (f (- 4, 0), + 4) = + 1)). More such examples may be found in commutative non-associative magmas.
Some forms of symmetry can be directly linked to commutativity. When a commutative operator is written as a binary function then the resulting function is symmetric across the line y = x. As an example, if we let a function f represent addition (a commutative operation) so that f (x, y) = x + y then f is a symmetric function, which can be seen in the image on the right.
For relations, a symmetric relation is analogous to a commutative operation, in that if a relation R is symmetric, then a R b ⇔ b R a (\ displaystyle aRb \ Leftrightarrow bRa).
In quantum mechanics as formulated by Schrödinger, physical variables are represented by linear operators such as x (meaning multiply by x), and d d x (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d) (dx))). These two operators do not commute as may be seen by considering the effect of their compositions x d d x (\ displaystyle x (\ frac (d) (dx))) and d d x x (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d) (dx)) x) (also called products of operators) on a one - dimensional wave function ψ (x) (\ displaystyle \ psi (x)):
According to the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg, if the two operators representing a pair of variables do not commute, then that pair of variables are mutually complementary, which means they can not be simultaneously measured or known precisely. For example, the position and the linear momentum in the x-direction of a particle are represented by the operators x (\ displaystyle x) and − i ħ ∂ ∂ x (\ displaystyle - i \ hbar (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial x))), respectively (where ħ (\ displaystyle \ hbar) is the reduced Planck constant). This is the same example except for the constant − i ħ (\ displaystyle - i \ hbar), so again the operators do not commute and the physical meaning is that the position and linear momentum in a given direction are complementary.
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when does are you the one season 6 reunion come on | Are You the One? - Wikipedia
Are You the One? is an American reality television series on MTV, in which young singles try to find love. A group of men and women are secretly paired into male - female couples by producers, via a matchmaking algorithm. Then, while living together, the contestants try to identify all of these "perfect matches. '' If they succeed, the entire group shares a prize of up to $1 million. Over the course of each season, the contestants have the opportunity to pair up in different combinations to compete against each other to win dates, as well as the opportunity to learn in the "truth booth '' if a given couple is a correct match. At the end of each episode, the contestants pair up in a "matching ceremony '' and learn how many perfect matches they have, but not which matches are correct. From season 3 onward, the prize was reduced any time that the house failed to identify any matches other than those already confirmed via the truth booth.
On March 22, 2017, spin - off Are You The One: Second Chances premiered. 10 perfect matches from previous seasons returned to compete in tasks designed to test the strength of their bonds. Each week, teams could add to their potential winnings, but individual contestants had the opportunity to take their team 's winnings from their partner and remove their team from the game.
Filmed in Hawaii
Season one premiered on January 21, 2014.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
In Week 5, Ryan Awarded the house 2 Truth Booths, which gave the house their first perfect match in Dillan and Coleysia.
Chris T. and Paige were a confirmed match in episode 6, but due to his relationship with Shanley, the episode ended with a "to be continued... '' instead of a Match - up Ceremony.
child and expecting another
Adam Kuhn & Shanley McIntee returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 3rd place.
Baby Special and Reunion aired on September 29, 2014. During this reunion, the gender of Ethan and Amber 's baby was revealed to be a girl. Both parents - to - be got emotional when they found out they were having a girl. There were also conflicts between Scali and Jacy, Shanley and Chris T, and Ryan and Adam. The end of the episode resulted in most conflicts being resolved. Jacy stated that she would be moving to New York (where Scali is currently based) and they would take their relationship from there. Brittany told the camera that she would be taking Ryan home to meet her parents.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Season two premiered on October 6, 2014.It was set in Puerto Rico. This time, one guy has two matches which means that there will be eleven girls, but only ten boys. Christina is revealed as the first girl of the threeway couple. It is a race between Christina and another girl to find her perfect match and be confirmed as such in the Truth - Booth. The first couple of the threeway - couple to do so will end up in the honeymoon - suite. The other girl will have to leave empty - handed.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match N / A This girl was not chosen in the match - up ceremony
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Nathan "Nate '' Siebenmark & Ellie Puckett returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 9th place.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Kona, Hawaii.
Season three premiered on September 21, 2015.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, Mike was removed from the competition due to an altercation that turned violent with Amanda. Kiki was left without a match that week and was automatically paired with Mike. In the end it turned out that Mike and Kiki were perfect matches.
Mike Crescenzo was later a cast member of the 32nd season of Real World, Real World Seattle: Bad Blood.
Devin Walker - Molaghan & Rashida Beach returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 1st place earning themselves $170,000.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Maui, Hawaii. Season four premiered on June 13, 2016.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 8, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
Asaf Goren & Kaylen Zahara, Cameron Kolbo & Mikala Thomas, Giovanni Rivera & Francesca Duncan and Morgan St. Pierre & Tori Deal returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Rivera and Duncan finished in 8th place after Duncan stole all of the money from Rivera. Goren and Zahara finished in 6th place. Kolbo & Thomas finished in 4th place. St. Pierre and Deal finished in 2nd place earning themselves $25,000.
Note: Tori competed on the Champs vs. Stars special.
Filmed in Cabarete, Dominican Republic.
Season five premiered on January 11 2017.
This season featured 2 big changes. When a couple gets sent into the truth booth to see if they are a perfect match, the rest of the house can either vote to see if they are a perfect match, or earn $150,000, and not see the result of the couple. This only will pertain to certain weeks. Also, if the house blacks out at a match - up ceremony, their money will decrease by 50 % each time instead of $250,000.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match Name Confirmed Not A Match for the whole season. Correct Matching is in parentheses.
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $500,000, lowering the total money at the end to $500,000 instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $650,000
In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $800,000
In Episode 10, the cast did not find all their perfect matches, winning no money at the end.
After the reunion, final Perfect Matches were revealed as the following:
Note: In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Note: In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Note: Look at the revealed perfect matches this will give you the results of the Derrick / Tyranny and Joey / Casandra Truth Booths.
Derrick Henry & Casandra Martinez, Hayden Weaver & Carolina Duarte and Mike Cerasani & Alicia Wright returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Henry and Martinez finished in 10th place. Weaver and Duarte finished in 7th place after Weaver stole all of the money from Duarte. Cerasani and Wright finished in 5th Place.
Filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana. The new host is Terrence J.
Season six premiered on September 20th, 2017.
Name = Confirmed perfect match Name = Unconfirmed perfect match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
At the reunion, it was confirmed that Keith was dating Carolina from season 5 and Anthony was dating Shannon from season 5. Nurys is casually dating Nelson from season 3.
Casting Began for season 7 on the 22nd January 2018.
Filmed in Melbourne, Australia. Hosted by Karamo Brown. Premiered March 22, 2017.
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who are the judges on dancing with the stars this season | Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia
Alex Rudzinzki (2005 - 2016)
Dancing with the Stars is an American dance competition television series that premiered on June 1, 2005, on ABC. It is the US version of the UK series Strictly Come Dancing. The show is hosted by Tom Bergeron, alongside Erin Andrews, who became co-host in season eighteen. Lisa Canning was co-host in the first season, Samantha Harris co-hosted seasons two through nine and Brooke Burke - Charvet in seasons ten through seventeen. On May 12, 2017, it was announced that the series has been renewed for season twenty six.
The format of the show consists of a celebrity paired with a professional dancer. Each couple performs predetermined dances and competes against the others for judges ' points and audience votes. The couple receiving the lowest combined total of judges ' points and audience votes is eliminated each week until only the champion dance pair remains.
Tom Bergeron has been the host since the program 's premiere in 2005. In season 1, his co-host was Lisa Canning. She was replaced by Samantha Harris for seasons 2 through 9 (2006 -- 09), who was then replaced by Brooke Burke - Charvet from seasons 10 through 17 (2010 -- 13). Erin Andrews took over as co-host starting in season 18 (2014). Drew Lachey served as a temporary replacement for Harris during season 5 (2007) during her absence for 3 weeks due to maternity leave. Leah Remini filled in for Andrews in week 6 of season 19, due to commitments with the 2014 World Series and filled in for her again in weeks 6 and 7 of season 21 for the 2015 World Series. Season 19 champion Alfonso Ribeiro filled in for Bergeron on week 4 of season 21, due to Bergeron 's ailing father.
The regular judges are Len Goodman, who serves as head judge, Carrie Ann Inaba, and Bruno Tonioli. Goodman was absent for much of season 19, all of season 21, and much of season 23. Julianne Hough, who was a professional dancing partner for seasons 4 -- 8, was added as a full - time judge on the panel for 3 seasons, 19 -- 21, after having been a guest judge in the previous 2 seasons. She did not return for season 22. Hough did return as a full - time judge for seasons 23 and 24 but did not return for season 25. Several former contestants appeared as judges in episode 200 (in season 11), including Hélio Castroneves, Mel B, Drew Lachey, Gilles Marini, Kelly Osbourne, and Emmitt Smith. Other celebrities, most often those who are associated with the world of dancing, former professional dancers, and past contestants have appeared as the 4th judge or in absence of 1 of the main judges, including Paula Abdul, Donnie Burns, Nick Carter, Cher, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Michael Flatley, Kevin Hart, Jessie J, Baz Luhrmann, Ricky Martin, Idina Menzel, Abby Lee Miller, Mandy Moore, Olivia Newton - John, Kenny Ortega, Donny Osmond, Pitbull, Redfoo, Alfonso Ribeiro, Robin Roberts, Shania Twain, and Zendaya.
Color key:
A total of 286 celebrities have appeared in the 25 seasons of the series. For each season, the celebrities are paired with a professional partner who instructs them in the various dances each week and competes alongside them in the televised competition. A total of 44 professional partners have appeared alongside celebrities, some for only one season (mostly in the earliest seasons).
Key:
In season 12, the show introduced the troupe consisting of professional dancers who perform on the show but are not paired with celebrity partners. The first troupe in season 12 included Oksana Dmytrenko, Tristan MacManus, Peta Murgatroyd, Kiki Nyemchek, Nicole Volynets, and Ted Volynets. Members of the season 25 troupe are Artur Adamski, Brandon Armstrong, Hayley Erbert, Sasha Farber, Jenna Johnson, and Britt Stewart. Other past troupe members include Sharna Burgess, Dasha Chesnokova, Emma Slater, Henry Byalikov, Sonny Fredie Pedersen, Witney Carson, Julz Tocker, Lindsay Arnold, Gleb Savchenko, Artem Chigvintsev, Alan Bersten, Brittany Cherry, Shannon Holtzapffel, Dennis Jauch, Kiril Kulish, and Keo Motsepe.
Key:
For 17 seasons, the Harold Wheeler orchestra and singers provided the live music for the show. On Feb 7, 2014, it was announced that the new bandleader is Ray Chew. Along with him is a new band of instrumentalists and singers.
* Youngest male winner at age 23; youngest female winner at age 16 ‡ Oldest male winner at age 52; oldest female winner at age 50
In seasons 1 and 2, only the overall ranking between competitors by the judges and the public was relevant. In season 3 and all subsequent seasons, the scoring system has made the exact scores relevant as well.
The scoring begins with the judges ' marks. Each judge gives a numeric score from 1 to 10, for a total score of 3 to 30. The scoring was altered for the "all - star '' season 15, during which judges could give scores at 1 / 2 - point intervals from 0.5 to 10, for a total score of 1.5 to 30. When multiple performances are scored, only the cumulative total counts. The contestants ' judges ' shares are calculated as the % of the total number of points awarded to all contestants that evening. (For example, if a team earned 20 pts on a night when the judges awarded 200 pts, their judges ' share would be 20 / 200 = 10 %.) This % is then added to the % of North American votes received by each contestant. The bottom 2 couples are identified at the end of the show, and the couple with the lowest combined total gets eliminated. Season 8 added an occasional ' dance - off ', in which contestants could re-do 1 of their dances, in an effort to improve their judges ' score. This was later discontinued.
Public voting is conducted via a toll - free number, the ABC website, and, most recently, text messages and Facebook; contestants can vote during and immediately after each performance show. The maximum number of votes per voter per medium is equal to the number of couples performing that night, or 5 votes, whichever is larger. In April 2010, it was revealed that former contestant Kate Gosselin had e-mailed friends and family asking them to vote as many as 10x each. In Nov 2010, the Washington Post reported that online voting appeared not to require a valid email address, and accordingly that numerous votes apparently could be cast by 1 person.
In several cases where ESPN coverage of Monday Night Football airs instead on an ABC affiliate in an NFL team 's home market, the program is delayed to air immediately after that station 's local news, and a voting window confined only to the area codes of the pre-empted market is opened up to allow affected viewers to still put their votes in for the competition, though this is on a market - by - market basis (in some markets, an alternate sister station or digital subchannel carries the program live as scheduled).
Seasons 1 and 3 featured only 2 celebrities in the final week instead of 3. Starting with season 16, 4 celebrities made it into the final week, although the top 3 finalists proceeded to dance 1 more time for the judges after the 4th place couple was announced. In season 20, there were 3 celebrities in the final week, but in seasons 21, 23 and 25, there were 4. In seasons 22 and 24, there were only 3 celebrities in the final week.
On the April 18, 2006 episode of the Howard Stern Radio Show, Stern 's wife Beth said that she was guaranteed to earn $125,000 for just appearing on DWTS (in season 3) and could earn up to more than double the original sum, depending on how long she lasted on the program.
In season 21, Bindi Irwin had her payments withheld by a Los Angeles County Superior Court judge because she was a minor, which therefore required her parents to sign - off on the contract. But although her mother signed, the contract lacked her father 's signature, so the judge refused to validate the contract, despite Irwin 's father being the world - famous naturalist Steve Irwin, whose death in 2006 had been widely covered in the news / media. The judge later validated the contract once Steve Irwin 's death certificate was presented to the court, resulting in Bindi receiving a $350,000 paycheck from the show.
The first person to withdraw from competition was Romeo in season 2. His father, Master P, took his place in the competition before the beginning of broadcasts, being partnered with Ashly DelGrosso. However, Romeo later competed in season 12 and finished in 5th place. He was partnered with Chelsie Hightower.
On week six in season three, Sara Evans cited her divorce as the reason for leaving the competition. No one was eliminated that week.
Another withdrawal occurred during the run - up to season four on February 28, when Vincent Pastore withdrew from the competition after only one week of training. Pastore said he did not realize how much work was needed during a ten - week period, and that he was not up to the physical demands of the show. He was replaced on March 2 by Pixar voice actor John Ratzenberger who was partnered with Edyta Sliwinska.
In season seven, Misty May - Treanor withdrew from the competition in week three, after rupturing her Achilles tendon when rehearsing her jive with her partner, Maksim Chmerkovskiy. She did not perform the routine at all nor was she scored for it; no one else was eliminated that week.
In season eight, Jewel and Nancy O'Dell were injured before the season even began and could not compete. Jewel was diagnosed with fractured tibias in both legs; she came back later in the season to perform "Somewhere Over the Rainbow '' on a results show. O'Dell suffered from a torn knee cartilage. They were replaced by Holly Madison and Melissa Rycroft who would be dancing with their partners for the rest of the season (Dmitry Chaplin and Tony Dovolani).
Tom DeLay, in season nine, withdrew in week three of competition due to a full stress fracture that had developed in both feet from an earlier pre-stress fracture in one foot. DeLay was declared safe before he announced his withdrawal during the October 6, 2009 results show. Debi Mazar was still eliminated that night despite DeLay 's departure.
In season sixteen, Olympic figure skating champion Dorothy Hamill had to withdraw from the competition due to doctor 's orders for a spinal injury. A cyst had developed near her lower spine, and was pinching off the nerve in that area. Either boxing champion Victor Ortiz or reality TV star Lisa Vanderpump would 've been eliminated, but Hamill withdrew before the results could be announced, meaning that no one was eliminated that week.
In season eighteen, week three, actor Billy Dee Williams withdrew, by advice from a doctor, due to a chronic back problem (which resulted in no elimination that week).
In season twenty - one, week three, reality TV star Kim Zolciak - Biermann was forced to withdraw from the competition after suffering a blood clot which resulted in a mini stroke (which resulted in no elimination that week). Tamar Braxton also withdrew from the season due to blood clots in her lungs making it the first season to have two withdrawals in it.
Beginning season 7, viewers had the opportunity to vote for their favorite pros (or in some cases former contestants) to dance to a style of dance as well as a song to dance to. An online contest is also usually held so viewers can submit drawings of outfits for the performance.
The show celebrated its 100th episode on Tuesday, May 6, 2008, during week 8 of season 6. More than 30 former cast members and pros returned, with interviews with Stacy Keibler, Lisa Rinna, Jerry Springer, Vivica A. Fox, Joey Fatone, Kenny Mayne, Sabrina Bryan, and former winners Kelly Monaco, Drew Lachey, and Apolo Anton Ohno. Other appearances, besides the season 6 cast, included Paula Abdul (in a video introduction), Jane Seymour, Ian Ziering, Mark Cuban, Wayne Newton, Leeza Gibbons, Harry Hamlin, Shandi Finnessey, and Hélio Castroneves. New routines were performed by Apolo Anton Ohno and Julianne Hough, Mel B and Maksim Chmerkovskiy, and by Mario Lopez with the cast of A Chorus Line, in which he was starring on Broadway. The musical guest was country group Rascal Flatts.
The judges also presented a countdown of their choices for the top 10 perfect - scoring dances of the 1st 5 seasons. Their choices were:
In season 11, viewers were allowed 2 votes per day on the DWTS website to vote for their favorite out of 30 given choices. On Oct 25, 2010, a countdown of the Top 10 voted for dances on the show was reported to celebrate the following week when the 200th show would be.
On the actual 200th show, several dances were performed again on the show and 6 of the past fan favorites came back to judge; Helio Castroneves, Emmitt Smith, Drew Lachey, Kelly Osbourne, Gilles Marini, Mel B, and more. The couples re-created their most memorable routines on the 200th episode; Kristi Yamaguchi and Apolo Ohno served as team captains for the team dances. Yamaguchi 's team consisted of Rick & Cheryl, Kyle & Lacey and Bristol & Mark, while Brandy & Maksim, Jennifer & Derek and Kurt & Anna were on Ohno 's team. On the results show of November 2, some awards were given out to past celebrity contestants and professionals.
The 300th episode took place on the week 9 results show of season 16. 22 past and present pros performed an opening number choreographed by Jason Gilkinson. Past pros who performed were Chelsie Hightower, Dmitry Chaplin, Louis Van Amstel, and Anna Trebunskaya. Kellie Pickler and Derek Hough danced their "Argentine tango '' as the week 's encore. However, the top 10 dances were not revealed, nor were the achievements.
The 400th episode took place on the season premiere of the twenty - fourth season. Tom Bergeron did mention so; however, no special dances took place.
On April 28, 2015, during season 20, a special pre-recorded episode aired as a 10th anniversary special with many former stars and professional dancers returning to the ballroom. Many past stars performed and reflected on their time on the show. Patti LaBelle, Amber Riley, and Lil ' Kim performed LaBelle 's "Lady Marmalade ''. The show closed with the largest number of people dancing in the show 's history as stars, pros, hosts, and judges were all out on the dance floor.
In seasons 9 and 10, three tribute performances were done to honor the memory of artists and others. The first was a tribute to recently deceased actor Patrick Swayze, on Sep 23, 2009. "She 's Like the Wind '' from the Dirty Dancing soundtrack (originally written by Swayze for Dirty Dancing), "Unchained Melody '' from his film Ghost, and "(I 've had) the Time of my Life '' from Dirty Dancing were performed by select professional dancers of the show.
On Oct 20, 2009, a tribute was done for singer and dancer, Michael Jackson. "I Want You Back '', "Man in the Mirror '', and "Thriller '' were performed -- the first two songs by select professional dancers of the show, and all coming together for "Thriller ''.
In season 10, professional Haitian dancers performed as a tribute to victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake on March 30, 2010. One of the male dancers, Emmanuel Pierre - Antoine, had lost his son in the rubble. They were dancing to "Dance Like This '' by Wyclef Jean.
In season 24, to honor the passing of season 11 contestant Florence Henderson on November 24, 2016, a special tribute to Henderson was displayed on the dance floor. The season 24 premiere aired March 20, 2017.
This is a list of the celebrities with the highest averages. All averages above 27 out of a possible 30 are shown here. (Averages out of 40 were rounded to be out of 30)
This is a list of celebrities who earned perfect scores (team dances are not included).
For the switch - up week, Alexa PenaVega got a perfect score with Derek Hough instead of her original partner Mark Ballas.
48: Derek Hough 35: Valentin Chmerkovskiy 31: Mark Ballas 20: Cheryl Burke 18: Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Lindsay Arnold 14: Karina Smirnoff 13: Sharna Burgess 11: Kym Johnson, Tony Dovolani 9: Julianne Hough, Witney Carson 7: Peta Murgatroyd 6: Allison Holker 4: Dmitry Chaplin, Gleb Savchenko, Sasha Farber 2: Anna Trebunskaya, Edyta Sliwinska, Emma Slater 1: Alec Mazo, Louis Van Amstel, Keo Motsepe
A DVD titled Dancing With The Stars: Cardio Dance was released on April 3, 2007 featuring Kym Johnson, Maksim Chmerkovskiy and Ashly DelGrosso. The program contains cardiovascular workouts adapted from cha - cha, Paso doble, samba, and jive dance routines.
A second DVD Dancing with the Stars: Latin Cardio Dance was released on September 13, 2008 featuring Maksim Chmerkovskiy and Cheryl Burke. The program contains cardiovascular workouts adapted from cha - cha, Merengue, samba and mambo dance routines.
A companion book written by Guy Phillips was released in the early fall of 2007. Titled Dancing with the Stars: Jive, Samba and Tango Your Way Into The Best Shape Of Your Life, the book includes fitness routines modeled by Alec Mazo and Edyta Sliwinska, as well as original costume designs, lists of performed songs during a dance, and a complete list of song - and - dance routine performed since the first season of the show.
The 1st Dancing spin - off, Dance War: Bruno vs. Carrie Ann, premiered on January 7, 2008 on ABC. The show 's format was similar to the BBC Television series, DanceX. The show was canceled after 1 season.
A figure skating spin - off similar to ITV 's Dancing on Ice called Skating with the Stars aired on ABC on November 22, 2010. The series was canceled after one season.
On May 16, 2017, a Dancing with the Stars Junior spin - off was announced. The dance competition spin - off is set to premiere in the spring of 2018 on ABC, and the format of the show will feature celebrity children and the children of celebrities paired with professional junior ballroom dancers, but was later ditched and replaced by the athlete edition below.
On November 21, 2017, ABC announced a special 4 - week all athletes edition of Dancing with the Stars, set to premiere in the spring of 2018 on ABC, and is set to be considered more of a mini-season / spin - off than a regular season. The format will feature 10 athletes from all corners of the sports world paired with the show 's professional ballroom dancers for a chance at the Mirrorball. Bergeron and Andrews will return as Hosts, with Bergeron confirming on Twitter that the Athletes edition will start airing in Late April.
An unofficial live tour show called Dancing Pros: Live! toured with several Dancing pros since 2010. A Dancing with the Stars: Live! official tour was announced on November 3, 2014 for the 2014 - 2015 season starting on December 27, 2015 in Niagara Falls, New York and ending February 15, 2015 hitting 33 cities. A second tour, Dancing with the Stars: Live! - We Came to Dance, was announced on October 3, 2016 for 43 cities from December 16, 2016 to February 14, 2017. A third tour, Dancing with the Stars: Light Up the Night, was announced in October 2017 and will begin on December 30, 2017 in Charlotte, North Carolina.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "unlike So You Think You Can Dance, which is generally more of a city show, ' Dancing with the Stars ' is most popular in the countryside. It also has a higher share of ' likes ' from viewers aged 65 and up than any other show.
The program has also been nominated for various other production - related awards since premiering in 2005, including for hairstyling, makeup, lighting design, and technical direction.
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van der waals equation units of a and b | Van der Waals constants (data page) - wikipedia
The following table lists the van der Waals constants (from the van der Waals equation) for a number of common gases and volatile liquids.
To convert from L 2 b a r / m o l 2 (\ displaystyle L ^ (2) bar / mol ^ (2)) to L 2 k P a / m o l 2 (\ displaystyle L ^ (2) kPa / mol ^ (2)), multiply by 100.
1 J m / mol = 1 m Pa / mol = 10 L bar / mol
1 L atm / mol =. 101325 J m / mol = 0.101325 Pa m / mol
1 dm / mol = 1 L / mol = 1 m / kmol (where kmol is kilomoles = 1000 moles)
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greys anatomy season 14 episode 22 guest star | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, left her blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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nobel prize for economics was instituted by who | Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences - wikipedia
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (officially Swedish: Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne, or the Swedish National Bank 's Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel), commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics, is an award for outstanding contributions to the field of economics, and generally regarded as the most prestigious award for that field.
The prize was established in 1968 by a donation from Sweden 's central bank, the Swedish National Bank, on the bank 's 300th anniversary. Although it is not one of the prizes that Alfred Nobel established in his will in 1895, it is referred to along with the other Nobel Prizes by the Nobel Foundation. Laureates are announced with the other Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony.
Laureates in the Memorial Prize in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. It was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes ''.
An endowment "in perpetuity '' from Sveriges Riksbank pays the Nobel Foundation 's administrative expenses associated with the prize and funds the monetary component of the award.
Since 2012, the monetary portion of the Prize in Economics has totaled 8 million Swedish kronor. This is equivalent to the amount given for the original Nobel Prizes. Since 2006, Sveriges Riksbank has given the Nobel Foundation an annual grant of 6.5 million Swedish kronor (in January 2008, approx. US $1 million; 0.7 million Euro) for its administrative expenses associated with the prize as well as 1 million Swedish kronor (until the end of 2008) to include information about the prize in the Nobel Foundation 's internet webpage.
The Prize in Economics is not one of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel 's will. However, the nomination process, selection criteria, and awards presentation of the Prize in Economic Sciences are performed in a manner similar to that of the Nobel Prizes.
Laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the prize "in accordance with the rules governing the award of the Nobel Prizes instituted through his (Alfred Nobel 's) will, '' which stipulate that the prize be awarded annually to "those who... shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. ''
According to its official website, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences "administers a researcher exchange with academies in other countries and publishes six scientific journals. Every year the Academy awards the Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry, the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, the Crafoord Prize and a number of other large prizes ''.
Each September the Academy 's Economics Prize Committee, which consists of five elected members, "sends invitations to thousands of scientists, members of academies and university professors in numerous countries, asking them to nominate candidates for the Prize in Economics for the coming year. Members of the Academy and former laureates are also authorised to nominate candidates. '' All proposals and their supporting evidence must be received before February 1. The proposals are reviewed by the Prize Committee and specially appointed experts. Before the end of September, the committee chooses potential laureates. If there is a tie, the chairman of the committee casts the deciding vote. Next, the potential laureates must be approved by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Members of the Ninth Class (the social sciences division) of the Academy vote in mid-October to determine the next laureate or laureates of the Prize in Economics. As with the Nobel Prizes, no more than three people can share the prize for a given year; they must still be living at the time of the Prize announcement in October; and information about Prize nominations can not be disclosed publicly for 50 years.
Like the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature, each laureate in Economics receives a diploma, gold medal, and monetary grant award document from the King of Sweden at the annual Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm, on the anniversary of Nobel 's death (December 10).
The first prize in economics was awarded in 1969 to Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes ''. In 2009, Elinor Ostrom became the first woman awarded the prize.
Sylvia Nasar wrote in her book A Beautiful Mind that in February 1995, after acrimony pertaining to the awarding of the 1994 Prize in Economics to John Forbes Nash, the Prize in Economics was redefined as a prize in social sciences. This makes it available to researchers in such topics as political science, psychology, and sociology. Moreover, the composition of the Economics Prize Committee changed to include two non-economists. This has not been confirmed by the Economics Prize Committee. The members of the 2007 Economics Prize Committee are still dominated by economists, as the secretary and four of the five members are professors of economics. In 1978, Herbert A. Simon, whose PhD was in political science, became the first non-economist to win the prize, while Daniel Kahneman, a professor of psychology and international relations at Princeton University is the first non-economist by profession to win the prize.
Some critics argue that the prestige of the Prize in Economics derives in part from its association with the Nobel Prizes, an association that has often been a source of controversy. Among them is the Swedish human rights lawyer Peter Nobel, a great - grandson of Ludvig Nobel. Nobel criticizes the awarding institution of misusing his family 's name, and states that no member of the Nobel family has ever had the intention of establishing a prize in economics. He explained that "Nobel despised people who cared more about profits than society 's well - being '', saying that "There is nothing to indicate that he would have wanted such a prize '', and that the association with the Nobel prizes is "a PR coup by economists to improve their reputation ''.
According to Samuel Brittan of the Financial Times, both of the former Swedish ministers of finance, Kjell - Olof Feldt and Gunnar Myrdal, wanted the prize abolished, saying, "Myrdal rather less graciously wanted the prize abolished because it had been given to such reactionaries as Hayek (and afterwards Milton Friedman). ''
In his speech at the 1974 Nobel Prize banquet, Friedrich Hayek stated that had he been consulted on the establishment of a Nobel Prize in economics, he would "have decidedly advised against it '' primarily because, "The Nobel Prize confers on an individual an authority which in economics no man ought to possess... This does not matter in the natural sciences. Here the influence exercised by an individual is chiefly an influence on his fellow experts; and they will soon cut him down to size if he exceeds his competence. But the influence of the economist that mainly matters is an influence over laymen: politicians, journalists, civil servants and the public generally. ''
Critics cite the apparent snub of Joan Robinson as evidence of the committee 's bias towards mainstream economics, though heterodox economists like Friedrich Hayek (Austrian School) and Ronald Coase (associated with new institutional economics) have won.
Milton Friedman was awarded the 1976 prize in part for his work on monetarism. Awarding the prize to Friedman caused international protests. Friedman was accused of supporting the military dictatorship in Chile because of the relation of economists of the University of Chicago to Pinochet, and a controversial six - day trip he took to Chile during March 1975 (less than two years after the coup that deposed President Salvador Allende). Friedman himself answered that he never was an adviser to the dictatorship, but only gave some lectures and seminars on inflation and met with officials, including Augusto Pinochet, in Chile.
Four Nobel Prize laureates -- George Wald, Linus Pauling, David Baltimore and Salvador Luria -- wrote letters in October 1976 to the New York Times protesting Friedman 's award.
The 1994 prize to John Forbes Nash caused controversy within the selection committee because of Nash 's history of mental illness and alleged anti-Semitism. The controversy resulted in a change to the rules governing the committee during 1994: Prize Committee members are now limited to serve for three years.
The 2005 prize to Robert Aumann was criticized by European press for his alleged use of game theory to justify his stance against the dismantling of Israeli settlements in occupied territories.
Avner Offer 's and Gabriel Söderberg 's The Nobel factor: the prize in economics, social democracy, and the market turn (Princeton University Press 2016) argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the dominant macroeconomic theories among the academia, and that the creation of the Nobel in 1969 was the cause of this, as it enhanced the prestige of free market ideology and conferred upon it the status of science.
The official Swedish name of the Prize is Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne. The Nobel Foundation 's translations of the Swedish name into English have varied since 1969:
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has aerosmith been inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame | List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, established in 1983 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is dedicated to recording the history of some of the best - known and most influential musicians, bands, producers, and others that have in some major way influenced the music industry, particularly in the area of rock and roll. Originally, there were four categories of induction: performers, non-performers, early influences, and lifetime achievement. In 2000, "sidemen '' was introduced as a category.
The only category that has seen new inductees every single year is the performers category. Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are then sent to 600 "rock experts '' who evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers that receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2010, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. As of 2017, new inductees will be honored at an annual ceremony held alternately in New York and at the Hall of Fame in Cleveland; prior to that, the ceremonies rotated between Cleveland, New York, and Los Angeles.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has garnered criticism for allegedly allowing the nomination process to be controlled by a few individuals, nominating too many artists in too many genres that are not entirely rock, ignoring entire rock genres, and using technicalities to induct groups who may not have been among the top vote getters. The Sex Pistols, who were inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony; John Lydon writing a note, read out by Jann Wenner, calling the museum a "piss stain. ''
The performers category is meant for recording artists and bands that have "influence and significance to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. '' Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are sent to 600 "rock experts '' who then evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers who receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2011, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. In 2012, six additional bands and groups were inducted as performers by a special committee, due to the controversial nature of their band being excluded when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this, '' said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups were n't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question -- it was so long ago... We decided we 'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result. ''
^ Note 1. These backing bands were inducted by a separate committee, and not by the ballot voting used for all other performer inductees.
^ Note 2. This artist was later inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame after inducting someone else.
^ Note 3. This artist was already a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame when they inducted someone else.
^ Note 4. Dire Straits were the first artist in the hall 's history to not have an official induction speaker. Band member John Illsley did the induction speech himself.
Artists inducted into the early influences category are those "whose music predated rock and roll but had an impact on the evolution of rock and roll and inspired rock 's leading artists. '' Unlike the performers category, these inductees are selected by a committee. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee.
^ A. Inducted members: Bill Kenny, Charlie Fuqua, Deek Watson, and Orville "Hoppy '' Jones. ^ B. Inducted members: Roy Crain Sr., R.H. Harris, Jesse Farley, and E.A. Rundless. ^ C. Inducted members: Sonny Til, Tommy Gaither, George Nelson, Johnny Reed, and Alexander Sharp. ^ D. Inducted members: Bob Wills, Tommy Duncan, Leon McAuliffe, Johnny Gimble, Joe "Jody '' Holley, Tiny Moore, Herb Remington, Eldon Shamblin, and Al Stricklin. ^ E. Nominated as a performer. ^ F. Inducted members: John L. Tanner, Eugene Tanner, James E. Moore, Obadiah H. Carter and Lowman Pauling, Jr
The non-performer category honors "songwriters, producers, disc jockeys, record executives, journalists and other industry professionals who have had a major influence on the development of rock and roll. '' Several of the inductees in this category were in fact prominent performers as well. The inductees in this category are selected by the same committee that chooses the early influences. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee. This category has been criticized for inducting those that have "been coming to the dinner for years and paying for their tickets '' and not revealing their full criteria. In 2008, this category was renamed the "Ahmet Ertegün Award ''.
This category, which replaced sidemen, "honors those musicians, producers and others who have spent their careers out of the spotlight working with major artists on various parts of their recording and live careers. ''
^ G. Inducted members: Garry Tallent, Roy Bittan, Max Weinberg, Steven Van Zandt, Nils Lofgren, Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons, Danny Federici, Vini Lopez, David Sancious.
At the 2018 ceremony, a new induction category for singles was announced by Steven Van Zandt. According to Van Zandt, the category is "a recognition of the excellence of the singles that shaped rock ' n ' roll, kind of a rock ' n ' roll jukebox, records by artists not in the Rock Hall -- which is not to say these artists will never be in the Rock Hall. They just are not in the Rock Hall at the moment. ''
Established in 2000, the sidemen category "honors those musicians who have spent their careers out of the spotlight, performing as backup musicians for major artists on recording sessions and in concert. '' A separate committee, composed mainly of producers, chooses the inductees. In 2010, the category was renamed to "Award for Musical Excellence ''. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized. ''
The following were inducted for "Lifetime Achievement in the Non-Performer Category. ''
As of 2017, 22 performers have been inducted twice or more; fourteen have been recognized as a solo artist and with a band and seven have been inducted with two separate bands. Eric Clapton is the only one to be inducted three times: as a solo artist, with Cream and The Yardbirds. Clyde McPhatter was the first to ever be inducted twice and is one of three artists to be inducted first as a solo artist and then as a member of a band, the other artists being Neil Young and Rod Stewart. Stephen Stills is the only artist to be inducted twice in the same year. Crosby, Stills & Nash, inducted in 1997, is the only band to see all of its inducted members be inducted with other acts: David Crosby with The Byrds in 1991, Stephen Stills with Buffalo Springfield in 1997, and Graham Nash with The Hollies in 2010.
One inducted band was a spinoff of another inducted band: Journey was founded by two former members of Santana.
The Beatles, inducted in 1988, is the second band to have all of its members be inducted, as well as the only band to have each of its members be inducted for their solo careers as their second induction. Ringo Starr is the first inductee to be inducted twice in different categories (The Beatles were inducted in the performers category in 1988 and Starr was inducted as a solo artist in the Award for Musical Excellence category in 2015). He also holds the record for the longest time between first and second inductions, at 27 years. Both of Stills ' inductions happened during the 1997 ceremony and Clapton and McPhatter were inducted in back - to - back years (1987 / 88 for McPhatter, 1992 / 93 for Clapton, as well as his solo induction in 2000).
The Traveling Wilburys are the only band to have all of its members be inducted without the band itself having been inducted: Roy Orbison as a solo artist in 1987, Bob Dylan as a solo artist in 1988, George Harrison with the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 2004, Tom Petty with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 2002, and Jeff Lynne with the Electric Light Orchestra in 2017.
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where are all the elder scrolls games set | The Elder Scrolls - Wikipedia
The Elder Scrolls is a series of action role - playing open world fantasy video games primarily developed by Bethesda Game Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks. The series is known for its elaborate and richly detailed open worlds and its focus on free - form gameplay. Morrowind, Oblivion and Skyrim all won Game of the Year awards from multiple outlets. The series has sold more than 50 million copies worldwide.
Within the fictional Elder Scrolls universe, each game takes place on the continent of Tamriel. The setting is a mix of early or pre-medieval real - world elements, often revolving around a powerful Roman - like Empire in a world with very limited technological capabilities, and high fantasy elements, such as widespread magic use, travel between parallel worlds and the existence of many mythological creatures such as dragons. The continent is split into a number of provinces of which the inhabitants include humans as well as popular humanoid fantasy races such as elves, dwarves, orcs and anthropomorphic animals. A common theme in the lore is that a chosen hero rises to defeat a incoming threat, usually an malevolent being or an antagonistic army.
Since debuting with Arena in 1994, the series has produced a total of five main games (of which the last three have each featured two or three expansions) as well as numerous spin - offs. In 2014, an MMORPG installment called The Elder Scrolls Online was released by Bethesda 's affiliated Zenimax subsidiary ZeniMax Online Studios.
Prior to working on The Elder Scrolls series, Bethesda had worked predominantly with sports and action games. In the six years from its founding to Arena 's 1994 release, Bethesda had released ten games, six of them sports games, with such titles as Hockey League Simulator, NCAA Basketball: Road to the Final Four (' 91 / ' 92 Edition), and Wayne Gretzky Hockey, and the remaining four adaptations from other media, primarily the Terminator series. Bethesda 's course changed abruptly when it began its first action role - playing venture. Designer Ted Peterson recalls: "I remember talking to the guys at Sir - Tech who were doing Wizardry VII: Crusaders of the Dark Savant at the time, and them literally laughing at us for thinking we could do it. '' Ted Peterson worked alongside Vijay Lakshman as one of the initial designers of what was then simply Arena, a "medieval - style gladiator game. ''
Peterson and Lakshman were joined by Julian Lefay who, according to Peterson, "really spear - headed the initial development of the series. '' Peterson, Lakshman, and LeFay were longtime aficionados of pen - and - paper role - playing games, which greatly influenced the creation of the world of Tamriel. They were also fans of Looking Glass Studios ' Ultima Underworld series, their main inspiration for Arena. Initially, Arena was not to be a role - playing game at all. The player, and a team of his fighters, would travel about a world fighting other teams in their arenas until the player became "grand champion '' in the world 's capital, the Imperial City. Along the way, side quests of a more role - playing nature could be completed. As the process of development progressed, however, the tournaments became less important and the side quests more. RPG elements were added to the game, as it expanded to include cities outside the arenas, and dungeons beyond the cities. Eventually it was decided to drop the idea of tournaments altogether, and focus on quests and dungeons, making the game a "full - blown RPG. '' Although the team had dropped all arena combat from the game, all the material had already been printed up with the title, so the game went to market as The Elder Scrolls: Arena. Bethesda Founder Christopher Weaver came up with the name of "The Elder Scrolls '', and the words eventually came to mean "Tamriel 's mystical tomes of knowledge that told of its past, present, and future. '' The game 's initial voice - over was changed in response, beginning: "It has been foretold in the Elder Scrolls... ''
Bethesda missed their Christmas 1993 deadline. The game was released in the first quarter of 1994, "really serious for a small developer / publisher like Bethesda Softworks. '' The packaging included a scantily clad female warrior, which further contributed to distributor concern, leading to an initial distribution of only 20,000 units. Having missed the Christmas sales season, the development team was concerned that "We had screwed the company. '' Nevertheless, sales continued to grow, month after month, as news of the game was passed by word - of - mouth. Despite some initial bugginess, and the formidable demands the game made on players ' machines, it became a cult hit. Evaluations of the game varied from "modest '' to "wild. '' Still, the game maintained traction with its audience. Game historian Matt Barton concluded that "the game set a new standard for this type of (role - playing video game), and demonstrated just how much room was left for innovation. ''
Work on The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall began immediately after Arena 's release in March 1994. Ted Peterson was assigned the role of Lead Game Designer. Daggerfall 's plot was less clichéd than Arena 's and involved a "complex series of adventures leading to multiple resolutions. '' With Daggerfall, Arena 's experience - point - based system was replaced with one rewarding the player for actually role - playing their character. Daggerfall came equipped with an improved character generation engine, one that included a GURPS - influenced class creation system, offering players the chance to create their own classes, and assign their own skills. Daggerfall was developed with an XnGine engine, one of the first truly 3D engines. Daggerfall realized a game world the size of Great Britain, filled with 15,000 towns and a population of 750,000. It was influenced by analog games and literature that Julian LeFay or Ted Peterson happened to be playing or reading at the time, such as Dumas 's The Man in the Iron Mask and Vampire: The Masquerade. It was released on August 31, 1996. Like Arena, Daggerfall 's initial release suffered from some bugs, leaving consumers disgruntled. These early anomalies were fixed in later versions. This experience led to a more prudent release schedule for future games.
Following the release of Daggerfall, work began on three separate projects all at once: Battlespire, Redguard, and Morrowind. Battlespire, originally titled Dungeon of Daggerfall: Battlespire, was the first of the three to be released, on November 30, 1997. Originally designed as an expansion pack for Daggerfall, it was repackaged as a stand - alone game. Battlespire focused on dungeon romping and offered multiplayer gaming -- player versus player deathmatch -- the only series title to do so before the release of The Elder Scrolls Online in 2014. Redguard was the second of the three titles to be released, on October 31, 1998. It was a pure action - adventure game inspired by Tomb Raider, Prince of Persia, and the Ultima series. Redguard did not offer the player the chance to create their own character. Instead, players would play the prefabricated "Cyrus the Redguard. '' Both games did poorly with Bethesda 's audience. Players used to the vast open spaces of Daggerfall did not take well to the reduced worlds of Redguard and Battlespire. Based upon its customers ' clear desire for massive RPG worlds, Bethesda redoubled its efforts to build the next major chapter.
The third title in The Elder Scrolls series was first conceived during the development of Daggerfall. Initially designed to encompass the whole province of Morrowind and allow the player to join all five Dunmer Great Houses, it was decided that the scope of the game was too much for the technology available at the time. At publication, it covered just the isle of Vvardenfell and allowed the player to only join three of the Great Houses. The XnGine was scrapped and replaced with Numerical Design Limited 's Gamebryo, a Direct3D powered engine, with T&L capacity, 32 - bit textures and skeletal animation. It was decided that the game world would be populated using the methods the team had developed in Redguard; with the game objects crafted by hand, rather than generated using the random algorithmic methods.
The project took "close to 100 man - years to create. '' Bethesda tripled their staff and spent the first year developing The Elder Scrolls Construction Set. This allowed the game staff to easily balance the game and to modify it in small increments rather than large. Ted Peterson, who had left following the release of Daggerfall, returned to work as an author of in - game material, and as a general consultant on the lore - based aspects of the work. The PC version of Morrowind had gone gold by April 23, 2002, and was released on May 1 in North America, with the Xbox release set at June 7. On January 3, Bethesda announced that game publisher Ubisoft would take control of Morrowind 's European distribution, in addition to those of eight other Bethesda games.
The Elder Scrolls III: Tribunal expansion pack went gold on November 1 and was released, with little fanfare, on November 6. Tribunal puts the player in the self - contained, walled city of Mournhold, which can be teleported to and from Morrowind 's land mass. Development on the expansion began immediately after Morrowind shipped, giving the developers a mere five - month development cycle to release the game. The prior existence of the Construction Set, however, meant that the team "already had the tools in place to add content and features very quickly. '' Interface improvements, and specifically an overhaul of Morrowind 's journal system, were among the key goals. Morrowind 's second expansion, The Elder Scrolls III: Bloodmoon, went gold by May 23, and was released on June 6. It had been worked on since the release of Tribunal. In the expansion, the player travels to the frozen island of Solstheim and is asked to investigate the uneasiness of the soldiers stationed there.
Work on The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion began in 2002, immediately after Morrowind 's publication. Oblivion was developed by Bethesda Softworks, and the initial Xbox 360 and Personal computer (PC) releases were co-published by Bethesda and Take - Two Interactive subsidiary 2K Games. Oblivion was released on March 21, 2006. The game centers around an event later referred to as "The Oblivion Crisis '', where portals to the planes of Oblivion open and release hordes of Daedra upon Tamriel. Developers working on Oblivion focused on providing a tighter storyline, more developed characters, and to make information in the game world more accessible to players. Oblivion features improved AI, improved physics, and improved graphics. Bethesda developed and implemented procedural content creation tools in the creation of Oblivion 's terrain, leading to landscapes that are more complex and realistic than those of past titles, but had less of a drain on Bethesda 's staff. Two downloadable expansion packs, Knights of the Nine and The Shivering Isles were released in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Knights of the Nine added a questline surrounding the search for a set of Crusader relics, while The Shivering Isles added the eponymous plane of Oblivion to the game.
In August 2010, Todd Howard revealed Bethesda were currently working on a game that had been in development since the release of Oblivion, and that progress was very far along. While the game was conceptualized after Oblivion 's release, main development was restricted until after Fallout 3 was released. In November, a journalist from Eurogamer Denmark reported overhearing a developer on a plane talking about the project; a new The Elder Scrolls game, although Bethesda did not comment on the report. At the Spike Video Game Awards in December, Todd Howard appeared on stage to unveil a teaser trailer and announce the title of the game. The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim was released on November 11, 2011 to widespread critical acclaim. It was awarded ' Game of the Year ' by IGN, Spike and others. The game is set after the events of Oblivion, when the great dragon Alduin the World Eater returns to Skyrim; a beast whose existence threatens all life in Tamriel. Three pieces of DLC were released on PC and Xbox 360 in 2012 -- Dawnguard, Hearthfire and Dragonborn, with a PlayStation 3 release in February 2013. Dawnguard added two joinable factions and an associated questline revolving around Vampires, while Hearthfire added more home customisation options including a house creation kit and the ability to adopt children. Dragonborn added the island of Solstheim to the northeast. On October 28, 2016, Skyrim -- Special Edition was released.
On May 3, 2012, The Elder Scrolls Online was revealed. The Elder Scrolls Online was released for Windows and OS X on April 4, 2014, with the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions initially slated to follow in June 2014 but later delayed until June 9, 2015. The game originally required a subscription to play, but this requirement was dropped on March 17, 2015. There is however a subscription service entitled "ESO Plus '' which grants access to all current and future downloadable content (DLC). The DLC is otherwise available for individual purchase in the Crown Store. Additionally, the optional subscription grants various perks that allow players to progress slightly faster than a free player, and grants them a payment of 1500 crowns per month. On June 14, 2015, The Elder Scrolls: Legends, a collectible card game, was announced by Bethesda during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015. It was released on March 9, 2017 for Microsoft Windows and is currently in beta for Android, iOS, and OS X.
The Elder Scrolls games are action role - playing games, although they do include elements taken from action and adventure games. In Arena players advance by killing monsters (and thereby gaining experience points) until a preset value is met, whereupon they level - up. However, in Daggerfall, Morrowind, and Oblivion the series took a skill - based approach to character advancement. Players develop their characters ' skills by applying them, and only level - up when a certain set of skills have been developed. Skyrim took a new approach, where the more a skill is leveled, the more it helps to level the character. This shifted the focus away from character creation and more onto character development. The flexibility of the games ' engines has facilitated the release of game extensions (or mods) through The Elder Scrolls Construction Set.
The Elder Scrolls main series of games emphasizes different aspects of the gaming experience than most role - playing games. A brief article by Joystiq in early November 2006 compared BioWare 's creations to Bethesda 's by noting a difference in emphasis. Bethesda 's creations focused on "aesthetic presentation and open - ended adventuring ''; BioWare 's on a combat system and modular architecture. This overarching aim has been noted by their designers as well. Bethesda has described their motivations in creating the first series game, Arena, as those of any good pen - and - paper role - playing games: creating an environment in which the player could be what the player wants and do what the player wants. Daggerfall 's manual begins with a design manifesto, declaring the developers ' intention to "create a book with blank pages, '' and "a game designed to encourage exploration and reward curiosity. '' Choices, in the form of paths taken by the player, to do good, to chase after evil, are left open to the player, "just like in real life. '' This design trend continued with Morrowind, following the hiatus of similarly epic games in the interim, though Joystiq 's previously noted insistence on graphics came again to the fore. During the development of Morrowind, Bethesda tripled its staff, so as to perfectly color its newly hand - made world. In their own words, "We knew we had to exceed the visual polish of the other games on the market, and we made it our goal to put The Elder Scrolls back into the forefront of game innovation. ''
The Elder Scrolls world is a high fantasy one, with influences from a multitude of cultures all over the globe. Like most works of high or epic fantasy, The Elder Scrolls games are typically serious in tone and epic in scope, dealing with themes of grand struggle against a supernatural or evil force. Many races exist in the world of The Elder Scrolls, some typical of high fantasy works, such as humans, orcs and elves; some atypical, such as the lizard - like Argonians and cat - like Khajiit; and some subversions, such as the Dwemer, known colloquially as "dwarves, '' who follow the high fantasy stereotype of being subterranean, skilled metallurgists and masons, but are here a variety of elf. As is also typical in high fantasy works, magic and sorcery, mythical creatures, factions with their own political agendas, walled medieval cities and strongholds, and plot elements driven by prophecies and legends can be found in abundance as well. In accordance with many literary high fantasy works, the world of The Elder Scrolls is known for its attention to detail, including well - developed lore and back story. This includes a vast amount of information such as names, dates, and places that constitute its history and the interconnected structure of its various societies, cultures, and religions. Lore, including histories and legends, are contained in thousands of readable in - game books that are scattered throughout the game world.
The Elder Scrolls games primarily take place on the continent of Tamriel, located on the world of Nirn. The exceptions are The Elder Scrolls Legends: Battlespire, which is set in a "slipstream '' dimension found between the mortal plane of Mundus and the myriad otherworldly planes of Oblivion; portions of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, which venture into a particular Oblivion plane called the Deadlands, the realm of the Daedric Prince Mehrunes Dagon; the entirety of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion 's expansion Shivering Isles, which takes place in the Oblivion plane The Shivering Isles, realm of the Daedric Prince of madness, Sheogorath; and a brief visit to the Oblivion plane of Soul Cairn during the Dawnguard DLC of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim; as well as the plane of Apocrypha during the Dragonborn DLC. The realm of Molag Bal, Coldharbour, also appears in The Elder Scrolls Online. Other continents exist on Nirn aside from Tamriel, such as Akavir, Yokuda, and Atmora, but none have been used as a setting for a game in the series.
Tamriel itself is divided into nine provinces or regions, each of which is dominated by a distinct race: Black Marsh is home to the Argonians; Cyrodiil is home to the Imperials; Elsweyr is home to the Khajiit; Hammerfell is home to the Redguards; High Rock is home to the Bretons; Morrowind is home to the Dunmer, or Dark Elves; Skyrim is home to the Nords; Summerset Isle is home to the Altmer, or High Elves; and Valenwood is home to the Bosmer, or Wood Elves. A tenth race, the Orsimer, or Orcs, reside in settlements scattered across Tamriel and have unsuccessfully attempted on several occasions to establish their own homeland, Orsinium, in the mountains of High Rock.
The major political power in Tamriel 's history is the Septim Empire, or Third Empire, centered in Cyrodiil, which at one time or another controlled most of Tamriel 's nine provinces. The Empire was founded by Tiber Septim (also known as Talos Stormcrown), who as a Dragonborn, had powerful magical abilities called Shouts. Tiber Septim conquered Tamriel and his dynasty ruled the Empire for several hundred years, at times prospering in peace and other times marred by civil wars and succession crises. During the Oblivion Crisis of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, a religious cult called The Mythic Dawn opened up dimensional gates to a Hell - like realm called The Deadlands and killed the Emperor Uriel Septim VII and his three sons. The Daedra, beings from the Planes of Oblivion, were eventually defeated, but the end of the Septim dynasty left a severely weakened Empire, which eventually erupted in civil war, allowing many Imperial provinces to break away.
As of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, chronologically the latest - set game in the series (taking place in the 201st year of the Fourth Era of recorded history, abbreviated as 4E 201), the balance of power in Tamriel has shifted dramatically. The Third Empire of Tamriel, which once controlled the entire continent, has declined significantly under the new Mede dynasty of emperors; the Empire can claim only High Rock, Skyrim, and the capital province of Cyrodiil for its own. Three of the Empire 's former provinces, Black Marsh, Hammerfell, and Morrowind, are effectively independent: Black Marsh and Hammerfell seceded from the Empire, while Imperial forces withdrew from Morrowind after a volcanic eruption and invasion from Black Marsh devastated it. Rising to rival the Empire is the Aldmeri Dominion, which rules the Summerset Isles and Valenwood outright, and claims the kingdoms of Anequina and Pellitine (the remnants of the province of Elsweyr) as client states. After having its capital city sacked, the Empire defeated a Dominion invasion during The Great War, but the effort exhausted it and peace was only achieved by conceding to many of the Dominion 's harsh demands by signing the White - Gold Concordat, including ceding parts of Hammerfell and outlawing the worship of Talos. Skyrim is mired in civil war over the question of secession from the Empire, but some of Tamriel 's inhabitants believe the conflict is only a distraction from the true looming threat: a second war between the Empire and the Dominion with both sides provoking each other locked in a state of "cold war. ''
The actual Elder Scrolls play a very limited role in the storyline of the series, serving only as a framing plot device (i.e., "(the events in this game) were foretold in the Elder Scrolls... ''). The Elder Scrolls themselves are rarely referenced in - game. The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion marked the first actual appearance of the Scrolls in the final quest of the Thieves Guild questline. The Scroll itself appears as an incomprehensible chart, containing luminous glyphs.
Information about The Elder Scrolls is sparse, and often contradictory. They are thought to be relics from the creation of the Aurbis and the Mundus by the Aedric et'Ada (legendary beings similar to Daedra that sacrificed their immortality to create the world). The Scrolls themselves usually can not be translated nor transcribed; however, there exist a sect of monks -- the Order of the Ancestor Moths -- who devote their lives to the reading and interpreting of the Elder Scrolls. Reading the Scrolls, however, takes a huge toll on the monks ' vision. Senior members who read the Scrolls wear blindfolds at all times when they are not divining the Scrolls ' content and retired Moth Priests are always completely blind. Attempting to read the Elder Scrolls without training always results in failure and immediate blindness. However, cosmically important individuals, or individuals that are the subject of prophecy, have been able to see the unencrypted writing on the Elder Scrolls without the associated rituals or resulting blindness. A book entitled Lost Histories of Tamriel provides further insight on the Elder Scrolls, stating that when any event has actually occurred, it sets itself unchangeably into the Scrolls, and no action, magical or otherwise, can alter this.
In The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, the Scrolls are described as "fragments of creation '' (a reference to the creation - myth associated with the Aedra), and play a vital role in the main quest - line. They are said to be very powerful artifacts and without training or worthiness, one may go insane trying to decipher them. The player is tasked with retrieving an Elder Scroll from an expansive Dwemer ruin known as Blackreach, located underground. During gameplay, if the player tries to read the Elder Scroll, they will go temporarily blind. It is discovered that the Elder Scroll was used by the ancient Nords to battle Alduin, the ancient Dragon prophesied to swallow the world, inadvertently sending him forward in time. The player character uses the Scroll to travel back in time to gain the knowledge of how the Nords were able to combat Alduin. It is also described that the number of the Scrolls is unknown not because of their immense quantity, but because the number itself is unknowable, as the Scrolls "do not exist in countable form. '' The actual number and placement of Elder Scrolls fluctuates constantly as it is said that they technically exist and do not exist at the same time. This makes their predictions difficult to cite authoritatively because entire Scrolls or entries can change or vanish as events transpire. This unpredictability has caused other ascetic groups, such as the Greybeards from Skyrim, to find the existence of the Elder Scrolls a blasphemy.
In The Elder Scrolls V: Dawnguard, Lord Harkon attempts to use the Elder Scrolls to blot out the sun so that the vampires can overwhelm Tamriel. Whether the player joins the vampires or the vampire hunters referred to as the Dawnguard, they will find a Moth Priest, Dexion Evicus, to read the Scrolls that are collected. Once collected, the Moth Priest reveals that he has become blind, not having prepared himself properly in his hurry to read the first Scroll. So he tells the player of a ritual allowing the player to read the Scrolls. The ritual involves harvesting bark from a special Canticle Tree and using it to bring Ancestor Moths to a shaft of light and reading all three Scrolls to find Auriel 's Bow. The Moth Priest Dexion states that Ancestor Moths can give a person the connection to the divine augur that is necessary to truly read the Scrolls.
At E3 2016, Bethesda Game Studios director Todd Howard reported that the studio was already working on a sixth installment in the Elder Scrolls franchise, although it would still be "a very long way off ''. However, at E3 2017, Bethesda Softworks vice president of public relations stated that no new title was in active development, and that they have "at least two major titles '' to complete before this would change.
In 2009, science - fiction author Gregory Keyes released The Elder Scrolls: The Infernal City, a novel set approximately 40 years after the Oblivion Crisis. Lord of Souls was released in 2011 as Keyes ' second novel in his The Elder Scrolls book series.
On August 1, 2013, Bethesda revealed The Elder Scrolls Anthology for the PC, a compilation of all five of The Elder Scrolls games, including all of the expansions to Morrowind, Oblivion and Skyrim.
In 2012, Complex ranked The Elder Scrolls at number 20 on the list of the best video game franchises. In 2013, The Elder Scrolls was voted as the Greatest Game Series of the Decade on GameSpot, beating out 64 other competitors. The Elder Scrolls reached the final round, beating the Grand Theft Auto series by a margin of 52.5 % of the vote for The Elder Scrolls to 47.5 % for Grand Theft Auto.
In August 2011, Bethesda Softworks contacted the developer of Minecraft, Mojang, claiming that the intended trademark of the title Scrolls for its new game breached Bethesda 's trademark on The Elder Scrolls. On March 10, 2012, Markus Persson tweeted that the two had come to an agreement over the use of the name. The agreement prohibits Mojang from using the title Scrolls in any future sequels of the game.
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will there be a season 3 of the ladies paradise | The Paradise (TV series) - wikipedia
The Paradise is a British television costume drama series co-produced by BBC Studios and Masterpiece. The Paradise premiered in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 25 September 2012 and premiered in the United States on PBS on 6 October 2013. The series is an adaptation of Émile Zola 's novel Au Bonheur des Dames that relocates the story to North East England. (Zola 's novel itself is a retelling of the story of Aristide Boucicaut, the Bellême - born founder of Le Bon Marché.)
A second series was commissioned by BBC One in late October 2012 and was broadcast on 20 October 2013 on BBC One.
On 12 February 2014, the BBC confirmed that The Paradise would not return for a third series. They cited that the programme had lower figures than other relatively new dramas such as Death in Paradise, Sherlock and Silk. Furthermore, its ITV rival Mr Selfridge was performing better. The BBC also commented that the show was enjoyable: "However, in order to make room for new dramas to come through, The Paradise wo n't be returning. ''
Series 1 begins in 1875, and portrays the lives and loves of the people who work, shop and trade, in and around the first English department store. The owner of The Paradise department store is widower John Moray. Moray was once a draper 's boy in Emersons, the small shop that grew under his managership into The Paradise, which has come to dominate the high street to the detriment of small shopkeepers nearby.
Into this world comes Denise Lovett, from the small town of Peebles in Scotland, whose uncle Edmund is one of the shopkeepers struggling to survive. Denise takes a job at The Paradise and is soon seen by Moray as a rising star, to the annoyance of Miss Audrey, the head of ladies ' fashion, and of Clara, a fellow shopgirl. Moray is financially dependent on Lord Glendenning, whose daughter Katherine is determined to marry Moray and sees Denise as a direct threat to her ambitions.
Lord Glendenning has died and Katherine Glendenning has inherited The Paradise. She now has a husband, Tom Weston, and a young stepdaughter, Flora. Katherine asks Moray, who has been exiled to Paris, to return to revive the fortunes of The Paradise, and save it from being sold. Weston is determined to control his wife and The Paradise, overruling Moray to his own advantage. Moray 's position at the Bon Marche is a reference to Octave Mouret 's derision and constant competition with the same.
The series was filmed at Lambton Castle, which was converted into an 1870s bustling upmarket department store. Alongside, a Victorian street with shops and a tavern were constructed. Biddick Hall, also on the Lambton estate, was used as Lord Glendenning 's house.
Guest stars who played a major part in an episode were credited in the opening credits, amongst the main cast, for that specific episode. The following actors ' names were included in the opening credits in at least one episode:
A soundtrack, featuring music by composer Maurizio Malagnini from the series, was released by Silva Screen Records on 26 August 2013. The music was performed by the BBC Concert Orchestra and recorded at Air Studios, Lyndhurst Hall, London, UK. The score won a Music + Sound Award 2013.
Series 1 was released by BBC Worldwide in a region 2 three - disc set on 3 December 2012.
Series 2 was released by 2Entertain in a region 2 three - disc set on 9 December 2013.
Series 1 and 2 were released by 2Entertain as a six - disc box set on 9 December 2013.
Series 1 was released by BBC Home Entertainment in a Zone A two - disc set on 12 November 2013.
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merchant of venice character of portia and jessica | Jessica (the Merchant of Venice) - wikipedia
Jessica is the daughter of Shylock, a Jewish moneylender, in William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice (c. 1598). In the play, she elopes with Lorenzo, a pennyless Christian, and a chest of her father 's money, eventually ending up in Portia and Bassanio 's household. In the play 's dramatic structure, Jessica is a minor but pivotal role. Her actions motivate Shylock 's vengeful insistence on his "pound of flesh '' from Antonio; her relationships with Lorenzo and Shylock serves as a mirror and contrast to Portia 's with Bassanio and with her father; her conversion to Christianity is the end of Shylock 's line 's adherence to the Jewish faith.
Literary critics have historically viewed the character negatively, highlighting her theft of her father 's gold, her betrayal of his trust, and apparently selfish motivations and aimless behaviour. Since the end of the 20th century their views have been more moderate and nuanced, pointing to an alternate reading that allows her actions to be motivated by love and generosity, and being driven by Shylock 's own tyrannical and immoral behaviour.
Alack, what heinous sin is it in me To be ashamed to be my father 's child? But though I am a daughter to his blood, I am not to his manners. O Lorenzo, If thou keep promise, I shall end this strife, Become a Christian and thy loving wife.
Jessica, The Merchant of Venice
The central plot of The Merchant of Venice is relatively straightforward: Antonio borrows money from Shylock to help his friend, Bassanio, court Portia, but, through misfortune, is unable to repay and is subjected to an onerous default (a literal "pound of flesh '' cut from his body). In addition, the play contains subplots regarding Bassanio 's courtship of Portia; Launcelot Gobbo 's humorous interactions with his father, and his change of allegiance from Shylock to Portia and Bassanio; and Jessica and Lorenzo 's elopement, with Shylock 's casket of Ducats.
The role of Jessica is a relatively minor one. She speaks a grand total of 660 words over the play 's five acts. In the dramatic structure of the play, the role is, however, pivotal: her elopement with Lorenzo, and her father 's casket of Ducats, motivates Shylock 's vengefulness towards Antonio; she serves as a mirror highlighting the differences between Shylock 's Jewish household and Portia 's Christian one; and serves as the means by which Shylock is forcibly converted to Christianity.
I am sorry thou wilt leave my father so. Our house is hell and thou, a merry devil, Didst rob it of some taste of tediousness.
Jessica, The Merchant of Venice
Her first appearance on stage is in Act 2, Scene 3, in a brief scene with Launcelot Gobbo. Gobbo is leaving Shylock 's service to give his allegiance to Bassiano, and Jessica bemoans the loss of his company in a household that is "hell ''. She speeds him along, to avoid her father seeing their interaction, with a Ducat as a parting gift and a letter to Lorenzo. After Gobbo leaves, she muses to herself on what flaws are in her character that makes her ashamed to be her father 's daughter, and that although she is related to him by blood she is alienated by his manners. She concludes the soliloquy determined to marry Lorenzo and converting to Christianity.
Hear you me, Jessica, Lock up my doors, and when you hear the drum And the vile squealing of the wry - necked fife, Clamber not you up to the casements then, Nor thrust your head into the public street To gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces, But stop my house 's ears (I mean my casements). Let not the sound of shallow fopp'ry enter My sober house.
Shylock, The Merchant of Venice
In Act 2, Scene 4, Gobbo bears the letter, containing Jessica 's plans to elope with Lorenzo and as much of her father 's valuables as she can find, to Lorenzo. He is pleased by the letter and its contents, and bids Gobbo return to let her know that he has received the letter and will not fail her. In Act 2, Scene 5, however, Gobbo is intercepted by Shylock, who berates him for his change of allegiance. Gobbo seizes on Shylock 's repeated mentions of Jessica 's name as a pretense to call her. When she arrives, Shylock gives her the keys to his house and the responsibility of keeping it safe while he dines with Antonio and Bassanio. Upon learning there will be a masquerade, he enjoins her to shutter the windows and not "gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces ''. He then bids Gobbo precede him to let Antonio and Bassanio know he will attend their dinner. Having no other option, Gobbo whispers to Jessica to "look out at window for all this. / There will come a Christian by / Will be worth a Jewess ' eye. '' before leaving. Shylock catches the interaction and asks Jessica what Gobbo said, but Jessica deceives him and claims he was simply saying goodbye. Shylock then complains of Gobbo 's sloth and vociferous appetite, claiming he is well rid of him and glad he now serves Bassiano, whom he dislikes. He leaves for the dinner, and Jessica soliloquises:
Farewell, and if my fortune be not crossed, I have a father, you a daughter, lost.
I am glad ' tis night, you do not look on me, For I am much ashamed of my exchange. But love is blind, and lovers can not see The pretty follies that themselves commit, For if they could, Cupid himself would blush
Jessica, The Merchant of Venice
In the following scene -- Act 2, Scene 6 -- Lorenzo and his friends come to Shylock 's house, and Jessica greets them from a window, dressed as a boy. She asks Lorenzo to confirm his identity before lowering a casket of her father 's Ducats. Lorenzo bids her descend, but Jessica demurs, ashamed of her disguise. Lorenzo persuades her, and she goes inside to bring more of Shylock 's Ducats. Lorenzo praises her to his friends: "For she is wise, if I can judge of her, / And fair she is, if that mine eyes be true, / And true she is, as she hath proved herself. / And therefore, like herself, wise, fair, and true, ''. She joins them on the street and all but Lorenzo 's friend Gratiano leaves. Antonio then arrives to tell Gratiano that the winds are propitious for sailing and that Bassanio is leaving immediately for Belmont to woo Portia. Gratiano expresses his desire to leave the city immediately.
Jessica next appears at Belmont in Act 3, Scene 2, accompanying Lorenzo and Salerio, a messenger delivering a letter to Bassiano from Antonio. The letter informs him that all Antonio 's business ventures have failed, such that he has defaulted on the bond to Shylock, and that Shylock intends to collect on the "pound of flesh ''. Jessica informs them that she has heard her father speaking with his fellows, saying he "would rather have Antonio 's flesh / Than twenty times the value of the sum / That he did owe him. '' Portia dispatches Bassanio to Venice to assist his friend, pausing only long enough for them to be married. Then announces that she and Nerissa, her maid, will stay in a nearby convent while their husbands are away. In her absence she asks Lorenzo and Jessica to manage her estate.
In Act 3, Scene 5, Jessica and Gobbo banter in the gardens of Belmont; Gobbo claiming that she is tainted by the sins of her father, and she can only hope that she was an illegitimate child and not actually related to Shylock. Jessica protests that then she would be visited by the sins of her mother, and Gobbo concurs that she would be damned either way. Jessica argues that she has been saved by her husband who has converted her to Christianity, to which Gobbo replies that Bassanio of contributing to the raised price of pork by the conversion of Jews (who may not eat pork) to Christians (who do). Lorenzo joins them and Jessica recounts their conversation, leading to further banter between Lorenzo and Gobbo, until Gobbo leaves to prepare for dinner. In response to questioning by Lorenzo, Jessica praises Portia as great and peerless.
Act 5, Scene 1 -- the final scene of the play, and following on from the courtroom scene in Act 4 -- opens with Jessica and Lorenzo strolling in the gardens of Belmont. They exchange romantic metaphors, invoking in turn characters from classical literature: Troilus and Criseyde, Pyramus and Thisbē, Aeneas and Dido, Jason and Medea, and finally themselves in the same mode, until they are interrupted by Stephano, a messenger. No sooner has Stephano informed them that Portia and Nerissa will soon arrive than Gobbo comes with the same news for Bassanio and Gratiano. They decide to await the arrivals in the gardens, and ask Stephano to fetch his instrument and play for them.
The man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils;
Portia and Nerissa enter, followed shortly by Bassanio, Antonio, and Gratiano. After they are all reunited, Nerissa hands Lorenzo a deed of gift from Shylock, won in the trial, giving Jessica all of his wealth upon his death.
The generally accepted sources for The Merchant of Venice are Giovanni Fiorentino 's Il Pecorone (c. 1380s) and Richard Robinson 's English translation of the Gesta Romanorum (1577), but neither of these contain the Jessica -- Lorenzo plot, nor give their Shylock - analogues a daughter. For these elements Shakespeare probably mined Masuccio Salernitano 's Il Novellino (1476) and Christopher Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta (c. 1590).
In the 14th story of Il Novellino we have most of the elements of the Jessica -- Lorenzo plot: a daughter guarded by a rich but miserly father; the lovers eloping with her father 's gold and jewels; the father 's despair, in equal measures, for the loss of both daughter and treasure; and the lovers ' eventual marriage and happiness.
For the Jessica -- Shylock relationship, John Drakakis, the editor of The Arden Shakespeare 's third series edition, highlights the verbal connection between The Merchant of Venice and The Jew of Malta with Barabas 's words when Abigail rescues his gold and Shylock 's at Jessica 's theft of his Ducats.
O my girl, My gold, my fortune, my felicity,... O girl, O gold, O beauty, O my bliss! (Hugs his bags.)
My daughter! O, my ducats! O, my daughter! Fled with a Christian! O, my Christian ducats! Justice, the law, my ducats, and my daughter,
Another version of the play 's plot can be found in Anthony Munday 's Zelauto: The Fountain of Fame Erected in an Orchard of Amorous Adventures (1580). In this version it is Munday 's Jessica analogue, Brisana, who pleads the case first in the courtroom scene, followed by Cornelia, the Portia analogue.
But the Jessica -- Lorenzo plot ultimately stems from medieval archetypal plots and characters. The Christian in love with a Jewess appears frequently in exemplum from the 13th to the 15th century. Beatrice D. Brown, in her 1929 article, "Mediaeval Prototypes of Lorenzo and Jessica '', finds the most direct match in "... MS. Royal 7 D. 1, a collection of theological pieces probably compiled by a Dominican friar at or near Cambridge in the thirteenth century. '' It contains a spendthrift Christian lover, the fair Jewess, the rich old father, the lovers robbing the father, and the father 's conflicted grief over his daughter 's betrayal and the loss of his treasure. However, in this story the Christian lover flees alone with the treasure.
Writing two decades later, James L. Wilson finds a better parallel in The Sultan of Babylon, an English story rooted in The Matter of France and the chanson de geste The Song of Roland. Here Laban -- the Sultan of Babylon, a Saracen ruler -- captures the Christian knights Oliver and Roland and intends to execute them. His daughter, Floripas, proceeds to murder her governess for refusing to help feed the prisoners; bashes the jailer 's head in with his keychain when he refuses to let her see the prisoners; manipulates her father into giving her responsibility for them; brings them to her tower, and treats them as royalty; does the same for the remaining ten of the Twelve Peers when they are captured too; helps the Peers murder Sir Lucafere, King of Baldas when he surprises them; urges the Peers to attack her father and his knights at supper to cover up the murder; when her father escapes and attacks the Peers in her tower, she assists in the defence; then she converts to Christianity and is betrothed to Guy of Burgundy; and finally, she and her brother, Fierabras decide that there is no point trying to convert their father to Christianity so he should be executed instead. All this is justified to the audience simply because Floripas converts to Christianity and Laban is a Saracene:
The reason for the cruelty of the Sultan 's two children is quite obvious. In the romances there are two sides: the ' good ' or Christian side, and the ' bad ' or Saracen side. Once Floripas and Ferumbras had joined the ' good ' side, they had to become implacable enemies of the Sultan. There was no question of filial duty or filial love; one was either a Saracen or a Christian, and that was all there was to it. There is not any other moral standard for the characters.
Wilson concludes that since The Merchant of Venice was a comedy, and since its audience would be used to the conventions of medieval tales, an Elizabethan audience would not be overly concerned with Jessica 's filial piety. "Like Floripas and Ferumbras and dozens of other medieval heathens she turned Christian, and that was obviously, and conventionally, the best possible thing she could do. ''
Literary critics have historically viewed the character negatively, highlighting her theft of her father 's gold, her betrayal of his trust, and her apparently selfish motivations and aimless behaviour. In her 1980 survey, "In Defense of Jessica: The Runaway Daughter in The Merchant of Venice '', Camille Slights calls out Arthur Quiller - Couch 's opinion in the 1926 The Cambridge Dover Wilson Shakespeare as an extreme but representative example:
In the interim between the signing of the bond and its falling due this daughter, this Jessica, has wickedly and most unfilially betrayed him.... Jessica is bad and disloyal, unfilial, a thief; frivolous, greedy, without any more conscience than a cat and without even a cat 's redeeming love of home. Quite without heart, on worse than an animal instinct -- pilfering to be carnal -- she betrays her father to be a light - of - lucre carefully weighted with her sire 's ducats.
Slights sees this as a consequence of sympathetic readings of Shylock, where the play is seen primarily as exposing Christian hypocrisy, and his actions merely natural responses to ostracism and prejudice. In such a reading Jessica 's actions amount to abandoning her father and betraying him to his enemies. By the last half of the 20th century this "sentimentally sympathetic reading '' was starting to be rejected, but without a corresponding reassessment of Jessica. She was still viewed as inhabiting primarily negative values, in contrast with the positive values associated with Portia, Bassanio, and Antonio. Writing in 1977, Raymond B. Waddington thinks that:
The relationship of Jessica and Lorenzo to the primary lovers, Portia and Bassanio, consistently is contrastive and negative: they undergo no tests of character or faith; they are obedient to no bonds; they take all, rather than giving all; they hazard nothing.
Slights contradicts this view, pointing out that it conflicts with "a natural audience response '' and argues that "we must question judgments that deny the most obvious emotional force of Shakespearean plots and characters. '' Shakespeare 's plays usually extend and deepen existing dramatic conventions, and Jessica must be seen in a context of classical and Elizabethan conventions for such characters. Slights highlights comedies where children rebel against a miserly father, or romances where daughters defy a repressive father for love. These conventions would be familiar for both Shakespeare and an Elizabethan theatre audience, and, indeed, modern audiences tend to accept Jessica 's actions as natural within the context of the plot. Her escape from Shylock 's repressive household to Belmont a quest for freedom, and from misfortune to happiness.
This view is supported by John Russell - Brown, the editor of the 1955 Arden Shakespeare second series edition of the play: "... nowhere in the play does Shylock show any tenderness towards his daughter....... as a Jewess, loved by a Christian, Jessica stood in a fair way for the audience 's sympathy.... '' In Munday 's Zelauto, Brisana (Jessica) opposes her father, Trinculo (Shylock), and eventually elopes with Rodolpho (Lorenzo); all presented sympathetically for the audience. Similarly, in Salernitano 's 14th novella, the daughter makes off with her father 's money, to the same effect. "In both these examples, the father is avaricious.... It ranks him with the miserly fathers in Elizabethan and classical comedies, who are only fit to be dupes of their children.... ''
The first critical notice of Jessica in the 18th century was made by William Warburton, who commented on the line in Act 5, Scene 1: "Fair ladies, you drop manna in the way / Of starvèd people. '' Warburton 's comment was that "Shakespear is not more exact in any thing, than in adapting his images with propriety to his speakers; of which he has here given an instance in making the young Jewess call good fortune, Manna. '' Unfortunately, as Samuel Johnson explains rather drily -- in a note to Warburton 's note -- in his 1765 edition: "The commentator should have remarked, that this speech is not, even in his own edition, the speech of the Jewess. '' The lines in question are usually assigned Lorenzo.
The next was by Edmond Malone in his 1790 edition. The editor of the Second Folio (1632) had emended the line "If a Christian do not / play the knave and get thee, I am much deceived '', substituting did for do. This changed the meaning, as an acerbic Malone points out:
I should not have attempted to explain so easy a passage, if the ignorant editor of the second folio, thinking probably that the word get must necessarily mean beget, had not altered the text, and substituted did in the place of do, the reading of all the old and authentick editions; in which he has been copied by every subsequent editor. Launcelot is not talking about Jessica 's father, but about her future husband. I am aware that, in a subsequent scene, he says to Jessica, ' Marry, you may partly hope your father got you not; ' but he is now on another subject.
Malone 's position turned out to be somewhat controversial. In his revised edition in 1821, multiple notes appeared in response. The first, by George Steevens, offers an alternate reading of the passage: "I suspect that the waggish Launcelot designed this for a broken sentence -- ' and get thee ' -- implying, get thee with child. Mr. Malone, however, supposes him to mean only -- carry thee away from thy father 's house. '' As does another by John Monck Mason:
Notwithstanding Mr. Malone charges the editor of the second folio so strongly with ignorance, I have no doubt but that did is the true reading, as it is clearly better sense than that which he has adopted. Launcelot does not mean to foretell the fate of Jessica, but judges, from her lovely disposition, that she must have been begotten by a christian, not by such a brute as Shylock: a christian might marry her without playing the knave, though he could not beget her.
Boswell printed both along with Malone 's original note. At further issue was Malone 's tarring of all the previous editors with the same brush, for which Steevens was particularly sore. He provided a further note exempting Isaac Reed from Malone 's criticism on the grounds that Reed had followed the First Folio, not the Second. Malone 's response was simply that "In answer to Mr. Steevens, I have to state that I printed this play in 1784, and that Mr. Reed 's edition did not appear till 1785. I may add that I communicated to that gentleman this very correction. ''
The back and forth continued in notes on Jessica 's line in Act 5, Scene 1: "I am never merry when I hear sweet music. '' Steevens opinied that:
In the age of Shakspeare it is probable that some shade of meaning (at present undeterminable,) was occasionally affixed to the words sweet and sweetness.... If... Jessica only employs the term sweet in one of its common senses, it seems inadequate to the effects assigned to it;...
For this point, Steevens cites the word 's use in Measure for Measure and a similar usage of dulcia by Horace in his Art of Poetry. Malone responds that "Sweet is pleasing, delightful, and such is the meaning of dulcis in Horace. ''
All references to The Merchant of Venice, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Folger Shakespeare Library 's Folger Digital Texts edition, edited by Barbara Mowat and Paul Werstine. Under their referencing system, acts, scenes, and lines are marked in the text, so 2.6. 34 -- 40 would be Act 2, Scene 6, lines 34 through 40.
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top 100 companies in the us by revenue | List of largest companies by revenue - wikipedia
This list comprises the world 's largest businesses by consolidated revenue as of 2016, according to the Fortune Global 500 tally. The list is limited to 35 companies, all of which have annual revenues exceeding $120 billion US dollars.
The availability and reliability of up - to - date information on prior state - owned companies is limited (for example Saudi Aramco does not publish any financial data) and varies from country to country; thus, this list may be incomplete. This list is shown in U.S. dollars, but many of the companies on it prepare their accounts in other currencies. The dollar value of their revenue may change substantially in a short period of time due to exchange rate fluctuations.
State - owned enterprise (Government owns 50 % or more)
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who was the first to describe that species is the unit of classification | Species - wikipedia
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank, as well as a unit of biodiversity, but it has proven difficult to find a satisfactory definition. Scientists and conservationists need a species definition which allows them to work, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If as Linnaeus thought, species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change continually, and to grade into one another. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, when looked at more closely it is problematic. For example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Problems also arise when dealing with fossils, since reproduction can not be examined; the concept of the chronospecies is therefore used in palaeontology. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche.
All species are given a two - part name, a "binomial ''. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature, also sometimes in zoological nomenclature). For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa.
Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology. Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination, while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy; and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection, and can be treated as quasispecies.
As a practical matter, species concepts may be used to define species that are then used to measure biodiversity, though whether this is a good measure is disputed, as other measures are possible.
In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος (génos) to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, and εἶδος (eidos) to mean a specific form within a kind, such as (within the birds) the crane, eagle, crow, or sparrow. These terms were translated into Latin as "genus '' and "species '', though they do not correspond to the Linnean terms thus named; today the birds are a class, the cranes are a family, and the crows a genus. A kind was distinguished by its attributes; for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard - shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents. Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance.
When observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical: schemes included consanguinity based on colour (all plants with yellow flowers) or behaviour (snakes, scorpions and certain biting ants). John Ray, an English naturalist, was the first to attempt a biological definition of species in 1686, as follows:
No surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed. Thus, no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as to distinguish a species... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa.
In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics, and not simply based upon differences. He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. This view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education, which held that the categories of life are dictated by God, forming an Aristotelian hierarchy, the scala naturae or great chain of being. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, the scala (a ladder) inherently implied the possibility of climbing.
Faced with evidence of hybridisation, Linnaeus came to accept that species could change, and the struggle for survival, but not that new species could freely evolve. By the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean - Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.
In 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by natural selection from naturally occurring variation among individuals. This required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be: ideas, provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals, writing:
I look at the term species as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other... It does not essentially differ from the word variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for convenience sake.
The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat '' could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus, or the cat family, Felidae. Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther '' may also mean the jaguar (Panthera onca) of Latin America or the leopard (Panthera pardus) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal; they are in two parts used together: the genus as in Puma, and the specific epithet as in concolor.
A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when the paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence ''.
Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully and use the abbreviation "sp. '' in the singular or "spp. '' (standing for species pluralis, the Latin for multiple species) in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.) This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology. Authors may also use "spp. '' as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics. Abbreviations such as "sp. '' should not be italicised. When a species identity is not clear a specialist may use "cf. '' before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr. '' (near) or "aff. '' (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after.
With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including:
The naming of a particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be confirmed or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two named species are discovered to be of the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymisation. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers '' or "splitters '' by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms.
The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including the ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense '') to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as the person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense '') denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct. '' ("author '') and "non. '' ("not '') may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species.
Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines a species as
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr 's use of the adjective "potentially '' has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in the wild.
It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species delimitation is called the species problem. The problem was recognized even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species:
No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation.
A simple textbook definition, following Mayr 's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms, but breaks down in several situations:
Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life - cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define a species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter '' organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes, and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes, including some crustaceans and echinoderms.
The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that
there is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin 's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods.
The species concept is further weakened by the existence of microspecies, groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates. For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies -- perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation, apomixis and polyploidy, making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as the fly agaric.
Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the Rubus fruticosus species aggregate.
The butterfly genus Heliconius contains many similar species.
The Hypsiboas calcaratus -- fasciatus species complex contains at least six species of treefrog.
Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they hybridise freely where their geographical ranges overlap.
Carrion crow
Hybrid with dark belly, dark gray nape
Hybrid with dark belly
Hooded crow
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end '' populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked '' population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end '' populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing the ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull - lesser black - backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so - called ring species have turned out to be the result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species.
Seven "species '' of Larus gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic.
Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (Larus argentatus) (front) and a lesser black - backed gull (Larus fuscus)
A greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides
Presumed evolution of five "species '' of greenish warblers around Himalayas
Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics. Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr 's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R.L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species, a species as determined by a taxonomist.
A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical '' method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four - winged Drosophila born to a two - winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies.
In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal, Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed a variation on this, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits.
A mate - recognition species is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognize one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridize successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the amount of hybridization is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools. A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species.
In microbiology, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97 % to each other need to be checked by DNA - DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7 %.
DNA - DNA hybridisation is outdated, and results have sometimes led to misleading conclusions about species, as with the pomarine and great skua. Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.
DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. The so - called barcode is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase. A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider a misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species.
A phylogenetic or cladistic species is an evolutionarily divergent lineage, one that has maintained its hereditary integrity through time and space. A cladistic species is the smallest group of populations that can be distinguished by a unique set of morphological or genetic traits. Molecular markers may be used to determine genetic similarities in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the Phylogenetic Species Concept may emphasize monophyly or diagnosability.
Unlike the Biological Species Concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation, so it is independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. It works for asexual lineages, and can detect recent divergences, which the Morphological Species Concept can not. However, it does not work in every situation, and may require more than one polymorphic locus to give an accurate result. The concept may lead to splitting of existing species, for example of Bovidae, into many new ones.
An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951, is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies ''. This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden state that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical '' to Willi Hennig 's species - as - lineages concept, and assert that the biological species concept, "the several versions '' of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggest that the concept works for both asexual and sexually - reproducing species.
An ecological species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters.
A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This is similar to Mayr 's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species can be established by comparing DNA sequences, but other methods were available earlier, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes) and allozymes (enzyme variants).
An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species '' is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation.
In palaeontology, with only comparative anatomy (morphology) from fossils as evidence, the concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered a different species from its ancestors.
Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by a mutation -- selection balance. It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect '' or the "survival of the flattest ''. There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles a traditional biological species.
Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct.
The evolutionary process by which biological populations evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species is called speciation. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species. Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson -- Dobzhansky -- Muller model. A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form, without increasing the number of resultant species.
Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation, antigenic shift, or reassortment, is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.
Louis - Marie Bobay and Howard Ochman suggest, based on analysis of the genomes of many types of bacteria, that they can often be grouped "into communities that regularly swap genes '', in much the same way that plants and animals can be grouped into reproductively isolated breeding populations. Bacteria may thus form species, analogous to Mayr 's biological species concept, consisting of asexually reproducing populations that exchange genes by homologous recombination.
A species is extinct when the last individual of that species dies, but it may be functionally extinct well before that moment. It is estimated that over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, some five billion species, are now extinct. Some of these were in mass extinctions such as those at the ends of the Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous periods. Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth 's ecology, atmosphere, land surface, and waters. Another form of extinction is through the assimilation of one species by another through hybridization. The resulting single species has been termed as a "compilospecies ''.
Biologists and conservationists need to categorise and identify organisms in the course of their work. Difficulty assigning organisms reliably to a species constitutes a threat to the validity of research results, for example making measurements of how abundant a species is in an ecosystem moot. Paul Michael - Agapow and colleagues found that surveys using a phylogenetic species concept reported 48 % more species and accordingly smaller populations and ranges than those using nonphylogenetic concepts; they note that this "taxonomic inflation '' could cause a false appearance of change to the number of endangered species and consequent political and practical difficulties. The evolutionary biologist Jody Hey observes that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise. Conservation laws in many countries make special provisions to prevent species from going extinct. Hybridization zones between two species, one that is protected and one that is not, have sometimes led to conflicts between lawmakers, land owners and conservationists. One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridizes with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.
The botanist Brent D. Mishler states that the species problem is created by the many ways that people want to use the species category, but argues that the solution is to abandon the traditional ranks and just use monophyletic groups of different inclusivess. A species is then "simply the least inclusive taxon '' of whatever type. He argues that ecology, evolution, and conservation work are all better served by this approach. Since in his view species are not comparable, counting them is not a valid measure of biodiversity, and he calls for new ways to measure it, noting that other authors such as R.I. Vane - Wright and colleagues have proposed quantitative measures for phylogenetic biodiversity that make use of "the number of branch points, and possibly branch lengths, separating the tips on the tree ''.
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which money is most economical in terms of its cost | Money - wikipedia
Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a particular country or socio - economic context. The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment. Any item or verifiable record that fulfills these functions can be considered as money.
Money is historically an emergent market phenomenon establishing a commodity money, but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money. Fiat money, like any check or note of debt, is without use value as a physical commodity. It derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private ''.
The money supply of a country consists of currency (banknotes and coins) and, depending on the particular definition used, one or more types of bank money (the balances held in checking accounts, savings accounts, and other types of bank accounts). Bank money, which consists only of records (mostly computerized in modern banking), forms by far the largest part of broad money in developed countries.
The word "money '' is believed to originate from a temple of Juno, on Capitoline, one of Rome 's seven hills. In the ancient world Juno was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located. The name "Juno '' may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one '', "unique '', "unit '', "union '', "united '') and "Moneta '' either from the Latin word "monere '' (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres '' (alone, unique).
In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin - money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie, meaning ' in kind '.
The use of barter - like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economy and debt. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.
Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money. The Mesopotamian shekel was a unit of weight, and relied on the mass of something like 160 grains of barley. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money -- often, the shells of the cowry (Cypraea moneta L. or C. annulus L.). According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins. It is thought by modern scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650 -- 600 BC.
The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative money. This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors -- redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song dynasty. These banknotes, known as "jiaozi '', evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins. In the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck. Marco Polo 's account of paper money during the Yuan dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, The Travels of Marco Polo, titled "How the Great Kaan Causeth the Bark of Trees, Made Into Something Like Paper, to Pass for Money All Over his Country. '' Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholms Banco in 1661, and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard, a monetary system where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th -- 19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender, and redemption into gold coins was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold.
After World War II and the Bretton Woods Conference, most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. The U.S. dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the U.S. dollar, and most of the world 's currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments ' fiat of legal tender and the ability to convert the money into goods via payment. According to proponents of modern money theory, fiat money is also backed by taxes. By imposing taxes, states create demand for the currency they issue.
In Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875), William Stanley Jevons famously analyzed money in terms of four functions: a medium of exchange, a common measure of value (or unit of account), a standard of value (or standard of deferred payment), and a store of value. By 1919, Jevons 's four functions of money were summarized in the couplet:
This couplet would later become widely popular in macroeconomics textbooks. Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as it is a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others.
There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money 's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate. Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time. The term "financial capital '' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the "coincidence of wants '' problem. Money 's most important usage is as a method for comparing the values of dissimilar objects.
A unit of account (in economics) is a standard numerical monetary unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure '' or "standard '' of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt.
Money acts as a standard measure and common denomination of trade. It is thus a basis for quoting and bargaining of prices. It is necessary for developing efficient accounting systems.
While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some texts, particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions. A "standard of deferred payment '' is an accepted way to settle a debt -- a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender, in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation, and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation.
To act as a store of value, a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved -- and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value.
To fulfill its various functions, money must have certain properties:
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfil the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the number of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating a monetary aggregate.
Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different ways to measure the money supply, reflected in different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money. The most commonly used monetary aggregates (or types of money) are conventionally designated M1, M2 and M3. These are successively larger aggregate categories: M1 is currency (coins and bills) plus demand deposits (such as checking accounts); M2 is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposits under $100,000; and M3 is M2 plus larger time deposits and similar institutional accounts. M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments. The precise definition of M1, M2 etc. may be different in different countries.
Another measure of money, M0, is also used; unlike the other measures, it does not represent actual purchasing power by firms and households in the economy. M0 is base money, or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements of commercial banks.
In current economic systems, money is created by two procedures:
Legal tender, or narrow money (M0) is the cash money created by a Central Bank by minting coins and printing banknotes.
Bank money, or broad money (M1 / M2) is the money created by private banks through the recording of loans as deposits of borrowing clients, with partial support indicated by the cash ratio. Currently, bank money is created as electronic money.
In most countries, the majority of money is mostly created as M1 / M2 by commercial banks making loans. Contrary to some popular misconceptions, banks do not act simply as intermediaries, lending out deposits that savers place with them, and do not depend on central bank money (M0) to create new loans and deposits.
"Market liquidity '' describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no (or minimal) spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. However, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually replaced by representative money, such as the gold standard, as traders found the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s.
Many items have been used as commodity money such as naturally scarce precious metals, conch shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value. Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity. Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, Wampum, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender, there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold content. American Eagles are imprinted with their gold content and legal tender face value.
In 1875, the British economist William Stanley Jevons described the money used at the time as "representative money ''. Representative money is money that consists of token coins, paper money or other physical tokens such as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold or silver. The value of representative money stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity.
Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as gold). Instead, it has value only by government order (fiat). Usually, the government declares the fiat currency (typically notes and coins from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) to be legal tender, making it unlawful not to accept the fiat currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public and private.
Some bullion coins such as the Australian Gold Nugget and American Eagle are legal tender, however, they trade based on the market price of the metal content as a commodity, rather than their legal tender face value (which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value).
Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal Reserve Notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed. By contrast, commodity money which has been lost or destroyed can not be recovered.
These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold, and at one point there was bronze as well. Now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new unit of account, which helped lead to banking. Archimedes ' principle provided the next link: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics).
In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.
In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as banknotes. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618 -- 907) into the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state - issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng 's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China.
At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th -- 12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high - value currency (the dinar). Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit, cheques, promissory notes, savings accounts, transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt, and banking institutions for loans and deposits.
In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper 's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper.
However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.
At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender, and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed.
By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham 's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes. This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971.
No country anywhere in the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system.
Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or ' at call '). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using automatic teller machines (ATMs), or through online banking.
Commercial bank money is created through fractional - reserve banking, the banking practice where banks keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserve (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder, while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all these deposits upon demand. Commercial bank money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: firstly it is non-physical, as its existence is only reflected in the account ledgers of banks and other financial institutions, and secondly, there is some element of risk that the claim will not be fulfilled if the financial institution becomes insolvent. The process of fractional - reserve banking has a cumulative effect of money creation by commercial banks, as it expands money supply (cash and demand deposits) beyond what it would otherwise be. Because of the prevalence of fractional reserve banking, the broad money supply of most countries is a multiple larger than the amount of base money created by the country 's central bank. That multiple (called the money multiplier) is determined by the reserve requirement or other financial ratio requirements imposed by financial regulators.
The money supply of a country is usually held to be the total amount of currency in circulation plus the total value of checking and savings deposits in the commercial banks in the country. In modern economies, relatively little of the money supply is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the U.S., of the $8853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 billion (about 10 %) consisted of physical coins and paper money.
Many digital currencies, in particular Flooz and Beenz, had gained momentum before the Dot - com bubble of the early 2000s. Not much innovation occurred until the conception of Bitcoin in 2009, which introduced the concept of a cryptocurrency.
When gold and silver are used as money, the money supply can grow only if the supply of these metals is increased by mining. This rate of increase will accelerate during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the New World and brought back gold and silver to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. However, if the rate of gold mining can not keep up with the growth of the economy, gold becomes relatively more valuable, and prices (denominated in gold) will drop, causing deflation. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and paper money backed by gold were used as money in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Modern day monetary systems are based on fiat money and are no longer tied to the value of gold. The control of the amount of money in the economy is known as monetary policy. Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek "to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long - term interest rates. ''
A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include:
In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People 's Bank of China and the Bank of England.
For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz supported by the work of David Laidler, and many others. The nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors and the influence of monetarism has since decreased.
Counterfeit money is imitation currency produced without the legal sanction of the state or government. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud or forgery. Counterfeiting is almost as old as money itself. Plated copies (known as Fourrées) have been found of Lydian coins which are thought to be among the first western coins. Before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to fraudulent instructions. During World War II, the Nazis forged British pounds and American dollars. Today some of the finest counterfeit banknotes are called Superdollars because of their high quality and likeness to the real U.S. dollar. There has been significant counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins since the launch of the currency in 2002, but considerably less than for the U.S. dollar.
Money laundering is the process in which the proceeds of crime are transformed into ostensibly legitimate money or other assets. However, in a number of legal and regulatory systems the term money laundering has become conflated with other forms of financial crime, and sometimes used more generally to include misuse of the financial system (involving things such as securities, digital currencies, credit cards, and traditional currency), including terrorism financing, tax evasion, and evading of international sanctions.
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where is the grey's anatomy set located | Grey 's Anatomy - wikipedia
Grey 's Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is a play on Gray 's Anatomy, a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace, later known as the Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.
The series was designed to be racially diverse and used color - blind casting. It revolves around the title character, Dr. Meredith Grey, played by Ellen Pompeo, first featured as an intern. The original cast consisted of nine star - billed actors: Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers, T.R. Knight, Chandra Wilson, James Pickens Jr., Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey. The cast has undergone major changes through the series ' run, with many members leaving and being replaced by others. In its twelfth season, the show had a large ensemble of sixteen actors, including four characters from the original cast (Meredith Grey, Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber).
On February 10, 2017, ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a fourteenth season, which premiered on September 28, 2017. The series ' success catapulted such long - running cast members as Pompeo, Dempsey, and Oh to worldwide recognition; they were among the top five highest - earning television actors in 2013. While the show 's ratings have fallen over the course of its run (it was once among the overall top 10 shows in the United States), it is still one of the highest - rated shows among the 18 -- 49 demographic, and the No. 3 drama on all of broadcast television. The series was the highest revenue - earning show on television, in terms of advertising, in the 2007 - 08 season; in 2017, it was ranked tenth on the list. Grey 's Anatomy ranks as ABC 's highest - rated drama in its fourteenth season.
Grey 's Anatomy has been well received by critics throughout much of its run, and has been included in various critics ' year - end top ten lists. Since its inception, the show has been described by the media outlets as a television "phenomenon '' or a "juggernaut '', owing to its longevity and dominant ratings. It is considered to have had a significant effect on popular culture and has received numerous awards, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama. It has received thirty - eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including two for Outstanding Drama Series. The cast members have also received several accolades for their respective performances. Grey 's Anatomy is the longest - running scripted primetime show currently airing on ABC, the second - longest scripted primetime ABC show ever, and the second - longest primetime medical drama, after ER.
The series follows Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), the daughter of an esteemed general surgeon named Ellis Grey, following her acceptance into the residency program at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. During her time as a resident, Grey works alongside her fellow doctors Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), and George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), who each struggle to balance personal lives with the hectic work and training schedules. They are overseen during their internship by Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), a senior resident who works for attending Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), the head of neurosurgery and Meredith 's love interest; Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), the head of cardio, who becomes Yang 's fiancé; and Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the Chief of Surgery and attending general surgeon, and lover of Ellis Grey decades before. In the sixth season, these residents are joined by Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and April Kepner (Sarah Drew), former Mercy - West residents who join Seattle Grace following an administrative merger. During the first six seasons, Burke, O'Malley and Stevens all depart the series.
In addition to Webber, Burke, and Shepherd, the surgical wing is primarily supervised by Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), as head of OB / GYN, neonatal, and fetal surgery; Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), a resident who later becomes head of orthopedic surgery, who left Seattle at the end of the twelfth season; Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), as head of plastics; Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), as head of trauma; Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), as head of pediatric surgery, and later head of fetal surgery; Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), as head of cardio; Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), as head of cardio; and Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone), Derek 's sister, who is hired to replace him as head of neuro.
New young doctors in the residency program include Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Meredith 's half - sister. She is killed with Mark Sloan in the season eight finale. Other additions include Leah Murphy (Tessa Ferrer), who departs near the end of the tenth season, but returns during the thirteenth; Shane Ross (Gaius Charles), who departs with Yang in the tenth - season finale; Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton), who resigns during season thirteen; Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), a doctor who begins a romantic relationship with Karev; Andrew Deluca (Giacomo Gianniotti), the love - interest of Meredith 's half - sister Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), who also serves as head of cardio; and Benjamin Warren (Jason George), an anesthesiologist - turned - resident, who has to balance his own desire to succeed with his wife Miranda Bailey 's new role as Chief of Surgery. In Season twelve attending cardio surgeon Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson) joins the show. In season thirteen, the hospital sees a shakeup when attending sports medicine / orthopedic surgeon Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) is hired as an educational consultant to revamp the residency program. She is fired following an explosion at the hospital.
Shonda Rhimes wanted to make a show that she would enjoy watching, and thought it would be interesting to create a show about "smart women competing against one another ''.
When asked how she decided to develop a medical drama, Rhimes responded:
The series was pitched to ABC Entertainment, who gave the green light. The show was picked up as a mid-season replacement for Boston Legal in the 2005 television season. Francie Calfo, executive vice president of development at ABC Entertainment, commented that ABC was looking for a medical show that was unlike the others airing at the time. She pointed out that
"(m) edical shows are hard, and it was hard trying to figure out where ours could be different. But where everybody else is speeding up their medical shows, (Rhimes) found a way to slow it down, so you get to know the characters. There 's definitely a strong female appeal to it. ''
-- Rhimes on the creation of Grey 's Anatomy
Rhimes initially conceived Grey 's Anatomy as a statement against racism. She worked to create a show featuring a racially diverse cast that allowed viewers to relate to characters regardless of race. While creating characters, as well as writing the first script, the series ' writers had no character descriptions in mind, and hoped to cast the best actor available for each part. Rhimes has said that if the network had not allowed to create characters this way, she would have been hesitant about moving forward with the series. Female roles in particular were developed as multi-faceted characters.
Rhimes offered her insight on this,
"I wanted to create a world in which you felt as if you were watching very real women. Most of the women I saw on TV did n't seem like people I actually knew. They felt like ideas of what women are. They never got to be nasty or competitive or hungry or angry. They were often just the loving wife or the nice friend. But who gets to be the bitch? Who gets to be the three - dimensional woman? ''
The show 's title, Grey 's Anatomy, was devised as a play on words: a reference to both Henry Gray 's classic English medical textbook, Gray 's Anatomy (first published in 1858 and still in print), and the title character Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Before the series debuted on March 27, 2005, a few early releases were shown to close friends and family of the producers and actors. The show was scheduled to run in the Boston Legal time slot for four weeks.
But its high ratings and viewership resulted in ABC keeping it in that slot for the remainder of the season. ABC Entertainment President, Steve McPherson, commented on the scheduling change: "Ultimately we decided that, without having adequate lead time or marketing dollars to devote to moving either show so late in the season, we 'd continue to let (Grey 's Anatomy) build on its tremendous momentum through May. '' Prior to broadcast, it was announced that the show 's title would be changed from Grey 's Anatomy to Complications, although this did not take place.
Grey 's Anatomy is produced by ShondaLand, in association with The Mark Gordon Company, and ABC Studios (formerly Touchstone Television). Rhimes, Betsy Beers, Krista Vernoff, Mark Gordon, Rob Corn, and Mark Wilding have all served as executive producers throughout the course of the series. In subsequent seasons, Steve Mulholland, Kent Hodder, Nancy Bordson, James D. Parriott, and Peter Horton have also been executive producers, with Allan Heinberg joining the show in 2006 in this role. As of season eight, the executive producers were Rhimes, Beers, Gordon, Vernoff, Corn, Wilding, and Heinberg.
Rhimes is the series head writer, or its most prolific writer. She often promotes the show by answering fan questions on her Twitter account. Other members of the writing staff are Vernoff, Wilding, Peter Nowalk, Stacy McKee, William Harper, Zoanne Clack, Tony Phelan, Joan Rater, and Debora Cahn. From the second through seventh seasons, the writers maintained a blog entitled Grey Matter, where the writer of an episode discussed background of the writing.
Directors vary by episode, with Rob Corn directing most frequently, followed by Tom Verica. Horton, Edward Ornelas, and Jessica Yu have also directed a substantial number of episodes. Cast members Chandra Wilson and Kevin McKidd have both directed multiple episodes.
Grey 's Anatomy has been edited by Susan Vaill since the show 's inception, and David Greenspan was named an editor in 2006. Casting directors Linda Lowy and John Brace have been a part of the production team since 2005. Production design is led by Donald Lee Harris, assisted by art director Brian Harms, and costume design is led by Mimi Melgaard. Working alongside Melgaard, Thomas Houchins supervises costumes, Ellen Vieira is the makeup artist, and Jerilynn Stevens serves as a hair stylist. The Director of Photography is Herbert Davis. The music coordinator is Danny Lux. Karen Lisa Pike, M.D. is the on - set medical consultant, alongside Linda Klein, an RN. The production staff is part of a Grey 's Anatomy softball team that competes against other television shows, such as CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.
-- Rhimes on Oh 's audition
Grey 's Anatomy used a color - blind casting technique, resulting in a racially diverse ensemble. Each role was cast without the character 's race being pre-determined, keeping Rhimes ' vision of diversity. The production staff began casting with the program 's title character, Meredith Grey, which Rhimes said was a difficult role to cast. "I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile, '' said Rhimes, "and after a while, they were like, ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile. '' The next to be cast, Sandra Oh (Dr. Cristina Yang), was initially invited to audition for the character of Bailey, but pressed to read for the role of Cristina instead. Many actors read for the role of Dr. Derek Shepherd, but when Patrick Dempsey read for the part, "he was just perfect '', according to Rhimes.
The only character developed with a racial description in mind was Dr. Miranda Bailey, who is portrayed by Chandra Wilson. Her character was first described as a tiny blonde with curly hair, but when Wilson began speaking, Rhimes reported: "(Wilson) is exactly who Miranda is. '' James Pickens Jr. was selected to appear as Dr. Richard Webber in the series ' pilot and first season. Katherine Heigl wanted to portray Dr. Izzie Stevens as a brunette, but was requested to retain her natural blonde for the part. Isaiah Washington, who portrayed Dr. Preston Burke, initially read for the role of Shepherd, but was cast as Burke, because the original actor to play Burke had to withdraw. T.R. Knight signed on for the pilot as Dr. George O'Malley, expecting that the role might be short - lived, because he liked that the character was multi-faceted. Rounding out the season one cast was Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev.
The second season marked the introduction of attending doctors Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez). They were initially cast as recurring characters, but both were given star billing at the opening of the third season. Ramirez was cast after ABC executives offered her a role in the network show of her choice; Dane had previously auditioned unsuccessfully for a role in the pilot episode. Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) also joined the show in season two, after making a guest appearance in season one.
In October 2006, Washington allegedly insulted Knight with a homophobic slur, during an on - set altercation with Dempsey, and ABC terminated Washington 's contract at the end of the third season. Washington returned for a guest appearance in season 10. At the conclusion of the third season, Walsh departed the show to pursue the Grey 's Anatomy spin - off, Private Practice, but continues to make guest appearances.
Chyler Leigh joined the cast as a main character in the fourth season as Dr. Lexie Grey, Meredith 's half - sister. Leigh had appeared as a guest star in the final two episodes of the third season. On the selection of Leigh for the role of Lexie, Rhimes said: "Chyler stood out... It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister, but she had a depth that was very interesting. ''
Dr. Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who first appeared on Grey 's Anatomy in the second season, returned as a series regular in the fourth season. Shortly after the announcement that Smith would be a regular member of the cast, Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello, reported that her character, Hahn, would depart from Grey 's Anatomy on November 6, 2008. E! Online 's Kristin Dos Santos asserted that Smith 's dismissal from the show had been forced by the ABC network, as part of an attempt to "de-gay '' Grey 's Anatomy. Rhimes countered these claims, saying that "we did not find that the magic and chemistry with Brooke 's character would sustain in the long run ''.
Season five introduced actor Kevin McKidd (Dr. Owen Hunt), who was signed as a series regular after originally being cast for a specific story arc. In addition, Jessica Capshaw (Dr. Arizona Robbins) was originally introduced for a three - episode arc, but received a contract extension until the end of the season; and then was made a series regular in the sixth season.
Knight departed the show at the conclusion of season five, citing an unhappiness with the development and lack of screen time for his character. Directly following Knight 's departure, Entertainment Weekly reported that Heigl had not returned to the set as scheduled after her maternity leave. It was later confirmed that Heigl would not return to the show at all.
Kim Raver, who was cast as recurring character Dr. Teddy Altman in the sixth season, was given star billing later in the season. Sarah Drew (Dr. April Kepner) and Jesse Williams (Dr. Jackson Avery), who both made their series debuts as recurring characters in the sixth season, and received star billing in the seventh.
The six original actors ' contracts expired after season eight, but in May 2012, Pompeo, Oh, Dempsey, Chambers, Wilson, and Pickens renewed their contracts with the show for another two years. At the conclusion of the eighth season, Leigh 's character Lexie Grey departed from the show at Leigh 's request, and with Rhimes ' agreement. Raver 's character Teddy Altman was also written out of the show during the season eight finale. Rhimes said that Raver had been offered a contract renewal, but declined.
In July 2012, Dane (Sloan) confirmed that he was departing the show to pursue other projects; he made his final appearances in the first two episodes of the ninth season. With the start of season 10, Camilla Luddington, Jerrika Hinton, Gaius Charles and Tessa Ferrer were introduced to the show as series regulars. They were first introduced to the show in season 9 as new interns. On August 13, 2013, Oh (Cristina) announced that the show 's tenth season would be her final one. In March 2014 it was announced that Isaiah Washington, who portrayed Preston Burke in the first three seasons of the show, would make a guest appearance to coincide with the departure of series regular Sandra Oh, his former on - screen love interest. Neither Charles ' nor Ferrer 's contracts were renewed for season 11.
On May 2, 2014 it was announced that, in addition to Pompeo and Dempsey, all original remaining cast members -- aside from Sandra Oh -- signed two - year deals, extending their contracts through seasons 11 and 12. Despite joining the series in its second season, Sara Ramirez is on the same negotiation schedule as the first - season cast and also signed a new two - year deal.
On Wednesday, January 17, 2018, it was announced by ABC that Ellen Pompeo 's contract had been renewed through season 16. Not only does the contract renewal insure that Pompeo will return as Meredith Grey, but it makes her a producer of Grey 's Anatomy and a co-executive producer of Station 19. The deal will make Pompeo the highest paid actress currently on a dramatic TV series, with her making $575,000 per episode and over $20 million yearly.
Rhimes considered setting the medical drama in her hometown, Chicago, but eventually decided to go with Seattle, to distinguish Grey 's Anatomy from the Chicago -- based ER.
Fisher Plaza, which is the headquarters building of the former Fisher Communications (since merged into Sinclair Broadcasting Group) and SBG 's ABC affiliated KOMO radio and television stations in Seattle, is used for some exterior shots of Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital. In particular, air ambulances land on the KOMO - TV newscopter 's helipad. This suggests the hospital is close to the Space Needle (which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza), the Seattle Monorail, and other local landmarks.
But, the hospital used for most other exterior and a few interior shots is not in Seattle; these scenes are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills, California, and occasional shots from an interior walkway above the lobby show dry California mountains in the distance. The exterior of Meredith Grey 's house, also known as the Intern House, is real. In the show, the address of Grey 's home is 613 Harper Lane, but this is not an actual address. The physical house is located at 303 W. Comstock St., on Queen Anne Hill, Seattle, Washington. Most scenes are taped at Prospect Studios in Los Feliz, just east of Hollywood, where the Grey 's Anatomy set occupies six sound stages. Some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle. Several props used are working medical equipment, including the MRI machine.
When asked about operating room scenes, Sarah Drew offered this:
We work with Bovine organs, which is cow 's organs. The smell is repulsive and makes us all gag. And we use an actual soldering tool to solder the organs. It smells like burning flesh. There 's also a lot of silicone and blood matter, red jello mixed with blood and chicken fat. It 's pretty gross.
Costumes are used to differentiate between attending surgeons, who wear navy blue scrubs, and residents, who wear light blue scrubs. The series is filmed with a single - camera setup, as are many dramas. Grey 's Anatomy is often filmed using the "walk and talk '' filming technique, popularized on television by series such as St. Elsewhere, ER, and The West Wing.
Grey 's Anatomy follows the lives of surgical interns and residents at the fictional Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital (formerly Seattle Grace Hospital, Season 1 -- 6, Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, Season 6 -- 9, and then Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital, Season 9 -- present), as they gradually develop as seasoned doctors, with the help of their competent attending mentors and chief of surgery. Each installment, typically, begins with a voice - over narrative from Meredith Grey or a season regular, foreshadowing the theme of the episode. Each season tends to represent the physicians ' academic year, with each completed year qualifying the residents at a level higher in the surgical field. The season will always end with a finale, typically related to a dramatic event such as a death or character departure. Most installments revolve around the doctors ' everyday lives as surgeons, but the show also emphasizes their personal, rather than professional, lives. The series sets aside medical ethic concerns to focus on character development and relationships. Although the physicians treat the illnesses of their patients, often through complex surgeries, they display competitive spirit and seek praise.
After arriving at the hospital each morning, residents may argue over who gets the challenge of a certain patient who has arrived that day. A hospital superior assigns cases, often generating tension between the residents and their superiors. Within each episode are shifts from the doctors interacting with their patients, to scenes with their co-workers. Once assigned a case, each doctor diagnoses the patient, with the help of his or her attending physician, which usually leads to surgery. The surgeons tend to form personal connections with their patients, with a patient often conveying a message to his or her doctor, which unintentionally relates to the doctor 's private life. The show displays the growth of relationships between the doctors, either friendly or sexual, which may produce conflicts between their personal and professional lives. Emotional scenes are often accompanied by an indie rock background song, something that has become a hallmark of the series. At the conclusion of each episode, one of the characters delivers another voice - over, typically contrasting or following up on the initial one.
* ^ 1 Katherine Heigl is credited as a main cast member from 1x01 to 6x18. From 6x19, she is not credited as a main cast member and does not appear. * ^ 2 In Season 9, Eric Dane only appears in 9x01 and 9x02. From 9x03, he is not credited as a main cast member and does not appear. * ^ 3 Brooke Smith is credited as a main cast member from 4x05 to 5x07. From 5x08, she is not credited as a main cast member and does not appear. * ^ 4 In season 5, Kevin McKidd is credited as a recurring cast member from 5x01 to 5x13. From 5x14, he is credited as a main cast member. * ^ 5 In season 6, Kim Raver is credited as a recurring cast member from 6x09 to 6x18. From 6x19, she is credited as a main cast member. * ^ 6 In season 14, Martin Henderson only appears from 14x01 to 14x05. From 14x06, he is no longer credited as a main cast member and does not appear.
The five characters who are first introduced in the series premiere, as surgical interns, are Grey, Karev, O'Malley, Stevens, and Yang. They are initially mentored by Bailey, a senior resident who becomes the hospital 's Chief Resident, and later an attending general surgeon, in season six. The surgical program is initially headed by the Chief of Surgery, Richard Webber, who has a pre-existing personal relationship with Meredith, having had an affair with her mother when Meredith was a child. In Webber 's employ are attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, dubbed ' McDreamy ' by the residents, and attending cardiothoracic surgeon Preston Burke. Shepherd is introduced as Meredith 's love interest, while Burke begins a relationship with Yang.
Introduced in the show 's second season are obstetrician - gynecologist and neonatal surgeon, Addison Montgomery, plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (nicknamed ' McSteamy ' by the interns), from New York, and orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres. Montgomery is Shepherd 's wife who arrives in Seattle seeking reconciliation with him, Sloan is Shepherd 's former best friend, who aided the breakdown of his marriage by having an affair with Montgomery, while Torres is introduced as a love - interest, and eventual wife for O'Malley. The penultimate episode of season three introduces Lexie Grey, Meredith 's half - sister who unexpectedly decides to pursue her internship at Seattle Grace Hospital after her mother 's sudden death, and begins an on - again, off - again relationship with Sloan. Burke and Yang, having been engaged, endeavor to plan their wedding, while Montgomery departs the show at the conclusion of the third season, relocating to California, seeking a new life. The season three finale shows Burke 's exit from the show, after leaving Yang at the altar on their wedding day.
Grey, Yang, Karev, and Stevens are all promoted to residents, in the season four premiere, while O'Malley is forced to repeat his internship year, following his failing of the intern exam. Subsequently, Torres and O'Malley divorce one another, due to him having a sexual affair with Stevens, initially concealing it from Torres. Early in the fourth season, cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn becomes Torres ' love interest. During the fifth season, Hahn departs from the series, and O'Malley retakes his intern exam, passing, joining his fellow physicians as a resident. Two new characters are introduced, former United States Army trauma surgeon Dr. Owen Hunt, and pediatric surgeon Dr. Arizona Robbins. Hunt becomes a love - interest for Yang, while Robbins becomes a love - interest for Torres. When Stevens is diagnosed with stage four metastatic melanoma, she and Karev get married at the conclusion of the fifth season. In addition, Meredith and Shepherd marry, with their vows written on a post-it note.
O'Malley dies in the premiere of the sixth season, due to injuries sustained from being hit by a bus, and Stevens later departs Seattle after being diagnosed with cancer and following a lack of communication between her then husband Karev following the Seattle Grace merger with Mercy West. Several new characters are introduced as Seattle Grace Hospital merges with Mercy West. Residents April Kepner and Jackson Avery both transfer to Seattle Grace Hospital from Mercy West, and the latter entertains a brief relationship with Lexie Grey, until she reunites with Mark Sloan. Subsequently, Teddy Altman is introduced as the new Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery. In the season six finale, a deceased patient 's grieving husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital, injuring Karev, Shepherd, and Hunt, and killing residents Charles Percy and Reed Adamson. In the shooting 's emotional reverberations, Hunt and Yang abruptly marry, not wanting to risk separation. Torres and Robbins eventually wed, officiated by Bailey. In season eight, Webber steps down and allocates his job to Hunt. As the final year of residency for Meredith, Yang, Karev, Avery, and Kepner is coming to a close, the doctors are all planning to relocate to different hospitals to pursue their specialty careers. However, all plans are put on hold when several doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital are engaged in a plane crash, which kills Lexie and endangers Meredith, Shepherd, Yang, Robbins, and Sloan. At the conclusion of the eighth season, Altman is courteously fired by Hunt as she struggles to decide whether or not to take the job as Chief at the United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM). In the season nine premiere, Sloan dies due to sustained injuries from the plane crash following a brief relapse of temporary health (the surge) and the remaining characters work through their post traumatic stress and Arizona Robbins ' loss of limb by way of suing Seattle Grace Mercy West as the hospital was responsible for putting the surgeons on the plane. The season continues with the struggle of the lawsuit and the animosity that it creates within the hospital, Yang and Hunt eventually divorce in order to help the lawsuit. The doctors who were on the plane won the lawsuit, but the pay out bankrupts the hospital. They all club together and buy Seattle Grace Mercy West, with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation, and they become the Board of Directors, once being called the "Grey - Sloan 7 ''. One of the changes they implement is renaming the hospital to Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. Robbins cheats on Torres with a visiting facial reconstruction surgeon. Grey 's Anatomy then concluded its 10th season on ABC and saw the departure of one of its major players, Cristina Yang, played by Sandra Oh. Towards the end of the eleventh season, Derek Shepherd witnesses a car accident and pulls over to help the injured, but his car is hit by a truck with him inside as he attempts to leave the scene. He later dies at another hospital following the doctors ' mishandling of his injuries. The season 12 finale saw the departure of one of the show 's longest running characters, Callie Torres, played by Sara Ramirez.
With the drama 's setting being a hospital, numerous medical personnel appear regularly on the show, as well as several other recurring characters. Joe (Steven W. Bailey), is first shown as the owner of the Emerald City Bar and Grill, across the street from the hospital, which is a common relaxation area for the physicians. Also introduced in the pilot, is the legendary former surgeon, Dr. Ellis Grey (Kate Burton), Meredith 's Alzheimer 's - stricken mother, who appeared on the show until her death in season three. In the first season, Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback), a nurse who appeared on the show occasionally until getting laid off in the merger with Mercy West, engages in sexual activity with O'Malley, giving him syphilis. Serving as an assistant and secretary to the Chief of Surgery, former nurse Patricia (Robin Pearson Rose), has appeared on the show since its debut. Tyler Christian (Moe Irvin), a hospital nurse, makes occasional appearances throughout the series. Within the second season, Bailey becomes pregnant by her husband, Tucker Jones (Cress Williams), who makes frequent appearances on Grey 's Anatomy, until their divorce in season five. While Bailey takes a sabbatical, due to her pregnancy, the cheerful Dr. Sydney Heron (Kali Rocha), fills her position as the resident supervising Grey, Yang, Karev, O'Malley, and Stevens, and makes occasional appearances until the fifth season.
Thatcher and Susan Grey (Jeff Perry and Mare Winningham), Meredith 's estranged father and step - mother, are introduced in season two, with Susan making appearances until her death in season three, and Thatcher continuing to appear on the series. Adele Webber (Loretta Devine), is introduced as Richard 's wife, who eventually acquires Alzheimer 's, in the seventh season, and continued to make appearances until her death in season nine. Introduced as Preston 's mother, Jane Burke (Diahann Carroll) makes occasional appearances until the fourth season. Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), a patient suffering from congestive heart failure, originates as one of Burke 's patients, who goes on to propose to Stevens, after weeks of bonding between the two. Facing death, Stevens cuts Duquette 's left ventricular assist device (LVAD), to elevate his position on the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) transplant list. This ultimately ends in his death, marking his initial departure from the show, and placing Stevens on disciplinary probation. Initially conceived as a veterinarian hired for Shepherd 's dog, Doc, Dr. Finn Dandridge (Chris O'Donnell) soon becomes a love interest for Meredith, while Shepherd is with Montgomery. Dandridge is included in a multi-episode story arc, consisting of nine episodes, ending when Meredith reunites with Shepherd.
In season three, George 's father, Harold O'Malley (George Dzundza), is diagnosed with cancer and dies, with his wife Louise (Debra Monk) and George 's brothers Jerry (Greg Pitts) and Ronny (Tim Griffin) by his side. Louise goes on to appear occasionally, and was last seen in season eight. A ferryboat accident brings along Rebecca Pope (Elizabeth Reaser), who is initially introduced as a pregnant Jane Doe victim, suffering from amnesia. Pope eventually embarks on a relationship with Karev, until she is diagnosed with a personality disorder in season four, and makes her final departure. Amidst the crisis of the ferryboat crash, Meredith falls into the water at the disaster site. Although rescued, she goes into cardiac arrest, waking up in what appears to be limbo. Within the limbo, Meredith is entertained by deceased acquaintances Duquette and Dylan Young (Kyle Chandler), who was killed during a bomb crisis in the second season, until eventually being resuscitated. Seeking a cure to her depression, Meredith undergoes therapy sessions with the hospital psychiatrist, Dr. Katharine Wyatt (Amy Madigan), who in addition, serves as a psychiatrist to Hunt.
The season four premiere introduces several new interns, to be trained under Meredith, Yang, Karev, Stevens, and eventually O'Malley. Among them are Dr. Steve Mostow (Mark Saul) who continues to make appearances, and Dr. Sadie Harris (Melissa George) who formed a friendship with Meredith while the two were in college. Harris is fired in the fifth season, due to not actually having a medical degree, and departs the show immediately after. Meredith and Shepherd 's relationship reaches a toll, and the two separate, leading Shepherd to entertaining a relationship with Rose (Lauren Stamile), a nurse. Rose appears frequently until season five, when Derek and Meredith decide to rekindle their flame. Throughout the fifth season, Stevens experiences full - out hallucinations of Duquette, signaling that she is ill, and once she is lucid, he departs, marking his final appearance. Following the announcement of her relationship with Robbins, Callie 's father Carlos Torres (Hector Elizondo) initially contests his daughter 's concurrence in homosexuality, but eventually accepts it, and he reappears several times throughout the series.
The hospital 's merging with Mercy West introduces new residents: Dr. Reed Adamson (Nora Zehetner) and Dr. Charles Percy (Robert Baker), but the two are both murdered in the season six finale. Also introduced in the sixth season is Dr. Ben Warren (Jason George), an anesthesiologist and eventual husband to Dr. Miranda Bailey, as well as Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin), Dr. Mark Sloan 's estranged daughter who seeks kinship with him. Dr. Lucy Fields (Rachael Taylor), an obstetrician - gynecologist, is introduced in the seventh season, and serves as a love interest for Dr. Alex Karev, until eventually relocating to pursue a career in Africa. Robbins receives a grant to aid children in Malawi, which leads to a falling out between her and Torres. While in Malawi, Robbins is replaced by Dr. Robert Stark (Peter MacNicol), a pediatric surgeon with an interest in Dr. April Kepner, who appears occasionally until season eight. Following the breakdown of Dr. Torres ' relationship with Dr. Robbins, Dr. Sloan and Dr. Torres unite, and she becomes pregnant. Torres ' relationship with Robbins is subsequently mended, and the couple endeavors to raise their new daughter, Sofia Robbin Sloan Torres, with the help of Dr. Sloan. Shepherd and Meredith also become new parents, with their adoption of Zola, a baby girl from Malawi. Conceived as a patient with a tumor condition who later develops diabetes, Henry Burton (Scott Foley) befriends Dr. Altman and eventually joins her in marriage only to get treated using her medical insurance, until he dies while undergoing heart surgery.
In the season nine premiere, interns Dr. Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), Dr. Heather Brooks (Tina Majorino), Dr. Shane Ross (Gaius Charles), Dr. Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton), and Dr. Leah Murphy (Tessa Ferrer) are introduced. Steven Culp and William Daniels play Dr. Parker and Dr. Craig Thomas, respectively. Dr. Parker is Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Dr. Craig Thomas (William Daniels) is an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Mayo Clinic, where Cristina worked temporarily. Dr. Alana Cahill (Constance Zimmer) introduced in the ninth season is appointed to cut costs at the hospital and she eventually decides the best course of action would be to seek out a new buyer until the four crash survivors and Torres on the behalf of Sloan to pool their money together in a bid to purchase the hospital themselves. Kepner starts dating a paramedic named Matthew (Justin Bruening) and they form a deep relationship over the course of the ninth ad tenth seasons and she eventually agreed to marry before reconciling with Avery in the middle of her wedding to Mathew. Lauren Boswell (Hilarie Burton) is introduced as a craniofacial surgeon consulting on a case at Grey Sloan Memorial who showed romantic interested in Arizona and eventually ended up having a one - night stand with her.
Dr. Heather Brooks dies in the premier of season ten. She goes to search for Dr. Webber and finds him lying in the basement of the hospital. Trying to save Dr. Webber, she accidentally steps into a puddle and electrocutes herself while hitting her head as she falls. Bailey moves a cancer patient in Webber 's room to force some perspective and make him take the treatment. Also introduced in the tenth season was Dr. Karev 's estranged father Jimmy Evans (James Remar) who tries to form a relationship with his son but fails repeatedly. He dies in a botched surgery. The conclusion of season 10 has Cristina leaving Grey Sloan for Dr. Burke 's job as head of a hospital in Zurich, while Dr. Ross makes a last - minute decision to follow her in order to study under her. Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) unknowingly drops a bombshell that she is the child of Dr. Webber and the late Dr. Grey, and given up at birth for adoption. Dr. Meredith Grey has to accommodate another half sister. Also, Dr. Yang privately gives her shares in the hospital to Dr. Karev, also giving him her seat on the board. But Dr. Webber all but promises the seat to Dr. Bailey, so the board has to decide between them. Introduced in season eleven is Dr. Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who is Chief of Fetal Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial. Dr. Herman selects Arizona Robbins in a fetal surgery fellowship and becomes her mentor. Herman plays in a twelve - episode arc before departing after episode fourteen.
Season 11 begins with new surgical residents coming to the hospital. Maggie Pierce is head of cardio, and she and her half - sister Meredith start to build a relationship, as she also does with her father Dr. Webber. Callie and Arizona 's relationship falls through after they realized they want different things. April and Jackson learn that their baby has a lethal birth defect, but April decides that she will carry the baby to term. There is considerable discussion of and questioning of faith. She bears a boy, Samuel, who dies shortly after birth.
Grey 's Anatomy has been well received among critics. The show holds an average of 72 % positive score on Rotten Tomatoes. The A.V. Club gave an insight on both the overwhelming success and lows in the quality of the hit medical drama saying, "The quality arc for the show is all over the place, starting with a steady build in the first season, then skyrocketing into phenomenon in season two, then leveling off and dipping in season three, before having some seriously bumpy moments in seasons four (interrupted by the writers ' strike) and five. The climb begins again in season six '' Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly in a review wrote, "I believe the show 's best season to date is season 2. Let me make it clear that I 'm not saying seasons 3 through 9 were bad. In my opinion, there have only been a few lulls in the show 's history, and most of them did n't last a full season. '' adding, "I still enjoy the show, and I 'll honestly never stop watching. By any standards, Grey 's Anatomy has been successful television, ranking highly in the ratings for nine seasons and entering the cultural lexicon via phrases as cloying yet catchy as "McDreamy. '', the show has had its periods of being intensely irritating, and it has had its periods when it seems as if Shonda Rhimes has taken leave of her faculties, but it 's also got an amazingly high batting average, particularly with every solid season that passes along in this second act of its run. '' The site lauded the show saying, "On average, it 's been very good TV, filled with interesting, driven characters who run the gamut of professions within the show 's hospital setting. It 's been, by turns, a good soap, a good romantic comedy, a good medical drama, and a good interpersonal show about an unexpected workplace family. ''
The first season received positive reviews which steadily built up, with Gary Levin of USA Today calling Grey 's Anatomy one of the top shows on television. New York Daily News named Grey 's Anatomy a "winner '', whereas Newsday expressed a positive opinion by stating "You simply ca n't stop watching. '' The Washington Post 's Tom Shales was critical of season one, finding it reminiscent of ER and commenting that: "The show is much more a matter of commercial calculation than an honest attempt to try something fresh and different. '' Shortly after its initial airing, the Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan called Grey 's Anatomy the new Friends; a concluded National Broadcasting Company (NBC) sitcom following the lives of a group of young adults, that all of its ten - year run in the top - five for viewer ratings. The second season received critical acclaim, top critics like Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the show a "phenomenon '', adding the show was, "one of the best TV shows around '', Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly later during the tenth season called the second "the show 's best season to date '' however, Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures opined that Grey 's Anatomy is a mere combination of Scrubs, ER, Sex and the City, and The Love Boat. It further garnered positive reviews, Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment added: "The second season of this medical drama expertly wove its signature elements of complex relationships, whimsical banter and challenging life - lessons; all to a montage - fetish, indie - rock soundtrack. '' Todd Gilchrist also from IGN called the season "terrific '' adding, "Indeed, one of the best currently on television. While it remains to be seen what the creators do with it, now that it 's become an outright event program, the season demonstrates that Rhimes and co. know what to do with the opportunities presented them. whether you 're male or female, this is the kind of entertainment that small - screen devotees and folks fed up with television need to see. ''
The title character of Grey 's Anatomy, Meredith, has received both overwhelmingly positive and weary feedback by critics along the course of the show, with the development of the character garnering praise from majority critics. Earlier reactions for Meredith were mixed; in a 2006 review, Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times dubbed to her as "the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy ''. A reviewer for BuddyTV praised the distinct uniqueness in the character calling Meredith an "unconventional heroine '' adding that the character was, "Neither black nor white but always... wait for it... many shades of grey. The reviewer and to add that even in her lighter moments, she has still been "dark and twisty. '' The sentiment was shared by Glenn Diaz who remarked, "You got ta love Mer when she 's gloomy. '' When Pompeo did not receive a nomination 61st Primetime Emmy Awards, for her work as Meredith, Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo, "has worked very hard (...) to make Meredith Grey an interesting character '', and should have received a nomination. IGN 's Monfette, less impressed by the character, criticized her storyline as "some bizarrely under - developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do. '' Robert Rorke of the New York Post was critical of Meredith 's relationship with Derek Shepherd, writing: "She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas, but lately, she 's been a little dopey, what with the endless ' McDreamy ' soliloquies. '' The development of the character has received praise from critics. Reviewing the first part of the eighth season, TV Fanatic wrote: "this season belongs to Meredith Grey. She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding. This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman. Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season. '' Rick Porter reviewing the episode How to Save a Life from the eleventh season for Zap2it wrote, "Without Meredith, and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show, "How to Save a Life '' would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode, the likes of which the show has done several times before. He added. "How to Save a Life '' may not be the ideal Emmy - submission episode for Ellen Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show. '' Janalen Samson of BuddyTV lauded the Meredith 's development throughout the series saying, "When one considers how this character has grown over eleven seasons, it really is amazing. Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work. She 's actually done the impossible, because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey. '' Reviewing the season 12 premiere, "Sledgehammer '', critics including Alex Hawkins of the Western Gazette again highlighted Pompeo 's being due for an Emmy Award.
The majority of the supporting cast of Grey 's Anatomy have been well received as well, with the New York Post 's Rorke deeming Stevens to be "the heart and soul '' of Grey 's Anatomy, whereas Eyder Peralta of the Houston Chronicle was critical of her character development, stating: "(She 's) the reason I do n't watch Grey 's Anatomy anymore. '' Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang "the best damn character '' and deemed "the Meredith / Yang relationship the most true friendship on network television. '' Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is "the only one of these five (residents) that regularly acts like an actual doctor ''. Analyzing Alex Karev, Rachel Simon called him "underrated '', and she pointed out that his personal growth never seems to get acknowledged, as "Alex has evolved, slowly and realistically, into a genuinely good person whose faults do n't miraculously disappear, but take a backseat to much better qualities. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today said Dempsey has a "seemingly effortless way of humanizing Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity ''. His friendship with Mark Sloan has been well received. Victor Balta said "they 've demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital. '' Addison Montgomery was deemed "sassy and bright and interesting. '' TV Guide said of Walsh 's stint on Grey 's Anatomy that she "adds spice to an already hot show. '' Callie Torres, after having previously received mixed views, was praised for her bisexual storyline. Critics added that the character was anchored by stellar performances by Sara Ramirez. Lexie Grey, having initially been criticized, became a critics ' favorite in the series. Keen of The Trades wrote that Chyler Leigh "does a fantastic job of making the progression feel seamless. Lexie steals the show as one of the best characters on the series. ''
With the departure of several cast members throughout the seasons, many new characters were added to the drama 's ensemble. McKidd and Capshaw were referred to as "fresh additions '' to the series, by Monfette of IGN. Matt Roush of TV Guide commented: "Hunt / McKidd is the most encouraging thing to happen to Grey 's Anatomy in quite a while. '' Matt Mitovich of TV Guide noted that Robbins "quickly established herself as a fan favorite '', describing her as "a breath of fresh air in the often angsty halls of Seattle Grace. On April Kepner and Jackson Avery Courtney Morrison of TVFanatic wrote, "April has grown since her character was introduced... she 's honest. A girl with principles is a girl you want to do well. '' He described her and Avery as "a couple for whom viewers can root ''. Speaking of the new cast members, in addition to the remaining original ones, Robert Bianco from USA Today called them the show 's "best ensemble in years ''.
Regarding season three, Bill Carter of The New York Times called Grey 's Anatomy "television 's hottest show '', adding: "(No show) is expected to challenge Grey 's Anatomy for prime - time pre-eminence. '' Contrasting with Carter 's view, Monfette of IGN said that it speedily found itself "mired in the annoying and absurd '', adding: "This third season may very well represent a case of over-writing a concept that has, perhaps tragically, run bone - dry on narrative fuel. '' At the conclusion of season three, Entertainment Weekly 's Gregory Kirschling said "the show lacked a defining happy, warm - gooseflesh moment '', adding that the season "did n't leave you dying for the (next) season premiere ''. Speaking of the fourth season, Laura Burrows of IGN said the series became "a little more than mediocre, but less than fantastic '', adding: "This season proved that even strong chemistry and good acting can not save a show that suffers from the inevitable recycled plot. ''
In contrast to the moderately negative feedback the third and fourth seasons received, Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger said of the fifth season: "Overall, it feels more like the good old days than Grey 's Anatomy has in a long time. '' Misha Davenport from the Chicago Sun - Times said season five "hits on all the things the show does so well '', adding: "There is romance, heartbreak, humor and a few moments that will move fans to tears. '' Brian Lowry of Variety, less impressed, opinionated that the season five displayed the show running out of storylines. Speaking of the sixth season, Bianco of USA Today wrote: "Grey 's has always loved grand gestures. You like them or you do n't; the only real question is whether the show pulls them off or it does n't. This year, it did. ''
The series has a score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on five reviews for season seven. In response to the season, Bianco from USA Today commented: "Happily, it now seems to have landed on solid ground. '' Also of the seventh season, Entertainment Weekly 's Jennifer Armstrong said: "It 's in the shooting 's emotional reverberations that the show is regenerating after the past few hit - and - miss seasons, '' whereas Verne Gay of Newsday commented: "Unfortunately, they 've settled on far - too - easy and facile answers for the most part. '' HitFix gave a positive review saying that, "season 7 overall has been one of the show 's strongest ever. '' and added, "There was a time when Grey 's Anatomy was this show where I suffered through a lot of stuff that made me cringe to get to those genius melodrama moments it could do so well. Over the last couple of years, it 's evolved into a show that 's much more consistent in tone, where it may not move me as often as it did in the early years but also very rarely makes me question my reasons for watching. '' Speaking of season eight, Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly called it a "so - so season '', and Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "emotional ''. Also acknowledging the fan base Verne Gay of Newsday wrote "Grey 's has had a good season and has an intensely loyal fan base to prove it. '' regarding the 8th season.
The ninth season received more positive reviews, Rob Salem of Toronto Star called it "a solid return to form. '' Brad Williams writing for What Culture praised the show 's development over the season saying, "Grey 's Anatomy has developed into a fine example of how a TV show can mature beyond its initial purpose. '' calling it "something almost anyone can watch and enjoy. '' Praising the friendship between Cristina and Meredith of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "There 's still one good reason to keep watching: Where else can you find such deep friendships between female co-workers ''. The tenth season was also marked with praise, Annie Barrett for Entertainment Weekly wrote "There 's true sorrow here along with the passion, which keeps their dynamic so intriguing to me. '' Caroline Siede from The A.V. Club wrote in her review for the 10th season "At its best, Grey 's Anatomy is about everyday bravery, sacrifice, and courage. At its worst, it 's a melodramatic, moralizing soap opera. Both sides are on display as the show heads confidently into its 10th season. '' Many sources, including Rachel Simon of Bustle and Nicole Pomarico of Wetpaint, claimed that Sandra Oh 's performance during her final season on Grey 's Anatomy is worthy of an Emmy nomination.
Bryce Olin of Netflix ranked Grey 's 9th among the 50 Best TV Shows on Netflix stating, "It 's a tough call, but based on Grey 's casting choices and revolutionary portrayals of female doctors in the series, I 'm willing to argue that Grey 's Anatomy is the best medical drama of all time. Obviously, Shonda Rhimes did n't reinvent the wheel with the series, but there 's no denying its popularity. '' adding, "I understand its significance in the pop culture sphere. '' He also stated that the show could go higher in the ranks with the upcoming season stating, "Apparently, Grey 's Anatomy fans are passionate about their show, although it seems like they 've been closeted for the last few years. I 'd love to move Grey 's Anatomy even higher on the ranking, but I 'll have wait until the 11th season comes to Netflix. ''
Critics included Grey 's Anatomy in top ten lists for five of its twelve seasons; these are listed below in order of rank.
-- Brian Quick, University of Illinois
Grey 's Anatomy has been considered an impact on culture by Entertainment Weekly 's executive editor, Lori Majewski, with her writing: "Grey 's Anatomy is n't just a show, it 's a phenomenon. When (the) final shows air, every place in New York City is empty. You could get a table at the best restaurants. '' The Daily Beast 's Jace Lacob also considered the show an impact, comparing its success to that of Friends, and calling it a "cultural phenomenon ''. Steve Sternberg, a media analyst with Magna Global USA explained that the show appeals to a broad audience, writing: "Roughly 80 percent of households during prime time only have one TV set on. People are looking for shows they can watch with other household members. '' Grey 's Anatomy introduced a "mc - labeling '' surge, ever since it dubbed Dempsey 's character "McDreamy ''. Canadian newspaper the National Post considers this trend a "phenomenon ''. Analyzing the show 's impact on culture, Dessylyn Arnold of Yahoo! Voices noted that the "mc - labeling '' trend has been parodied on other shows including ER and Degrassi: The Next Generation. Mark Lawson of The Guardian has credited Grey 's Anatomy with popularizing the "songtage '', or musical montage segments. Parodying this, MADtv created a spoof on the show in 2006, making fun of the series ' emotional scenes including those accompanied by a musical montage.
Grey 's has also been credited to helping redefine "good '' television; The A.V. Club writes, "Since The Sopranos burst onto the scene, we 've too often classified a show as "good '' based on how closely it adhered to the dark, violent, male - centric template set out by that particular show. It 's time for that to end. At its best, Grey 's has been among the very best shows on TV, and at its worst, it 's been at least fascinating to watch. To write it off is to unnecessarily narrow the definition of what good TV can be, to limit what the medium is capable of. TV is at its best when it emotionally connects, and even when it seems to be otherwise merrily hurtling off a cliff, Grey 's Anatomy is nothing but emotional connection, which is more than other, more consistently better shows can say. '' The series placed at No. 66 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list, and was declared the third highest rated show for the first ten years of the Internet Movie Database (2002 -- 2012). The show 's premise has inspired the creation of A Corazón Abierto, a Colombian adaptation of Grey 's Anatomy, which in turn spawned a Mexican version of the same name.
A study conducted by the University of Western Sydney revealed that 94 % of 400 polled medical students are regular viewers of Grey 's Anatomy. An additional study conducted by Brian Quick of the University of Illinois indicated that the show 's portrayal of doctors being "smart, good looking, capable, and interesting '', leads viewers to associating real - world doctors to be that way. Surgical resident Karen Zink, M.D., deemed the show 's portrayal of interns inaccurate, adding: "None of (the characters) have bags under their eyes. They all leave the hospital dressed cute, with their hair done and makeup on. That is so far away from the reality of interns. You are just dragging your butt, trying to stay alive. You do n't have time to do your hair. You do n't have time to put on makeup. Every surgical intern has bags under their eyes. ''
In 2011, a woman residing in Sheboygan, Wisconsin became unresponsive due to an asthma attack. Unable to wait for an ambulance, her daughter and a friend performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on her, which they learned from Grey 's Anatomy. In 2017 an Israeli woman saved her husband by performing cardiac massage she learned from Grey 's Anatomy, The woman performed cardiac massage for 20 minutes before medical personal arrived and transferred the husband to Shaare Zedek Medical Center. The mid-season premiere of the fourteenth season was entitled "1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 '', the National Domestic Violence Hotline; upon release on January 18, 2018, the move was received favourably and viewers variously changed their Twitter usernames to the same and used the platform to bring awareness to both the hotline and the issue of domestic abuse.
Grey 's Anatomy has received high viewership and ratings since its debut. The first four seasons of the program each ranked in the top ten among all viewers, reaching its peak Nielsen ratings in the second season, attracting an average of 19.44 million viewers per episode, and ranking at fifth place overall. Following the show 's time - slot being relocated, overall rankings steadily declined, dropping below the top ten in its fifth season. Grey 's Anatomy made its greatest fall from its sixth to seventh season, slipping from seventeenth place to thirty - first. The series is on a steady decline in terms of overall viewership and rankings, yet Grey 's Anatomy still holds value in charts when numbers are pulled from the digital video recorder (DVR). It was the most recorded show between 2007 and 2011, based on cumulative totals, and has been for several years in a row.
The most - watched episode of the series is "It 's the End of the World '', with 37.88 million viewers, aided by a lead - in from Super Bowl XL. Grey 's Anatomy was the most expensive program on television in the 2007 - 08 season measured by advertising revenue, with earnings of US $400,000 per thirty seconds. The show was named the fourth (behind Desperate Housewives, Two and a Half Men, and American Idol), and the fifth - highest (behind Glee, Two and a Half Men, The X Factor (U.S.) and American Idol) revenue earning show, with the earnings of US $2.67 million and US $2.75 million per half hour in 2011 and 2012 respectively. While Grey 's Anatomy is no longer ranked in the top numbers for overall ratings, the show 's ranking in the key 18 -- 49 demographic has remained high. As of season eight, the series is the highest - rated drama on television in the target demographic. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Grey 's Anatomy was "most popular in a swath of the middle of the country, particularly in areas with a lower percentage of college graduates ''.
Below is a table of Grey 's Anatomy 's seasonal rankings in the U.S. television market, based on average total viewers per episode. Each U.S. network television season starts in September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.
Grey 's Anatomy has won a number of awards. As of July 2012, the show has been nominated for twenty - five Primetime Emmy Awards, having been nominated for at least one every year, except in 2010. At the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2005, Oh was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009, and Horton was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series. The following year, at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series, which they were nominated for again in 2007. Also in 2006, Wilson was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009, and Kyle Chandler was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. The 58th Ceremony also honored Rhimes and Vernoff, who were both nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. Rhimes, whose career kicked off in 1995, has since produced yet another ABC series, Scandal, which began on air in 2012 and is continuing into the third season. Beginning in 2005, Rhimes has been continually nominated for numerous awards, including three Emmy Awards: first in 2006 for a dramatic series and a separate nomination for writing a dramatic series, followed by a third nomination in 2007 for a dramatic series.
In 2007, at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, Heigl won the award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, while Knight was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Numerous guest actresses have been nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, including Burton in 2006 and 2007, Christina Ricci in 2006, Reaser in 2007, Diahann Carroll in 2008, and Sharon Lawrence in 2009, but the only actress to have won the award is Devine in 2011, who was nominated again in 2012. The show has also been nominated for thirteen Creative Arts Emmy Awards, having won three of them: Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series, Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic), and Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special.
The show has received ten Golden Globe Award nominations since its premiere. At the 63rd Golden Globe Awards, in 2006, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series, Dempsey was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series, which he was nominated for again in 2007, and Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. The following year, at the 64th Golden Globe Awards, in 2007, Pompeo was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama Series, and the show won the award for Best Drama Series. At the 65th Golden Globe Awards, in 2008, Heigl was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, while the series in whole was nominated for Best Drama Series.
The series has won People 's Choice Awards for Best Drama five times in 2007, 2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017 and has been nominated for several other People 's Choice Awards, with nominations received by Oh as well as multiple wins from Dempsey, Pompeo winning in recent years 2013 and 2015, Heigl, Wilson, Demi Lovato, for guest starring, and the drama in whole for Favorite TV Drama. In 2007, Rhimes and the female cast were the recipient of the Women in Film Lucy Award, in recognition of the excellence and innovation in the show as a creative work that has enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television. The series has been honored with numerous NAACP Image Award nominations, many having been won, including five awards for Outstanding Drama Series. Grey 's Anatomy has also received several Screen Actors Guild Awards, with nominations received by Dempsey, as well as wins from Oh, Wilson, and the main cast for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
Grey 's Anatomy 's first season commenced airing as a mid-season replacement to Boston Legal on March 27, 2005 and concluded on May 22, 2005. The nine - episode season aired on Sundays in the 10: 00pm EST time slot, following Desperate Housewives. The show was renewed by ABC for a second season, that aired in the same time slot as season one. Premiering on September 25, 2005 and concluding on May 15, 2006, the season consisted of twenty - seven episodes. The first five episodes of the second season were originally scheduled to air during the first, but the network decided to close the first season of Grey 's Anatomy on the same night as Desperate Housewives ' finale. During the second season, Grey 's Anatomy produced two specials recapping the events of recent episodes, narrated by Bailey, entitled "Straight to the Heart '' and "Under Pressure ''. The show was renewed for a third season, which was relocated to the coveted Thursday 9: 00pm EST time slot -- a slot that the series has held onto since then. Commencing on September 21, 2006 and ending on May 17, 2007, season three consisted of twenty - five episodes. Two more specials were produced during the show 's third season, entitled "Complications of the Heart '' and "Every Moment Counts '', which were narrated by Bailey and Morgan, respectively.
ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a fourth season, which aired from September 27, 2007 to May 22, 2008, and ultimately consisted of seventeen episodes. The fourth season had a reduced number of episodes, due to the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike, which caused production to cease from February to April, leaving the show with no writing staff during that time. At the beginning of the fourth season, the show aired its final special entitled "Come Rain or Shine '', created to transition viewers from Grey 's Anatomy to Private Practice, which was narrated by the editors of People magazine. The show received a renewal for a fifth season, which premiered on September 25, 2008 and concluded on May 14, 2009, consisting of twenty - four episodes. The series was renewed for a sixth season consisting of twenty - four episodes, which commenced on September 24, 2009 and ended on May 20, 2010. During its sixth season, Grey 's Anatomy aired a series of webisodes entitled Seattle Grace: On Call at ABC.com. ABC renewed the show for a seventh season, which premiered on September 23, 2010 and concluded on May 19, 2011, consisting of twenty - two episodes. This was followed up with Seattle Grace: On Call, Seattle Grace: Message of Hope, aired during the beginning of the seventh season. Also during the seventh season, the series produced a musical episode entitled "Song Beneath the Song '', featuring songs that became famous through their use in Grey 's Anatomy. The show received a twenty - four episode eighth season renewal, which commenced on September 22, 2011 with a two - hour episode, and ended on May 17, 2012. Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a ninth season, which premiered on September 27, 2012 and ended on May 16, 2013. Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a tenth season on May 10, 2013 and premiered on September 27, 2013 with a two - hour episode, and ended on May 15, 2014.
On May 8, 2014, ABC renewed the series for an eleventh season that aired from September 2014 to May 2015. In addition, the show was relocated to the Thursday 8: 00pm EST time slot. After four seasons outside the top 25 rated shows, Grey 's Anatomy was the number 15 show in the 2013 -- 2014 season, the show 's tenth. The show also re-entered the top five shows in the 18 -- 49 viewer demographic. On May 7, 2015, ABC renewed the series for a twelfth season that premiered on September 24, 2015 and concluded on May 19, 2016. The thirteenth season to aired from 2016 to 2017.
On February 21, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin - off medical drama television series for Grey 's Anatomy featuring Walsh 's character, Addison Montgomery. Subsequent reports confirmed the decision, stating that an expanded two - hour broadcast of Grey 's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin - off. The cast of Grey 's Anatomy was reportedly unhappy about the decision, as all hoped the spin - off would have been given to them. Pompeo commented that she felt, as the star, she should have been consulted, and Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Stevens. The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3, 2007 sees Montgomery take a leave of absence from Seattle Grace Hospital, to visit her best friend from Los Angeles, Naomi Bennett (Merrin Dungey, later Audra McDonald), a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist. While in Los Angeles, she meets Bennett 's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center. The two - hour broadcast entitled "The Other Side of This Life '' served as the twenty - second and twenty - third episodes of the third season, and was directed by Michael Grossman, according to Variety. The cast included Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell, and Merrin Dungey.
KaDee Strickland 's character, Charlotte King, who would be introduced in the spin - off 's first - season premiere, did not appear in the backdoor pilot. Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11, 2007, prior to the commencement of the first season. She did not have to audition for the role, but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes. Also not present in the backdoor pilot was McDonald, due to her character, Naomi Bennett, being portrayed by a different actress, Merrin Dungey. However, on June 29, 2007, ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced, with no reason given for the change. The drama was titled Private Practice, and its premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars, and provided a lead - in to fellow freshman series Dirty Sexy Money. Pushing Daisies, a third new series for the evening, rounded out the lineup as a lead - in to Private Practice. The series ended its run in January 2013 after six seasons.
Grey 's Anatomy had five crossover storylines with Private Practice.
There have also been several instances where Addison or Amelia travel to Seattle without there being a storyline involving both shows.
On May 16, 2017, Channing Dungey announced at the ABC Upfronts that the network ordered another Grey 's Anatomy spin - off, this one focusing on firefighters in Seattle. The series is set to premiere mid-season in 2018. Stacy McKee, long - term Grey 's writer and executive producer, will serve as the spin - off 's showrunner. The new show was introduced Season 14, Episode 13, when a house fire brings the firefighters to Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. In July 2017, it was announced that Jaina Lee Ortiz was the first actress cast in the spin - off series. In September 2017 it was announced that Jason George, who has played Dr. Ben Warren since season 6, would be leaving Grey 's Anatomy to move to the spin - off. He 's expected to be a series regular on Grey 's Anatomy until the spin - off begins production. In October 2017 it was announced that five new series regulars for the spin off had been cast being Grey Damon, Jay Hayden, Okieriete Onaodowan, Danielle Savre and Barrett Doss. It was also announced that the spin - off had a 10 episode order for the first season. Later in October 2017, it was announced that Miguel Sandoval was cast as the Captain of the firehouse.
On January 9, 2018, it was announced by Sarah Drew on her Instagram page that a six - episode spin - off series following the new interns of Grey Sloan Memorial would be released for streaming on the ABC app and abc.com on Thursday, January 11, 2018. Grey 's Anatomy: B - Team stars Sophia Taylor Ali (Dahlia Qadri), Jake Borelli (Levi Schmitt), Alex Blue Davis (Casey Parker), Jaicy Elliot (Taryn Helm), Rushi Kota (Vik Roy) and Jeanine Mason (Samantha "Sam '' Bello) with special guest appearances made by Justin Chambers (Alex Karev), Kelly McCreary (Maggie Pierce), Kevin McKidd (Owen Hunt) and James Pickens Jr. (Richard Webber). The six episodes in this series were written by Barbra Kaye Friend with Grey 's Anatomy series regular Sarah Drew (April Kepner) making her directorial debut directing each of them.
Grey 's Anatomy episodes appear regularly on ABC in the United States. All episodes are approximately forty - three minutes, and are broadcast in both high - definition and standard. The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store in standard and high - definition qualities, and Amazon Video. ABC Video on demand also releases recent episodes of the show for temporary viewing. Recent episodes are also available at ABC 's official Grey 's Anatomy website, and on Hulu and Xfinity. In 2009, ABC signed a deal allowing Grey 's Anatomy episodes to be streamed on Netflix. Grey 's Anatomy is syndicated on Lifetime, with one hour blocks weekdays at 1: 00 pm, 2: 00 pm, and 3: 00 pm EST.
Since its debut, Buena Vista Home Entertainment has released the first eight seasons on DVD to regions 1, 2, and 4. The first season 's DVD, released on February 14, 2006, features an alternate title sequence, bloopers, behind - the - scenes footage, audio commentaries, and an extended edition of the pilot episode. Season two 's DVD, released on September 12, 2006, which includes extended episodes, an interview with Wilson, deleted scenes, a set tour, a "Q&A '' with the cast, and a segment on the creating of special effects. The DVD for the third season was released on September 11, 2007, with bonus features including extended episodes, an interview with star Dempsey, audio commentaries, and bloopers.
The fourth season 's DVD released on September 9, 2008, features an interview with Heigl and Chambers, extended episodes, bloopers, and deleted scenes. Season five 's DVD was released on September 15, 2009, and includes unaired scenes, bloopers, and extended episodes. The DVD for season six, released on September 14, 2010, features deleted scenes, an extended finale, and bloopers. The seventh season 's DVD, released on September 13, 2011, includes an extended edition of and a behind - the - scenes featurette on the musical episode, bloopers, as well as deleted scenes. In addition, the eighth season 's DVD was released on September 4, 2012 with several bonus features and deleted scenes.
The ninth season 's DVD released on August 27, 2013 with several bonus features and deleted scenes. The tenth season 's DVD was released on September 2, 2014 with new several bonus features and deleted scenes. The season was officially released on DVD as a six - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Tenth Season -- Live For The Moments on September 2, 2014. In view of the departure of the character of Cristina Yang in the season finale, the DVD set featured an extended episode Do You Know? and a special feature from Sandra Oh titled "An Immeasurable Gift ''. The eleventh released on DVD as a six - disc box set on August 18, 2015 with interviews with new series regular Caterina Scorsone and a special feature for Dempsey 's departure, "How To Say Goodbye Dr. Derek Shepherd ''. The twelfth released on DVD as a six - disc box set on August 30, 2016.
The American Broadcasting Company has partnered with J Larson CafePress and Barco Uniforms to provide the series ' branded merchandise through an online store. The products available include shirts, sweatshirts, kitchen - ware, home - ware, and bags, with the Grey 's Anatomy logo on it. Also available are custom unisex scrubs and lab coats in a variety of colors and sizes, designed by Barco. The merchandise released by the company is available for purchase at the Grey 's Anatomy official website, and US $1 from every purchase is donated to Barco 's Nightingales Foundation.
Five volumes of the Grey 's Anatomy Original Soundtrack have been released as of 2011. For the first two seasons, the show 's main title theme was an excerpt from "Cosy in the Rocket '', by British duo Psapp; it is featured on the first soundtrack album released via ABC 's corporate cousin, Hollywood Records, on September 27, 2005. The second soundtrack, featuring songs from the series ' second season, was released on September 12, 2006, followed by a third soundtrack with music from the third season. Following the seventh season musical episode "Song Beneath the Song '', "Grey 's Anatomy: The Music Event '' soundtrack was released, with volume four of the soundtrack released subsequently.
In January 2009, Ubisoft announced that it had signed a licensing agreement with ABC Studios to develop a video game based on Grey 's Anatomy. Designed for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and PC, Grey 's Anatomy: The Video Game was released on March 10, 2009. The game lets the player assume the role of one of the main characters, making decisions for the character 's personal and professional life, and competing in a number of minigames. It has been criticized by reviewers because of the simplicity of the mini-games and voice actors who do not play the same characters on the series, with Jason Ocampo of IGN giving it a 6.0 / 10 overall rating. The Wii release received mixed reviews, and the Windows release received generally unfavorable reviews.
ABC and Nielsen partnered in 2011 to create a Grey 's Anatomy application for Apple 's iPad. The application was designed to allow viewers to participate in polls and learn trivial facts as they watch a live episode. It uses Nielsen 's Media - Sync software to listen for the episode and to post features as the episode progresses.
The creators of the show set up a real online wedding registry to mark the wedding of Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd. Instead of buying gifts fans were encouraged to donate money to the American Academy of Neurology Foundation.
An adaptation named as Doktorlar ("Doctors '') was aired on December 28, 2006, in a Turkish Network, Show TV, and it lasted four seasons.
In 2010, A Corazón Abierto, an adaptation of the series, was made by the Colombian network RCN TV.
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who plays blake in orange is the new black | Kimiko Glenn - wikipedia
Kimiko Elizabeth Glenn (born June 27, 1989) is an American actress and singer, known for portraying Brook Soso in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, Dawn Williams in the Broadway musical Waitress and Ezor in Voltron: Legendary Defender.
Glenn was born and raised in Phoenix, Arizona, with her sister Amanda. Her father, Mark, is of German, Scottish and Irish descent, and her mother, Sumiko, is Japanese. Glenn began acting at the Valley Youth Theatre in Phoenix, along with several other local theaters, when she was in the fifth grade.
She was educated at Desert Vista High School, and the Interlochen Arts Academy boarding school in Interlochen, Michigan. Glenn attended the Boston Conservatory for a year as a musical theatre major, but dropped out after she was cast in the touring company of Spring Awakening. She is in a relationship with actor Sean Grandillo.
During her freshman year of college in 2008, Glenn was cast as Thea in the first U.S. National Tour of Steven Sater and Duncan Sheik 's rock musical Spring Awakening. In 2013, Glenn booked her breakthrough role as Litchfield Penitentiary inmate Brook Soso in the Netflix comedy - drama series Orange Is the New Black. In 2014, she appeared in the Lena Dunham - directed music video "I Wanna Get Better '' for Jack Antonoff 's solo project Bleachers.
Glenn portrayed the supporting role of Liv Kurosawa in the drama - thriller film Nerve (2016), based on the young adult novel of the same name, directed by Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman. In 2016, she was cast as Dawn Williams in the Broadway transfer production of Sara Bareilles and Jessie Nelson 's musical Waitress. Preview performances began on March 25 at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, and the show officially opened on April 24, 2016.
In 2018, Glenn began starring as Harlow on Liza on Demand, as part of the main cast along with Travis Coles and creator Liza Koshy.
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how many shuddha and vikrita swaras in total are there in hundustani sangeet | List of ragas in Hindustani classical music - wikipedia
This is a list of ragas in Hindustani classical music.
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who invented the first front wheel drive car | Front - wheel drive - wikipedia
Front - wheel drive (FWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front - wheel - drive vehicles feature a transverse engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear - wheel - drive and four - wheel drive vehicles.
Most FWD layouts are front - engined. Rear - engined layouts are possible, but rare. Historically they fall into three categories:
Experiments with front - wheel - drive cars date to the early days of the automobile. According to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one - cylinder De Dion - Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the world 's first front - wheel - drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, with only one copy ever made. In 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front - wheel - drive system for motorising horse - drawn carts.
In 1898 / 9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front - wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination. It was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower (1.30 or 1.86 kW) De Dion - Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower (2.6 kW) Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering. The name Victoria Combination described the lightweight, two - seater trailer commonly known as a Victoria, combined with the rear axle and drive mechanism from a motor tricycle that was placed in front to achieve front wheel drive. It also known as the Eureka.
By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris - St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall and second (last) in the class. In October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris - Rambouillet - Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km / h (16 mph). In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres (150 mi) non-stop at 29 km / h (18 mph).
When production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs (circa $600) each.
J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front - wheel - drive car, the first prototype of which he built in 1904. He promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front - wheel - drive system, but due to lack of sales this venture failed.
The next successful application of front - wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12 / 50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith - Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28, 1925. Harry Arminius Miller of Menomonie, Wisconsin designed the Miller 122 front - wheel - drive racecar that was entered in the 1925 Indianapolis 500, which was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Saturday, May 30, 1925.
However, the idea of front - wheel drive languished outside the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton (200 cars in 1929), and the Cord L - 29 of 1929. Neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a front - wheel - drive commercial model of the Alvis 12 / 50 in 1928, but it was not a success either.
The first successful consumer application came in 1929. The BSA (Birmingham Small Arms Company) produced the unique front - wheel - drive BSA three - wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available. In 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear - engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes. Other German car producers followed: Stoewer offered a car with front - wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France. The Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, running "backwards, '' (save for the Cord, which drove the transmission from the front of the engine). The basic front - wheel - drive layout provides sharp turning, and better weight distribution creates "positive handling characteristics '' due to its low polar inertia and relatively favourable weight distribution. (The heaviest component is near the centre of the car, making the main component of its moment of inertia relatively low). Another result of this design is a lengthened chassis.
Front - wheel drive continued with the 1948 Citroën 2CV, where the air - cooled lightweight aluminium flat twin engine was mounted ahead of the front wheels, but used Hooke type universal joint driveshaft joints, and 1955 Citroën DS, featuring the mid-engine layout. Panhard of France, DKW of Germany and Saab of Sweden offered exclusively front - wheel - drive cars, starting with the 1948 Saab 92.
In 1946, Lloyd Cars, the English car company, had produced the front - wheel - drive roadster, Lloyd 650. The two - stroke, two - cylinder motor was mounted transversely in the front and connected to the front wheels through four - speed synchronised gearbox. The high price and lacklustre performance had doomed its production. Only 600 units were produced from 1946 to 1950.
In 1954, Alfa - Romeo had experimented with its first front - wheel - drive compact car named "33 '' (not related or referred to sports car similarly named "33 ''). It had the same transverse - mounted, forward - motor layout as the modern front - wheel - drive automobiles. It even resembled the smaller version of its popular Alfa Romeo Giulia. However, due to the financial difficulties in post-war Italy, the 33 never saw the production. Had Alfa - Romeo succeed in producing 33, it would precede the Mini as the first "modern '' European front - wheel - drive compact car.
In 1955, one of the first Japanese manufacturers to utilize front - wheel drive with a transversely installed engine was the Suzuki Suzulight, which was a small "city '' car, called a kei car in Japanese.
In 1959 Austin Mini was launched by the British Motor Corporation, designed by Alec Issigonis as a response to the first ' oil crisis ', the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the boom in bubble cars that followed. It was the first production front - wheel - drive car with a watercooled inline four - cylinder engine mounted transversely. This allowed eighty percent of the floor plan for the use of passengers and luggage. The majority of modern cars use this configuration. Its progressive rate rubber sprung independent suspension, low centre of gravity, and wheel at each corner with radial tyres, gave a massive increase in grip and handling over all but the most expensive cars on the market. It used GKN designed Constant - velocity joint drive shaft universal joints.
The transversely mounted engine combined with front - wheel drive was popularized by the 1959 Mini; there the transmission was built into the sump of the engine, and drive was transferred to it via a set of primary gears. Another variant transmission concept was used by Simca in the 1960s keeping the engine and transmission in line, but transverse mounted and with unequal length driveshafts. This has proven itself to be the model on which almost all modern FWD vehicles are now based. Peugeot and Renault on their jointly developed small car engine of the 1970s where the 4 - cylinder block was canted over to reduce the overall height of the engine with the transmission underneath (PSA X engine). The tendency of this layout to generate unwanted transmission "whine '' has seen it fall out of favour. Also, clutch changes required engine removal.
The 1965 Triumph 1300 was designed around a longitudinal engine with the transmission underneath. Audi has also used a longitudinally mounted engine overhung over the front wheels since the 1970s. Audi is one of the few manufacturers which still uses this particular configuration. It allows the use of equal - length half shafts and the easy addition of all - wheel drive, but has the disadvantage that it makes it difficult to achieve 50 / 50 weight distribution (although they remedy this in four - wheel - drive models by mounting the gearbox at the rear of the transaxle.) The Subaru 1000 appeared in 1966 utilizing front - wheel drive mated to a flat - 4 engine, with the driveshafts of equal length extending from the transmission, which addressed some of the issues of the powertrain being somewhat complex and unbalanced in the engine compartment - the Alfa Romeo Alfasud (and its replacement, the 1983 Alfa 33) also used the same layout.
Honda also introduced several small front wheel drive vehiches, with the N360 and N600, the Z360 and Z600 in 1967, the Honda 1300 in 1969, followed by the Honda Civic in 1972 and the Honda Accord in 1976.
Also in the 1970s and 1980s, the Douvrin engines used in the larger Renaults (20, 21, 25 and 30) used this longitudinal "forward '' layout. The first generation Saab 900, launched in 1978, also used a longitudinal engine with a transmission underneath with helical gears. The 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado was the first U.S. front - wheel - drive car since the Cord 810. It used a longitudinal engine placement for its V8, coupled with an unusual "split '' transmission, which turned the engine power 180 degrees. Power then went to a differential mounted to the transmission case, from which half - shafts took it to the wheels. The driveline was set fairly at centre - point of the wheels for better weight distribution, though this raised the engine, requiring lowered intake systems.
Little known outside of Italy, the Primula is today primarily known for innovating the modern economy - car layout. -- Hemmings Motor News,
This Active Tourer MPV wants to be more stable than a BMW M3, and using the Dante Giacosa - pattern front - wheel - drive layout compacts the mechanicals and saves space for people in the reduced overall length of what will surely become a production 1 - series tall - sedan crossover. -- Robert Cumberford, Automobile Magazine, March, 2013
Front - wheel drive layout had been highly impacted by the success of small, inexpensive cars, especially the British Mini. As engineered by Alec Issigonis, the compact arrangement located the transmission and engine sharing a single oil sump -- despite disparate lubricating requirements -- and had the engine 's radiator mounted to the side of the engine, away from the flow of fresh air and drawing heated rather than cool air over the engine. The layout often required the engine be removed to service the clutch.
As engineered by Dante Giacosa, the Fiat 128 featured a transverse - mounted engine with unequal length drive shafts and an innovative clutch release mechanism -- an arrangement which Fiat had strategically tested on a previous production model, the Primula, from its less market - critical subsidiary, Autobianchi.
Ready for production in 1964, the Primula featured a gear train offset from the differential and final drive with unequal length drive shafts. The layout enabled the engine and gearbox to be located side by side without sharing lubricating fluid while orienting the cooling fan toward fresh air flow. By using the Primula as a test - bed, Fiat was able to sufficiently resolve the layout 's disadvantages, including uneven side - to - side power transmission, uneven tire wear and potential torque steer, the tendency for the power of the engine alone to steer the car under heavy acceleration.
After the 128, Fiat further demonstrated the layout 's flexibility, re-configurating the 128 drive - train as a mid-engined layout for the Fiat X1 / 9. The compact, efficient Giacosa layout -- a transversely - mounted engine with transmission mounted beside the engine driving the front wheels through an offset final - drive and unequal - length driveshafts, combined with MacPherson struts and an independently located radiator -- subsequently became common with competitors and arguably an industry standard.
The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard drove a mass changeover of cars in the U.S. to front - wheel drive. The change began in 1978, with the introduction of the first American - built transverse - engined cars, the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni (based on the European designed Simca Horizon), followed by the 1980 Chevrolet Citation and numerous other vehicles. Meanwhile, European car makers, that had moved to front - wheel drive decades before, began to homogenize their engine arrangement only in this decade, leaving Audi (and Volkswagen) alone with the Audi front drive - longitudinal engine layout. Years before this was the most common layout in Europe, with examples like Citroen DS, Renault 12, Renault 5, Renault 25 (a Chrysler LH ancestor) Alfa Romeo 33, Volkswagen Passat, etc. This transition can be exemplified in the Renault 21 that was offered with disparate engine configurations. The 1.7 - litre version featured an ' east - west ' (transversely) mounted engine, but Renault had no gearbox suitable for a more powerful transverse engine: accordingly, faster versions featured longitudinally mounted (north south) engines.
By reducing drivetrain weight and space needs, vehicles could be made smaller and more efficient without sacrificing acceleration. Integrating the powertrain with a transverse as opposed to a longitudinal layout, along with unibody construction and the use of constant velocity jointed drive axles, along with front wheel drive has evolved into the modern - day mass market automobile. Some suggest that the introduction of the modern Volkswagen Golf in 1974, from a traditional U.S. competitor, and the introduction of the 1973 Honda Civic, and the 1976 Honda Accord served as a wake - up call for the "Big Three '' (only Chrysler already produced front - wheel - drive vehicles in their operations outside North America). Ford 's 1976 Ford Fiesta was its first front - wheel - drive car in Europe, GM was even later with the 1979 Vauxhall Astra / Opel Kadett. Captive imports were the US car makers initial response to the increased demand for economy cars. The popularity of front - wheel drive began to gain momentum, with the 1981 Ford Escort, the 1982 Nissan Sentra, and the 1983 Toyota Corolla. Front - wheel drive became the norm for mid-sized cars starting with the 1982 Chevrolet Celebrity, 1982 Toyota Camry, 1983 Dodge 600, 1985 Nissan Maxima, 1986 Honda Legend, and the 1986 Ford Taurus. By the mid-1980s, most formerly rear - wheel - drive Japanese models were front - wheel drive, and by the mid-1990s, most American brands only sold a handful of rear - wheel - drive models.
The vast majority of front - wheel - drive vehicles today use a transversely mounted engine with "end - on '' mounted transmission, driving the front wheels via driveshafts linked via constant velocity (CV) joints, and a flexibly located electronically controlled cooling fan. This configuration was pioneered by Dante Giacosa in the 1964 Autobianchi Primula and popularized with the Fiat 128. Fiat promoted in its advertising that mechanical features consumed only 20 % of the vehicle 's volume and that Enzo Ferrari drove a 128 as his personal vehicle. The 1959 Mini, while a pioneering transverse front - wheel - drive vehicle, used a substantially different arrangement with the transmission in the sump, and the cooling fan drawing hot air from its side - facing location.
Volvo Cars has switched its entire lineup after the 900 series to front - wheel drive. Swedish engineers at the company have said that transversely mounted engines allow for more crumple zone area in a head - on collision. American auto manufacturers are now shifting larger models (such as the Chrysler 300 and most of the Cadillac lineup) back to rear - wheel drive. There were relatively few rear - wheel - drive cars marketed in North America by the early 1990s; Chrysler 's car line - up was entirely front - wheel drive by 1990. GM followed suit in 1996 where its B - body line was phased out, where its sports cars (Camaro, Firebird, Corvette) were the only RWDs marketed; by the early 2000s, the Chevrolet Corvette and Cadillac Catera were the only RWD cars offered by General Motors until the introduction of the Sigma platform. After the phaseout of the Ford Panther platform (except for the Mustang), Ford automobiles (including the Transit Connect van) manufactured for the 2012 model year to present are front wheel drive; its D3 platform (based on a Volvo platform) has optional all wheel drive.
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how much did it cost to make avitar | Avatar (2009 film) - wikipedia
Avatar, marketed as James Cameron 's Avatar, is a 2009 American epic science fiction film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron, and starring Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez, and Sigourney Weaver. The film is set in the mid-22nd century, when humans are colonizing Pandora, a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system, in order to mine the mineral unobtanium, a room - temperature superconductor. The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na'vi -- a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora. The film 's title refers to a genetically engineered Na'vi body with the mind of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora.
Development of Avatar began in 1994, when Cameron wrote an 80 - page treatment for the film. Filming was supposed to take place after the completion of Cameron 's 1997 film Titanic, for a planned release in 1999, but, according to Cameron, the necessary technology was not yet available to achieve his vision of the film. Work on the language of the film 's extraterrestrial beings began in 2005, and Cameron began developing the screenplay and fictional universe in early 2006. Avatar was officially budgeted at $237 million. Other estimates put the cost between $280 million and $310 million for production and at $150 million for promotion. The film made extensive use of new motion capture filming techniques, and was released for traditional viewing, 3D viewing (using the RealD 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats), and for "4D '' experiences in select South Korean theaters. The stereoscopic filmmaking was touted as a breakthrough in cinematic technology.
Avatar premiered in London on December 10, 2009, and was internationally released on December 16 and in the United States and Canada on December 18, to positive critical reviews, with critics highly praising its groundbreaking visual effects. During its theatrical run, the film broke several box office records and became the highest - grossing film of all time, as well as in the United States and Canada, surpassing Cameron 's Titanic, which had held those records for twelve years. It also became the first film to gross more than $2 billion and the best - selling film of 2010 in the United States. Avatar was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects. Following the film 's success, Cameron signed with 20th Century Fox to produce three sequels, making Avatar the first of a planned tetralogy. On April 14, 2016, Cameron confirmed that there were now plans for four sequels. Avatar 2 was scheduled for release in December 2018 before being delayed, with the sequels following in December 2020, 2022, and 2023, respectively. The sequels are scheduled for release in 2020, 2021, 2024 and 2025.
By 2154, humans have depleted Earth 's natural resources, leading to a severe energy crisis. The Resources Development Administration (RDA for short) mines for a valuable mineral -- unobtanium -- on Pandora, a densely forested habitable moon orbiting the gas giant Polyphemus in the Alpha Centauri star system. Pandora, whose atmosphere is poisonous to humans, is inhabited by the Na'vi, a species of 10 - foot tall (3.0 m), blue - skinned, sapient humanoids that live in harmony with nature and worship a mother goddess named Eywa.
To explore Pandora 's biosphere, scientists use Na'vi - human hybrids called "avatars, '' operated by genetically matched humans; Jake Sully, a paraplegic former Marine, replaces his deceased identical twin brother as an operator of one. Dr. Grace Augustine, head of the Avatar Program, considers Sully an inadequate replacement but accepts his assignment as a bodyguard. While protecting the avatars of Grace and fellow scientist Dr. Norm Spellman as they collect biological data, Jake 's avatar is attacked by a thanator and flees into the forest, where he is rescued by Neytiri, a female Na'vi. Witnessing an auspicious sign, she takes him to her clan, whereupon Neytiri 's mother Mo'at, the clan 's spiritual leader, orders her daughter to initiate Jake into their society.
Colonel Miles Quaritch, head of RDA 's private security force, promises Jake that the company will restore his legs if he gathers information about the Na'vi and the clan 's gathering place, a giant tree called Hometree, on grounds that it stands above the richest deposit of unobtanium in the area. When Grace learns of this, she transfers herself, Jake, and Norm to an outpost. Over the following three months, Jake grows to sympathize with the natives. After Jake is initiated into the tribe, he and Neytiri choose each other as mates, and soon afterward, Jake reveals his change of allegiance when he attempts to disable a bulldozer that threatens to destroy a sacred Na'vi site. When Quaritch shows a video recording of Jake 's attack on the bulldozer to Administrator Parker Selfridge, and another in which Jake admits that the Na'vi will never abandon Hometree, Selfridge orders Hometree destroyed.
Despite Grace 's argument that destroying Hometree could damage the biological neural network native to Pandora, Selfridge gives Jake and Grace one hour to convince the Na'vi to evacuate before commencing the attack. While trying to warn the Na'vi, Jake confesses to being a spy and the Na'vi take him and Grace captive. Seeing this, Quaritch 's men destroy Hometree, killing Neytiri 's father (the clan chief) and many others. Mo'at frees Jake and Grace, but they are detached from their avatars and imprisoned by Quaritch 's forces. Pilot Trudy Chacón, disgusted by Quaritch 's brutality, carries them to Grace 's outpost, but during the escape, Quaritch fires at them, hitting Grace.
To regain the Na'vi's trust, Jake connects his mind to that of Toruk, a dragon - like predator feared and honored by the Na'vi. Jake finds the refugees at the sacred Tree of Souls and pleads with Mo'at to heal Grace. The clan attempts to transfer Grace from her human body into her avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls, but she dies before the process can be completed.
Supported by the new chief Tsu'tey, who acts as Jake 's translator, Jake speaks to unite the clan and tells them to gather all of the clans to battle against the RDA. Noticing the impending gathering, Quaritch organizes a pre-emptive strike against the Tree of Souls, believing that its destruction will demoralize the natives. On the eve of battle, Jake prays to Eywa, via a neural connection to the Tree of Souls, to intercede on behalf of the Na'vi.
During the subsequent battle, the Na'vi suffer heavy casualties, including Tsu'tey and Trudy; but are rescued when Pandoran wildlife unexpectedly join the attack and overwhelm the humans, which Neytiri interprets as Eywa 's answer to Jake 's prayer. Jake destroys a makeshift bomber before it can reach the Tree of Souls; Quaritch escapes from his own damaged aircraft, wearing an AMP suit and breaks open the avatar link unit containing Jake 's human body, exposing it to Pandora 's poisonous atmosphere. Quaritch prepares to slit the throat of Jake 's avatar, but Neytiri kills Quaritch and saves Jake from suffocation.
With the exceptions of Jake, Norm and a select few others, all humans are expelled from Pandora and sent back to Earth, after which Jake is permanently transferred into his avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls.
In 1994, director James Cameron wrote an 80 - page treatment for Avatar, drawing inspiration from "every single science fiction book '' he had read in his childhood as well as from adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and H. Rider Haggard. In August 1996, Cameron announced that after completing Titanic, he would film Avatar, which would make use of synthetic, or computer - generated, actors. The project would cost $100 million and involve at least six actors in leading roles "who appear to be real but do not exist in the physical world ''. Visual effects house Digital Domain, with whom Cameron has a partnership, joined the project, which was supposed to begin production in mid-1997 for a 1999 release. However, Cameron felt that the technology had not caught up with the story and vision that he intended to tell. He decided to concentrate on making documentaries and refining the technology for the next few years. It was revealed in a Bloomberg BusinessWeek cover story that 20th Century Fox had fronted $10 million to Cameron to film a proof - of - concept clip for Avatar, which he showed to Fox executives in October 2005.
In February 2006, Cameron revealed that his film Project 880 was "a retooled version of Avatar '', a film that he had tried to make years earlier, citing the technological advances in the creation of the computer - generated characters Gollum, King Kong, and Davy Jones. Cameron had chosen Avatar over his project Battle Angel after completing a five - day camera test in the previous year.
From January to April 2006, Cameron worked on the script and developed a culture for the film 's aliens, the Na'vi. Their language was created by Dr. Paul Frommer, a linguist at USC. The Na'vi language has a lexicon of about 1000 words, with some 30 added by Cameron. The tongue 's phonemes include ejective consonants (such as the "kx '' in "skxawng '') that are found in the Amharic language of Ethiopia, and the initial "ng '' that Cameron may have taken from New Zealand Māori. Actress Sigourney Weaver and the film 's set designers met with Jodie S. Holt, professor of plant physiology at University of California, Riverside, to learn about the methods used by botanists to study and sample plants, and to discuss ways to explain the communication between Pandora 's organisms depicted in the film.
From 2005 to 2007, Cameron worked with a handful of designers, including famed fantasy illustrator Wayne Barlowe and renowned concept artist Jordu Schell, to shape the design of the Na'vi with paintings and physical sculptures when Cameron felt that 3 - D brush renderings were not capturing his vision, often working together in the kitchen of Cameron 's Malibu home. In July 2006, Cameron announced that he would film Avatar for a mid-2008 release and planned to begin principal photography with an established cast by February 2007. The following August, the visual effects studio Weta Digital signed on to help Cameron produce Avatar. Stan Winston, who had collaborated with Cameron in the past, joined Avatar to help with the film 's designs. Production design for the film took several years. The film had two different production designers, and two separate art departments, one of which focused on the flora and fauna of Pandora, and another that created human machines and human factors. In September 2006, Cameron was announced to be using his own Reality Camera System to film in 3 - D. The system would use two high - definition cameras in a single camera body to create depth perception.
While these preparations were underway, Fox kept wavering in its commitment to Avatar because of its painful experience with cost overruns and delays on Cameron 's previous picture, Titanic, even though Cameron rewrote the script to combine several characters together and offered to cut his fee in case the film flopped. Cameron installed a traffic light with the amber signal lit outside of co-producer Jon Landau 's office to represent the film 's uncertain future. In mid-2006, Fox told Cameron "in no uncertain terms that they were passing on this film, '' so he began shopping it around to other studios, and approached Walt Disney Studios, showing his proof - of - concept to then - chairman Dick Cook. However, when Disney attempted to take over, Fox exercised its right of first refusal. In October 2006, Fox finally agreed to commit to making Avatar after Ingenious Media agreed to back the film, which reduced Fox 's financial exposure to less than half of the film 's official $237 million budget. After Fox accepted Avatar, one skeptical Fox executive shook his head and told Cameron and Landau, "I do n't know if we 're crazier for letting you do this, or if you 're crazier for thinking you can do this... ''
In December 2006, Cameron described Avatar as "a futuristic tale set on a planet 200 years hence... an old - fashioned jungle adventure with an environmental conscience (that) aspires to a mythic level of storytelling ''. The January 2007 press release described the film as "an emotional journey of redemption and revolution '' and said the story is of "a wounded former Marine, thrust unwillingly into an effort to settle and exploit an exotic planet rich in biodiversity, who eventually crosses over to lead the indigenous race in a battle for survival ''. The story would be of an entire world complete with an ecosystem of phantasmagorical plants and creatures, and native people with a rich culture and language.
Estimates put the cost of the film at about $280 -- 310 million to produce and an estimated $150 million for marketing, noting that about $30 million in tax credits will lessen the financial impact on the studio and its financiers. A studio spokesperson said that the budget was "$237 million, with $150 million for promotion, end of story. ''
Avatar is primarily an action - adventure journey of self - discovery, in the context of imperialism and deep ecology. Cameron said his inspiration was "every single science fiction book I read as a kid '', and that he was particularly striving to update the style of Edgar Rice Burroughs 's John Carter series and the deep jungles of Pandora were visualized from Disney 's 37th animated film, Tarzan. He acknowledged that Avatar shares themes with the films At Play in the Fields of the Lord, The Emerald Forest, and Princess Mononoke, which feature clashes between cultures and civilizations, and with Dances with Wolves, where a battered soldier finds himself drawn to the culture he was initially fighting against.
In a 2007 interview with Time magazine, Cameron was asked about the meaning of the term Avatar, to which he replied, "It 's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form. In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human 's intelligence into a remotely located body, a biological body. ''
The look of the Na'vi -- the humanoids indigenous to Pandora -- was inspired by a dream that Cameron 's mother had, long before he started work on Avatar. In her dream, she saw a blue - skinned woman 12 feet (4 m) tall, which he thought was "kind of a cool image ''. Also he said, "I just like blue. It 's a good color... plus, there 's a connection to the Hindu deities, which I like conceptually. '' He included similar creatures in his first screenplay (written in 1976 or 1977), which featured a planet with a native population of "gorgeous '' tall blue aliens. The Na'vi were based on them.
For the love story between characters Jake and Neytiri, Cameron applied a star - crossed love theme, and acknowledged its similarity to the pairing of Jack and Rose from his film Titanic. An interviewer stated, "Both couples come from radically different cultures that are contemptuous of their relationship and are forced to choose sides between the competing communities. '' Cameron felt that whether or not the Jake and Neytiri love story would be perceived as believable partially hinged on the physical attractiveness of Neytiri 's alien appearance, which was developed by considering her appeal to the all - male crew of artists. Though Cameron felt Jake and Neytiri do not fall in love right away, their portrayers (Worthington and Saldana) felt the characters do. Cameron said the two actors "had a great chemistry '' during filming.
For the film 's floating "Hallelujah Mountains '', the designers drew inspiration from "many different types of mountains, but mainly the karst limestone formations in China. '' According to production designer Dylan Cole, the fictional floating rocks were inspired by Mount Huang (also known as Huangshan), Guilin, Zhangjiajie, among others around the world. Director Cameron had noted the influence of the Chinese peaks on the design of the floating mountains.
To create the interiors of the human mining colony on Pandora, production designers visited the Noble Clyde Boudreaux oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico during June 2007. They photographed, measured and filmed every aspect of the platform, which was later replicated on - screen with photorealistic CGI during post-production.
Cameron said that he wanted to make "something that has this spoonful of sugar of all the action and the adventure and all that '' but also have a conscience "that maybe in the enjoying of it makes you think a little bit about the way you interact with nature and your fellow man ''. He added that "the Na'vi represent something that is our higher selves, or our aspirational selves, what we would like to think we are '' and that even though there are good humans within the film, the humans "represent what we know to be the parts of ourselves that are trashing our world and maybe condemning ourselves to a grim future ''.
Cameron acknowledges that Avatar implicitly criticizes the United States ' role in the Iraq War and the impersonal nature of mechanized warfare in general. In reference to the use of the term shock and awe in the film, Cameron said, "We know what it feels like to launch the missiles. We do n't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil, not in America. '' He said in later interviews, "... I think it 's very patriotic to question a system that needs to be corralled... '' and, "The film is definitely not anti-American. '' A scene in the film portrays the violent destruction of the towering Na'vi Hometree, which collapses in flames after a missile attack, coating the landscape with ash and floating embers. Asked about the scene 's resemblance to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, Cameron said he had been "surprised at how much it did look like September 11 ''.
Principal photography for Avatar began in April 2007 in Los Angeles and Wellington, New Zealand. Cameron described the film as a hybrid with a full live - action shoot in combination with computer - generated characters and live environments. "Ideally at the end of the day the audience has no idea which they 're looking at, '' Cameron said. The director indicated that he had already worked four months on nonprincipal scenes for the film. The live action was shot with a modified version of the proprietary digital 3 - D Fusion Camera System, developed by Cameron and Vince Pace. In January 2007, Fox had announced that 3 - D filming for Avatar would be done at 24 frames per second despite Cameron 's strong opinion that a 3 - D film requires higher frame rate to make strobing less noticeable. According to Cameron, the film is composed of 60 % computer - generated elements and 40 % live action, as well as traditional miniatures.
Motion - capture photography lasted 31 days at the Hughes Aircraft stage in Playa Vista in Los Angeles. Live action photography began in October 2007 at Stone Street Studios in Wellington, New Zealand, and was scheduled to last 31 days. More than a thousand people worked on the production. In preparation of the filming sequences, all of the actors underwent professional training specific to their characters such as archery, horseback riding, firearm use, and hand - to - hand combat. They received language and dialect training in the Na'vi language created for the film. Before shooting the film, Cameron also sent the cast to the Hawaiian tropical rainforests to get a feel for a rainforest setting before shooting on the soundstage.
During filming, Cameron made use of his virtual camera system, a new way of directing motion - capture filmmaking. The system shows the actors ' virtual counterparts in their digital surroundings in real time, allowing the director to adjust and direct scenes just as if shooting live action. According to Cameron, "It 's like a big, powerful game engine. If I want to fly through space, or change my perspective, I can. I can turn the whole scene into a living miniature and go through it on a 50 to 1 scale. '' Using conventional techniques, the complete virtual world can not be seen until the motion - capture of the actors is complete. Cameron said this process does not diminish the value or importance of acting. On the contrary, because there is no need for repeated camera and lighting setups, costume fittings and make - up touch - ups, scenes do not need to be interrupted repeatedly. Cameron described the system as a "form of pure creation where if you want to move a tree or a mountain or the sky or change the time of day, you have complete control over the elements ''.
Cameron gave fellow directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson a chance to test the new technology. Spielberg said, "I like to think of it as digital makeup, not augmented animation... Motion capture brings the director back to a kind of intimacy that actors and directors only know when they 're working in live theater. '' Spielberg and George Lucas were also able to visit the set to watch Cameron direct with the equipment.
To film the shots where CGI interacts with live action, a unique camera referred to as a "simulcam '' was used, a merger of the 3 - D fusion camera and the virtual camera systems. While filming live action in real time with the simulcam, the CGI images captured with the virtual camera or designed from scratch, are superimposed over the live action images as in augmented reality and shown on a small monitor, making it possible for the director to instruct the actors how to relate to the virtual material in the scene.
A number of innovative visual effects techniques were used during production. According to Cameron, work on the film had been delayed since the 1990s to allow the techniques to reach the necessary degree of advancement to adequately portray his vision of the film. The director planned to make use of photorealistic computer - generated characters, created using new motion capture animation technologies he had been developing in the 14 months leading up to December 2006.
Innovations include a new system for lighting massive areas like Pandora 's jungle, a motion - capture stage or "volume '' six times larger than any previously used, and an improved method of capturing facial expressions, enabling full performance capture. To achieve the face capturing, actors wore individually made skull caps fitted with a tiny camera positioned in front of the actors ' faces; the information collected about their facial expressions and eyes is then transmitted to computers. According to Cameron, the method allows the filmmakers to transfer 100 % of the actors ' physical performances to their digital counterparts. Besides the performance capture data which were transferred directly to the computers, numerous reference cameras gave the digital artists multiple angles of each performance. A technically challenging scene was near the end of the film when the computer - generated Neytiri held the live action Jake in human form, and attention was given to the details of the shadows and reflected light between them.
The lead visual effects company was Weta Digital in Wellington, New Zealand, at one point employing 900 people to work on the film. Because of the huge amount of data which needed to be stored, cataloged and available for everybody involved, even on the other side of the world, a new cloud computing and Digital Asset Management (DAM) system named Gaia was created by Microsoft especially for Avatar, which allowed the crews to keep track of and coordinate all stages in the digital processing. To render Avatar, Weta used a 10,000 sq ft (930 m) server farm making use of 4,000 Hewlett - Packard servers with 35,000 processor cores with 104 terabytes of RAM and three petabytes of network area storage running Ubuntu Linux, Grid Engine cluster manager, and 2 of the animation software and managers, Pixar 's RenderMan and Pixar 's Alfred queue management system. The render farm occupies the 193rd to 197th spots in the TOP500 list of the world 's most powerful supercomputers. A new texturing and paint software system, called Mari, was developed by The Foundry in cooperation with Weta. Creating the Na'vi characters and the virtual world of Pandora required over a petabyte of digital storage, and each minute of the final footage for Avatar occupies 17.28 gigabytes of storage. Often, it would take each frame of the movie several hours to render. To help finish preparing the special effects sequences on time, a number of other companies were brought on board, including Industrial Light & Magic, which worked alongside Weta Digital to create the battle sequences. ILM was responsible for the visual effects for many of the film 's specialized vehicles and devised a new way to make CGI explosions. Joe Letteri was the film 's visual effects general supervisor.
Composer James Horner scored the film, his third collaboration with Cameron after Aliens and Titanic. Horner recorded parts of the score with a small chorus singing in the alien language Na'vi in March 2008. He also worked with Wanda Bryant, an ethnomusicologist, to create a music culture for the alien race. The first scoring sessions were planned to take place in early 2009. During production, Horner promised Cameron that he would not work on any other project except for Avatar and reportedly worked on the score from four in the morning till ten at night throughout the process. He stated in an interview, "Avatar has been the most difficult film I have worked on and the biggest job I have undertaken. '' Horner composed the score as two different scores merged into one. He first created a score that reflected the Na'vi way of sound and then combined it with a separate "traditional '' score to drive the film. British singer Leona Lewis was chosen to sing the theme song for the film, called "I See You ''. An accompanying music video, directed by Jake Nava, premiered December 15, 2009, on MySpace.
The first photo of the film was released on August 14, 2009, and Empire released exclusive images from the film in its October issue. Cameron, producer Jon Landau, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, and Sigourney Weaver appeared at a panel, moderated by Tom Rothman, at the 2009 San Diego Comic - Con on July 23. Twenty - five minutes of footage was screened in Dolby 3D. Weaver and Cameron appeared at additional panels to promote the film, speaking on the 23rd and 24th respectively. James Cameron announced at the Comic - Con Avatar Panel that August 21 will be ' Avatar Day '. On this day, the trailer was released in all theatrical formats. The official game trailer and toy line of the film were also unveiled on this day.
The 129 - second trailer was released online on August 20, 2009. The new 210 - second trailer was premiered in theatres on October 23, 2009, then soon after premiered online on Yahoo! on October 29, 2009, to positive reviews. An extended version in IMAX 3D received overwhelmingly positive reviews. The Hollywood Reporter said that audience expectations were coloured by "the (same) establishment skepticism that preceded Titanic '' and suggested the showing reflected the desire for original storytelling. The teaser has been among the most viewed trailers in the history of film marketing, reaching the first place of all trailers viewed on Apple.com with 4 million views. On October 30, to celebrate the opening of the first 3 - D cinema in Vietnam, Fox allowed Megastar Cinema to screen exclusive 16 minutes of Avatar to a number of press. The three - and - a-half - minute trailer of the film premiered live on November 1, 2009, during a Dallas Cowboys football game at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, on the Diamond Vision screen, one of the world 's largest video displays, and to TV audiences viewing the game on Fox. It is said to be the largest live motion picture trailer viewing in history.
The Coca - Cola Company collaborated with Fox to launch a worldwide marketing campaign to promote the film. The highlight of the campaign was the website AVTR.com. Specially marked bottles and cans of Coca - Cola Zero, when held in front of a webcam, enabled users to interact with the website 's 3 - D features using augmented reality (AR) technology. The film was heavily promoted in an episode of the Fox Network series Bones in the episode "The Gamer In The Grease '' (Season 5, Episode 9). Avatar star Joel David Moore has a recurring role on the program, and is seen in the episode anxiously awaiting the release of the film. A week prior to the American release, Zoe Saldana promoted the film on Adult Swim when she was interviewed by an animated Space Ghost. McDonald 's had a promotion mentioned in television commercials in Europe called "Avatarize yourself '', which encouraged people to go to the website set up by Oddcast, and use a photograph of themselves to change into a Na'vi.
Avatar: A Confidential Report on the Biological and Social History of Pandora, a 224 - page book in the form of a field guide to the film 's fictional setting of the planet of Pandora, was released by Harper Entertainment on November 24, 2009. It is presented as a compilation of data collected by the humans about Pandora and the life on it, written by Maria Wilhelm and Dirk Mathison. HarperFestival also released Wilhelm 's 48 - page James Cameron 's Avatar: The Reusable Scrapbook for children. The Art of Avatar was released on November 30, 2009, by Abrams Books. The book features detailed production artwork from the film, including production sketches, illustrations by Lisa Fitzpatrick, and film stills. Producer Jon Landau wrote the foreword, Cameron wrote the epilogue, and director Peter Jackson wrote the preface. In October 2010, Abrams Books also released The Making of Avatar, a 272 - page book that detailed the film 's production process and contains over 500 color photographs and illustrations.
In a 2009 interview, Cameron said that he planned to write a novel version of Avatar after the film was released. In February 2010, producer Jon Landau stated that Cameron plans a prequel novel for Avatar that will "lead up to telling the story of the movie, but it would go into much more depth about all the stories that we did n't have time to deal with '', saying that "Jim wants to write a novel that is a big, epic story that fills in a lot of things ''. In August 2013 it was announced that Cameron hired Steven Gould to pen four standalone novels to expand the Avatar universe.
Cameron chose Ubisoft Montreal to create an Avatar game for the film in 2007. The filmmakers and game developers collaborated heavily, and Cameron decided to include some of Ubisoft 's vehicle and creature designs in the film. James Cameron 's Avatar: The Game was released on December 1, 2009, for most home video game consoles (PS3, Xbox 360, Wii, Nintendo DS, iPhone), Microsoft Windows and December 8 for PSP.
Mattel Toys announced in December 2009 that it would be introducing a line of Avatar action figures. Each action figure will be made with a 3 - D web tag, called an i - TAG, that consumers can scan using a web cam, revealing unique on - screen content that is special to each specific action figure. A series of toys representing six different characters from the film were also distributed globally in McDonald 's Happy Meals.
In December 2009, France Post released a special limited edition stamp based on Avatar, coinciding with the film 's worldwide release.
Avatar premiered in London on December 10, 2009, and was released theatrically worldwide from December 16 to 18. The film was originally set for release on May 22, 2009, during filming, but was pushed back to allow more post-production time (the last shots were delivered in November), and to give more time for theatres worldwide to install 3D projectors. Cameron stated that the film 's aspect ratio would be 1.78: 1 for 3D screenings and that a 2.39: 1 image would be extracted for 2D screenings. However, a 3D 2.39: 1 extract was approved for use with constant - image - height screens (i.e. screens which increase in width to display 2.39: 1 films). During a 3D preview showing in Germany on December 16, the movie 's DRM ' protection ' system failed, and some copies delivered could not be watched at all in the theaters. The problems were fixed in time for the public premiere. Avatar was released in a total of 3,457 theatres in the US, of which 2,032 theatres ran it in 3D. In total 90 % of all advance ticket sales for Avatar were for 3D screenings.
Internationally, Avatar opened on a total of 14,604 screens in 106 territories, of which 3,671 were showing the film in 3D (producing 56 % of the first weekend gross). The film was simultaneously presented in IMAX 3D format, opening in 178 theaters in the United States on December 18. The international IMAX release included 58 theaters beginning on December 16, and 25 more theaters were to be added in the coming weeks. The IMAX release was the company 's widest to date, a total of 261 theaters worldwide. The previous IMAX record opening was Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, which opened in 161 IMAX theatres in the US, and about 70 international. 20th Century Fox Korea adapted and later released Avatar in 4D version, which included "moving seats, smells of explosives, sprinkling water, laser lights and wind ''.
Avatar was released internationally on more than 14,000 screens. It earned $3,537,000 from midnight screenings domestically (United States and Canada), with the initial 3D release limited to 2,200 screens. The film earned $26,752,099 on its opening day, and $77,025,481 over its opening weekend, making it the second - largest December opening ever behind I Am Legend, the largest domestic opening weekend for a film not based on a franchise (topping The Incredibles), the highest opening weekend for a film entirely in 3D (breaking Up 's record), the highest opening weekend for an environmentalist film (breaking The Day After Tomorrow 's record), and the 40th largest opening weekend in North America, despite a blizzard that blanketed the East Coast of the United States and reportedly hurt its opening weekend results. The film also set an IMAX opening weekend record, with 178 theaters generating approximately $9.5 million, 12 % of the film 's $77 million (at the time) North American gross on less than 3 % of the screens.
International markets generating opening weekend tallies of at least $10 million were for Russia ($19.7 million), France ($17.4 million), the UK ($13.8 million), Germany ($13.3 million), South Korea ($11.7 million), Australia ($11.5 million) and Spain ($11.0 million). Avatar 's worldwide gross was US $241.6 million after five days, the ninth largest opening - weekend gross of all time, and the largest for a non-franchise, non-sequel and original film. 58 international IMAX screens generated an estimated $4.1 million during the opening weekend.
Revenues in the film 's second weekend decreased by only 1.8 % in domestic markets, marking a rare occurrence, earning $75,617,183, to remain in first place at the box office and recording what was then the biggest second weekend of all time. The film experienced another marginal decrease in revenue in its third weekend, dropping 9.4 % to $68,490,688 domestically, remaining in first place at the box office, to set a third - weekend record.
Avatar crossed the $1 billion mark on the 19th day of its international release, making it the first film to reach this mark in only 19 days. It became the fifth film grossing more than $1 billion worldwide, and the only film of 2009 to do so. In its fourth weekend, Avatar continued to lead the box office domestically, setting a new all - time fourth - weekend record of $50,306,217, and becoming the highest - grossing 2009 release in the United States. In the film 's fifth weekend, it set the Martin Luther King Day weekend record, grossing $54,401,446, and set a fifth - weekend record with a take of $42,785,612. It held the top spot to set the sixth and seventh weekend records earning $34,944,081 and $31,280,029 respectively. It was the fastest film to gross $600 million domestically, on its 47th day in theatres.
On January 31, it became the first film to earn over $2 billion worldwide, and it became the first film to gross over $700 million in the U.S. and Canada, on February 27, after 72 days of release. It remained at number one at the domestic box office for seven consecutive weeks -- the most consecutive No. 1 weekends since Titanic spent 15 weekends at No. 1 in 1997 and 1998 -- and also spent 11 consecutive weekends at the top of the box office outside the United States and Canada, breaking the record of nine consecutive weekends set by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest. By the end of its first theatrical release Avatar had grossed $749,766,139 in the U.S. and Canada, and $1,999,298,189 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $2,749,064,328.
Including the revenue from a re-release of Avatar featuring extended footage, Avatar grossed $760,507,625 in the U.S. and Canada, and $2,027,457,462 in other countries for a worldwide total of $2,787,965,087 with 72.7 % of its total worldwide gross in international markets. Avatar has set a number of box office records during its release: on January 25, 2010, it surpassed Titanic 's worldwide gross to become the highest - grossing film of all time worldwide 41 days after its international release, just two days after taking the foreign box office record. On February 2, 47 days after its domestic release, Avatar surpassed Titanic to become the highest - grossing film of all time in Canada and the United States. It became the highest - grossing film of all time in at least 30 other countries and is the first film to earn over $2 billion in foreign box office receipts. IMAX ticket sales account for $243.3 million of its worldwide gross, more than double the previous record.
Box Office Mojo estimates that after adjusting for the rise in average ticket prices, Avatar would be the 14th - highest - grossing film of all time in North America. Box Office Mojo also observes that the higher ticket prices for 3D and IMAX screenings have had a significant impact on Avatar 's gross; it estimated, on April 21, 2010, that Avatar had sold approximately 75 million tickets in North American theatres, more than any other film since 1999 's Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. On a worldwide basis, when Avatar 's gross stood at $2 billion just 35 days into its run, The Daily Telegraph estimated its gross was surpassed by only Gone with the Wind ($3.0 billion), Titanic ($2.9 billion) and Star Wars ($2.2 billion) after adjusting for inflation to 2010 prices, with Avatar ultimately winding up with $2.8 billion by the end of its run in 2010. Reuters even placed it ahead of Titanic after adjusting the global total for inflation.
Before its release, various film critics and fan communities predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, in line with predictions made for Cameron 's previous blockbuster Titanic. This criticism ranged from Avatar 's film budget, to its concept and use of 3 - D "blue cat people ''. Slate magazine 's Daniel Engber complimented the 3D effects, but criticized them for reminding him of certain CGI characters from the Star Wars prequel films and for having the "uncanny valley '' effect. The New York Times noted that 20th Century Fox executives had decided to release Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel alongside Avatar, calling it a "secret weapon '' to cover any unforeseeable losses at the box - office.
Box office analysts, on the other hand, estimated that the film would be a box office success. "The holy grail of 3 - D has finally arrived, '' said an analyst for Exhibitor Relations. "This is why all these 3 - D venues were built: for Avatar. This is the one. The behemoth. '' The "cautionary estimate '' was that Avatar would bring in around $60 million in its opening weekend. Others guessed higher. There were also analysts who believed that the film 's three - dimensionality would help its box office performance, given that recent 3D films had been successful.
Cameron said he felt the pressure of the predictions, but that pressure is good for film - makers. "It makes us think about our audiences and what the audience wants, '' he stated. "We owe them a good time. We owe them a piece of good entertainment. '' Although he felt Avatar would appeal to everyone and that the film could not afford to have a target demographic, he especially wanted hard - core science - fiction fans to see it: "If I can just get ' em in the damn theater, the film will act on them in the way it 's supposed to, in terms of taking them on an amazing journey and giving them this rich emotional experience. '' Cameron was aware of the sentiment that Avatar would need significant "repeat business '' just to make up for its budget and achieve box office success, and believed Avatar could inspire the same "sharing '' reaction as Titanic. He said that film worked because, "When people have an experience that 's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it. They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. ''
After the film 's release and unusually strong box office performance over its first two weeks, it was debated as the one film capable of surpassing Titanic 's worldwide gross, and its continued strength perplexed box office analysts. Other films in recent years had been cited as contenders for surpassing Titanic, such as 2008 's The Dark Knight, but Avatar was considered the first film with a genuine chance to do so, and its numbers being aided by higher ticket prices for 3D screenings did not fully explain its success to box office analysts. "Most films are considered to be healthy if they manage anything less than a 50 % drop from their first weekend to their second. Dipping just 11 % from the first to the third is unheard of, '' said Paul Dergarabedian, president of box - office analysis for Hollywood.com. "This is just unprecedented. I had to do a double take. I thought it was a miscalculation. '' Analysts predicted second place for the film 's worldwide gross, but most were uncertain about it surpassing Titanic because "Today 's films flame out much faster than they did when Titanic was released. '' Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, believed in the film 's chances of becoming the highest - grossing film of all time, though he also believed it was too early to surmise because it had only played during the holidays. He said, "While Avatar may beat Titanic 's record, it will be tough, and the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s. '' Cameron said he did not think it was realistic to "try to topple Titanic off its perch '' because it "just struck some kind of chord '' and there had been other good films in recent years. He changed his prediction by mid-January. "It 's gon na happen. It 's just a matter of time, '' he said.
Though analysts have been unable to agree that Avatar 's success is attributable to one primary factor, several explanations have been advanced. First, January is historically "the dumping ground for the year 's weakest films '', and this also applied to 2010. Cameron himself said he decided to open the film in December so that it would have less competition from then to January. Titanic capitalized on the same January predictability, and earned most of its gross in 1998. Additionally, Avatar established itself as a "must - see '' event. Gray said, "At this point, people who are going to see Avatar are going to see Avatar and would even if the slate was strong. '' Marketing the film as a "novelty factor '' also helped. Fox positioned the film as a cinematic event that should be seen in the theatres. "It 's really hard to sell the idea that you can have the same experience at home, '' stated David Mumpower, an analyst at BoxOfficeProphets.com. The "Oscar buzz '' surrounding the film and international viewings helped. "Two - thirds of Titanic 's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar (tracked) similarly... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was No. 1 in all of them '', and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white - hot today '' with "more screens and moviegoers '' than before.
According to Variety, films in 3D accumulated $1.3 billion in 2009, "a threefold increase over 2008 and more than 10 % of the total 2009 box - office gross ''. The increased ticket price -- an average of $2 to $3 per ticket in most markets -- helped the film. Likewise, Entertainment Weekly attributed the film 's success to 3D glasses, but also to its "astronomic word - of - mouth ''. Not only do some theaters charge up to $18.50 for IMAX tickets, but "the buzz '' created by the new technology was the possible cause for sold - out screenings. Gray said Avatar having no basis in previously established material makes its performance remarkable and even more impressive. "The movie might be derivative of many movies in its story and themes, '' he said, "but it had no direct antecedent like the other top - grossing films: Titanic (historical events), the Star Wars movies (an established film franchise), or The Lord of the Rings (literature). It was a tougher sell... ''
The film received mostly positive reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 83 % based on 293 reviews, with a rating average of 7.5 / 10. The site 's consensus reads "It might be more impressive on a technical level than as a piece of storytelling, but Avatar reaffirms James Cameron 's singular gift for imaginative, absorbing filmmaking. '' On Metacritic -- which assigns a weighted mean score -- the film has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave Avatar was "A '' on an A+ to F scale. Every demographic surveyed was reported to give this rating. These polls also indicated that the main draw of the film was its use of 3D.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times called the film "extraordinary '' and gave it four stars out of four. "Watching Avatar, I felt sort of the same as when I saw Star Wars in 1977, '' he said, adding that like Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, the film "employs a new generation of special effects '' and it "is not simply a sensational entertainment, although it is that. It 's a technical breakthrough. It has a flat - out Green and anti-war message ''. A.O. Scott of At The Movies also compared his viewing of the film to the first time he viewed Star Wars and he said "although the script is a little bit... obvious, '' it was "part of what made it work ''. Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film, saying "The King of the World sets his sights on creating another world entirely in Avatar, and it 's very much a place worth visiting. '' Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review. "The screen is alive with more action and the soundtrack pops with more robust music than any dozen sci - fi shoot - ' em - ups you care to mention, '' he stated. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded Avatar a three - and - a-half out of four star rating and wrote in his print review "It extends the possibilities of what movies can do. Cameron 's talent may just be as big as his dreams. '' Richard Corliss of Time magazine thought that the film was "the most vivid and convincing creation of a fantasy world ever seen in the history of moving pictures. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film has "powerful '' visual accomplishments but "flat dialogue '' and "obvious characterization ''. James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story, giving it four out of four stars; he wrote "In 3 - D, it 's immersive -- but the traditional film elements -- story, character, editing, theme, emotional resonance, etc. -- are presented with sufficient expertise to make even the 2 - D version an engrossing 21⁄2 - hour experience. ''
Avatar 's underlying social and political themes attracted attention. Armond White of the New York Press wrote that Cameron used "villainous American characters '' to "misrepresent facets of militarism, capitalism, and imperialism ''. Russell D. Moore of The Christian Post concluded that "propaganda exists in the film '' and stated "If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war, then you 've got some amazing special effects. '' Some commentators sympathetic to anarcho - primitivism have even praised the film as a manifesto for their cause. Adam Cohen of The New York Times was more positive about the film, calling its anti-imperialist message "a 22nd - century version of the American colonists vs. the British, India vs. the Raj, or Latin America vs. United Fruit ''. Ross Douthat of The New York Times opined that the film is "Cameron 's long apologia for pantheism... Hollywood 's religion of choice for a generation now '', while Saritha Prabhu of The Tennessean called the film a "misportrayal of pantheism and Eastern spirituality in general '', and Maxim Osipov of The Hindustan Times, on the contrary, commended the film 's message for its overall consistency with the teachings of Hinduism in the Bhagavad Gita. Annalee Newitz of io9 concluded that Avatar is another film that has the recurring "fantasy about race '' whereby "some white guy '' becomes the "most awesome '' member of a non-white culture. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called Avatar "the season 's ideological Rorschach blot '', while Miranda Devine of The Sydney Morning Herald thought that "It (was) impossible to watch Avatar without being banged over the head with the director 's ideological hammer. '' Nidesh Lawtoo believed that an essential, yet less visible social theme that contributed to Avatar 's success concerns contemporary fascinations with virtual avatars and "the transition from the world of reality to that of virtual reality. ''.
Critics and audiences have cited similarities with other films, literature or media, describing the perceived connections in ways ranging from simple "borrowing '' to outright plagiarism. Ty Burr of the Boston Globe called it "the same movie '' as Dances with Wolves. Like Dances with Wolves, Avatar has been characterized as being a "white savior '' movie, in which a "backwards '' native people is impotent without the leadership of a member of the invading white culture. Parallels to the concept and use of an avatar are in Poul Anderson 's 1957 novelette "Call Me Joe '', in which a paralyzed man uses his mind from orbit to control an artificial body on Jupiter. Cinema audiences in Russia have noted that Avatar has elements in common with the 1960s Noon Universe novels by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, which are set in the 22nd century on a forested world called Pandora with a sentient indigenous species called the Nave. Various reviews have compared Avatar to the films FernGully: The Last Rainforest, Pocahontas and The Last Samurai. NPR 's Morning Edition has compared the film to a montage of tropes, with one commentator stating that Avatar was made by "mixing a bunch of film scripts in a blender ''. Gary Westfahl wrote that "the science fiction story that most closely resembles Avatar has to be Ursula K. Le Guin 's novella "The Word for World Is Forest '' (1972), another epic about a benevolent race of alien beings who happily inhabit dense forests while living in harmony with nature until they are attacked and slaughtered by invading human soldiers who believe that the only good gook is a dead gook. '' The science fiction writer and editor Gardner Dozois said that along with the Anderson and Le Guin stories, the "mash - up '' included Alan Dean Foster 's 1975 novel, Midworld. Some sources saw similarities to the artwork of Roger Dean, which featured fantastic images of floating rock formations and dragons. In 2013, Dean sued Cameron and Fox, claiming that Pandora was inspired by 14 of his images. Dean sought damages of $50 m. Dean 's case was dismissed in 2014, and The Hollywood Reporter noted that Cameron has won multiple Avatar idea theft cases.
Avatar received compliments from filmmakers, with Steven Spielberg praising it as "the most evocative and amazing science - fiction movie since Star Wars '' and others calling it "audacious and awe inspiring '', "master class '', and "brilliant ''. Noted art director - turned - filmmaker Roger Christian is also a noted fan of the film. On the other hand, Duncan Jones said: "It 's not in my top three James Cameron films... (A) t what point in the film did you have any doubt what was going to happen next? ''. For French filmmaker Luc Besson, Avatar opened the doors for him to now create an adaptation of the graphic novel series Valérian and Laureline that technologically supports the scope of its source material, with Besson even throwing his original script in the trash and redoing it after seeing the film. TIME ranked Avatar number 3 in their list of "The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium (Thus Far) '' also earning it a spot on the magazine 's All - TIME 100 list, and IGN listed Avatar as number 22 on their list of the top 25 Sci - Fi movies of all time.
Avatar won the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Visual Effects, and was nominated for a total of nine, including Best Picture and Best Director. Avatar also won the 67th Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture -- Drama and Best Director, and was nominated for two others. At the 36th Saturn Awards, Avatar won all ten awards it was nominated for: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Writing, Best Music, Best Production Design and Best Special Effects.
The New York Film Critics Online honored the film with its Best Picture award. The film also won the Critics ' Choice Awards of the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Action Film and several technical categories, out of nine nominations. It won two of the St. Louis Film Critics awards: Best Visual Effects and Most Original, Innovative or Creative Film. The film also won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) award for Production Design and Special Visual Effects, and was nominated for seven others, including Best Film and Director. The film has received numerous other major awards, nominations and honors.
In July 2010, Cameron confirmed that there would be an extended theatrical re-release of the film on August 27, 2010, exclusively in 3D theaters and IMAX 3D. Avatar: Special Edition includes an additional nine minutes of footage, all of which is CG, including an extension of the sex scene and various other scenes that were cut from the original theatrical film. This extended re-release resulted in the film 's run time approaching the current IMAX platter maximum of 170 minutes, thereby leaving less time for the end credits. Cameron stated that the nine minutes of added scenes cost more than $1 million a minute to produce and finish. During its 12 - week re-release, Avatar: Special Edition grossed an additional $10.74 million in North America and $22.46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $33.2 million.
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu - ray in the US on April 22, 2010 and in the UK on April 26. The US release was not on a Tuesday as is the norm, but was done to coincide with Earth Day. The first DVD and Blu - ray release does not contain any supplemental features other than the theatrical film and the disc menu in favor of and to make space for optimal picture and sound. The release also preserves the film 's native 1.78: 1 (16: 9) format as Cameron felt that was the best format to watch the film. The Blu - ray disc contains DRM (BD+ 5) which some Blu - ray players might not support without a firmware update.
Avatar set a first - day launch record in the U.S. for Blu - ray sales at 1.5 million units sold, breaking the record previously held by The Dark Knight (600,000 units sold). First - day DVD and Blu - ray sales combined were over four million units sold. In its first four days of release, sales of Avatar on Blu - ray reached 2.7 million in the United States and Canada -- overtaking The Dark Knight to become the best ever selling Blu - ray release in the region. The release later broke the Blu - ray sales record in the UK the following week. In its first three weeks of release, the film sold a total of 19.7 million DVD and Blu - ray discs combined, a new record for sales in that period. As of July 18, 2012, DVD sales (not including Blu - ray) totaled over 10.5 million units sold with $190,806,055 in revenue. Avatar retained its record as the top - selling Blu - ray in the US market until January 2015 when Disney 's Frozen surpassed it.
The Avatar Three - Disc Extended Collector 's Edition on DVD and Blu - ray was released on November 16, 2010. Three different versions of the film are present on the discs: the original theatrical cut, the special edition cut, and a collector 's extended cut (with the DVD set spreading them on two discs, but the Blu - ray set presenting them on a single disc). The collector 's extended cut contains 6 more minutes of footage, thus making it 16 minutes longer than the original theatrical cut. Cameron mentioned, "you can sit down, and in a continuous screening of the film, watch it with the Earth opening ''. He stated the "Earth opening '' is an additional 41⁄2 minutes of scenes that were in the film for much of its production but were ultimately cut before the film 's theatrical release. The release also includes an additional 45 minutes of deleted scenes and other extras.
Cameron initially stated that Avatar would be released in 3D around November 2010, but the studio issued a correction: "3 - D is in the conceptual stage and Avatar will not be out on 3D Blu - ray in November. '' In May 2010, Fox stated that the 3D version would be released some time in 2011. It was later revealed that Fox had given Panasonic an exclusive license for the 3D Blu - ray version and only with the purchase of a Panasonic 3DTV. The length of Panasonic 's exclusivity period is stated to last until February 2012. On October 2010, Cameron stated that the standalone 3D Blu - ray would be the final version of the film 's home release and that it was, "maybe one, two years out ''. On Christmas Eve 2010, Avatar had its 3D television world premiere on Sky.
On August 13, 2012, Cameron announced on Facebook that Avatar would be released globally on Blu - ray 3D. The Blu - ray 3D version was finally released on October 16, 2012.
In 2006, Cameron stated that if Avatar was successful, he hoped to make two sequels to the film. In 2010, he said the film 's widespread success confirmed that he would do so. He included certain scenes in the first film for future story follow - ups. Cameron planned to shoot the sequels back - to - back and to begin work "once the novel is nailed down ''. He stated that the sequels would widen the universe while exploring other moons of Polyphemus. The first sequel would focus on the ocean of Pandora and also feature more of the rainforest. He intended to capture footage for this sequel at the bottom of the Mariana Trench using a deepwater submersible. In 2011, Cameron stated that he was just starting to design the ocean ecosystem of Pandora and the other worlds to be included in the story. The storyline, although continuing the environmental theme of the first film, would not be "strident '' since the film will concentrate on entertainment.
The sequels would continue to follow the characters of Jake and Neytiri. Cameron implied that the humans would return as the antagonists of the story. Worthington and Saldana signed on to reprise their roles in the sequels. In 2010, Cameron confirmed that Sigourney Weaver and Stephen Lang were also expected to return despite the demise of their characters. The sequels were originally scheduled for release in December 2014 and 2015. In 2011, Cameron stated his intention to film the sequels at a higher frame rate than the industry standard 24 frames per second, in order to add a heightened sense of reality.
In 2012, Cameron first mentioned a possible third sequel. That year, Cameron stated that the sequels were being written as "separate stories that have an overall arc inclusive of the first film '', with the second having a clear conclusion instead of a cliffhanger to the next film. Cameron expected to release Avatar 2 in 2015. In 2013, it was confirmed that there would be three sequels. Screenwriters were also announced: Josh Friedman for the first, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver for the second, and Shane Salerno for the third. Production was rescheduled for 2014 with the films to be released in December 2016, 2017, and 2018. Steven Gould was engaged to write four novels based on the films. Later that year, Cameron announced that the sequels would be filmed in New Zealand, with performance capture to take place in 2014. An agreement with the New Zealand government required at least one world premiere to be held in Wellington and at least NZ $ 500 million (approximately US $410 million at December 2013 exchange rates) to be spent on production activity in New Zealand, including live - action filming and visual effects. The New Zealand government announced it would raise its baseline tax rebate for filmmaking from 15 % to 20 %, with 25 % available to international productions in some cases and 40 % for New Zealand productions (as defined by section 18 of the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978).
In April 2014, Cameron expected to finish the three scripts within six weeks, stating that all three sequels would be in production simultaneously and were still slated for December 2016 to 2018 releases. He stated that although Friedman, Jaffa and Silver, and Salerno are each co-writing one sequel with him, they at first all worked together on all three scripts: "I did n't assign each writer which film they were going to work on until the last day. I knew if I assigned them their scripts ahead of time, they 'd tune out every time we were talking about the other movie. '' "We... worked out every beat of the story across all three films so it all connects as one, sort of, three - film saga. '' Cameron also stated that Weaver would be featured in all three sequels and that her character Grace Augustine would be alive. In March 2015, however, Weaver said that she will play a new character in the next film.
By 2015, the scheduled release dates for the sequels were each delayed by another year, with the first sequel expected to be released in December 2017; Cameron called the writing process "a complex job ''. In June 2015, James Horner, who was reported to be engaged to write music for the franchise, was killed in a plane crash. In December, Cameron stated that he was "doing another pass through all three scripts... Just refining. That 's in parallel with the design process. The design process is very mature at this point. We 've been designing for about a year and a half. All the characters, settings and creatures are all pretty much (set). '' The following month, Fox announced a further release delay.
As of February 2016, production of the sequels was scheduled to begin in April 2016 in New Zealand. In April 2016, Cameron announced at CinemaCon that there will be four Avatar sequels, all of which will be filmed simultaneously, with release dates in December 2018, 2020, 2022 and 2023, respectively. In late October 2016, it was reported that Cameron was going to push for "glasses - free 3D '' with the sequels, but he later disagreed with these rumors and did not think the technology would be there yet.
In February 2017, the media website My Entertainment World stated that Avatar 2 had entered production and shooting would start on August 15, 2017, with Manhattan Beach, California as the main shooting location. Cameron confirmed the upcoming shooting, and that the writing of all four sequels was now complete. The following sequels are expected to start shooting right after Avatar 2 wraps filming. The following month, Cameron revealed that Avatar 2 would not be released in 2018, as originally believed. The sequel release dates were announced as starting on Dec. 18, 2020, for Avatar 2, Dec. 17, 2021 for Avatar 3, Dec. 20, 2024 for Avatar 4, and Dec. 19, 2025 for Avatar 5. In June 2017, Jon Landau stated at the CineEurope conference that principal photography will begin on September 25, 2017.
Toruk - The First Flight is an original stage production by the Montreal - based Cirque du Soleil which premiered in November 2015 and has been touring other cities since 2016. Inspired by Avatar, the story is set in Pandora 's past, involving a prophecy concerning a threat to the Tree of Souls and a quest for totems from different tribes. Audience members can download an app in order to participate in show effects. On January 18, 2016, it was announced via the Toruk Facebook page that filming for an upcoming DVD has been completed and is currently undergoing editing.
In 2011, Cameron, Lightstorm, and Fox entered an exclusive licensing agreement with The Walt Disney Company to feature Avatar - themed attractions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide, including a themed land for Disney 's Animal Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. The area, known as Pandora -- The World of Avatar, opened on May 27, 2017.
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where was the way of the dragon filmed | Way of the Dragon - Wikipedia
The Way of the Dragon (Chinese: 猛 龍 過 江, released in the United States as Return of the Dragon) is a 1972 Hong Kong martial arts action comedy film written, produced and directed by Bruce Lee, who also stars in the lead role. This is Lee 's only complete directorial film. The film co-stars Nora Miao, Chuck Norris, Robert Wall and Hwang In - shik. Way of the Dragon was released in Hong Kong on 30 December 1972.
In Rome, Chen Ching - hua and her uncle Wang experience trouble with their restaurant from a mob boss who wants their property. When Chen refuses to sell, the mob boss sends gangsters to scare away customers. Appealing to an uncle in Hong Kong, Chen receives help in the form of Tang Lung, a martial artist. Disappointed, Chen asks how he can help her, but Tang confidently assures her that he is capable. At the restaurant, Tang learns that the staff have begun to learn karate, much to the annoyance of Quen, an employee who favors Chinese martial arts. Tang tells Quen that he should be open - minded and incorporate any moves that work.
Before long, gangsters appear at the restaurant and chase off the customers while Tang is in the bathroom. Angered by Tang 's poor timing, the staff question his skill and the usefulness of his style. When the gangsters later return, the staff engage the thugs, only to be beaten. However, Tang single - handedly defeats the thugs, causing the staff to abandon their training to study under him. Wang warns them that the gangsters will now seek revenge, but Tang vows to protect the restaurant. Chen and Tang grow closer, and she takes him on a tour of Rome, though Tang is unimpressed.
Ho, the mafia boss 's consigliere, returns with armed thugs and takes the restaurant staff hostage. Ho gives Tang a ticket back to Hong Kong and tells him to go back, but when his men escort Tang outside, Tang disarms and overpowers the escort, followed by the rest of Ho 's men. Tang warns Ho not to return, and the thugs leave the restaurant. The staff celebrate their victory, but the mafia boss threatens to send an assassin to kill Tang unless he leaves by Chinese New Year, and Wang urges Chen to convince Tang to leave.
When Tang refuses to abandon the restaurant, the assassin tries to kill him from a nearby rooftop. Already fidgety from nearby fireworks, Tang survives the attempt. He then tracks down and defeats the assassin after tricking him into wasting his ammunition. When he returns to the apartment, he finds Chen gone. Assuming that Ho has kidnapped her, Tang goes to the mafia boss ' headquarters with the restaurant staff, defeating the mafia boss 's men. Tang issues a final warning to the mafia boss to leave the restaurant alone. The staff again celebrate, but a telegram for Tang cuts this short when they learn that he has been summoned back to Hong Kong. Tang assures them that he will not leave without seeing the situation resolved.
Ho hires two martial artists to challenge Tang, Japanese and American karate practitioners who initially refuse to work together. When the mafia boss indicates that money is no issue, Ho also recruits the American 's sensei, a world - class martial artist named Colt. Ho leads the restaurant staff to an isolated spot under the pretense of a truce, where the two hired martial artists attack them. The martial artists defeat the staff, but Tang defeats them. Ho lures Tang away to fight Colt at the Colosseum. Meanwhile Wang betrays and kills two of the staff, as he wants to sell the restaurant to the mafia boss and return to Hong Kong a rich man.
In a brutal fight, Tang injures and then disables Colt. When Colt refuses an offer of mercy, Tang kills him. The mob boss arrives as Tang and Ho return, and shoots both Ho and Wang. The police arrive and arrest him as he attempts to also kill Tang. As Tang leaves for Hong Kong, Quen tells Chen that Tang is a loner who will never settle down.
Bruce Lee formed his own production company, Concord Production Inc., with Golden Harvest founder, Raymond Chow.
The film holds a 100 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on eight reviews. The film set a new box office record in Hong Kong. It ranked # 95 in Empire magazine 's list "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema '' in 2010. The film won the Golden Horse Award for Best Film Editing.
The film grossed HK $5,307,350.50 at the Hong Kong box office, beating previous records set by Lee 's own films, The Big Boss and Fist of Fury, making it the highest - grossing film of 1972 in Hong Kong.
In 1978 a sequel was released titled Way of the Dragon 2. The film starred Bruce Le and Bolo Yeung.
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what's the last episode of pretty little liars called | Pretty Little Liars (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, was renewed on June 10, 2014 for two additional seasons, making the show Freeform 's longest running original series.
The season consisted of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017. The season 's premiere aired on June 21, 2016 on Freeform. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016, which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King. The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino. King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17, 2016. On August 29, 2016, it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series.
A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies. While discussing possible suspects, the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison. Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison. Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile, Hanna manages to escape. Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night. She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods.
The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as "Archer '' on his burner phone. Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is "Archer Dunhill ''. Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte. Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them. Emily confronts Jenna and Sara. Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte. Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after. A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave.
The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse. Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video. He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school. They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them. In the confrontation, Noel is accidentally killed, and Spencer is shot by A.D., while Jenna corners Spencer. Jenna prepares to kill Spencer, but is knocked out by Mary. She then reveals that Spencer is her second child. A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer.
One week later, Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery, killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school. Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica. Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles. Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her, thus she used his pills to kill Jessica. A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison, as a way to further torture the liars. Meanwhile, A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team. Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper, destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an "A '' message in Spencer 's house, until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects. Mona, who is becoming addicted to the A-game again, reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense. Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder. A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer.
One year later, Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer, who comes face - to - face with A.D. -- Alex Drake, her twin sister. Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley. Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything. She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her "perfect life ''. She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret file and Jenna recruited Noel to look for "Charlotte 's sister ''. Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out "Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others. Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out. The Liars, Toby, Mona, and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart, until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him. Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her. The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra. Mona moves to Paris and the "cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse. In the finale moment, a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader, Addison, has just gone missing.
After putting herself in danger, Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake. After Alison calls Emily about her current condition, this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott. Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him. Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him, he unleashes on Ezra. Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan, and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company.
The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead. The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether, with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth. Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator. Meanwhile, Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder. Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together, and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release. Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up. "A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask. After hearing everything from Aria, Ezra proposes to her again -- and, this time, she says yes. Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley.
Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary. Meanwhile, Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file. The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica, leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley. They then begin to think that this child, a cousin of Alison, may be behind the "A.D. '' mask, and wanting revenge for something. The cellar explodes right after the girls leave, and someone writes "I see you '' on the rear window of their car. Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy, but right before they are about to leave, the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive.
The Liars, Alison, Mona, and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna. Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship. Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant. Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood. Aria finds out that Nicole is alive. Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna, armed with a gun, attempts to murder the Liars with Noel. However, Noel, while attacking Hanna and Emily, trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself. Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer. Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother. While leaving town, Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident.
One week after the events of the last episode, Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered. Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married. Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business. Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High. The Liars are given a interactive board game by "A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars. Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary. Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that "A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins.
After being blackmailed by "A.D. '', Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings. Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death. After some arguing, Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria, while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child. Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child. That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily, while finally making up after years of hate. Realizing that Emily loves Alison, Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good. After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles, Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent, but finds more evidence that he is "A.D '', when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles, that heavily resembles the "A '' game. Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help. Meanwhile, "A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them, and in return she is gifted the official "A '' uniform.
Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed. "A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery. In Hanna 's turn at the game, "A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School. The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person, or that Charlotte was "A ''. A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game. Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery. Meanwhile, Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up. The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song. Hanna remembers that "A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse. Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily.
The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is "A.D. ''. Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building. Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game. She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it. When Hanna, Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car, the final two puzzle pieces are waiting. Later, the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in. When the pieces are in place, the game says "Congratulations. Claim the grand prize '', a picture of Archer. Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house. The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found. Mary lies and says she killed Archer, also confessing to Jessica 's murder, saving the Liars from a murder charge. Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her, Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense.
The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10, 2014, right before the fifth - season premiere aired, which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series, surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series. The season will consist of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017. Charlie Craig, who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season, will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner. I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere "Tick - Tock, Bitches '' on Twitter. Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21, 2016, the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history. Additionally, series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season. Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season. A promo was released on May 12, 2016. Freeform released a promotional poster for the season, on June 7, 2016. After the season premiere, Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season. King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event. It was reported on October 26, 2016, that a tell - all special will air after the series finale "Till Death Do Us Part '', where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive.
The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons. In an interview with BuzzFeed, Troian Bellisario said "This is the beginning of the end. But the best part about these last two years is that, because it 's the beginning of the end, we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time. '' Regarding the show 's ending, Lucy Hale said to E! News that "Seven seasons will definitely end the show. '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said "We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7, and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters. '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book.
In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump, King said "I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 ''. She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season, but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season. Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season. Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016, that the show was ending in 2017, as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends. Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that "There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7. '' It was announced on August 29, 2016, the day before the mid-season finale would air, that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season.
Production began on February 1, 2016, when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016.
The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing, with eight of them returning from the previous season, six of which was part of the original cast from the first season. The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A '. Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings, who has relationship problems with Caleb, while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin, who was kidnapped at the end of last season. Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam. Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison. Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward. Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side. Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz. Andrea Parker was added as a series regular, playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake.
After the sixth - season finale, it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake, Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis. TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season. Deadline reported on May 10, 2016, that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey, a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department. The character was later renamed Det. Marco Furey. Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas ''. On June 2, 2016, Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season.
On June 10, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere. The actress playing Sydney Driscoll, Chloe Bridges, posted an image on social media, confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode. On July 28, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season. It was announced on August 8, 2016, that Ava Allan will appear on the show, and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison. On August 17, 2016, TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season. Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season.
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where are brussel sprouts grown in the us | Brussels sprout - wikipedia
The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera Group of cabbages (Brassica oleracea), grown for its edible buds.
The leafy green vegetables are typically 2.5 -- 4 cm (0.98 -- 1.6 in) in diameter and look like miniature cabbages. The Brussels sprout has long been popular in Brussels, Belgium, and may have originated and gained its name there.
Although native to the Mediterranean region with other cabbage species, Brussels sprouts first appeared in northern Europe during the fifth century, later being cultivated in the thirteenth century near Brussels from which they derived their name. In common names and misspelling, they may also be called brussels sprouts, Brussel sprouts, or brussel sprouts.
Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were likely cultivated in Ancient Rome. Brussels sprouts as they are now known were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in what is now Belgium. The first written reference dates to 1587. During the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in the Southern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe.
Brussels sprouts grow in temperature ranges of 7 -- 24 ° C (45 -- 75 ° F), with highest yields at 15 -- 18 ° C (59 -- 64 ° F). Fields are ready for harvest 90 to 180 days after planting. The edible sprouts grow like buds in helical patterns along the side of long, thick stalks of about 60 to 120 cm (24 to 47 in) in height, maturing over several weeks from the lower to the upper part of the stalk. Sprouts may be picked by hand into baskets, in which case several harvests are made of five to 15 sprouts at a time, or by cutting the entire stalk at once for processing, or by mechanical harvester, depending on variety. Each stalk can produce 1.1 to 1.4 kg (2.4 to 3.1 lb), although the commercial yield is about 900 g (2.0 lb) per stalk. Harvest season in temperate zones of the northern latitudes is September to March, making Brussels sprout a traditional winter stock vegetable. In the home garden, harvest can be delayed as quality does not suffer from freezing. Sprouts are considered to be sweetest after a frost.
Brussels sprouts are a cultivar group of the same species as cabbage, in the same family as collard greens, broccoli, kale, and kohlrabi; they are cruciferous (they belong to the Brassicaceae family; old name Cruciferae). Many cultivars are available, some being purple in color, such as ' Ruby Crunch ' or ' Red Bull '. The purple varieties are hybrids between purple cabbage and regular green Brussels sprouts developed by a Dutch botanist in the 1940s, yielding a variety with some of the red cabbage 's purple colors and greater sweetness.
In Continental Europe, the largest producers are the Netherlands, at 82,000 metric tons, and Germany, at 10,000 tons. The United Kingdom has production comparable to that of the Netherlands, but it is not generally exported.
Production of Brussels sprouts in the United States began in the 18th century, when French settlers brought them to Louisiana. The first plantings in California 's Central Coast began in the 1920s, with significant production beginning in the 1940s. Currently, several thousand acres are planted in coastal areas of San Mateo, Santa Cruz, and Monterey counties of California, which offer an ideal combination of coastal fog and cool temperatures year - round. The harvest season lasts from June through January.
Most American production is in California, with a smaller percentage of the crop grown in Skagit Valley, Washington, where cool springs, mild summers, and rich soil abounds, and to a lesser degree on Long Island, New York. Total American production is approximately 32,000 tons, with a value of $27 million.
About 80 % to 85 % of US production is for the frozen food market, with the remainder for fresh consumption. Once harvested, sprouts last three to five weeks under ideal near - freezing conditions before wilting and discolouring, and about half as long at refrigerator temperature. American varieties are generally 2.5 -- 5 cm (0.98 -- 1.97 in) in diameter.
Raw Brussels sprouts contain excellent levels of vitamin C and vitamin K, with more moderate amounts of B vitamins, such as folic acid and vitamin B6 (USDA nutrient table, right); essential minerals and dietary fibre exist in lesser amounts (table).
Brussels sprouts, as with broccoli and other brassicas, contain sulforaphane, a phytochemical under basic research for its potential anticancer properties. Although boiling reduces the level of sulforaphane, steaming and stir frying do not result in significant loss.
Consuming Brussels sprouts in excess may not be suitable for patients taking anticoagulants such as warfarin since they contain vitamin K, a blood - clotting factor. In one reported incident, eating too many Brussels sprouts precipitated hospitalization for an individual on blood - thinning therapy.
The most common method of preparing Brussels sprouts for cooking begins with cutting the buds off the stalk. Any surplus stem is cut away, and any loose surface leaves are peeled and discarded. Once cut and cleaned, the buds are typically cooked by boiling, steaming, stir frying, grilling, slow cooker, or roasting. To ensure even cooking throughout, buds of a similar size are usually chosen. Some cooks will make a single cut or a cross in the center of the stem to aid the penetration of heat. Brussels sprouts can be pickled as an alternative to cooking.
Overcooking will render the buds gray and soft, and they then develop a strong flavor and odor that some dislike. The odor is associated with the glucosinolate sinigrin, an organic compound that contains sulfur: hence the strong smell. For taste, roasting Brussels sprouts is a common way to cook them to bring out flavor. Common toppings or additions for Brussels sprouts include Parmesan cheese and butter, balsamic vinegar, apple cider vinegar, bacon, pistachios, pine nuts, mustard, brown sugar, chestnuts or pepper. Another popular way of cooking Brussels sprouts is to sauté them.
Brussels sprouts on stalks
Brussels Sprouts ready for harvest
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when did the soviet union join the league of nations | Member states of the League of Nations - wikipedia
Between 1920 and 1939, a total of 63 countries became member states of the League of Nations. The Covenant forming the League of Nations was included in the Treaty of Versailles and came into force on 10 January 1920. The League of Nations was dissolved on 18 April 1946, when its assets and responsibilities were transferred to the United Nations.
The League 's greatest extent was from 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) to 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew) with 58 members. At this time, only Costa Rica (22 January 1925), Brazil (14 June 1926), the Empire of Japan (27 March 1933) and Germany (19 September 1933) had withdrawn and only Egypt was left to join (on 26 May 1937). The members (listed from earliest joining and alphabetically if they joined on the same day) at this time were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, the British Empire, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, El Salvador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Irish Free State, Ethiopia, Italy, Liberia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Persia / Iran, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Union of South Africa, Uruguay, Yugoslavia, Venezuela, Austria, Bulgaria, Finland, Luxembourg, Albania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Ireland, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Turkey, Iraq, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Afghanistan, British Raj, Syria and Ecuador.
Of the 42 founding members, 23 (or 24, counting Free France) remained members until the League of Nations was dissolved in 1946. A further 21 countries joined between 1920 and 1937, but 7 left, withdrew or were expelled before 1946.
Countries are listed under the year in which they joined. The word "withdrew '' indicates that a country left of its own choice. The word "left '' indicates a country that ceased to exist because of annexation by Germany, Italy or the USSR. The USSR was the only country to be expelled by the League (in 1939, following its invasion of Finland).
Despite formulating the concept and signing the Covenant, the United States never joined the League of Nations.
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when will the second book of dust be released | The Book of Dust - wikipedia
The Book of Dust is an as - yet - uncompleted trilogy of fantasy novels by Philip Pullman and is a companion to his His Dark Materials trilogy. The plot focuses on a battle for free speech and thought against a theocratic totalitarian organisation. The books touch on research into Dust, the cosmic matter that governs consciousness, as well as the portrayal of religion in His Dark Materials.
Pullman said the trilogy addresses consciousness: "Perhaps the oldest philosophical question of all: are we matter? Or are we spirit and matter? What is consciousness if there is no spirit? Questions like that are of perennial fascination and they have n't been solved yet, thank goodness. ''
The first novel in the intended trilogy, La Belle Sauvage, was published in October 2017; it is set 12 years before Northern Lights (known as The Golden Compass in some countries) and centres on protecting the baby Lyra Belacqua, one of the protagonists of the original trilogy. Alethiometers, dæmons and the Magisterium return, alongside new characters, including a new hero, 11 - year - old Malcolm Polstead owner of the canoe, "La Belle Sauvage ''.
Pullman conceived The Book of Dust before the publication of Lyra 's Oxford in 2003. On his website in April 2005, he wrote that the book was "under way ''. In 2007, he described it as "a big, big book ''. In a 2009 interview with Oxford University newspaper Cherwell, Pullman stated that The Book of Dust was "growing '' but that he was "encountering complexities that seem to be making it longer than I thought it would be. '' In 2011, Pullman said that he was considering writing The Book of Dust in two volumes, one set before His Dark Materials and the other set afterwards. In September 2012, Pullman told the BBC that The Book of Dust was now his focus and that he had written 220 pages. In December, he told Wired that he had cleared 2013 and most of 2014 to write the book. In May 2016, he said he had vowed to not cut his hair until it was complete.
On 14 February 2017, Pullman announced that The Book of Dust would be a new trilogy, and announced the publication of the first novel, La Belle Sauvage, published on 19 October 2017. The books are jointly published by Random House Children 's and David Fickling Books in the United Kingdom, and by Random House Children 's Books in the US.
The Book of Dust takes place before, during and after the original trilogy; Pullman described it as an "equel '', rather than a sequel, which "will begin and end with Lyra ''. The plot focuses on a battle for free speech and thought against a totalitarian organisation. The books will touch on research into Dust, the cosmic matter that governs consciousness, as well as the portrayal of religion in His Dark Materials. Pullman said the trilogy addresses consciousness: "Perhaps the oldest philosophical question of all: are we matter? Or are we spirit and matter? What is consciousness if there is no spirit? Questions like that are of perennial fascination and they have n't been solved yet, thank goodness. ''
The first book, La Belle Sauvage, was published on 19 October 2017. Set ten years before the His Dark Materials trilogy, the story follows 11 - year - old Malcolm Polstead, his dæmon Asta, a village girl named Alice and her dæmon Ben who become the protectors of the infant Lyra Belacqua and her dæmon, Pantalaimon, in their canoe, La Belle Sauvage, after a flood. The novel introduces the alethiometer specialist Hannah Relf, allied with the secret organisation Oakley Street, and a new villain, Gerard Bonneville, allied with the Consistorial Court of Discipline (CCD). Returning characters include Lyra 's father Lord Asriel and mother Mrs Coulter, and the Gyptian elder Farder Coram.
The second book, The Secret Commonwealth, begins with Lyra as a 20 - year - old undergraduate and involves her journeying to the Far East via the Levant. No publication date has been officially announced, but at the launch of La Belle Sauvage, Pullman announced that it was complete and has said that he hopes it will be out a year after La Belle Sauvage. As of September 2017, work on the third book had not commenced.
The Secret Commonwealth takes its title from a compilation of folklore by Robert Kirk that Pullman has said is one of his favourite books.
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advantage and dis advantage of formal and informal organization | Informal organization - wikipedia
The informal organization is the interlocking social structure that governs how people work together in practice. It is the aggregate of, norms, personal and professional connections through which work gets done and relationships are built among people who share a common organizational affiliation or cluster of affiliations. It consists of a dynamic set of personal relationships, social networks, communities of common interest, and emotional sources of motivation. The informal organization evolves, and the complex social dynamics of its members also.
Tended effectively, the informal organization complements the more explicit structures, plans, and processes of the formal organization: it can accelerate and enhance responses to unanticipated events, foster innovation, enable people to solve problems that require collaboration across boundaries, and create footpaths showing where the formal organization may someday need to pave a way.
The nature of the informal organization becomes more distinct when its key characteristics are juxtaposed with those of the formal organization.
Key characteristics of the informal organization:
Key characteristics of the formal organization:
Historically, some have regarded the informal organization as the byproduct of insufficient formal organization -- arguing, for example, that "it can hardly be questioned that the ideal situation in the business organization would be one where no informal organization existed. '' However, the contemporary approach -- one suggested as early as 1925 by Mary Parker Follett, the pioneer of community centers and author of influential works on management philosophy -- is to integrate the informal organization and the formal organization, recognizing the strengths and limitations of each. Integration, as Follett defined it, means breaking down apparent sources of conflict into their basic elements and then building new solutions that neither allow domination nor require compromise. In other words, integrating the informal organization with the formal organization replaces competition with coherence.
At a societal level, the importance of the relationship between formal and informal structures can be seen in the relationship between civil society and state authority. The power of integrating the formal organization and the informal organization can also be seen in many successful businesses.
Keith Davis suggests that informal groups serve at least four major functions within the formal organizational structure.
They perpetuate the cultural and social values that the group holds dear. Certain values are usually already held in common among informal group members. Day - to - day interaction reinforces these values that perpetuate a particular lifestyle and preserve group unity and integrity. For example, a college management class of 50 students may contain several informal groups that constitute the informal organization within the formal structure of the class. These groups may develop out of fraternity or sorority relationships, dorm residency, project work teams, or seating arrangements. Dress codes, hairstyles, and political party involvement are reinforced among the group members.
They provide social status and satisfaction that may not be obtained from the formal organization. In a large organization (or classroom), a worker (or student) may feel like an anonymous number rather than a unique individual. Members of informal groups, however, share jokes and gripes, eat together, play and work together, and are friends - which contributes to personal esteem, satisfaction, and a feeling of worth.
The informal group develops a communication channel or system (i.e., grapevine) to keep its members informed about what management actions will affect them in various ways. Many astute managers use the grape - vine to "informally '' convey certain information about company actions and rumors.
They provide social control by influencing and regulating behavior inside and outside the group. Internal control persuades members of the group to conform to its lifestyle. For example, if a student starts to wear a coat and tie to class, informal group members may razz and convince the student that such attire is not acceptable and therefore to return to sandals, jeans, and T - shirts. External control is directed to such groups as management, union leadership, and other informal groups.
Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems that require astute and careful management attention.
Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective of their "culture '' and therefore resist change. For example, if restriction of output was the norm in an autocratic management group, it must continue to be so, even though management changes have brought about a more participative administration.
The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal organizational objectives. What is good for and desired by informal group members is not always good for the organization. Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the firm. Employees ' desire to fulfill the requirements and services of both the informal group and management results in role conflict. Role conflict can be reduced by carefully attempting to integrate interests, goals, methods, and evaluation systems of both the informal and formal organizations, resulting in greater productivity and satisfaction on everyone 's behalf.
The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance. Ill - informed employees communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on employees. This can undermine morale, establish bad attitudes, and often result in deviant or, even violent behavior. For example, a student who flunks an exam can start a rumor that a professor is making sexually harassing advances toward one of the students in class. This can create all sorts of ill feelings toward the professor and even result in vengeful acts like "egging '' the residence or knocking over the mail box.
Social control promotes and encourages conformity among informal group members, thereby making them reluctant to act too aggressively or perform at too high a level. This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative, creativity, and diversity of performance. In some British factories, if a group member gets "out of line '', tools may be hidden, air may be let out of tires, and other group members may refuse to talk to the deviant for days or weeks. Obviously, these types of actions can force a good worker to leave the organization.
Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for management, they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization.
Formal plans. policies, procedures, and standards can not solve every problem in a dynamic organization; therefore, informal systems must blend with formal ones to get work done. As early as 1951, Robert Dubin recognized that "informal relations in the organization serve to preserve the organization from the self - destruction that would result from literal obedience to the formal policies, rules, regulations, and procedures ''. No college or university could function merely by everyone following the "letter of the law '' with respect to written policies and procedures. Faculty, staff, and student informal groups must cooperate in fulfilling the spirit of the law '' to effectuate an organized, sensibly run enterprise.
Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal organization is cooperating with them. This encourages delegation, decentralization, and greater worker support of the manager, which suggests a probable improvement in performance and overall productivity. When a professor perceives that students are conscientiously working on their term papers and group projects, there are likely to be fewer "pop tests '' or impromptu progress reports. This eases the professors load and that of the students and promotes a better relation - ship between both parties.
For instance, if a manager is weak in financial planning and analysis, a subordinate may informally assist in preparing reports through either suggestions or direct involvement.
Employees experience frustration, tension, and emotional problems with management and other employees. The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly and candidly. In faculty lounge conversations, frustrations with the dean, department head, or students are "blown off '' among empathetic colleagues.
Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare, plan, organize, and control in a more professional fashion. Managers who comprehend the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a "check and balance '' on their use of authority. Changes and projects are introduced with more careful thought and consideration, knowing that the informal organization can easily kill a poorly planned project.
The The IRG Solution: hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it (1984) argued that central media and government - type hierarchical organizations could not adequately understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing, or how to initiate adequate solutions. It argued that what was required, was the widespread introduction of informal networks or Information Routing Groups which were essentially a description of social networking services prior to the internet.
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the world is too much with us william wordsworth sparknotes | The world is Too Much with us - wikipedia
The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers; Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon! This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon, The winds that will be howling at all hours, And are up - gathered now like sleeping flowers, For this, for everything, we are out of tune; It moves us not. -- Great God! I 'd rather be A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn; So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; Or hear old Triton blow his wreathèd horn.
"The World Is Too Much with Us '' is a sonnet by the English Romantic poet William Wordsworth. In it, Wordsworth criticises the world of the First Industrial Revolution for being absorbed in materialism and distancing itself from nature. Composed circa 1802, the poem was first published in Poems, in Two Volumes (1807). Like most Italian sonnets, its 14 lines are written in iambic pentameter.
In the early 19th century, Wordsworth wrote several sonnets blasting what he perceived as "the decadent material cynicism of the time. '' "The World Is Too Much with Us '' is one of those works. It reflects his view that humanity must get in touch with nature to progress spiritually. The rhyme scheme of this poem is a-b-b-a, a-b-b-a, c-d-c-d, c-d. This Italian or Petrarchan sonnet uses the last six lines (sestet) to answer the first eight lines (octave). The first eight lines (octave) are the problem and the next six (sestet) is the solution.
Wordsworth gives a fatalistic view of the world, past and future. The words "late and soon '' in the opening verse describe how the past and future are included in his characterization of mankind. The author knows the potential of humanity 's "powers, '' but fears it is clouded by the mentality of "getting and spending. '' The "sordid boon '' we have "given our hearts '' is the materialistic progress of mankind. The detriment society has on the environment will proceed unchecked and relentless like the "winds that will be howling at all hours ''. The speaker complains that "the world '' is too overwhelming for us to appreciate it, and that people are so concerned about time and money that they use up all their energy. These people want to accumulate material goods, so they see nothing in Nature that they can "own '', and have sold their souls.
Unlike society, Wordsworth does not see nature as a commodity. The verse "Little we see in Nature that is ours '', shows that coexisting is the relationship envisioned. We should be able to appreciate beautiful events like the moon shining over the ocean and the blowing of strong winds, but it is almost as if humans are on a different wavelength from Nature. The "little we see in Nature that is ours '' exemplifies the removed sentiment man has for nature, being obsessed with materialism and other worldly objects. Wordsworth 's Romanticism is best shown through his appreciation of nature in these lines and his woes for man and its opposition to nature. The relationship between Nature and man appears to be at the mercy of mankind because of the vulnerable way nature is described. The verse "This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon '', gives the vision of a feminine creature opening herself to the heavens above. The phrase "sleeping flowers '' might also describe how nature is being overrun unknowingly and is helpless.
The verse "I, standing on this pleasant lea, have glimpses that would make me less forlorn '', reveals Wordsworth 's perception of himself in society: a visionary romantic more in touch with nature than his contemporaries. The speaker would rather be a pagan who worships an outdated religion so that when he gazes out on the ocean (as he 's doing now), he might feel less sad. If he were a pagan, he would have glimpses of the great green meadows that would make him less dejected. He 'd see wild mythological gods like Proteus, who can take many shapes, and Triton, who can soothe the howling sea waves.
Metaphor
The metaphor "we have given our hearts away, a sordid boon '' is also an oxymoron. Sordid suggests the worst aspects of human nature such as immorality, selfishness and greed, while a boon is something that functions as a blessing or benefit.
The contradiction between the meanings of the words suggests that materialism is a destructive and corrupt blessing which the industrial revolution has produced. It emphasises the tension between the good exterior and the sordid truth behind materialism. On an exterior level, material goods bring pleasure and are a symbol of man 's progress; however, in truth, they feed the worst aspects of humanity: thus a "sordid boon. ''
Sonnet form
Wordsworth employs a strictly structured form, the Italian sonnet, which conforms to a set of strict conventions. As in many sonnets by the Romantic poets, he creates a tension between the emotional, natural, and fluid themes explored in the poem and the structured form of the sonnet. This tension reflects what was occurring during the Romantic Era, in which artists and poets were rebelling in the structured world of the neoclassical period.
Employing the familiar with the new and revolutionary - Wordsworth uses the familiar structure of the sonnet as well as referring to familiar ancient Gods (in the authors context they would have been familiar) to persuade the reader to engage in a positive way to the concepts addressed. The unfamiliar or unknown is always feared and suppressed thus by incorporating the familiar with the revolutionary the reader in the 19th century is more likely to engage positively with Wordsworth 's message.
Repetition and rhyming scheme
The repetitive rhyme scheme ABBAABBA, and the use of word pairs such as "getting and spending '' and "late and soon '' emphasises the monotonous nature of modern life and materialism. Getting and spending is a cluster of longer emphasised words with many consonants, also possibly emphasising this view.
In essence, materialism is just that getting and spending: it is devoid of emotion or a true fulfilling purpose. In many ways the stereotypes of man and woman mirror the difference between the neoclassical and romantic period between civilised and nature. Men in this context are associated with rationality, strength, order and power, whereas women are associated with emotion and the imagination.
Music and harmony
The line, "For this, for everything we are out of tune '' implies that man is out of tune with nature, unable to live in harmony with the world around him. By describing the harmonious relationship of man and nature as a tune, Wordsworth evokes a sensuous experience of nature.
Collective pronouns
Wordsworth uses the words "we '' and "us. '' This includes the reader, once again positioning the reader to engage with the poem.
Imagery
In the simile "and are up gathered now like sleeping flowers, '' sleeping flowers suggest that man is numb and unaware of the beauty and power of the natural world. At the same time, however, there is also a certain optimism: the image of sleeping flowers implies that humans are only dormant, and that there is some hope we will wake up and realise the power of nature.
Punctuation
The poem 's many commas and semicolons create pauses that instill reflection in the reader. In each pause the reader is given space to contemplate and engage with the message.
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who can i turn to (when nobody needs me) | Who Can I Turn To? - Wikipedia
"Who Can I Turn To? '' is a popular song. It may be alternatively titled "Who Can I Turn To (When Nobody Needs Me) ''.
It was written by Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley and published in 1964. The song was introduced in the musical The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd, which struggled in the United Kingdom in 1964 and then made a tour of the United States later that year. In 1964 Shirley Bassey recorded the song and released it as a single, however it failed to chart. Recorded by Tony Bennett, "Who Can I Turn To? '' became a hit, reaching number 33 on the US pop singles chart and the top 5 of the Adult Contemporary chart. So fuelled, the musical arrived on Broadway for a successful run, and the song became one of Bennett 's staples. He later re-recorded the song as a duet with Queen Latifah in 2011 on Duets II and with Gloria Estefan for his 2012 album, Viva Duets.
Astrud Gilberto recorded a version that was sampled in The Black Eyed Peas song "Like That '' from their album Monkey Business.
American tenor Jan Peerce recorded "Who Can I Turn To? '' for his 1965 album Pop Goes Peerce.
Dionne Warwick covered the song for her 1965 album, The Sensitive Sound of Dionne Warwick. Her version reached No. 62 pop and No. 34 R&B.
Wynton Marsalis covered it on his first, eponymous album (1981).
Dusty Springfield recorded the song and included it on her 1965 album Ev'rything's Coming Up Dusty.
Andy Williams released a version of the song on his 1965 album, Andy Williams ' Dear Heart.
Jazz pianist Bill Evans recorded the song, both with his trio and with Tony Bennett.
Nancy Wilson recorded the song on her 1965 album, Gentle Is My Love.
The Temptations recorded the song on their album In a Mellow Mood.
The Main Ingredient recorded the song for their 1972 album Bitter Sweet; the single was also the B - side of the R&B group 's biggest hit "Everybody Plays the Fool ''.
Australian baritone Anthony Warlow recorded the song on his 1994 album Midnight Dreaming.
Van Morrison recorded the song on his 1995 album How Long Has This Been Going On.
Harry Connick, Jr. included the song on his 2009 album, Your Songs.
Mark Vincent covered the song for his 2010 album Compass
Della Reese recorded the song on her album Della Reese Live In Hollywood In 1966.
Barbra Streisand recorded the song for her 2016 album, Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway as a posthumous duet with original singer and co-songwriter, Anthony Newley.
Miles Davis second great quintet (sans Ron Carter with bass duties handled by Richard Davis played the song live at the Oriental Theatre in May, 1966. This is the only existing version of the song as played by the quintet and is captured on "Miles Davis Quintet - Live at the Oriental Theatre 1966, '' released in June, 2014.
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where did the term over the counter come from | Over-the - counter drug - wikipedia
Over-the - counter (OTC) drugs are medicines sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as opposed to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to consumers possessing a valid prescription. In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physician 's care. OTC drugs are usually regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures.
The term over-the - counter may be somewhat counterintuitive, since, in many countries, these drugs are often placed on shelves in self - service areas of stores, like any other packaged products. In contrast, prescription drugs are almost always passed over a counter from the pharmacist to the customer. Some drugs may be legally classified as over-the - counter (i.e. no prescription is required), but may only be dispensed by a pharmacist after an assessment of the patient 's needs or the provision of patient education. In many countries, a number of OTC drugs are available in establishments without a pharmacy, such as general stores, supermarkets, and gas stations. Regulations detailing the establishments where drugs may be sold, who is authorized to dispense them, and whether a prescription is required vary considerably from country to country.
As of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U.S. reportedly use OTC drugs.
In Canada, there are four drug schedules:
All medications other than Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, each province may determine its own scheduling. The drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province.
In the Netherlands, there are four categories:
A drug that is UA can be sold OTC but only by pharmacists. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product. Examples are domperidone, 400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. A drug that is UAD can also be sold at drugstores, stores where no prescription can be filed and there is only a relatively small selection of popular drugs like painkillers and cough medicine. The drugs are usually on the shelves, and the store also sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes and homeopathic products. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential. Examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine, 400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. Drugs in the AV category can be sold at supermarkets, gas stations etc. and include only drugs with minimal risk to the public, like paracetamol up to 20 tablets, 200 mg ibuprofen up to 10 tablets, cetirizine and loperamide.
In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. The FDA requires that all "new drugs '' obtain a New Drug Application (NDA) before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective (GRAS / E). To deal with the vast number of OTC drugs that were already on the market before the requirement that all drugs obtain an NDA, the FDA created the OTC monograph system to review classes of drugs and to categorize them as GRAS / E after review by expert panels. Certain classes of OTC drugs would not be required to obtain an NDA and could remain on the market if they conformed to the monograph guidelines for doses, labeling, and warnings finalized in the Code of Federal Regulations.
Thus, an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either (1) pursuant to an FDA monograph or (2) pursuant to an NDA for products that do not fit within a specific monograph. There is also the possibility that certain OTC drug products are marketed under the grandfathering provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, but the FDA has never formally acknowledged that any legitimate grandfathered OTC drug exists.
Examples of OTC substances approved in the United States are sunscreens, anti-microbial and anti-fungal products, external and internal analgesics such as lidocaine and aspirin, psoriasis and eczema topical treatments, anti-dandruff shampoos containing coal tar, and other topical products with a therapeutic effect.
The Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products, in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA.
The FDA requires OTC products to be labeled with an approved "Drug Facts '' label to educate consumers about their medications. The labels comply to a standard format and are intended to be easy for typical consumers to understand. Drug Facts labels include information on the product 's active ingredient (s), indications and purpose, safety warnings, directions for use, and inactive ingredients.
An ill - defined third category of substances is products having over-the - counter status from the FDA while being simultaneously subject to other restrictions on sale. While they are legally classified as OTC drugs, they are typically stored behind the counter and are sold only in stores that are registered with their state. They may be unavailable in convenience and grocery stores that stock other non-restricted OTC medications.
For example, many drugstores have moved products containing pseudoephedrine, an OTC product, into locations where customers must ask a pharmacist for them. A prescription is not required; the change has been made in an effort to reduce methamphetamine production. Since the passage of the Illinois Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act and the subsequent federal Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, the purchase of pseudoephedrine is restricted. Sellers of pseudoephedrine must obtain and record the identity of the purchaser and enforce quantity restrictions. Some states may have more stringent requirements (such as Oregon, where a medical prescription is required to purchase any quantity of pseudoephedrine). After initial attempts to control methamphetamine use (by requiring documentation of sale with government issued ID as well as limits on the quantity an individual could purchase) failed to realize meaningful reductions in methamphetamine use and production, Mississippi passed House Bill 512 in the State Senate on February 2, 2010 "to require a prescription from a licensed medical professional to purchase over-the - counter medicines with pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, or any other precursor chemical that can readily and illicitly be converted into methamphetamine, Methcathinone or any active / scheduled analogs of Phenylethylamines / amphetamine. '' However, products containing the substance are still OTC in most states, since no prescription is required.
A similar regulation applies to some forms of emergency contraception. The FDA considers them to be OTC substances for females 17 or over but prescription drugs for younger women. To enforce the restriction and to provide counseling and education on proper use, an agreement between the manufacturer and the FDA requires the drugs are stored behind the pharmacy counter. Women may obtain the medication without a prescription after providing proof of age to pharmacy staff and receiving any necessary patient education.
Furthermore, some Schedule V controlled substances may be classified as OTC products in certain states. Such drugs are sold without a prescription but are subject to record - keeping rules and quantity and / or age restrictions, and they must be dispensed by a pharmacy.
In the United Kingdom, medication is governed by the Medicines Regulations 2012. Medication will fall into one of three categories:
If it is not appropriate to sell a ' P ' medication -- i.e. the condition is not suitable for self - management and requires referral to a medical prescriber -- then a sale should not occur and the pharmacist has a legal and professional obligation to refer this on to an appropriate service.
Examples of these include some sleep aid tablets such as Nytol, human deworming tablets such as Mebendazole, painkillers with small amounts of codeine (up to 12.8 mg per tablet), and pseudoephedrine. Medication available only with a prescription is marked somewhere on the box / container with (POM). Pharmacy - only products are marked with (P). A prescription is not required for (P) medicines, and pharmacy sales assistants are required by Royal Pharmaceutical Society codes to ask certain questions, which varies for what the customer says. If they ask for a specific product, the pharmacy assistant must ask "Who is it for, '' "How long have you had the symptoms, '' "Are you allergic to any medication, '' "Are you taking any medication '' (' WHAM ' questions). If a customer asks for a remedy, e.g., hay fever, then the two WHAM questions must be followed "Who is it for, '' "What are the symptoms, '' "How long have you had the symptoms, '' "Have you taken any action towards your symptoms, '' and "Are you taking any other medication. '' It is with this information that the pharmacist can halt the sale, if need be. No (POM), (P) or (GSL) products that are stocked in a pharmacy can be sold, dispensed, or pre-made until a responsible pharmacist is signed in and on the premises. Some medication available in supermarkets and petrol stations is sold only in smaller packet sizes. Often, larger packs will be marked as (P) and available only from a pharmacy. Frequently, customers buying larger - than - usual doses of (P) medicines (such as DXM, promethazine, codeine or Gee 's linctus) will be queried, due to the possibility of abuse.
As a general rule, over-the - counter drugs have to be used primarily to treat a condition that does not require the direct supervision of a doctor and must be proven to be reasonably safe and well tolerated. OTC drugs are usually also required to have little or no abuse potential, although in some areas drugs such as codeine are available OTC (usually in strictly limited formulations or requiring paperwork or identification to be submitted during purchase).
Over time, often 3 -- 6 years, drugs that prove themselves safe and appropriate as prescription medicines may be switched from prescription to OTC. An example of this is diphenhydramine (Benadryl), an anti-histamine which once required a prescription but now is available OTC nearly everywhere. More recent examples are cimetidine and loratadine in the United States, and ibuprofen in Australia.
It is somewhat unusual for an OTC drug to be withdrawn from the market as a result of safety concerns, rather than market forces, though it does happen occasionally. For example, phenylpropanolamine was removed from sale in the United States over concern regarding strokes in young women. A study has been done examining consumer 's perceptions about the risk of and access to nonprescription medication. A substantial minority of the public appears willing to accept considerable risk to gain greater access to pharmaceuticals.
In the United Kingdom, it was announced In February 2007, that Boots the Chemist would try over-the - counter sales of Viagra in stores in Manchester, England (previous available as prescription only). Men aged between 30 and 65 could have bought four tablets after a consultation with a pharmacist.
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why is gray referred to as tone when it is added to color | Tints and shades - Wikipedia
In color theory, a tint is the mixture of a color with white, which increases lightness, and a shade is the mixture of a color with black, which reduces lightness. A tone is produced either by the mixture of a color with grey, or by both tinting and shading. Mixing a color with any neutral color (including black, gray and white) reduces the chroma, or colorfulness, while the hue remains unchanged.
In common language, the term "shade '' can be generalized to furthermore encompass any varieties of a particular color, whether technically they are shades, tints, tones, or slightly different hues; while the term "tint '' can be generalized to refer to any lighter or darker variation of a color (e.g. Tinted windows).
When mixing colored light (additive color models), the achromatic mixture of spectrally balanced red, green and blue (RGB) is always white, not gray or black. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments in paint mixtures, a color is produced which is always darker and lower in chroma, or saturation, than the parent colors. This moves the mixed color toward a neutral color -- a gray or near - black. Lights are made brighter or dimmer by adjusting their brightness, or energy level; in painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a color 's complement.
It is common among some artistic painters to darken a paint color by adding black paint -- producing colors called shades -- or to lighten a color by adding white -- producing colors called tints. However, this is not always the best way for representational painting, since an unfortunate result is for colors to also shift in their hues. For instance, darkening a color by adding black can cause colors such as yellows, reds and oranges, to shift toward the greenish or bluish part of the spectrum. Lightening a color by adding white can cause a shift towards blue when mixed with reds and oranges. Another practice when darkening a color is to use its opposite, or complementary, color (e.g. violet - purple added to yellowish - green) in order to neutralize it without a shift in hue, and darken it if the additive color is darker than the parent color. When lightening a color this hue shift can be corrected with the addition of a small amount of an adjacent color to bring the hue of the mixture back in line with the parent color (e.g. adding a small amount of orange to a mixture of red and white will correct the tendency of this mixture to shift slightly towards the blue end of the spectrum).
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who does the voice of the crab in moana | Jemaine Clement - Wikipedia
Jemaine Clement (born 10 January 1974) is a New Zealand singer, comedian, musician, actor, voice actor, director, and writer. With Bret McKenzie, as the comedy duo Flight of the Conchords, he has released several albums and created comedy series for both BBC and HBO. He has provided the voices for some animated film characters as well, including the cockatoo Nigel in Blue Sky 's Rio and its sequel, and the giant crab Tamatoa in Disney 's 2016 film Moana.
He has had featured parts in films such as Gentlemen Broncos (2009), Rio (2011) and Men in Black 3 (2012). In 2014, he made his feature film directorial debut with the horror comedy mockumentary What We Do in the Shadows, which he wrote, starred in and directed with Taika Waititi.
Jemaine Clement was born on 10 January 1974 in Masterton, New Zealand, and was raised by his Māori mother in the Wairarapa region. He attended Makoura College in Masterton. After graduation, he moved to New Zealand 's capital Wellington, where he studied drama and film at Victoria University of Wellington. There he met Taika Waititi (a.k.a. Taika Cohen) with whom he went on to form So You 're a Man and The Humourbeasts. In 2004, the Humourbeasts toured New Zealand in a stage show titled The Untold Tales of Maui, a rework of the traditional Maori legends of Māui. The duo received New Zealand 's highest comedy honour, the Billy T Award.
Clement and Bret McKenzie formed Flight of the Conchords while at Victoria University. They have toured internationally and released four CDs: Folk the World Tour in 2002, The Distant Future EP in 2007 (winner of 2008 Grammy for Best Comedy Album), Flight of the Conchords in 2008 and I Told You I Was Freaky in 2009. In 2005 the Conchords produced Flight of the Conchords, a six - part comedy radio programme on BBC Radio 2. They appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, the Late Show with David Letterman and The Late Late Show. After appearing in 2005 on HBO 's One Night Stand, the Conchords were offered their own 12 - part HBO series Flight of the Conchords, which was based on their earlier BBC radio series of the same name. Its first season ran from June to September 2007, and was renewed for a second season, which aired on HBO in the US from January to March 2009. In December 2009, the Conchords announced the show would not have a third season.
Clement has appeared in several feature films. His debut was in the kung fu comedy Tongan Ninja, directed by New Zealander Jason Stutter. He has worked with Stutter on two more movies to date: the low budget ghost comedy Diagnosis Death and the drama Predicament, based on the book by late New Zealand novelist Ronald Hugh Morrieson. He was also the voice of Swayzak in the Toonami Shockwave game "Trapped in Hyperspace ''. Clement also has a role in American comedy Gentlemen Broncos, directed by Napoleon Dynamite 's Jared Hess. This role landed him a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male. Though Gentlemen Broncos was almost universally panned by critics, some singled out Clement 's performance for praise. In 2010, he voiced Jerry in Despicable Me and appeared in the film Dinner for Schmucks. In 2011, he voiced Nigel in Rio, and in 2012 he appeared as the primary antagonist Boris the Animal in Men in Black 3. In 2012, Jemaine co-wrote, co-directed, and starred in a vampire mockumentary titled What We Do in the Shadows with Taika Waititi. It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on 19 January 2014. He also reprised his role as Nigel in Rio 2.
Clement has starred in television commercials internationally and provided voiceovers for many others in New Zealand. On 5 February 2006, Outback Steakhouse began running a series of television commercials starring Clement during Super Bowl XL in which Clement pretends to be Australian and feigns an Australian accent. One of the long - running gags of Flight of the Conchords is the traditional rivalry between New Zealand and Australia and the differences between their accents. The campaign ended in July 2006.
Clement has been involved in award - winning radio work. In 1999, Clement was a Radio Awards Winner as writer for Trashed, for Channel Z, Wellington. In 2000, he was given a Special Radio Awards Commendation for The Sunglass Store.
Besides his television work on Flight of the Conchords, Clement was a writer and cast member of the television shows Skitz and Tellylaughs in New Zealand. Clement, with fellow Conchord member Bret McKenzie, guest starred as a pair of camp counselors in "Elementary School Musical '', the season premiere of the 22nd season of The Simpsons, which aired on 26 September 2010.
Clement also played the role of a prisoner in a Russian gulag in the 2014 film Muppets Most Wanted, a sequel to The Muppets (2011).
Clement was featured as one of 2008 's "100 Sexiest People '' in a special edition of the Australian magazine Who. Fellow Conchord member McKenzie appeared on the same list.
In 2015, Clement voiced a horse in two DirecTV commercials. In the same year, he voiced a "mind - reading fart '' on an episode of the Adult Swim animated series Rick And Morty, where he performed the song "Goodbye Moonmen ''. Clement also starred in the independent film, People Places Things, which received positive reviews.
In 2016, Clement lent his voice to Tamatoa, a giant coconut crab, in the Disney animated film Moana, both in English, and the Maori dub. He based the character 's voice on that of David Bowie.
In 2017, Clement played Oliver Bird in the FX TV series Legion. He also plays Sauron in The Lego Batman Movie.
In August 2008, Clement married his longtime girlfriend, theatre actress and playwright Miranda Manasiadis. Their son Sophocles Iraia Clement was born in October 2008 in New York City.
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who played dr dre in all eyes on me | All Eyez on Me (film) - Wikipedia
All Eyez on Me is a 2017 American biographical drama film about hip - hop artist Tupac Shakur, directed by Benny Boom and written by Jeremy Haft, Eddie Gonzalez and Steven Bagatourian. Titled after Shakur 's 1996 fourth studio album of the same name, the film stars Demetrius Shipp Jr. as Shakur with Kat Graham, Lauren Cohan, Hill Harper and Danai Gurira in supporting roles.
Principal photography began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. All Eyez on Me premiered on June 14, 2017, in Los Angeles and was released in the United States on June 16, 2017, on what would have been Shakur 's 46th birthday. The film received negative reviews from critics but a positive response from audiences, and grossed $54 million worldwide.
At the Clinton Correctional Facility in 1995, a documentary filmmaker shows up with his crew and equipment to sit down with Tupac Shakur.
In 1971, Tupac 's mother, Afeni Shakur, is released from prison along with her fellow Black Panther Party following her acquittal of several charges. She is pregnant with Tupac and voices her complaints to a reporter over the unfair treatment of black individuals in the country from not only society, but the system sworn to protect its citizens.
From an early age, Tupac is taught about black pride, and is witness to multiple injustices in his neighborhood. His stepfather, Mutulu, is a revolutionary who has influenced Afeni, who in turn influences her son and Tupac 's sister Set. Mutulu is wanted by the FBI for a robbery of an armored truck, and the murder of two officers and a guard. FBI agents follow Afeni and her children. Mutulu is eventually caught during a raid when cops burst into the Shakurs ' apartment, with cops violently pinning Tupac and his sister to the ground.
As Tupac gets older, he distances himself more and more from his mother 's ideals and behavior. He attends the Baltimore School for the Arts, where he becomes close friends with Jada Pinkett.
Tupac 's music career begins when he joins Digital Underground for their hit "Same Song ''. Under his manager, Leila Steinberg, he begins to have hip - hop albums produced. Although his music becomes popular, he gets into hot water with record producers for songs like "Brenda 's Got a Baby '', which is about a young girl who is raped by her cousin, has a baby on the bathroom floor, turns to prostitution and selling drugs for money, and how she is ultimately murdered on the streets. Tupac argues that the song comes from real stories in the streets of the impoverished and how nobody is willing to help people like the subject of the song.
Tupac also begins acting in movies such as Juice, as well as collaborating with other artists like Biggie Smalls, both performing to excited crowds at venues. He generates as much praise as he does controversy in what he does outside of music, such as donating money to poor black citizens.
Outside of his performances, Tupac has run - ins with officers when he is caught jaywalking, and is beaten by two officers. On another occasion, he and one of his friends catch two white men assaulting a black man. When they try to intervene, one man pulls a gun on Tupac. He goes back to his limo and gets his own gun. It soon reveals that the two men were off - duty cops, and Tupac is arrested for shooting at them.
Tupac becomes involved with a dealer named Nigel, and they do business together in music. When things go awry, Tupac and Nigel have a quarrel. Nigel 's guys want to retaliate against Tupac, but Nigel says that nobody touches Tupac unless he says so. The other guys appear to go against Nigel 's orders.
In 1993, Tupac meets a young woman named Briana, and she is with Tupac along with other men in a hotel room one night. Briana barges into his room hours later crying and screaming, indicating that the other men raped her. Tupac is later on trial for rape and harassment charges.
On November 30, 1994, Tupac is attacked by three men in the lobby of Quad Recording Studios. Tupac is shot five times before the men flee. Biggie and other guys in Tupac 's entourage rush to him before he is taken to the hospital. When Biggie tries to visit Tupac, he is turned down for not being a family member. Tupac checks himself out of the hospital early against doctors ' orders.
The following day, Tupac 's sentence is declared in his trial. He is found not guilty of rape, but is found guilty of illegal touching, and is thus sentenced to eighteen months in prison.
While in prison, Tupac hears Biggie 's song "Who Shot Ya? '', and interprets it as a diss track bragging about Biggie 's alleged involvement in his shooting. Tupac encounters Mutulu in there, who encourages him to work after he gets out. Mutulu later murders another inmate by stabbing him to death. Tupac is also assaulted by two guards while in prison.
Following his release, Tupac signs to Death Row Records under Suge Knight, who also collaborates with other artists, like Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Tupac and Dre work on the hit song "California Love ''. He releases the track "Hit Em Up '' as a response to "Who Shot Ya? '' in which Tupac brags about supposedly having an affair with Biggie 's wife Faith Evans.
In Tupac 's final months, he decides to part ways with Death Row Records to start his own company to produce more music, movies, and TV shows. Suge reminds Tupac that he is still in debt from other business dealings. Later, however, Suge offers Tupac a chance to become partners, with Suge taking over the West Coast part of Death Row, and Tupac taking over the East Coast. Tupac agrees to it.
On September 7, 1996, Tupac, Suge, and the rest of their group are leaving the Mike Tyson vs. Bruce Seldon boxing match at the MGM Grand Las Vegas. One of the Death Row guys alerts Tupac and Suge to a gang member that jumped him and stole his chain. Tupac and company confront the gang member, and Tupac attacks him, knocking him to the ground. Suge and his guys start assaulting the man as Tupac is pulled off of him. Tupac stops by his hotel to change his clothes. He tells Kidada about the situation. She tries to go with him, but Tupac assures her he will only be gone for an hour.
Tupac and Suge drive from the hotel with the rest of his guys following them. At the intersection of Flamingo Road and Koval Lane, a Cadillac pulls alongside Tupac 's BMW and Tupac is shot multiple times before the Cadillac flees the scene.
The ending text states that six days later, Tupac was pronounced dead. To this day, his murder remains unsolved. By the age of 25, he released 15 albums, seven posthumous albums, 713 songs, and seven movies.
On February 10, 2011, it was announced that Morgan Creek Productions had developed and would finance and produce the rap legend Tupac Amaru Shakur 's biopic titled Tupac, which would follow his life from growing up to his death. Antoine Fuqua was attached as the director of the film, and the script was from Steven Bagatourian, Stephen J. Rivele, and Christopher Wilkinson. James G. Robinson and David C. Robinson would produce the film along with Program Pictures ' L.T. Hutton, and Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur as executive producer, with production scheduled to begin that summer. On September 19, 2013, Emmett / Furla / Oasis Films came on board to co-finance and co-produce the $45 million budgeted film along with Morgan Creek. Ed Gonzalez and Jeremy Haft were writing the latest draft of the film. On February 12, 2014, John Singleton again signed on to rewrite, direct and produce the film. On April 16, 2014, Open Road Films acquired the United States distribution rights to the film. Gonzalez, Haft, and Singleton wrote the latest draft of the script for the film, about Tupac 's life from his growing up in East Harlem to becoming a legendary songwriter and hip - hop artist, to his death in Las Vegas at the age of 25. On April 7, 2015, it was revealed that Singleton exited the film due to some major creative differences, while Carl Franklin was being eyed to hold the direction duties. On October 28, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Emmett / Furla / Oasis had sued Morgan Creek over $10 million for breaking the companies co-production agreement signed in September 2013. In the agreement, terms were not to exceed the production budget above $30 million, mutual approval for the lead actor 's selection, filming schedule, and distribution and sales agreements. Randall Emmett and George Furla also claimed that they all first signed a distribution deal with Open Road, which Morgan Creek rejected, and then Morgan Creek inked a new deal with Open Road without mutual approval.
On November 30, 2015, it was reported that music director Benny Boom would be directing the film now replacing Franklin. Early - December 2015, the film 's title was confirmed to be All Eyez On Me On December 24, 2015, newcomer Demetrius Shipp, Jr. was cast in the film to play the role of Tupac. Jamal Woolard also joined the film to play the role of The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac 's former friend turned rival, reprising the role Woolard portrayed in the 2009 film Notorious. On January 11, 2016, Danai Gurira was added to the film 's cast to play Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur, a political activist and member of the Black Panthers. Following Gurira 's casting, Variety reported on the next day that Kat Graham had signed on to play Jada Pinkett, a friend of Tupac from the Baltimore School for the Arts. It was revealed later that Dominic L. Santana had been cast as record producer Suge Knight.
On January 13, Jamie Hector signed on to star as Mutulu Shakur, Tupac 's stepfather. On January 15, Lauren Cohan joined the film 's cast to play the role of Leila Steinberg, a key figure in Tupac 's life as his mentor. Money B would appear in the film as himself, Tupac 's coworker at Digital Underground, Clifton Powell as Floyd, inmate at Clinton Correctional Facility, and Johnell Young as a Tupac 's close friend, Ray Luv. On January 19, TheWrap confirmed that Grace Gibson was cast in the film to play Biggie Smalls ' wife, Faith Evans, who was reportedly in an adulterous affair with Shakur. On January 22, 2016, Keith Robinson was cast as Atron Gregory, TNT Records founder who first helped Tupac becoming a dancer and then a solo artist. Annie Ilonzeh was added to the cast in February 2016 to play the role of Kidada Jones, engaged to Tupac at the time of his death.
Principal photography on the film began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. Filming wrapped on April 12, 2016, in Las Vegas, Nevada.
On June 16, 2016, on what would have been Shakur 's 45th birthday, a teaser trailer for the film was released. On September 13, 2016, the 20th anniversary of Shakur 's death, a second teaser trailer was released. It was announced that the film will be released on June 16, 2017. On February 10, 2017, a third teaser trailer was released, confirming Summit, Morgan Creek, Program Pictures, and Codeblack Films as producers and distributors. On April 6, 2017, a fourth trailer was released.
No official soundtrack album was released to accompany the movie 's release.
All Eyez on Me grossed $44.8 million in the United States and Canada and $10 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $54.8 million, against a production budget of $40 million.
In North America, All Eyez on Me was released on June 16, 2017, alongside Rough Night, 47 Meters Down and Cars 3, and was originally projected to gross $17 -- 20 million from 2,471 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $12.8 million on Friday (including $3.1 million from Thursday night previews), increasing weekend estimates to $31 million. It ended up debuting to $26.4 million, finishing 3rd at the box office behind Cars 3 ($53.7 million) and Wonder Woman ($41.3 million). Deadline.com attributed the film 's success to the release corresponding with Tupac 's birthday, as well as audience interest on the subject matter following the success of Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Despite its surprising opening weekend success, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend, dropping 78 % to $5.8 million, the 16th largest such decline in history. In its third weekend the film was pulled from 1,213 theaters and dropped another 68.6 % to $1.8 million, finishing 11th at the box office.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 17 % based on 77 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Despite Demetrius Shipp Jr. 's fine lead performance, All Eyez on Me is mostly a surface - skimming, by - the - numbers biopic of a larger - than - life icon. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 38 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Glenn Kenny of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying: "Almost all the dialogue is that flat - footed. It 's a stark contrast to the almost always vivid power of Shakur 's own words, which could be profoundly empathetic and pettily profane. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "Comprehensive but sketchy, richly atmospheric but often under - dramatized, it is not, in the end, a very good movie (there are a few scenes, like Tupac 's initial meeting with Ted Field of Interscope Records, that are embarrassingly bad). Yet it 's highly worth seeing because in its volatility and hunger, and the desperation of its violence, it captures something about the space in which Tupac Shakur lived: a place that wanted to be all about pride and power, but was really about flying over the abyss. ''
On her Twitter account, Jada Pinkett Smith stated that the film contained many inaccuracies about her relationship with Tupac and why he left for Los Angeles. Smith claimed that Tupac never read the poem he read to her character in the film and that she had no knowledge that it even existed until it was published in his book. She also stated that she never attended one of Tupac 's shows at his request and that there was no backstage argument. She did, however, praise the performances of Shipp and Graham. Both Sean Combs and Suge Knight gave blessings to the film, praising their respective portrayals.
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who was the reigning monarch on christmas day c1760 | List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign - wikipedia
The following is a list, ordered by length of reign, of the monarchs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927 -- present), the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 -- 1927), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707 -- 1801), the Kingdom of England (871 -- 1707), the Kingdom of Scotland (878 -- 1707), the Kingdom of Ireland (1542 -- 1800), and the Principality of Wales (1216 -- 1542).
Queen Elizabeth II became the longest - reigning British monarch on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great - great - grandmother Victoria. On 6 February 2017 she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne.
These are the ten longest reigning monarchs in the British Isles for whom there is reliable recorded evidence.
The longest claim by a pretender was that of James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender ''), who was the Jacobite pretender to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland for 64 years, 3 months, and 16 days (17 September 1701 -- 1 January 1766).
On 9 September 2015 (at the age of 89 years, 141 days), Elizabeth II became the longest - reigning British monarch and the longest - reigning female monarch in world history. On 23 May 2016 (at the age of 90 years, 32 days), her reign surpassed the claimed reign of James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender ''). On 13 October 2016 (at the age of 90 years, 175 days), she became the world 's longest - reigning current monarch (and the world 's longest - serving current head of state) after the death of Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), King of Thailand.
If she is still reigning on --
On 1 January 1801 the Kingdom of Great Britain united with the Kingdom of Ireland to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, becoming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland by Act of Parliament in 1927 following the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922.
On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England united with the Kingdom of Scotland as the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Includes English monarchs from the installation of Alfred the Great as King of Wessex in 871 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Includes Scottish monarchs from the installation of Kenneth I (House of Alpin) in 848 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
The High King of Ireland (846 -- 1198) was primarily a titular title (with the exception of Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair who was regarded as the first "King of Ireland ''). The later Kingdom of Ireland (1542 -- 1800) came into being under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the long title of which was "An Act that the King of England, his Heirs and Successors, be Kings of Ireland ''. In 1801 the Irish crown became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The Principality (or Kingdom) of Gwynedd (5th century -- 1216) was based in northwest Wales, its rulers were repeatedly acclaimed as "King of the Britons '' before losing their power in civil wars or Saxon and Norman invasions. In 1216 it was superseded by the title Principality of Wales, although the new title was not first used until the 1240s.
The Principality of Wales (1216 -- 1542) was a client state of England for much of its history, except for brief periods when it was de facto independent under a Welsh Prince of Wales (see House of Aberffraw). From 1301 it was first used as a title of the English (and later British) heir apparent. The Laws in Wales Acts 1535 -- 1542 formally incorporated all of Wales within the Kingdom of England.
Charles, Prince of Wales, is the longest - serving Prince of Wales, with a tenure of 7004220080000000000 ♠ 60 years, 93 days since his proclamation as such in 1958.
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catfish the tv show season 7 episode 13 recap | Catfish: the TV show - Wikipedia
Catfish: The TV Show is an American reality - based documentary television series airing on MTV about the truths and lies of online dating. The series is based on the 2010 film Catfish and is co-hosted by Nev Schulman and Max Joseph. It premiered on November 12, 2012. The show has been renewed for season 7, which premiered on January 3, 2018. In May 2018, filming of season 7 was suspended due to sexual misconduct allegations brought against Schulman until the suspension was lifted after the report of sexual misconduct was found to be "not credible ''. It was announced that Joseph would leave the show after 7 seasons.
Why the term "catfish '' is used to describe people who portray someone else online
On the Internet, a "catfish '' is a person who creates fake personal profiles on social media sites using someone else 's pictures and false biographical information to pretend to be someone other than themselves. These "catfish '' usually intend to trick an unsuspecting person or more into falling in love with them. The term "catfish '' is derived from the title of the previously - mentioned 2010 documentary, in which filmmaker Schulman discovers that the woman with whom he 'd been carrying on an online relationship had not been honest in describing herself.
MTV and the Catfish film 's producers, Schulman and Joseph, help people who are emotionally entangled with someone they have never met in real life. Each episode is an investigation into whether or not the other participant in the virtual relationship is legitimate or if they are, in fact, a "catfish ''. Some couples have been communicating for a few months -- others, for years.
Nev claims that he has received requests from people asking him for his help in determining whether or not their online - only lover is lying or truthful about their identity. In each episode the hosts help a different individual with a different story, travelling to wherever they live and using background checks and research to uncover the truth. Nev and Max contact the other person to arrange a first - ever meeting between the two virtual lovers, then document how both people are impacted. Schulman said at the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2012 that it 's not all about pulling the rug out from under people, explaining:
Whether or not two people are totally lying to each other and it turns out to be a huge disaster, that 's only the first part of the story. We then want to know why they are doing it, who they are, what they are feeling, what led them to this place, and why that resonates with thousands of other young people who have the same feelings, who do n't have someone to talk to or do n't know how to express themselves.
The show presents the "hopeful '' as the one who initiates contact with Schulman and Joseph in an attempt to discover the true identity of their online romance, or the "catfish ''. Some of the show 's casting calls do solicit stories from hopefuls, and casting director Michael Esposito explained in August 2015 that the show can receive more than a hundred applications a day.
A 2013 Hollywood.com report, however, explained that despite the broadcast show being structured as a search by the hopeful for true identity of the catfish, it is usually the catfish who make the first contact with MTV. Producers then proceed to gather information about the deception from the catfish and contact the hopeful afterwards. For legal reasons, all persons involved on the series sign contracts agreeing to appear on camera prior to the episode even entering production. In Season 3 's Miranda and Camryn episode, the catfish did change their mind about meeting the hopeful, and only appeared via Skype.
The hosts are given no information about the catfish, and while the catfish has already agreed to appear on the show, they do not know when or how the hosts will be looking for them.
Nev Schulman explained more about the reverse - engineering in an August 2014 interview:
A lot of the stories that we get come from the catfish side of things. People who feel so terrible (...) that they 've been lying to a friend or a lover on the internet for a long time. They want to come clean, but they fear if they simply told the truth, the other person would (...) be very upset that they 've been lied to and deceived, and likely discard them. And so they 're hopeful that by coming on the show (...) maybe we can facilitate some kind of amicable exchange, that they can be heard, explain themselves in a more objective and non-judgmental way. So (the producers) orchestrate very delicately, and staying out of it as much as possible, a scenario by which (...) the hopeful reaches out to me (...). And so (Max and I) just pick up from there. (The hopeful has) no idea of course that the other person 's already expressed interest in meeting. And the (catfish) does n't know that we 're actually doing it. They just sorta think maybe it could happen. So they do n't know when or why or how. So it 's tricky, but everything is real. The feelings are real, the relationships are real. We have n't created any scenarios, we do n't tell people what to say or do. It 's very unpredictable.
The film Catfish was criticized and its authenticity questioned. Executive producer Tom Forman stresses that the TV version wo n't just tell "stories of deception. We 've also stumbled into some love stories. We found people who are exactly who they say they are. We are putting those on television, too. We find people who are willing to get past an initial deception and really do make a connection at the end -- in person and in real life. That 's been really heartwarming. So I think, when we set out, we really do n't know how it 's going to end: good, bad, or in the middle somewhere ''.
In January 2016, MTV began casting a proposed UK version of the show through online ads that do specifically target the catfish, not the hopeful: "Tired of keeping secrets from your online love? Come clean '' and "Are you a secret Catfish? It 's time to come clean ''. The project was cancelled, but Schulman has said he would like to make a pan-European version.
Catfish: The TV Show is an American television series that began airing on MTV on November 12, 2012. The second series began airing on June 25, 2013. Season 3 and Season 4 were premiered on May 7, 2014 and February 25, 2015, respectively. Season 5 began airing on February 24, 2016.
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Bianca, a lesbian, met Brogan via Facebook. The pair had never video - chatted, but when the subject was broached, Brogan vanished out of the blue and deleted her Facebook account. A year later, she reactivated and reconnected with Bianca. Brogan Acaster is then traced to a blog with shots of a pregnant woman with the same tattoos that Bianca had seen through pictures. Brogan is eventually revealed to be Tia who confessed to creating the profile with no motive, but eventually getting immersed in it. She discloses that she was a victim of sexual assault at the age of 14. In the follow - up, Bianca was n't ready to let Tia into her life meaningfully, while Tia is repentant and hopes for a reconciliation.
At the beginning of the episode, Max reveals that he will not be joining Nev right away this season as he is working on a film with Zac Efron called We Are Your Friends. Charlamagne Tha God fills in for Max. 26 - year - old Miracle from Milwaukee, Wisconsin contacts Nev to help her connect with Javonni, whom she believes to be the love of her life. Javonni claimed to be a music producer. When Nev and Charlamagne take Miracle to meet Javonni, he is revealed to be Kara. Kara created the Javonni profile to help out a friend who thought her boyfriend was cheating on her. Kara continued to talk to Miracle because she was lonely and bored after complications with Lupus kept her homebound. Miracle and Kara agree to be friends. In the epilogue, Kara has not replied to Miracle 's Facebook messages, but says she plans to.
Nev enlists the help of Cassidy Wolf to help Courtney find out the true identity of Isaak who wrote into the show pretending to be Courtney. Courtney met Issak on a dating website. The two were supposed to meet, but Courtney called off the meeting and ended all contact after she realized Isaak had been using a fake picture. At the meetup, Isaak is revealed to be an asexual man who was uncomfortable sharing information on the internet which is why he used a fake picture. Courtney confronts Isaak about his dishonesty. The two come to an agreement that they will never have contact again in the future. In the epilogue, Isaak has had no contact with Courtney and has had some luck dating as himself. Courtney has chosen to focus on her family and stick to traditional dating.
Nev is joined by Angel Haze to help Harold meet Armani. Harold has seen only one picture of Armani over a span of four years and he reveals that Armani has mothered a child after being impregnated by a jailbird. A web search for Armani 's e-mail username pops up a basketball recruitment page with a girl named Tamila on it. When met with, Tamila is uncovered as the catfish who, hand - in - glove with her friend, monitor the Armani page while corroborating the facts to unususpecting males. Tamila is light - hearted about the situation, but reveals the next day that she is insecure. She and Harold part on an unpromising note. Neither appeared in the follow - up interview, but it is seen that Tamila has failed to elicit a response from Harold who says he has forgiven her, but is not interested in reestablishing contact with her. The Armani Brown page was yet to be deleted.
Tyler Oakley and Nev help Daisy meet Marcus, whom she met through Instagram. Marcus has been the recipient of numerous gifts from Daisy, including a camera of $1000. Marcus is a video producer, but declines offers to chat with Daisy. With much ado over not wanting his private life to be in the public eye, Marcus finally agrees to meet with Daisy. He is genuine, but is not completely open about his feelings towards her. Ultimately, Daisy revealed that Marcus will always be significant to her while he says that he is not ready to pursue a romantic relationship, but they continue to remain great friends.
Alex Shaffer joins Nev in this episode. Chitara is a 28 - year - old mother of two who has fallen in love with 22 - year - old Priscilla, a professional nurse, on MocoSpace. Chitara 's plans to meet or video chat with Priscilla did not materialize. Six months into the relationship, Priscilla reveals that her mother died and shortly after, she states that she has moved on from Chitara and has fallen in love with a male. On investigating Priscilla 's MocoSpace profile, suggestive comments are found to have been posted by a female named Kiloni who states that she is a lesbian. Kiloni has multiple counterfeit profiles across the internet. When contacted on the phone, Priscilla suggests that Chitara should move on with her life just as she did, but agrees to meet with her. Priscilla is revealed to be an 18 - year - old girl named Ashanti who states that she has been using fake profiles since she was 13 as an escapism from her depressing reality. Two months later, it is seen that Chitara is focusing on raising her children and has terminated contact with Ashanti who refused the follow - up interview. The Priscilla profile has not been active since.
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when does negan appear on the walking dead | Negan - wikipedia
Negan is a fictional character in the comic book series The Walking Dead and in the television series of the same name. He is the leader of a group of roughly 500 survivors in the Sanctuary, called the Saviors, a group that enslaves other survivor communities, and forces them to pay tribute to him. In the comics, the character 's appearance is based on Henry Rollins, as confirmed by Charlie Adlard; Robert Kirkman worked in his excessive use of profanity, derived from other people he knew. Jeffrey Dean Morgan portrays Negan in the television series of the same name and first appeared in the series ' sixth season finale.
After Rick Grimes and his fellow survivors agree to begin a trading relationship with the Hilltop Colony, they are ambushed by the Saviors and are forced to obey Negan 's orders to give the Saviors half of their supplies, as the other communities do. Initially obedient, Rick and the others secretly conspire with other communities in the Washington, D.C. area to prepare for war against the Saviors. Negan resides in an abandoned factory, where most of the attractive women -- formerly other men 's girlfriends or wives -- act as his wives. He soon grows fond of Rick 's son, Carl Grimes.
Morgan has received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Negan in the television series upon his debut, earning himself the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series, MTV Movie Award for Best Villain, and Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television. When offered the role of Negan, Morgan immediately accepted as he was already a fan of The Walking Dead.
Robert Kirkman conceptualized the character after scrapping the idea of Rick Grimes being forced to protect his son, Carl Grimes, by killing fellow survivor Glenn Rhee.
Negan controls his subordinates by intimidation, reward and punishment. Brutal, foul - mouthed and possessing a twisted sense of humor, Negan carries a barbed wire - wrapped baseball bat named Lucille. While he can be psychopathically merciless, he is also (at least superficially) empathetic, and pragmatically spares those he sees as potentially useful, and is reasonable when people attempt to negotiate with him. Negan has a penchant for provocation and power games. The stronger the resistance to his will, the more he seems to enjoy the test of wills. He has a genuine disgust for the act of rape.
Prior to the outbreak, Negan was the coach of a local high school, frequently taking bullying tactics to keep the boys in line as to try to be the "cool teacher '' in school. As his wife Lucille berates him for this behavior, she collapses, and he rushes her to the hospital where she is found to have a life - threatening cancer. As his wife is tended to, Negan tells the truth to his mistress, who immediately leaves him. When the zombie apocalypse starts, the hospital workers tell Negan they are being forced to abandon the hospital and he should leave with them, but he refuses to leave Lucille 's side. With power lost, Lucille soon dies, and Negan is shocked to find her reanimating. He flees the hospital and finds a boy being trapped by walkers, and helps to dispatch them with a fire extinguisher. In return, Negan asks the boy to kill Lucille for him.
At some point after the outbreak, Negan is found by a group led by a man named Dwight. He slowly took control over this group from Dwight, thus forming the Saviors and fiercely ruled over his group. Negan, along with his team (which includes at least 50 or more other men), had made a deal with the Hilltop Colony: the Saviors would use the weaponry the other group was lacking to pull all zombies wandering near the Hilltop 's premises. In return, the Saviors would obtain half of Hilltop 's supplies, such as livestock and crops. To get his point across, if a potential problem would arise, Negan and his men would resort to cruel measures. For example, if they sensed they were being tracked, or if they believed they were n't getting sufficient supplies, the Saviors beat or killed people from Hilltop. The Saviors also sent "messages '' to the Hilltop community, which were usually very deadly, such as Ethan having to kill Gregory.
Later, Negan, along with 50 other Saviors, snuck up on Rick 's group and subdued Rick by surprise. They lined up all of the survivors from the van (Rick, Carl, Glenn, Maggie, Sophia, Michonne, and Heath), telling them that Negan wanted revenge for the Saviors who were killed. Without Rick 's consent, Negan imposed a binding deal: everything that belonged to the Alexandria Safe - Zone now belonged to the Saviors. Negan also introduced his weapon of choice; Lucille, a baseball bat covered in barbed wire. After a long talk about the new world order and whom he should beat to death using Lucille, he finally chose his victim at random: Glenn. Maggie panicked, while Glenn tried talking Negan out of it. However, Negan ignored him and used Lucille to smash Glenn 's skull. Negan laughed, when Glenn attempted to get to his feet, hiking, "He 's taking it like a champ '', before swinging the bat again, dislocating Glenn 's jaw and beating Glenn to death. Glenn 's last words were "Maggie, I 'll find you! Maggie! ''. Negan told the mourning and crying group that the Saviors would be back in one week to collect half of everything that Alexandria Safe - Zone owned, or there would be more killings. Rick vowed to avenge Glenn 's murder and kill Negan. Negan laughed at this, beat Rick with his bare hands, and then turned around, leaving the survivors with Glenn 's mangled corpse.
Negan and the Saviors later arrived at the Alexandria Safe - Zone for their first offering. Spencer Monroe arrived at the gate, questioning Negan 's identity, and Negan laughs, referencing the events of Issue 100. Bemused that not everyone knows his name, Negan remarks that he "had to make a pretty fucking strong first impression '' and asks Spencer to get Rick. When Spencer leaves, Negan and the Saviors begin killing the roamers in the surrounding area. While the Saviors scavenge each of the houses for supplies, Negan makes several rude comments about his beating of Glenn, about Olivia being overweight, and towards Carl when Carl threatens him. Negan also forces Rick to hold "Lucille '' while he scavenges the Safe - Zone. When Denise threatens a Savior for taking important medical supplies (all their opioid painkillers), and Rick attempts to reason with Negan, Negan tells the group that their big walls are the only medicine they need. Before Negan departs, he retrieves "Lucille '' from Rick and whispers, "I just slid my dick down your throat, and you thanked me for it. ''
Negan and his men depart from the Safe - Zone with supplies, but, unbeknownst to them, Carl is hiding in the truck with an assault rifle. Once the Saviors get back to their base, Negan is amazed to see that Dwight is still alive. "There is always next time, I suppose, '' he says, much to Dwight 's disgust. A Savior finds Carl, and Carl uses the rifle to kill six Saviors. They surround Carl, and he demands to speak with Negan. When Negan arrives, Carl fires at them until he loses control of his gun. Dwight is about to kill Carl when Negan stops Dwight and says, "Is that any way to treat our new guest? ''
Instead of taking immediate action against young Carl, Negan shows interest in getting to know the child. He goes as far as to lead him through the Saviors ' facilities, revealing that he is the leader of a cult - like domain of selfless followers who bow to his every word and command. Many followers in his ranks are living on a point system in order to sustain their lives, though many give into his graces in exchange for a better lifestyle, most notably the women in his "harem '' whom he considers his "wives ''.
It is brought to Negan 's attention that one of his many wives, Amber, has committed adultery against him with her former lover. As Negan goes to handle the situation, he brings Carl along to see his wives and how he handles his affairs, before degrading the terrified Amber in front of them all. Afterward, Negan and Carl share a private moment in Negan 's quarters, where he reveals that he 'd like to get to know Carl a little better, but he gets distracted by Carl 's bandaged face. He orders Carl to remove the bandages, showing interest in seeing the injury to his eye. Carl allows him to see it only after being threatened; he removes the bandages to reveal the disturbing results of having been shot. Negan, in a state of disbelief and awe, jokingly mocks the deformity and goes as far as to ask Carl if he can touch the part of his skull showing through Carl 's exposed eye - socket, which causes Carl to break finally and cry. This appears to have an odd effect on Negan, who takes back the gesture and apologizes, seeing that he has finally found a weakness in the child he finds so dangerous.
They are interrupted by one of Negan 's followers who returns "Lucille '' to him and leaves them alone once again. Negan reverts to coldness and orders Carl to sing a song for him while he swings the bat dangerously close. After this intense encounter, they are interrupted once again, and Negan is told the iron is ready. Negan has Carl hold "Lucille '' while he follows him to witness the event.
In a ritualistic fashion, complete with call and response chanting, with the followers answering to Negan 's words, Negan demonstrates that whoever falls onto his bad graces is dealt with by having their face seared by a hot iron. Tied to the end of a pole, the tool is held over a fire before being handed to Negan, who presses it against the victim 's face as punishment for their betrayal. In this case, it is the face of Amber 's former lover Mark, who is left deformed in the same manner as Dwight, with a portion of his face permanently scarred and an eyeball exposed. After the ritual, Negan dismisses his congregation before turning to Carl, who hands back "Lucille '', and Negan leads him away, contemplating what to do with him.
Negan runs into Rick while the latter was on his way to find Carl. Negan tells Rick how eager he is to show him "what he has done to his son ''. Rick, in a fit of rage, then attacks Negan before Negan reveals that Carl is fine, and Negan clarifies that he is eager to show Rick "that he has done nothing to his son. ''
Several days later, Negan arrives at the Alexandria Safe - Zone a few days ahead of schedule; he 's informed that the community is "practically '' out of supplies, and Rick went out looking for more. Negan decides that he will stay in Alexandria until Rick returns from the supply run. He makes an offhand comment about Olivia 's weight; she overhears it and starts to cry. He tries to apologize, but she slaps him. Despite several Saviors ' offering to kill her, Negan dismisses them. Negan is later approached by Spencer Monroe and asks for a little background on the Safe - Zone. After a while, Negan gets impatient with Spencer and wants to know why he came to him. Spencer then tells Negan that Rick is not a suitable leader for the community and asks that once Negan assassinates Rick, Spencer be given control over the Safe - Zone. Negan feels insulted that Spencer would wait until Rick was gone to tell him this. He responds by telling Spencer that Rick may hate him, but, he has guts, unlike Spencer, who acted like a coward. Negan then slashes Spencer 's stomach, killing him almost instantly, causing Spencer 's guts to spill out onto the ground. Negan then remarks that "he had guts after all. '' He then orders one of his men to clean the mess up "before a kid sees it. ''
Negan asks Denise, who witnessed the attack, where Spencer lived so he could go and shoot some pool. Rick later returns and confronts Negan, who casually blows him off. Rick demands to know what happened, or Negan wo n't leave Alexandria alive. After picking up Lucille and praying to give him strength, Negan drops the excessive profanity he normally uses and tells Rick that he feels like he 's "bent over backwards to show how reasonable I can be '' in regards to how he brought Carl back to the Safe - Zone safely, and he hints about how Spencer wanted to have him assassinate Rick. After seeing the supplies Rick has gathered, Negan initially demands all of it but then decides to take nothing, as repayment for having killed Spencer. Rick insists that they take their share, and Negan has no objections. As the Saviors are driving back to the foundry, Negan notices Rick and a few others are following them. An instant later, the driver is shot and killed. Confused and angry, Negan takes Lucille and sees Rick pointing a gun at his head. Suddenly, a gunshot is heard, and Rick 's gun is destroyed as well as those of the others who came out with him. Negan remarks on how stupid Rick and the others are to use bullets on the roamers instead of saving them for "the much more dangerous thinkers '' (i.e., the living). Negan reveals that before every pickup, he has a back - up team armed with guns surround the Safe - Zone and guard the area while he and the other Saviors go in and salvage for supplies. With a crazed smile on his face, Negan leans into Rick and says that he and the Safe - Zone residents are "fucking fucked. ''
Negan smiles and says that in a stand - off situation, snipers tend to give away their position after several shots. He clarifies that Rick 's "sniper bitch is as good as dead, '' causing Rick to try and strike him. As Negan holds him off, Carl shoots off a portion of Lucille, causing the Saviors to open fire at the Safe - Zone walls. Negan orders them to stop, and is shocked and angry about the damage to Lucille. Rick tackles him from behind, but Negan subdues him once more. He calls Carl a one - eyed asshole and shouts for Carl to be thrown over the wall, saying: "I want him to pay for what he 's done! '' Rick tries to object, but Negan beats him and issues an ultimatum: "Give me the boy, or I 'll bash in all four skulls of the people out here! '' Negan admits that he liked Carl at first and that he never had a kid of his own; if he did, he wanted him to be like Carl. Rick says that if Carl dies, their agreement is over, but, Negan states that it already is over. He orders his men to line up Rick, Heath, Nicholas, and Holly, then begins to decide which one to kill first. He notices a figure falling from the bell tower and smugly repeats that he knew Rick 's sniper was good as dead, not realizing that it 's not Andrea, but Connor.
Negan taunts Rick about Andrea 's supposed demise, and Nicholas interrupts him, pleading for his life. Negan berates Nicholas for doing this and accuses him of being a coward. He asks Rick, Heath, or Holly to ask him to kill Nicholas and says if they do so, he will spare them. However, Heath tells him, no, and so Negan begins to pick which one of them he will kill.
Negan is interrupted when Paul Monroe grabs a Savior by the foot and uses him as a shield from the Saviors ' bullets. Negan tells his men to stand down, and when he does this, Paul leaps out of a trench and kicks the nearest Savior in the face. Paul orders Rick and the others into a trench and proceeds to fight his way towards Negan. When Paul reaches Negan, he manages to disarm him and hold him hostage. Paul stalls the Saviors until Ezekiel and his men arrive. Negan breaks free from Paul and runs to a truck, where he retreats back to the Sanctuary with his men. Negan is later seen back at the Sanctuary, where he gives the Saviors a speech about their being the dominant force in the world, and they need to remind people of that. Negan then states they are going to war.
Several days later, Rick 's army arrives at the Saviors ' base and demands that Negan come out. Initially, Negan is amused by this and begins to taunt him. Rick reveals that they know there are women, children, and others inside who are n't part of this fight, he offers a chance to surrender and let them live; for the rest, he reaffirms his old saying: "You kill, and you die. '' Negan plays along with it and asks what will happen if he refuses. After hearing that "whatever happens, happens '' Negan thinks for a split second and blatantly refuses Rick 's offer. He muses that if he thinks the army he 's assembled "can actually accomplish something... that 's fucking rich. '' He briefly entertains the idea of letting Rick 's plan go through only to reveal a wildcard; after the ambush at Alexandria, Negan ordered Gregory kidnapped and brought to him. Afraid of what Negan might do, Gregory quickly pledged his allegiance (and that of the Hilltop) to Negan and the Saviors. After Gregory informed his loyalty towards Negan, he told Negan that the majority of Rick 's army was people from the Hilltop Colony. Negan is pleased with this, but when Rick 's army arrived, he is furious that only eight people accept the ultimatum and leave. Negan berates Gregory for this misinformation and kicks him off the balcony. He refuses Rick 's offer once more, and his snipers begin to fire at the militia. Negan asks Lucille if she "believes this shit '' and retreats from the bullets and falling glass. He calls Dwight, ordering him to bring the men from the outposts back to help drive off Rick 's army. Dwight agrees but due to the commotion, Negan does n't notice the former 's hesitation to act immediately. As more men rush outside, Negan orders them to start shooting the army before all their snipers are killed. He suddenly notices that all their snipers are taking cover and is initially confused as to why Rick 's militia are shooting not the snipers, but the windows. He then notices the large herd of zombies that are rapidly approaching the Sanctuary walls. He looks outside the fence and tells Dwight that "I hope you 're wearing your shitting pants. '' Suddenly, Holly drives through the fence, destroying a portion of it and letting the herd inside. Negan frantically orders his men back inside the foundry but notices that Holly is still alive from the crash. He sees a zombie about to kill her and dispatches it. As she looks up, Negan smiles and says that she was n't "going to get off THAT fucking easy. '' As the zombies converge on the courtyard area, the Saviors retreat inside the foundry to develop a new strategy.
Negan delivers an analogy to a group of Saviors about how you can destroy a man "by fucking his vagina '', meaning that the best way to destroy a man 's heart is by destroying the woman he loves; Negan clearly believes this to be Holly since Rick "was going to drive a car at us... you would n't let him sacrifice himself to tear our gate down. '' She corrects him by saying he 's got the wrong woman; Rick loves Andrea, and she was in love with Abraham, the man Dwight killed. Negan refuses to listen, insisting that she is the one who killed Connor "and a terrible liar. '' He then orders her taken away and goes off to clear his head. Later, Negan is seen outside with more Saviors trying to clear the courtyard of all the zombies, swearing that if any of them die he will "fuck them up. '' Eventually, too many roamers pour in the fence and Negan 's group retreat inside once more. Negan realizes that if the herd keeps them stuck inside for more than one day, they will all be dead, and he orders squads outside every two hours to clean up the infestation by any means necessary. He goes to interrogate Holly some more but catches David in the middle of trying to rape her. Negan demands that he get away from her and grabs him by the collar. He angrily reminds David one of the Savior 's main rules: "We do n't rape '', thus proving Negan does hate sexual violence. As punishment for him breaking this rule, Negan proceeds to stab David in the neck and apologizes to Holly, telling her that "they (The Saviors) are n't monsters. '' After killing David, it is presumed that Negan got word of one of his outposts being overrun by Rick 's army and sent more to fortify the remaining ones. This, in turn, led to Ezekiel 's army being eradicated in a failed attack. Negan also found a way to eliminate all of the zombies that had flooded into the Sanctuary 's courtyard, for he is later seen heading towards Alexandria. When he arrives at the Safe - Zone, he throws a grenade over the wall, and it detonates, demolishing one of the houses and getting Rick 's attention. He threatens that ' there 's more where that came from ' and insists that he 's here to parlay. To support his claim, he has a blindfolded Holly brought out of his truck and offers to release her back to Rick. Rick agrees to talk only when Holly is safely back inside, to which Negan agrees. This is later shown to be a ploy as it 's revealed that Negan had Holly killed and she later reanimated. As the Alexandrians are distracted by this revelation, Negan orders his men to surround Alexandria and throws another grenade over the wall, yelling "Bombs away, motherfuckers! ''. Negan is happy seeing all the destruction and chaos and admits to Lucille that "my dick 's so hard right now... I should wrap it in barbed wire and call it ' Lucille II '. '' He asks Lucille if seeing him use the grenades makes her jealous of not being inside to take part in all the mayhem and wishes that he was inside as well watching them all burn. Davis, overhearing the conversation, awkwardly agrees that he 's got a boner too and says (they 're) hungry for death as well. Negan, confused by this, asks what the hell he 's talking about. Suddenly, Davis is shot through the eye and gunfire erupts from behind several buildings. Surprised by this, Negan orders his men behind one of the trucks. He asks for one more grenade to use as cover and tells his men "the last boat is leaving... you 'd better fucking be on it. '' He manages to escape, and they can make a fast exit. When a Savior makes an offhand comment about retreating, Negan retorts that this was n't a retreat. Pointing towards the smoke coming from Alexandria, he comments that this means they 've "just fucking won. ''
After successfully bombarding Alexandria, Negan is seen leading his men back to Sanctuary when he sees a herd of roamers attacking several people from Alexandria. He orders them to kill the roamers and wonders aloud why they are out here beyond the wall. Nevertheless, he orders Eugene and the others to be taken back with them. Later, Negan somehow finds out that Eugene was making ammunition for Rick 's army and goes to see him. Flanked by Dwight and Carson, Negan demands Eugene to begin producing ammo for the Saviors. When the latter refuses, Negan hands Carson Lucille, then proceeds to grab his own groin (referring to it as his ' crystal balls ') and tells Eugene what will happen if he refuses to cooperate; smiling, he says that he could iron Eugene 's face (while glancing at Dwight) or castrate him. Negan insists that he does n't want to do this, but threatens Eugene by saying that he does things he does n't like all the time. Eugene still refuses to betray Rick and Negan leaves Eugene "with his thoughts and his dick... while he still has it. '' After ordering Dwight to lock Eugene up and to check on the others, Negan goes to have sex with one of his wives (it is implied to be Sherry due to the look he throws at Dwight), saying that he 'll see them both the next morning. Early the following day, Negan reveals to the Saviors that he 's come up with a brilliant plan that will help them win the war. He has assembled a group of roamers inside the courtyard to demonstrate his idea, exclaiming "they are the lynchpin of our plans going forward. '' Reminding them about the fever that comes from getting bit or from any other injury caused by a roamer, Negan approaches one with Lucille. After apologizing to Lucille, Negan begins to rub it all over the roamer, covering the bat with guts and the bacteria that causes the fever. Holding up ' the new and improved Lucille, ' Negan says that even the slightest touch from Lucille will now essentially be a death sentence. He orders the Saviors to do the same to their weapons and then hit the road. Arriving at the Hilltop later that day, Negan and his men hide in the forest just outside the Hilltop. He then issues the order: "We attack at sundown. ''
Several hours later, Negan and his troops arrive at the Hilltop gates, demanding to see Rick. Kal is atop the wall and threatens them by saying they wo n't survive what 's behind the walls. Negan tells him to bring Rick, but Kal says, "you 're talking to me. '' Insulted, Negan has one of his men shoot Kal off the wall. Once again, Negan demands Rick to show himself. After no response from him, Negan orders his men to further gunk up their weapons, saying "we 're going in. '' He goes up to Dwight, making sure his arrows are covered. Dwight offhandedly talks back, but Negan dismisses it. He warns Rick one more time what will happen and then orders a truck to ram into the front gates. The truck gets shot up, but Negan issues another to take its place and has motorcycles come in as well. The Saviors pour into the Hilltop and begin to kill off the residents. As gunfire continues to erupt towards them, Negan and Dwight get separated from the other Saviors. Negan is unaware that Dwight is loading an arrow to kill him when he spots Rick away from the other survivors. He tells Dwight to shoot Rick; no matter where he aims "that muck will make him sick. '' Dwight is hesitant to do so, but Negan demands to know why he 's waiting and screams at him to shoot Rick. Dwight finally (and reluctantly) does so, hitting Rick in the side. After this, Negan declares that "without him, they 're nothing. Game fucking over. ''
After Rick is hit with the arrow, Negan and Dwight retreat to the rest of The Savior horde, hoping to devise a plan of attack against the remaining survivors at Hilltop. When night completely falls on the colony, Negan is almost accidentally shot by one of The Saviors, who states he could n't see properly in the darkness. Negan says that it is not that dark and asks one of his Saviors the status of the battle. The Savior tells him most of The Saviors are now re-grouped, and they are ready to get back on the defensive and Negan orders him and the rest of the men to get ready for their attack on the Hilltop mansion. When they begin their attack, they are immediately surrounded by many of Rick 's forces, who manage to cause Negan to order and retreat and head back to The Savior camps on the hillside near Hilltop. After his and The Saviors ' retreat, Negan is seen back at the camp alongside Dwight, who questions if camping so close to Hilltop is a good idea. Negan says that they are doing it and remarks that he sometimes wonders if Dwight has ever had a brain in his head. He elaborates by saying that Rick 's forces wo n't have enough manpower to counterattack and that because Dwight shot Rick with an arrow, his death will cause the remaining forces to bow back down to Negan, and he says that he will be their Savior again, as long as they let him urinate on Rick 's dead body. Seeing the look on Dwight 's face, Negan says that there 's nothing weird about that; Negan says that since Rick 's ruined everything, "it 'd be weird if I DIDN 'T piss all over his dead, bloated body. '' He is informed that Carson has escaped with Eugene. Negan tells him not to worry about it, and that they will deal with them later. Negan arrives at Hilltop 's gates and shoots twice into the air. He claims that he 's here to accept their surrender and asks them to send whoever is now in charge out. He swears the area he 's in will be a safe zone, and there wo n't be any bloodshed. After getting impatient, Negan threatens to come back inside when Rick exits the Hilltop. Bowled over with shock to see him still alive, Negan turns towards Dwight for an answer, but Rick tells him to "look at me. '' Overcoming his initial shock, Negan asks Rick to surrender, to "let things go back the way they were '' but Rick refuses. Negan repeats that he only kills people to make an example and threatens Rick that he will do so again if pushed too far, but Rick replies by saying he 's "the stupidest fucking person still alive. '' Taken aback, Negan asks what he 's talking about. Rick goes on to say that they should pool their resources and people together. Negan does n't believe him, saying that with the system he 's been using, he is saving lives. Rick tells him in the current situation, the only ones who are winning are the undead; the only way to get through this is by working together. Negan takes this all in, and Rick says that they can take their supplies, but they must give the survivors something in return; make supplies of their own to give or trade for others via a barter system. A fog seems to lift from Negan 's mind and finally sees what Rick has been talking about; he realizes that his actions and methods have only helped himself while the communities he 's been threatening have suffered. Negan says he 's been wrong all along and that Rick is right. Rick then slashes Negan 's throat with a knife, responding "Good. '' Caught by surprise, Negan begins bleeding out while Rick begins to address the remaining Saviors. Negan then tackles Rick and begins beating him. Despite Rick putting up a fight, Negan catches one of Rick 's legs and breaks it. Laughing, he eventually passes out due to blood loss. He eventually wakes up inside one of the rooms in the Hilltop and sees Rick standing over him. He admits to Rick that during the conversation Rick had with Carl, he was able only to catch bits and pieces of it. He knows that Rick decided not to kill him, but asks what 's going to happen now. Rick reveals that he 's going to keep Negan alive so he can see how much Negan was holding the survivors back. Rick also tells Negan that he 's going to rot in jail until he dies an old man.
Two years after the war, Carl goes to the basement of an unknown house and talks to a figure in the shadows. He tells the figure of how he, Mikey and some other boys went to a girl 's house after class, and that she showed them her breasts. He says it was cool and all, but he had a crush on her; after this, he is not sure, remarking how he does not want to have someone who does that sort of thing. The figure says that nothing is wrong with the girl and suggest Carl not hold this one instance against her. He then says to Carl that he enjoys their talks and that it is good for him to keep track of the time and days passed. Carl says he is leaving, but before he leaves, the figure asks him if, after all this time, all the things they have shared and the talks they have had, Carl still wants to kill him. He turns around and faces the person behind bars, simply saying: "Yes, Negan. You know I do. '' Negan asks how he was supposed to know that Carl wanted to kill him and tells him not to insult his intelligence. Negan says that he thought the two of them were friends to which Carl walks away, making Negan retreat into the corner of his cell.
Negan says to Rick that his least favorite part of the day is shitting in a bucket, but it is also his favorite as Rick has to be the one to get it. Rick says that he is only bringing him food and that someone else will be out to clean his bucket later. Negan asks if Rick is taking Carl to the Hilltop, slightly shocking Rick. Negan says that he and Carl are friends and that Rick could not break that bond. Negan asks if the creaking he can hear is a windmill, making Rick say that life went on without him, just as he said it would. Negan tells Rick that he is just getting things ready for him and that he will not be in his cell forever. Rick says that he knows Negan will die behind bars, to which Negan says that he wo n't and that deep down, Rick knows he should have killed Negan. Rick asks Negan if he noticed that he does not use profanity all that much anymore and asks why that is. Negan says he does not see the point and that it is best to save his energy. Rick disagrees and responds that "It 's because I 've fucking neutered you like a dog. You 've got no fight left, you pathetic sack of shit. '' Negan stares at Rick angrily as he turns around and leaves, telling Negan to enjoy his food.
Magna and her group later come down to see who was in the jail. When they walk down the stairs to where Negan is being held, Negan grabs the bars to his cell and asks if they are here to rescue him, saying that "they 're animals. '' This shocks Magna and her group. Negan begs to be released and claims Rick is a monster who locked him up and tortured him for speaking out against him. However, Magna does not believe him, having seen actual victims of torture. Negan admits he was lying but had to give it a try. Magna and her companions leave the cell.
Some time later, Negan is bathing and having his hair cut by Olivia outside his cell door. After finishing, Negan walks back to his cell at gunpoint from Andrea, who calls him a ' fucking monster, ' much to Negan 's amusement. Olivia then proceeds to lock the door, and they both leave Negan alone. However, it turns out Olivia did n't lock Negan 's cell properly as the door swings open, which Negan notices. However, Negan decides not to escape and remains in his cell with the door open until Rick comes downstairs, then taunts him about the numerous ways he could have destroyed Alexandria without anyone realizing, but claimed to stay as sign of good faith and an offering to amend their trust. As Rick locks up the cage and leaves, Negan taunts him again by stating the only reason he 's alive is so Rick can prove to himself that he 's still a good person, and that he wants everyone else to believe he is the only one who can fix the world.
After a tumultuous community meeting regarding Rick 's proposed plan regarding the Whisperers, Rick goes to Negan 's cell and asks for his help. He fills him in on everything that has happened since they 've come into conflict with this new group. Negan advises Rick to keep his group happy, even if that means lying to them, touting his expertise as leader of the Saviors, some of whom disliked him. Rick leaves, and Negan dons a grin. When Negan hears the chants and cheers of Rick 's name at a later town meeting, Negan smiles and says, "atta boy. ''
While in his cell, Negan is approached by Brandon Rose, a young Hilltop resident who bears a grudge against Rick, Carl, and the Whisperers; Rick killed his father as an act of self - defense, Carl beat him up after he had attacked Sophia, and Alpha beheaded his mother. He proposes to help Negan escape, and Negan says he will think about it. Later on Rick and Michonne discover Negan 's empty cell. After his escape, Negan and Brandon enter Whisperer terrain. Here Brandon tells Negan that he wants Negan to pit Rick and the Whisperers against one another. In response, Negan stabs Brandon in the chest and enters the Whisperer zone alone. Shortly afterwards, Negan is ambushed by a group of Whisperers led by Beta and is taken prisoner. They bring him to Alpha. Negan introduces himself and declares his love for Alpha. Negan starts to live with the Whisperers, though without Beta 's trust. During a night at camp, Negan sees two Whisperers trying to rape a woman. He stops them but is knocked down by Beta for interfering. Alpha explains that they allow for things like this to happen in order for women to prove their strength, causing Negan to become angry with her. Later that night, Negan and Alpha have a face to face conversation where Negan reveals how dead inside this world has made him and that he knows Alpha is just pretending to have no emotions, causing Alpha to breakdown. Alpha says that maybe Negan does belong with the Whisperers after all. Negan then slits Alpha 's throat, followed by decapitating her, saying "wait until Rick gets a look at you... '', revealing Negan had no feelings for Alpha all along.
A week after disappearing, Negan turns up with Alpha 's decapitated head and shows it to Rick and Andrea, who are very hesitant to believe and trust him. Negan reassures them that he only wants trust. He says Rick 's way of thinking is inspiring and tries to convince them that his time in prison has rehabilitated him. He says he could 've taken several chances and attacked Rick, but he did n't. He wants to fight with him, not against him. Rick finally agrees to let Negan out of the cell, but not in a community. He will live in an outpost, alone, with only enough food and weaponry to keep him surviving. He is not allowed these freedoms yet, though. He is going to be monitored for a long time and will fight on the front lines against the Whisperers. He will earn his freedom after the war, unless he slips up, in which case he will be immediately killed.
In season 8, Negan vaguely states that he helped young people improve upon their weaknesses and molded them into stronger individuals. Negan later met a woman named Lucille and the pair fell in love and married. Over time however, Negan gradually became unfaithful towards her as he constantly lied and even engaged in an affair. In the onset of the outbreak, Negan was present alongside Lucille who had succumbed to an unknown illness and eventually perished. When she became a walker, Negan was unable to bring himself to put his wife down; this act of weakness would continue to haunt him and thus Negan strived to become a much stronger person.
Sometime after the outbreak, Negan established himself as the tyrannical dictator of a community of survivors called the "Saviors ''. He wields a baseball bat wrapped in barbed wire that he calls "Lucille '' (after his wife). Negan quickly gathered a large following and established outposts in various locations around the Washington, D.C. area. Within the structure of the Saviors, Negan has a right - hand man named Simon as well as several lieutenants, including Wade, Bud, Gavin, Arat and Dwight. At some point, Negan and the Saviors encountered the Hilltop Colony and extorted its leader Gregory into giving them half their supplies on a regular basis; failure to do so would result in the Saviors killing members of their community. To set an example, his goons used a baseball bat to beat a 16 - year - old resident named Rory to death, after which Gregory submitted to Negan 's demands. Negan and his men also made contact with the community known as the Kingdom and made a similar agreement with their leader King Ezekiel. At some point, Dwight fled the Saviors with his wife Sherry, sister - in - law Tina, and a truck full of supplies that they refer to as Patty. Negan subsequently sent out a large group, led by Wade, to retrieve them and the stolen supplies.
The Saviors become the main antagonists during the second half of season 6 and with their mysterious leader known as Negan being mentioned several times prior to his appearance in the season finale. His name is first heard in "No Way Out '' when a group of bikers, led by a man named Bud, accost Daryl Dixon, Abraham Ford and Sasha Williams and attempt to steal their weapons, but Daryl kills them.
In the season finale, "Last Day on Earth '', while driving the ailing Maggie Greene to the Hilltop, Rick and his group run into multiple roadblocks set by the Saviors, which eventually causes Rick 's group to travel by foot. While walking through the woods, the group is ambushed by a large contingent of the Saviors led by Negan 's right - hand man Simon, who take Rick and his group 's weapons and make them get on their knees.
Dwight also brings out Daryl, Glenn Rhee, Michonne, and Rosita Espinosa, and makes them get on their knees, too. Negan then comes out of their RV and tells Rick that he must give him all of his possessions, and that Rick and everyone else at Alexandria work for Negan now; he "owns '' them. Because Rick 's group killed a lot of Saviors, Negan tells Rick 's group they have to be punished, and he is going to beat one of them to death with "Lucille '', a bat wrapped in barbed wire. Negan ca n't decide whom to kill, so he decides to choose the victim in a game of "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '', which he recites while pointing Lucille at each member of the group, before landing on an unseen individual, saying, "you are it. '' Negan warns the group not to say anything or to move, and he begins to beat the unseen individual to death, as everyone else in the group screams.
The season premiere, "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '', reveals that Negan 's chosen victim is Abraham, whom he bludgeons to death with "Lucille ''. Enraged, Daryl rushes Negan and punches him in the face, only to be stopped by three Saviors directly. As a reprisal for Daryl 's attack, Negan beats Glenn to death in front of Maggie, his wife.
Negan then presents Rick with an ultimatum: pledge total loyalty, or the rest of the group will die. When Rick remains defiant, Negan threatens to kill Rick 's son Carl and the rest of the group unless Rick cuts the boy 's arm off. After some hesitation, Rick raises the axe; Negan stops him, knowing that he has broken the elder Grimes ' will. Negan then allows the surviving members of the group to depart with the warning that the Saviors will return in a week to collect their supplies. As insurance against further retaliation, Negan takes Daryl with him.
In the episode "The Cell '', Negan is shown to rule the Sanctuary (the main Savior stronghold) through fear and rewarding his personal army of enforcers (who identify themselves as "Negan '' in a show of loyalty). He keeps Daryl locked in a cell and hopes to break his will and mold him into one of his Saviors. He later tells Daryl about how he married Dwight 's wife, Sherry, to spare him for fleeing Negan (although Dwight got half his face burned with an iron). He offers to end Daryl 's tortures and make his life better if he submits, but Daryl refuses.
In the episode "Service '', Negan and his men arrive at Alexandria earlier than expected. He forces Rick to give him a tour while Rick holds Lucille and makes pithy comments along the way. Both Rick and Father Gabriel lied to Negan that Maggie did n't make it. He later talks Carl out of shooting a Savior (though he states he likes the boy and that Carl has "giant balls '') and decides to take all of Alexandria 's guns. When two guns go missing from the inventory, Negan threatens to kill Olivia (Ann Mahoney) if they are n't found. This is later resolved when Rick finds them as well as a hunting rifle which was n't in the armory. This impresses Negan who states that "this is something to build a relationship on '' before telling him to find them something interesting for next time. Before leaving, Negan takes back Lucille and tells Rick that "I just slid my dick down your throat and you thanked me for it '' as a way of gloating over Rick 's deference to him.
Negan next appears in the episode "Sing Me a Song '', when he meets his men returning with supplies from the Hilltop. They are attacked by Carl, who kills two of the Saviors and demands Negan come forward. Negan is nonchalant about the imminent danger though he admits to Carl that he "scares the shit out of him. '' This causes Carl to hesitate and allows for Dwight to disarm him. Negan admonishes Dwight for treating a guest that way and helps Carl up before showing him around the Sanctuary. He brings him to his harem of wives where he asks Sherry about one of his wives cheating on him with her former husband Mark. Sherry confirms it, but asks Negan to be merciful, to which he responds with surprise as he claims he 's never hurt one of them. He later sits Carl down and states that he wants to get to know him better so he should uncover his eye. When Carl begrudgingly does so, Negan pokes fun at the deformity, but when he sees Carl become visibly upset, he shows genuine remorse and apologizes stating that he was just kidding around. He later brings Carl to watch as he burns Mark 's face with a hot iron to teach everyone a lesson about following the rules.
He then decides to bring Carl back to Alexandria where they wait for Rick. He interrogates Olivia about his whereabouts and then makes a comment about her weight, which she cries about. When she stops, Negan suggests that they have sex to pass the time, causing her to slap him, which made him like her more. He tells her to make him lemonade whilst Carl gives him a tour of the Safe - Zone. The episode ends with Negan holding Judith while answering Carl 's earlier question about why he had n't killed him or his father with "I just might do that. ''
In the mid-season finale, "Hearts Still Beating '', Negan is approached in Alexandria by Spencer Monroe who attempts to bond with him over whiskey and a game of pool. The two seem to hit it off, until Spencer tells Negan about how dangerous Rick is and that he should be in charge for both of their sakes. Negan states that while Rick hates him, he respects that Rick was brave enough to threaten him and swallow his pride to protect others. Disappointed that Spencer "has no guts '' for going to him while Rick is gone, Negan eviscerates Spencer with a knife while jokingly stating that "he did have guts after all. '' This provokes Rosita to draw a gun and shoot at Negan, though she misses and instead hits Lucille. Enraged at the attempt on his life and the damage done to Lucille, Negan threatens to have Rosita 's face mutilated unless she tells him where she got the bullet. When she refuses, Negan tells his lieutenant Arat to kill someone, causing Olivia to be gunned down.
Rick, having just arrived, sees this and demands to know what happened. Negan calmly replies that he has tried to be reasonable as he returned Carl unharmed and killed Spencer for Rick. When Eugene confesses to making the bullet, Negan takes him prisoner and tells Rick that he is "way in the hole '' for this incident no matter how many supplies they gather, before departing. After this, Rick finally knows he has to stop Negan, and hereby attempts to convince other communities to put an end to Negan 's reign of terror by forming an alliance to defeat their common enemy. Negan reappears in "Hostiles and Calamities '' where he greets Eugene entering the Sanctuary. After determining that Eugene is indeed highly intelligent, Negan allows him to get comfortable within the Sanctuary and even sends him two of his wives to provide him with company. When Negan discovers that Sherry is gone, he suspects her of freeing Daryl and has Dwight beaten and thrown in a cell. When he is convinced that Dwight was n't involved and is still loyal, he sends him after Sherry only to learn that she supposedly was killed by walkers. When he finds evidence of Dr. Carson aiding in Daryl 's escape (secretly planted by Dwight), Negan throws him in the fire - pit before apologizing to Dwight for doubting him as well as for his loss. "Something They Need '' shows Negan visiting a captive Sasha Williams (who came to the Sanctuary to kill him) and discovers one of his Saviors, David, attempting to rape her. Negan states that rape is against their rules and that he does n't tolerate such behavior. David apologizes, but Negan rams a knife through his throat, stating he "does not accept his apology. '' He then apologizes to Sasha and gets her a new T - shirt to replace the one David ripped before complimenting her on her brazen attack. After confirming Rick did n't sanction it, Negan states that she would make a welcome addition to the Saviors, despite his actions against her. He then leaves her with a knife and a choice: kill herself or kill David once he reanimates to show him she 's willing to work with him. He later returns to find, to his delight, that she has killed David. He takes the knife back and informs her that she 's on the right path before stating he knows Rick is conspiring against him as he has a spy in his midst. He 's confident Sasha will be able to help him put an end to Rick 's plans.
In the season finale, "The First Day of the Rest of Your Lives '', Negan leads a convoy of Saviors to Alexandria with Simon, Dwight, Eugene and Sasha in tow with plans to bring Rick back under his control. He reveals the Scavengers (a group of survivors Rick paid to help them) are actually working for him as they hold Rick at gunpoint. Negan brings a coffin forward and reveals Sasha is inside, stating they can have her back alive and he 'll let most of them live if they meet his demands which include all their weapons, Daryl returned to him and Rick to pick someone to be killed by Lucille (among other things). He opens the coffin to find Sasha has reanimated as a walker. After fending her off, the situation devolves into a gunfight. Negan manages to capture Rick and Carl, telling them he did n't want this, but Rick has forced his hand again. Negan then prepares to kill Carl though he admits that he likes him and does n't want him to suffer. Unfortunately for Negan, the Saviors are ambushed by Ezekiel and forces from the Kingdom as well as Maggie leading a group from Hilltop. Caught off guard by Rick 's reinforcements and rapidly losing men, Negan orders a retreat. Once back at the Sanctuary, he questions Eugene as to how Sasha died in the coffin (suspecting foul play on his part) before declaring to the assembled Saviors that they are going to war.
Negan appears in the season premiere, "Mercy, '' when Rick leads an army of assembled survivors outside the Sanctuary. More amused than worried, Negan refuses to march his people out to fight Rick just to prove "that my dick is bigger than yours, it is. '' Rick offers Negan 's lieutenants and the Saviors inside the chance to surrender, but states that Negan still has to die. Negan attempts to divide them by bringing out Gregory to order the Hilltoppers to retreat, but this tactic fails. They open fire, decimating the Sanctuary walls, but Negan and his people take cover. They are then surprised by a massive herd of walkers led by Daryl before the gates are blown open and the herd funnels inside. Negan becomes trapped in a trailer with Gabriel, telling him "I hope you 're wearing your shitting pants. Because you are about to shit your pants. ''
In the mid-season finale, "How It 's Gotta Be '', a dying Carl (unknown to Negan) offers to be killed to spare the rest. Negan however attacks Alexandria anyway, and confronts Rick. After Rick is thrown through a window, he retreats from Negan into the sewers with Michonne, and Carl reveals he suffered a walker bite.
Jeffrey Dean Morgan was cast as Negan. He made his television debut in the sixth season finale.
The character of Negan has been praised by both fans and critics as an antagonist of the series.
IGN on their review of Negan 's first appearance, the 100th issue said: "The new villain already looks to be worthy addition to the book 's cast. I did n't realize how much I missed having a truly awful antagonist like The Governor in this series until now. The villain 's voice is very distinct, allowing Kirkman to toy with a very different approach to dialogue. For a series where the characters sometimes ramble on too much without making a clear point, this character is very much appreciated. '' On their review for Issue # 103, IGN felt Negan was "quickly giving the Governor a run for his money in the villainy department ''. When Negan 's community was explored as well as his relationship with Carl Grimes, it was said that "There 's a palpable tension as we wonder what fate Negan has in mind for his young enemy. But even at his most sinister, Negan remains strangely charismatic. It 's not difficult to understand how he managed to build such a lofty position for himself, complete with multiple wives and the total devotion of an entire town. ''
On the Talking Dead, for the season six finale, Morgan stated that soon after Issue # 100 was released, he had many fans approach him and told him that he was right for the role of Negan in the show.
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where to get the awesome adventures of captain spirit | The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit - wikipedia
The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit is a free graphic adventure game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Square Enix. It was released on 25 June 2018 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One as a demo for the upcoming Life Is Strange 2. The plot follows Chris Eriksen, a young boy who creates the superhero alter ego Captain Spirit to deal with the loss of his mother. The game received generally favourable reviews, praising the narrative, main character, and script, but criticising the game mechanics and aspects of the writing.
The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit is a graphic adventure set in the same universe as the Life Is Strange series, three years after the events of the original. The player assumes the role of a young boy named Chris Eriksen. It takes place in Beaver Creek, Oregon, where Chris lives with his father, Charles, who is struggling with the death of Chris ' mother. One Saturday morning, Chris creates the superhero alter ego Captain Spirit and projects his imagination onto reality. His costume is customisable, while the environment can be interacted with and contains quests like treasure hunting and exploring an imagined planet. Dialogue trees are used to respond to non-player characters. The choices that the player makes in The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit will have consequences in Life Is Strange 2, in which Chris will also make an appearance.
According to developer Dontnod Entertainment, the game fulfilled their wish to expand the Life Is Strange universe, which arose during the production of Life Is Strange 2, for which it serves as a demo. Co-directors Raoul Barbet and Michel Koch collaborated with writers Christian Divine and Jean - Luc Cano to create the story and characters. They researched the location with reference to what the protagonist 's father could bear the expense of, including the nature of his work. Dontnod used the game to experiment with mechanics from Life Is Strange; dialogue trees were improved to allow responses while moving. Using the Unreal Engine 4, Dontnod developed a new facial and physics animation system and designed original assets. It was influenced by the Japanese anime series Sailor Moon and Saint Seiya, according to Barbet. Sufjan Stevens ' "Death with Dignity '' was featured to represent the theme of loss. The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit was revealed at Microsoft 's Electronic Entertainment Expo press conference on 10 June 2018. It was initially announced to be released for free on 26 June, but later stated to release earlier; on 25 June in North America and Europe, and in Australia the following day.
The Awesome Adventures of Captain Spirit received generally favourable reviews, according to Metacritic. Destructoid 's Brett Makedonski was most struck by the game 's narrative, which also left him wanting more. Joe Juba of Game Informer took the same view and appreciated the parable between Chris ' imagination and its real life counterpart. Its explicit connections to Life Is Strange 2 held excitement for him as well. Michael Leri, writing for Game Revolution, enjoyed playing as Captain Spirit, noting that the character 's function to contrast the mundane "livens up interactions ''. James O'Connor at GameSpot thought that Chris succeeded "as a sympathetic figure '', while also praising the cutscenes for being visually inventive. He saw the script as "tight '' and called the storytelling "smart ''. GamesRadar+ 's Andy Hartup commended that it is free - to - play, agreed with O'Connor about the script 's succinctness, and said it contained charm and "genuine human drama ''. Writing for IGN, Louisa Blatt found the father - son dynamic to be emotionally satisfying, never once growing bored with the story. She also declared the setting "the most beautiful scenery I 've ever seen in a Life is Strange game ''. Adam Cook of VideoGamer.com wrote in his verdict, "As a teaser for Life is Strange 2, Captain Spirit does its job '', citing its length as what it did well.
Conversely, Makedonski disliked that it ended on a "gratuitous '' cliffhanger. Juba thought the weakest segments were the ones using traditional adventure game mechanics. Leri disparaged the writing for its "extreme '' tonal shifts and "mediocre '' dialogue. O'Connor criticised the characters for being clichéd. Hartup accused the game of being too short. Blatt was usually annoyed with the primary mechanic and wrote that the quests fell short of challenging her. Cook questioned the subtlety of the writing.
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where will the ncaa football championship game be played | 2018 College football Playoff national championship - wikipedia
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26 -- 23 in overtime. Alabama overcame a 13 -- 0 deficit at halftime. Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game.
The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season. Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl, respectively, on January 1, 2018. The championship game was played at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia on January 8, 2018.
The Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015.
The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide.
The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24 -- 6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12 -- 1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban.
The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54 -- 48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13 -- 1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28 -- 7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart.
After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40 - yard field goal. The teams each had three - and - outs for the game 's first two punts. During Georgia 's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score.
After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41 - yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama 's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10 - yard - line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6 -- 0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama 's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama 's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1: 19 remaining in the half on their own 31 - yard - line. Nine plays later, on Alabama 's 1 - yard - line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game 's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13 -- 0 going into halftime.
Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22 - yard - line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama 's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three - and - out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36 - yard - line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44 - yard - line. The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6 - yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80 - yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20 -- 7. On the second play of Alabama 's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia 's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama 's 39 - yard - line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia 's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40 - yard - line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43 - yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama 's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency ''. He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3: 49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game - winning 36 - yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime.
In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51 - yard field goal. On Alabama 's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16 - yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game - winning 41 - yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith. Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game.
The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes - Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park.
Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football. UCF held a victory parade at Disney World and hung a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement. The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract.
The selection committee ranked UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two - loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP. The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first - place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first - place votes -- the first time in the CFP era that the AP poll did not have a unanimous No. 1 team. Additionally, the Knights finished the 2017 football season as the No. 1 team in the Colley Bias Free Matrix Rankings. The Colley Matrix is recognized by the NCAA in its list of "national champion major selections. ''
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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the first ship commissioned in the continental cause was the | Continental Navy - wikipedia
The Continental Navy was the navy of the United States during the American Revolutionary War, and was formed in 1775. The fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial through the efforts of the Continental Navy 's patron John Adams and vigorous Congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply pool.
The main goal of the navy was to intercept shipments of British matériel and generally disrupt British maritime commercial operations. The initial fleet consisted of converted merchantmen because of the lack of funding, manpower, and resources, with exclusively designed warships being built later in the conflict. The vessels that successfully made it to sea met with success only rarely, and the effort contributed little to the overall outcome of the war.
The fleet did serve to highlight a few examples of Continental resolve, notably launching Captain John Barry into the limelight. It provided needed experience for a generation of officers who went on to command conflicts which involved the early American navy.
With the war over and the Federal government in need of all available capital, the final vessel of the Continental Navy was auctioned off in 1785 to a private bidder.
The Continental Navy is the first establishment of what is now the United States Navy.
The original intent was to intercept the supply of arms and provisions to British soldiers, who had placed Boston under martial law. George Washington had already informed Congress that he had assumed command of several ships for this purpose, and individual governments of various colonies had outfitted their own warships. The first formal movement for a navy came from Rhode Island, whose State Assembly passed a resolution on August 26, 1775 instructing its delegates to Congress to introduce legislation calling "for building at the Continental expense a fleet of sufficient force, for the protection of these colonies, and for employing them in such a manner and places as will most effectively annoy our enemies... '' The measure in the Continental Congress was met with much derision, especially on the part of Maryland delegate Samuel Chase who exclaimed it to be "the maddest idea in the world. '' John Adams later recalled, "The opposition... was very loud and vehement. It was... represented as the most wild, visionary, mad project that had ever been imagined. It was an infant taking a mad bull by his horns. ''
During this time, however, the issue arose of Quebec - bound British supply ships carrying desperately needed provisions that could otherwise benefit the Continental Army. The Continental Congress appointed Silas Deane and John Langdon to draft a plan to seize ships from the convoy in question.
On June 12, 1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly, meeting at East Greenwich, passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government.
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants ' widespread shipping activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On August 26, 1775, Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress. The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on October 3, 1775 but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, starting with the schooner Hannah which was paid for out of Washington 's own pocket. Hannah was commissioned and launched on September 5, 1775 from the port of Beverly, Massachusetts, after being sold by the future General John Glover of Marblehead, Massachusetts.
Resolution of the Continental Congress that marked the establishment of what is now the United States Navy.
The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships; these ships became Andrew Doria and Cabot. The first ship in commission was the USS Alfred which was purchased on November 4 and commissioned on December 3 by Captain Dudley Saltonstall. On November 10, 1775, the Continental Congress passed a resolution calling for two battalions of Marines to be raised for service with the fleet. John Adams drafted its first governing regulations, which were adopted by Congress on November 28, 1775 and remained in effect throughout the Revolutionary War. The Rhode Island resolution was reconsidered by the Continental Congress and was passed on December 13, 1775, authorizing the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months: five ships of 32 guns, five with 28 guns, and three with 24 guns.
When it came to selecting commanders for ships, Congress tended to be split evenly between merit and patronage. Among those who were selected for political reasons were Esek Hopkins, Dudley Saltonstall, and Esek Hopkins ' son John Burroughs Hopkins. However, Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John Paul Jones managed to be appointed with backgrounds in marine warfare. On December 22, 1775, Esek Hopkins was appointed the naval commander - in - chief, and officers of the navy were commissioned. Saltonstall, Biddle, Hopkins, and Whipple were commissioned as captains of the Alfred, Andrew Doria, Cabot, and Columbus, respectively.
Hopkins led the first major naval action of the Continental Navy in early March 1776 with this small fleet, complemented by the Providence (12), Wasp (8), and Hornet (10). The battle occurred at Nassau, Bahamas where stores of much - needed gunpowder were seized for the use of the Continental Army. However, success was diluted with the appearance of disease spreading from ship to ship.
On April 6, 1776, the squadron, with the addition of the Fly (8), unsuccessfully encountered the 20 - gun HMS Glasgow in the first major sea battle of the Continental Navy. Hopkins failed to give any substantive orders other than to recall the fleet from the engagement, a move which Captain Nicholas Biddle described: "away we all went helter, skelter, one flying here, another there. ''
On Lake Champlain, Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 war vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada. The British fleet destroyed Arnold 's fleet, but the US fleet managed to slow down the British after a two - day battle, known as the Battle of Valcour Island, and managed to slow the progression of the British Army.
By December 13, 1775, Congress had authorized the construction of 13 new frigates, rather than refitting merchantmen to increase the fleet. Five ships (Hancock, Raleigh, Randolph, Warren, and Washington) were to be rated 32 guns, five (Effingham, Montgomery, Providence, Trumble, and Virginia) 28 guns, and three (Boston, Congress, and Delaware) 24 guns. Only eight frigates made it to sea and their effectiveness was limited; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy, and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781.
Washington, Effingham, Congress, and Montgomery were scuttled or burned in October and November 1777 before going to sea to prevent their capture by the British. USS Virginia, commanded by Captain James Nicholson, made a number of unsuccessful attempts to break through the blockade of Chesapeake Bay. On March 31, 1778, in another attempt, she ran aground near Hampton Roads, where her captain went ashore. Shortly after, HMS Emerald and Conqueror appeared on the scene to accept her surrender.
Guarding American commerce and raiding British commerce and supply were the principal duties of the Continental Navy. Privateers had some success, with 1,697 letters of marque being issued by Congress. Individual states, American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions; taking duplications into account more than 2,000 commissions were issued by the various authorities. Lloyd 's of London estimated that 2,208 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers, amounting to almost $66 million, a significant sum at the time.
Most of the eight frigates that went to sea took multiple prizes and had semi-successful cruises before their captures, however there were exceptions. On September 27, 1777, Delaware participated in a delaying action on the Delaware River against the British army pursuing George Washington 's forces. The ebb tide arrived and left the Delaware stranded, leading to her capture. Warren was blockaded in Providence, Rhode Island, shortly after her completion, and did not break out of the blockade until March 8, 1778. After a successful cruise under Captain John Burroughs Hopkins, she was assigned to the ill - fated Penobscot Expedition under Captain Dudley Saltonstall, where she was trapped by the British and burned on August 15, 1779 to prevent her capture. Hancock, captained by John Manley, managed to capture two merchantmen as well as the Royal Navy vessel HMS Fox. Later on July 8, 1777, however, the Hancock was captured by HMS Rainbow of a pursuing squadron, and became the British man of war Iris.
Randolph took five prizes in her early cruises. On March 7, 1778, she was escorting a convoy of merchantmen when the British 64 - gun ship HMS Yarmouth bore down on the convoy. Randolph, under the command of Captain Nicholas Biddle came to the defense of the merchantmen and engaged the heavily superior foe. In the ensuing engagement, the two ships were both severely manhandled but in the course of the action, the magazine of the Randolph exploded causing the destruction of the entire vessel and all but four of her crew. The falling debris from the explosion severely damaged the Yarmouth enough that she could no longer pursue the American ships.
Raleigh, under the command of Captain John Barry, captured three prizes before being run aground in action on September 27, 1778. Her crew scuttled her, but she was raised by the British who refloated her for further use in the name of the Crown.
Boston, under the command of Captains Hector McNeill and Samuel Tucker, had captured 17 prizes in earlier cruises, and had carried John Adams to France in February and March 1778. She was captured (along with the frigate Providence who had taken 14 prizes in her own service under Captain Abraham Whipple) in the fall of Charleston, South Carolina on May 12, 1780.
The final frigate to meet her end of Continental service was the Trumbull. Trumbull, which had not gone to sea until September 1779 under James Nicholson, had gained acclaim in bloody action against the Letter of Marque Watt. On August 28, 1781, she met HMS Iris and General Monk and engaged. In the action, Trumbull was forced to surrender to the former American naval vessels (the General Monk was the captured Rhode Island privateer General Washington, itself recaptured in April 1782 and placed in service with the Continental Navy).
Before the Franco - American Alliance, the royalist French government attempted to maintain a state of respectful neutrality during the Revolutionary War. That being said, the nation maintained neutrality at face value, often openly harboring Continental vessels and supplying their needs.
With the presence of American diplomats Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, the Continental Navy gained a permanent link to French affairs. Through Franklin and like - minded agents, Continental officers were afforded the ability to receive commissions and to survey and purchase prospective ships for military use.
Early in the conflict, Captains Lambert Wickes and Gustavus Conyngham operated out of various French ports for the purpose of commerce raiding. The French did attempt to enforce their neutrality by seizing Dolphin and Surprise of the Continental Navy. However, with the commencement of the official alliance in 1778, ports were officially open to Continental ships.
The most prominent Continental officer to operate out of France was Captain John Paul Jones. Jones had been preying upon British commerce aboard the Ranger but only now saw the opportunity for higher command. The French loaned Jones the merchantman Duc de Duras, which Jones refitted and renamed Bonhomme Richard as a more powerful replacement for the Ranger. In August 1779, Jones was given command of a squadron of vessels of both American and French ownership. The goal was not only to harass British commerce but also to prospectively land 1,500 French regulars in the lightly guarded western regions of Britain. Unfortunately for the ambitious Jones, the French pulled out of the agreement pertaining to an invasion force, but the French did manage to uphold the plan regarding his command of the naval squadron. Sailing in a clockwise fashion around Ireland and down the east coast of Britain, the squadron captured a number of merchantmen. French commander Landais decided early on in the expedition to retain control of the French ships, thereby often leaving and rejoining the effort when he felt that it was fortuitous.
On September 23, 1779, Jones ' squadron was off Flamborough Head when the British man - of - war HMS Serapis and HM hired ship Countess of Scarborough bore down on the Franco - American force. The lone Continental frigate Bonhomme Richard engaged Serapis. The rigging of the two ships became entangled during the combat, and several guns of Jones ' ship had been taken out of action. The captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors, to which Jones has been quoted as replying, "I have not yet begun to fight! '' Upon raking the Serapis, the crew of the Bonhomme Richard led by Jones boarded the British ship and captured her. Likewise, the French frigate Pallas captured Countess of Scarborough. Two days later, Bonhomme Richard sank from the overwhelming amount of damage that she had sustained. The action was an embarrassing defeat for the Royal Navy.
The French also loaned the Continental Navy the use of the corvette Ariel. The one ship of the line built for service in the Continental Navy was the 74 - gun America, but it was offered as a gift to France on September 3, 1782 in compensation for the loss of Le Magnifique in service to the American Revolution.
France officially entered the war on June 17, 1778. Still, the ships that the French sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies, and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November. The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island, but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778. In 1779, a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savannah, Georgia.
In 1780, a fleet with 6,000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean - Baptiste, comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport, Rhode Island; shortly afterwards, the British blockaded the fleet. In early 1781, Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet under Vice Admiral François, comte de Grasse. Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia after successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York, and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown, Virginia. On September 5, 1781 de Grasse and the British met in the Battle of the Virginia Capes, which ended with the French fleet in control of Chesapeake Bay. Protected from the sea by the French fleet, American and French forces surrounded, besieged, and forced the surrender of the British forces under Lord Corwallis, effectively winning the war and leading to peace two years later. John Paul Jones is the name of the Uvas men basketball arena
Of the approximately 65 vessels (new, converted, chartered, loaned, and captured) that served at one time or another with the Continental Navy, only 11 survived the war. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the Revolutionary War and, by 1785, Congress had disbanded the Continental Navy and sold the remaining ships.
The frigate Alliance fired the final shots of the American Revolutionary War; it was also the last ship in the Navy. A faction within Congress wanted to keep her, but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service, and she was auctioned off for $26,000. Factors leading to the dissolution of the Navy included a general lack of money, the loose confederation of the states, a change of goals from war to peace, and more domestic and fewer foreign interests.
((Category: Military units and formations disestablished in 3019)
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the beatles - i've got a felling | I 've Got a Feeling - wikipedia
"I 've Got a Feeling '' is a song by the Beatles, from the 1970 album Let It Be, recorded at the Beatles ' rooftop concert on 30 January 1969. It is a combination of two unfinished songs: Paul McCartney 's "I 've Got a Feeling '', and John Lennon 's "Everybody Had a Hard Year ''. The song features Billy Preston on electric piano.
A studio take of the song, recorded about a week earlier, was released on the Anthology 3 compilation in 1996. The 2003 remix album Let It Be... Naked includes a version of the song that is a composite edit of the rooftop concert take used on Let It Be and a second attempt at the song from the same concert.
Lennon 's song was a litany where every line started with the word "everybody ''. The song had been recorded twice before by Lennon, prior to the Let It Be sessions. The first occurred in early December 1968 at Lennon 's Kenwood estate on a portable cassette tape. For this, the lyric was "Everyone had a hard year '' instead of the later "Everybody ''. Later in December 1968, with the lyric changed to "everybody, '' Lennon was filmed performing the song in the back garden of Kenwood. This footage was used in the Yoko Ono art film Rape: Film No. 6, which was broadcast on Austrian National Television on 31 March 1969.
While McCartney 's song was very optimistic, Lennon had actually endured a "hard year '' -- he divorced his first wife, Cynthia Lennon; his girlfriend Yoko Ono had a miscarriage; he was battling a heroin addiction; he was arrested for drug possession; he was estranged from his son Julian; and he had grown deeply unhappy in the Beatles.
In the film Let It Be, Lennon jokingly claimed he had written "Everybody Had a Hard Year '' the night before.
"I 've Got a Feeling '' was covered by the rock group Tesla on their 2007 album Real to Reel.
Pearl Jam has covered "I 've Got a Feeling '' in concert 30 times. The song is a bonus track on the Japanese release of Ten.
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who remade i can't help falling in love with you | Ca n't Help Falling in Love - wikipedia
"Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' is a pop ballad originally recorded by American singer Elvis Presley and published by Gladys Music, Elvis Presley 's publishing company. It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore and George David Weiss. The melody is based on "Plaisir d'amour '' (1784), a popular romance by Jean - Paul - Égide Martini (1741 -- 1816). It was featured in Elvis Presley 's 1961 film, Blue Hawaii. During the following four decades, it was recorded by numerous other artists, including Tom Smothers, British reggae group UB40, whose 1993 version topped the U.S. and UK charts, and Swedish pop group A-Teens.
Elvis Presley 's version of the song, which topped the British charts in 1962, has appeared in numerous other films, including the 2000 film Coyote Ugly, the 2002 Disney film Lilo & Stitch, the 2016 film The Conjuring 2 and the pilot episode of Sons of Anarchy. Other films that feature the song include Overboard, Honeymoon in Vegas, The Thing Called Love, Was It Something I Said?, Fools Rush In, Love Stinks and Happily Ever After. The single is certified by the RIAA as a Platinum record, for US sales in excess of one million copies. In the United States, the Elvis Presley version of the song peaked at number two on the pop chart and went to number one on the Easy Listening chart for six weeks.
During Presley 's late 1960s and 1970s live performances, the song was performed as the show 's finale. Most notably, it was also sung in the live segment of his 1968 NBC television special, and as the closer for his 1973 Global telecast, Aloha from Hawaii. A version with a faster arrangement was used as the closing for Presley 's final TV special, Elvis in Concert.
In 1993, British reggae band UB40 recorded the song as the first single from their 1993 album Promises and Lies. The song was released in May 1993, in the majority of countries worldwide. It eventually climbed to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 after debuting at number 100 and appears in the soundtrack of the movie Sliver, the trailer for Fools Rush In and an episode of Hindsight. It remained at number one in the United States for seven weeks. It was also number one in the United Kingdom, Austria, Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and New Zealand. The single version of the song has a slightly different backing rhythm and melody.
In the US, and on the Sliver soundtrack, the song title was listed as "Ca n't Help Falling in Love, '' rather than what appeared on the record sleeve.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was the A-Teens 's first single from their first extended play Pop ' til You Drop!, as well as for the Lilo & Stitch movie soundtrack, which was originally scheduled to include several Presley tracks, the A-Teens picking it for inclusion in the soundtrack. It was later also featured as a bonus track on their third studio album, New Arrival for the European market. The video had thus tremendous exposure on several television channels, with the A-Teens eventually including the song in their third album. As a result, the song had two music videos, one to promote the Disney movie, the other for the album. It is also shown in the teen pop compilation album, Disney Girlz Rock.
The song did not chart in the United States but reached No. 12 in Sweden, No. 16 in Argentina, and No. 41 in Australia. Despite the success of the song overseas, it failed to attract the rest of the Latin American public, due to the fact that there was a Spanish version of the song, performed by the Argentine group, Bandana. In addition, the A-Teens ' version of the song was overshadowed by the promotion of Bandana 's version.
The video was directed by Gregory Dark and filmed in Los Angeles, California. It had two different versions. The "Disney Version '', as the fans named it, features scenes of the movie, and also new scenes of the A-Teens with beach costumes. The "A-Teens Version '' of the video, features the A-Teens on the white background with different close - ups and choreography, and scenes with puppies and different costumes.
Tracks marked + are not A-Teens tracks.
European 2 - track CD single
European / Australian CD maxi
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what happens when aggregate spending in the economy is not equal to total production | Aggregate expenditure - wikipedia
In economics, aggregate expenditure (AE) is a measure of national income. Aggregate expenditure is defined as the current value of all the finished goods and services in the economy. The aggregate expenditure is thus the sum total of all the expenditures undertaken in the economy by the factors during a given time period. It refers to the expenditure incurred on consumer goods, planned investment and the expenditure made by the government in the economy. In an open economy scenario, the aggregate expenditure also includes the difference between the exports and the imports.
Aggregate expenditures is defined as: AE = C + I + G + NX,
Aggregate expenditure is one of the methods to calculate the sum total of all economic activities in an economy, which is referred to as the gross domestic product of an economy. The gross domestic product which is an important measure of the growth of the economy is calculated through the aggregate expenditure model, also known as the Keynesian cross. AE is also used in the aggregate demand - aggregate supply model which advances the aggregate expenditures model with the inclusion of price changes.
Components of aggregate expenditure (AE) -- defined as the total amount that firms and households plan to spend on goods and services at each level of income. Also, it can be seen that the aggregate expenditure is the sum of expenditures on consumption, investment, government expenses and net exports. It is normally derived from all the components of the aggregate demand. Aggregate demand (AD) refers to the sum total of goods that are demanded in an economy over a period and thus AD is defined by the planned total expenditure in an economy for a given price level.
Various schools of thoughts use various components to come up with the Aggregate Expenditure. The major school of economic thoughts which are the classical and Keynesian economists use the following components:
Consumption refers to the household consumption over a given period of time. The total household consumption can be divided into two parts, they are: Autonomous Consumption and Induced consumption. Autonomous Consumption refers to the amount of consumption regardless of the amount of income, hence, even if the income is zero, the autonomous consumption would be the total consumption. Induced consumption refers to the level of consumption dependent on the level of income.
Investment is the amount of expenditure towards the capital goods. Investment refers to the expenditure towards goods that are expected to yield a return or increase their own value over time. The investment expenditure can be further divided into two parts, planned investment and unplanned investment. Over the long run the sum of differences in the unplanned investment would equal to zero as economy approaches equilibrium.
The Keynesian model propagates an active state to control and regulate the economy. The government can make expenditure in terms of infrastructure, thus increase the total expenditure in the economy as advocated by Keynes. Transfer payments (such as pensions and unemployment benefits) are NOT included in G as that would mean a double count.
In an open economy, the total expenditure of the economy also includes the components of the net exports which is the total exports minus the total imports.
Classical economists relied on the Say 's law which states that supply creates its own demand, which stemmed from the belief that wages, prices and interest rates are all flexible. This comes from the classical thought that the factor payments which are made to the various factors of production during the production process, would create enough income in the economy to create a demand for the products produced.
This supports the classical thought which revolves around Adam Smith 's invisible hand which states that the markets would achieve equilibrium via the market forces that impact economic activity and thus there is no need for government intervention. Moreover, the classical economists believed that the economy was operating at a full employment Hence the classical Aggregate expenditure model is:
Aggregate Expenditure = Aggregate Consumption + Planned Investment
Therefore,
− − A E = C + I (\ displaystyle -- ~ ~ ~ ~ AE = C + I)
Where,
Classical economics has been criticized for its assumptions that the economy works on a full - employment equilibrium which is a false assumption in reality, where the economy often operates at an under - employment equilibrium mainly because of "sticky '' wages, which in turn provides the foundation for the Keynesian model of aggregate expenditure.
Keynesian economics believes, contrary to the classical thought that the wages, prices and interest rates are not flexible and hence violating Say 's law, which provided the foundation for the maxim that "supply creates its own demand ''. Keynes believed that the economy was subject to sticky prices and thus the economy was not in a state of perpetual equilibrium and also operated at an under - employment equilibrium.
Keynesian economics calls for a government intervention and is called demand side economics as it believes that aggregate demand and not the aggregate supply determines the GDP because of the difference between the aggregate supply and planned expenditure in an economy. Hence Keynes believed that the government played an important role in the determination on the aggregate expenditure in an economy and was thus included government expenditure in the aggregate expenditure function.
Hence,
Where,
Keynesian economics preaches that in times of a recession, the government must undertake the expenditure to compensate for the lack in the components of Household expenditure (C) and private investment (I) so as to ensure that the demand is maintained in the markets. This also leads to the Keynesian multiplier which suggests that every dollar spent on investment creates a multiplier effect and leads to an increased expenditure of more than one dollar.
An economy is said to be in equilibrium when aggregate expenditure is equal to the aggregate supply (production) in the economy. According to Keynes, the economy does not stay in a perpetual state of equilibrium but the Aggregate expenditure and Aggregate Supply adjust each other towards equilibrium. When there is an excess supply over the expenditure and hence the demand there is an inventory leftover with the producers, which leads to a reduction in either the prices or the quantity of output and hence reducing the total output (GDP) of the economy. On the other hand, if there is an excess of expenditure over supply, then there is excess demand leading to an increase in prices or output. Hence the economy constantly keeps shifting between excess supply (inventory) and excess demand. Thus, the economy is constantly moving towards an equilibrium between the aggregate expenditure and aggregate supply. In an under - employment equilibrium the Keynesian cross refers to the point of intersection of the aggregate supply and the aggregate expenditure curve. The rise in the expenditure by either Consumption (C), Investment (I) or the Government (G) or an increase in the exports or a decrease in the imports leads to a rise in the aggregate expenditure and thus pushes the economy towards a higher equilibrium and thus reaching a higher level towards the potential of the GDP.
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who sings you don't know her like i do | You Do n't Know Her Like I Do - wikipedia
"You Do n't Know Her Like I Do '' is a song recorded by American country rock artist Brantley Gilbert. It was released in December 2011 as the second single from the deluxe edition of his 2010 album Halfway to Heaven. The song was written by Gilbert and Jim McCormick and was the second most - played country song on radio in 2012.
Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song three and a half stars out of five, saying that it "allows the singer to show a dark vulnerability that is sure to make him a more appealing artist to country music fans who may be turned off by his brand of country rock. '' Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song four stars out of five, calling it an "excellent single choice '' and writing that "Brantley 's gravelly voice is passionate, vulnerable and maybe just a little angered. ''
The music video was directed by Justin Key and premiered in December 2011. It is composed entirely of tour footage, showing Gilbert performing the song at a concert. Scenes also show him in a radio interview, signing autographs, and sitting in a chair against a blue blacklit screen acting down and depressed, like he relates to the lyrics of the song.
"You Do n't Know Her Like I Do '' debuted at number 52 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of December 17, 2011. It became his second consecutive number one single in July 2012. The song has sold 999,000 copies in the U.S. as of April 2014.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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these foolish things remind me of you rod stewart | These Foolish Things (remind Me of You) - wikipedia
"These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You) '' is a standard with lyrics by Eric Maschwitz and music by Jack Strachey, both Englishmen. Harry Link, an American, sometimes appears as a co-writer; his input is probably limited to an alternative "middle eight '' (bridge) which many performers prefer.
It is one of a group of "Mayfair songs '', like "A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square ''. Maschwitz wrote the song under his pen name, Holt Marvell, for Joan Carr for a late - evening revue broadcast by the BBC. The copyright was lodged in 1936. Maschwitz was romantically linked to the Chinese - American actress Anna May Wong while working in Hollywood, and the lyrics are evocative of his longing for her after they parted and he returned to England.
Billie Holiday 's rendering of the song with Teddy Wilson 's orchestra was a favourite of Philip Larkin 's, who said of it: "I have always thought the words were a little pseudo-poetic, but Billie sings them with such passionate conviction that I think they really become poetry. '' Holiday 's cover of the song peaked to No. 5 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart.
When the song was written, Maschwitz was Head of Variety at the BBC. It is a list song (Maschwitz calls it a "catalogue song '' in his biography), in this case working through the various things that remind the singer of a lost love. The lyrics -- the verse and three choruses -- were written by Maschwitz during the course of one Sunday morning at his flat in London. Within hours of crafting the lyrics, he dictated them over the phone to Jack Strachey and they arranged to meet the same evening to discuss the next step.
The song was not an immediate success and even Keith Prowse, Maschwitz 's agent, refused to publish it, releasing the copyright to Maschwitz himself -- a stroke of luck for the lyricist. Writing in 1957, he claimed to have made £ 40,000 from the song. Despite being featured in Spread it Abroad, a London revue of 1936, it aroused no interest until the famous West Indian pianist and singer, Leslie Hutchinson ("Hutch '') discovered it on top of a piano in Maschwitz 's office at the BBC. "Hutch '' liked it and recorded it, whereupon it became a great success and was recorded by musicians all over the world. This first recording by "Hutch '' was by HMV in 1936. Popular versions in the USA in 1936 were by Benny Goodman, Teddy Wilson with Billie Holiday, Nat Brandywynne, Carroll Gibbons and Joe Sanders.
Various other versions have been recorded including vocal arrangements featuring: Nat King Cole (on Just One of Those Things in 1957), Bing Crosby (recorded December 15, 1944), Billie Holiday, (with Teddy Wilson in 1936) Johnny Hartman, Frankie Laine, Sam Cooke, Sarah Vaughan, Ella Fitzgerald, Etta James, Aaron Neville, Frank Sinatra, (Point of No Return, 1961), Sammy Davis Jr ("When the Feeling Hits You! '', 1965), Yves Montand, Bryan Ferry, Cassandra Wilson ("Coming Forth by Day, '' 2015), and Rod Stewart. James Brown recorded the song three times: a 1963 recording with strings which charted # 25 R&B and # 50 Pop, a live version recorded with his vocal group The Famous Flames on 1964 's Pure Dynamite! Live at the Royal, and a second studio version for 1974 's Hell.
Instrumental jazz arrangements of the song have been recorded by Stan Getz, Benny Goodman, Harry James, Lionel Hampton, Thelonious Monk, Dave Brubeck, Chet Baker, Count Basie, Lester Young and numerous other artists.
Frank Sinatra in his 1945 version of the song changes the line "The smile of Garbo '' for "The smile of Turner ''.
Bryan Ferry covered the Dorothy Dickson version of the song for the title track of his first solo album These Foolish Things by Island Records in 1973.
Paris Bennett covered the song on the fifth season of American Idol.
The Italian singer Mina covered the song on the album - tribute to Frank Sinatra, L'allieva, in 2005.
Michael Bublé covered the song on the album A Taste Of Buble in 2008.
The film Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom uses the song, arranged by Ennio Morricone.
The American singer - actress Emmy Rossum covered the song on her second album Sentimental Journey, released in January 2013.
Seth MacFarlane covered the song on his third studio album No One Ever Tells You in 2015.
Bob Dylan covered the song on his album Triplicate in 2017.
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what day is the first day of the week | Sunday - wikipedia
Sunday is the day of the week between Saturday and Monday. Sunday is a day of rest in most Western countries, as a part of the weekend and weeknight.
For most observant Christians, Sunday is observed as a day of worship and rest, holding it as the Lord 's Day and the day of Christ 's resurrection. In some Muslim countries and Israel, Sunday is the first work day of the week. According to the Hebrew calendar and traditional Christian calendars, Sunday is the first day of the week. But according to the International Organization for Standardization ISO 8601, Sunday is the seventh day of the week.
The name "Sunday '', the day of the Sun, is derived from Hellenistic astrology, where the seven planets, known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd century, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day.
Germanic peoples seem to have adopted the week as a division of time from the Romans, but they changed the Roman names into those of corresponding Teutonic deities. Hence, the dies Solis became Sunday (German, Sonntag).
The English noun Sunday derived sometime before 1250 from sunedai, which itself developed from Old English (before 700) Sunnandæg (literally meaning "sun 's day ''), which is cognate to other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunnandei, Old Saxon sunnundag, Middle Dutch sonnendach (modern Dutch zondag), Old High German sunnun tag (modern German Sonntag), and Old Norse sunnudagr (Danish and Norwegian søndag, Icelandic sunnudagur and Swedish söndag). The Germanic term is a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis ("day of the sun ''), which is a translation of the Ancient Greek heméra helíou. The p - Celtic Welsh language also translates the Latin "day of the sun '' as dydd Sul.
In most Indian languages, the word for Sunday is Ravivāra or Adityavāra or its derived forms -- vāra meaning day, Aditya and Ravi both being a style (manner of address) for Surya i.e. the Sun and Suryadeva the chief solar deity and one of the Adityas. Ravivāra is first day cited in Jyotisha, which provides logical reason for giving the name of each week day. In the Thai solar calendar of Thailand, the name ("Waan Arthit '') is derived from Aditya, and the associated colour is red.
In Russian the word for Sunday is Воскресенье (Voskreseniye) meaning "Resurrection ''. In other Slavic languages the word means "no work '', for example Polish: Niedziela, Ukrainian: Недiля, Belorussian: Нядзеля, Croatian: nedjelja, Serbian and Slovenian: Nedelja, Czech: Neděle, and Bulgarian: Неделя.
The Modern Greek word for Sunday, Greek: Κυριακή, is derived from Greek: Κύριος (Kyrios, Lord) also, due to its liturgical significance as the day commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, i.e. The Lord 's Day.
In Korean, Sunday is called 일요일 Il - yo - Il, meaning "day of sun ''.
The international standard ISO 8601 for representation of dates and times, states that Sunday is the seventh and last day of the week. This method of representing dates and times unambiguously was first published in 1988.
In the Judaic, some Christian, as well as in some Islamic tradition, Sunday has been considered the first day of the week. A number of languages express this position either by the name for the day or by the naming of the other days. In Hebrew it is called יום ראשון yom rishon, in Arabic الأحد al - ahad, in Persian and related languages یکشنبه yek - shanbe, all meaning "first ''.
In Greek, the names of the days Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday ("Δευτέρα '', "Τρίτη '', "Τετάρτη '' and "Πέμπτη '') mean "second '', "third '', "fourth '', and "fifth '' respectively. This leaves Sunday in the first position of the week count. The current Greek name for Sunday, Κυριακή (Kyriake), means "Lord 's Day '' coming from the word Κύριος (Kyrios), which is the Greek word for "Lord ''. Similarly in Portuguese, where the days from Monday to Friday are counted as "segunda - feira '', "terça - feira '', "quarta - feira '', "quinta - feira '' and "sexta - feira '', while Sunday itself similar to Greek has the name of "Lord 's Day '' ("domingo ''). In Vietnamese, the working days in the week are named as: "Thứ Hai '' (second day), "Thứ Ba '' (third day), "Thứ Tư '' (fourth day), "Thứ Năm '' (fifth day), "Thứ Sáu '' (sixth day), "Thứ Bảy '' (seventh day). Sunday is called "Chủ Nhật '', a corrupted form of "Chúa Nhật '' meaning "Lord 's Day ''. Some colloquial text in the south of Vietnam and from the church may still use the old form to mean Sunday. In German, Wednesday is called "Mittwoch '', literally "mid-week '', implying that weeks run from Sunday to Saturday.
In Italian, Sunday is called "domenica '', which also means "Lord 's Day '' (from Latin "Dies Dominica ''). One finds similar cognates in French, where the name is "dimanche '', as well as Romanian ("duminică '') and Spanish and Portuguese ("domingo '').
Slavic languages implicitly number Monday as day number one, not two.
Russian воскресение (Sunday) means "resurrection (of Jesus) '' (that is the day of a week which commemorates it). In Old Russian Sunday was also called неделя "free day '' or "day with no work '', but in the contemporary language this word means "week ''. Hungarian péntek (Friday) is a Slavic loanword, so the correlation with "five '' is not evident to Hungarians. Hungarians use Vasárnap for Sunday, which means "market day ''.
In the Maltese language, due to its Siculo - Arabic origin, Sunday is called "Il - Ħadd '', a corruption of "wieħed '' meaning "one ''. Monday is "It - Tnejn '' meaning "two ''. Similarly Tuesday is "It - Tlieta '' (three), Wednesday is "L - Erbgħa '' (four) and Thursday is "Il - Ħamis '' (five).
In Armenian, Monday is (Yerkoushabti) literally meaning 2nd day of the week, Tuesday (Yerekshabti) 3rd day, Wednesday (Chorekshabti) 4th day, Thursday (Hingshabti) 5th day. Saturday is (Shabat) coming from the word Sabbath or Shabbath in Hebrew, and "Kiraki '' coming from the word "Krak '' meaning "fire '' is Sunday, "Krak '' describing the sun by fire. Apostle John also refers to the "Lord 's Day '' (in Greek, Κυριακή ἡμέρα, "kyriake hemera '' i.e. the day of the Lord) in Rev. 1: 10, which is another possible origin of the Armenian word for Sunday.
However, in many European countries calendars almost always show Monday as the first day of the week, which follows the ISO 8601 standard.
In the Persian calendar, Sunday is the second day of the week. However, it is called "number one '' as counting starts from zero; the first day - Saturday - is denoted as 00.
In Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. In paganism, the sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed.
The opportunity to spot in the nature - worship of their heathen neighbors a symbolism valid to their own faith was not lost on the Christians. One of the Church fathers, St. Jerome, would declare: "If pagans call (the Lord 's Day) (...) the ' day of the sun, ' we willingly agree, for today the light of the world is raised, today is revealed the sun of justice with healing in his rays. ''
A similar consideration may have influenced the choice of the Christmas date on the day of the winter solstice, whose celebration was part of the Roman cult of the sun. In the same vein, Christian churches have been built and are still being built (as far as possible) with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East. Much later, St. Francis would sing in his famous canticle: "Be praised, my Lord, through all your creatures, especially through my lord Brother Sun, who brings the day; and you give light through him. And he is beautiful and radiant in all his splendor! Of you, Most High, he bears the likeness. ''
The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight - day nundinal cycle, a market week, but in the time of Augustus in the 1st century AD, a seven - day week also came into use.
Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on "the day called that of the sun '' (Sunday) alongside the "writings of the prophets. ''
On 7 March 321, Constantine I, Rome 's first Christian Emperor (see Constantine I and Christianity), decreed that Sunday would be observed as the Roman day of rest:
On the venerable Day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain - sowing or vine - planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.
Despite the official adoption of Sunday as a day of rest by Constantine, the seven - day week and the nundial cycle continued to be used side - by - side until at least the Calendar of 354 and probably later.
In 363, Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea prohibited observance of the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday), and encouraged Christians to work on the Saturday and rest on the Lord 's Day (Sunday). The fact that the canon had to be issued at all is an indication that adoption of Constantine 's decree of 321 was still not universal, not even among Christians. It also indicates that Jews were observing the Sabbath on the Saturday.
Some Christian denominations, called "Sabbatarians '', observe a Saturday Sabbath. The name "Sabbatarian '' has also been claimed by Christians, especially Protestants, who believe Sunday must be observed with just the sort of rigorous abstinence from work associated with "Shabbat ''. Christians in the Seventh - day Adventist, Seventh Day Baptist, and Church of God (Seventh - Day) denominations, as well as many Messianic Jews, have maintained the practice of abstaining from work and gathering for worship on Saturdays (sunset to sunset) as did all of the followers of God in the Bible.
For most Christians the custom and obligation of Sunday rest is not as strict. A minority of Christians do not regard the day they attend church as important, so long as they attend. There is considerable variation in the observance of Sabbath rituals and restrictions, but some cessation of normal weekday activities is customary. Many Christians today observe Sunday as a day of church - attendance.
In Roman Catholic liturgy, Sunday begins on Saturday evening. The evening Mass on Saturday is liturgically a full Sunday Mass and fulfills the obligation of Sunday Mass attendance, and Vespers (evening prayer) on Saturday night is liturgically "first Vespers '' of the Sunday. The same evening anticipation applies to other major solemnities and feasts, and is an echo of the Jewish practice of starting the new day at sunset. Those who work in the medical field, in law enforcement, and soldiers in a war zone are dispensed from the usual obligation to attend Church on Sunday. They are encouraged to combine their work with attending religious services if possible.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Sunday begins at the Little Entrance of Vespers (or All - Night Vigil) on Saturday evening and runs until "Vouchsafe, O Lord '' (after the "prokeimenon '') of Vespers on Sunday night. During this time, the dismissal at all services begin with the words, "May Christ our True God, who rose from the dead... '' Anyone who wishes to receive Holy Communion at Divine Liturgy on Sunday morning is required to attend Vespers the night before (see Eucharistic discipline). Among Orthodox Christians, Sunday is considered to be a "Little Pascha '' (Easter), and because of the Paschal joy, the making of prostrations is forbidden, except in certain circumstances. Leisure activities and idleness, being secular and offensive to Christ as it is time - wasting, is prohibited.
Some languages lack separate words for "Saturday '' and "Sabbath '' (e.g. Italian, Portuguese). Outside the English - speaking world, Sabbath as a word, if it is used, refers to the Saturday (or the specific Jewish practices on it); Sunday is called the Lord 's Day e.g. in Romance languages and Modern Greek. On the other hand, English - speaking Christians often refer to the Sunday as the Sabbath (other than Seventh - day Sabbatarians); a practice which, probably due to the international connections and the Latin tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, is more widespread among (but not limited to) Protestants. Quakers traditionally referred to Sunday as "First Day '' eschewing the pagan origin of the English name, while referring to Saturday as the "Seventh day ''.
The Russian word for Sunday is "Voskresenie, '' meaning "Resurrection day. '' The Greek word for Sunday is "Kyriake '' (the "Lord 's Day ''). The Czech, Polish, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Ukrainian and Belarusian words for Sunday ("neděle, '' "niedziela, '' "nedelja '', "nedjelja, '' "недеља '', "неділя '' and "нядзеля '' respectively) can be translated as "without acts (no work). ''
In the United States and Canada, most government offices are closed on both Saturday and Sunday. The practice of offices closing on Sunday in government and in some rural areas of the United States stem from a system of blue laws. Blue laws were established in the early puritan days which forbade secular activities on Sunday and were rigidly enforced. Some public activities are still regulated by these blue laws in the 21st century. In 1985 twenty - two states in which religious fundamentalism remained strong maintained general restrictions on Sunday behavior. In Oklahoma, for example, it is stated: "Oklahoma 's statutes state that "acts deemed useless and serious interruptions of the repose and religious liberty of the community, '' such as trades, manufacturing, mechanical employment, horse racing, and gaming are forbidden. Public selling of commodities other than necessary foods and drinks, medicine, ice, and surgical and burial equipment, and other necessities can legally be prohibited on Sunday. In Oklahoma a fine not to exceed twenty - five dollars may be imposed on individuals for each offense. '' Because of these blue laws, many private sector retail businesses open later and close earlier on Sunday or do n't open at all.
Many countries, particularly in Europe such as Sweden, France, Germany and Belgium, but also in other countries such as Peru, hold their national and local elections on a Sunday, either by law or by tradition.
Many American and British daily newspapers publish a larger edition on Sundays, which often includes color comic strips, a magazine, and a coupon section; may only publish on a Sunday, or may have a "sister - paper '' with a different masthead that only publishes on a Sunday.
North American Radio stations often play specialty radio shows such as Casey Kasem 's countdown or other nationally syndicated radio shows that may differ from their regular weekly music patterns on Sunday morning or Sunday evening. In the United Kingdom, there is a Sunday tradition of chart shows on BBC Radio 1 and commercial radio; this originates in the broadcast of chart shows and other populist material on Sundays by Radio Luxembourg when the Reithian BBC 's Sunday output consisted largely of solemn and religious programmes. However, BBC Radio 1 's chart show moved to Fridays in July 2015.
Period or older - skewing television dramas, such as Downton Abbey, Call the Midwife, Lark Rise to Candleford and Heartbeat are commonly shown on Sunday evenings in the UK; the first of these was Dr Finlay 's Casebook in the 1960s. Similarly, Antiques Roadshow has been shown on Sundays on BBC1 since 1979 and Last of the Summer Wine was shown on Sundays for many years until it ended in 2010.
Many American, Australian and British television networks and stations also broadcast their political interview shows on Sunday mornings.
Major League Baseball usually schedules all Sunday games in the daytime except for the nationally televised Sunday Night Baseball matchup. Certain historically religious cities such as Boston and Baltimore among others will schedule games no earlier than 1: 35 PM to ensure time for people who go to religious service in the morning can get to the game in time.
In the United States, professional American football is usually played on Sunday, although Saturday (via Saturday Night Football), Monday (via Monday Night Football), and Thursday (via Thursday Night Football or Thanksgiving) see some professional games. College football usually occurs on Saturday, and high - school football tends to take place on Friday night or Saturday afternoon.
In the UK, some club and Premier League football matches and tournaments usually take place on Sundays. Rugby matches and tournaments usually take place in club grounds or parks on Sunday mornings. It is not uncommon for church attendance to shift on days when a late morning or early afternoon game is anticipated by a local community.
One of the remains of religious segregation in the Netherlands is seen in amateur football: The Saturday - clubs are by and large Protestant Christian clubs, who were not allowed to play on Sunday. The Sunday - clubs were in general Catholic and working class clubs, whose players had to work on Saturday and therefore could only play on Sunday.
In Ireland, Gaelic football and hurling matches are predominantly played on Sundays, with the first (used to be second) and fourth (used to be third) Sundays in September always playing host to the All - Ireland hurling and football championship finals, respectively.
Professional golf tournaments traditionally end on Sunday.
In the United States and Canada, National Basketball Association and National Hockey League games, which are usually played at night during the week, are frequently played during daytime hours - often broadcast on national television.
Most NASCAR Sprint Cup and IndyCar events are held on Sundays. Formula One World Championship races are always held on Sundays regardless of timezone / country, while MotoGP holds most races on Sundays, with Middle Eastern races being the exception on Saturday. All Formula One events and MotoGP events with Sunday races involve qualifying taking place on Saturday.
Sunday is associated with the Sun and is symbolized by ☉.
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where is the reward center of the brain located | Reward system - wikipedia
The reward system is a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience (i.e., motivation and "wanting '', desire, or craving for a reward), associative learning (primarily positive reinforcement and classical conditioning), and positive emotions, particularly ones which involve pleasure as a core component (e.g., joy, euphoria and ecstasy). Reward is the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces appetitive behavior, also known as approach behavior, and consummatory behavior. In its description of a rewarding stimulus (i.e., "a reward ''), a review on reward neuroscience noted, "any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. '' In operant conditioning, rewarding stimuli function as positive reinforcers; however, the converse statement also holds true: positive reinforcers are rewarding.
Primary rewards are a class of rewarding stimuli which facilitate the survival of one 's self and offspring, and include homeostatic (e.g., palatable food) and reproductive (e.g., sexual contact and parental investment) rewards. Intrinsic rewards are unconditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior because they are inherently pleasurable. Extrinsic rewards (e.g., money or seeing one 's favorite sports team winning a game) are conditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior, but are not inherently pleasurable. Extrinsic rewards derive their motivational value as a result of a learned association (i.e., conditioning) with intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards may also elicit pleasure (e.g., euphoria from winning a lot of money in a lottery) after being classically conditioned with intrinsic rewards.
Survival for most animal species depends upon maximizing contact with beneficial stimuli and minimizing contact with harmful stimuli. Reward cognition serves to increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction by causing associative learning, eliciting approach and consummatory behavior, and triggering positive emotions. Thus, reward is a mechanism that evolved to help increase the adaptive fitness of animals.
In neuroscience, the reward system is a collection of brain structures and neural pathways that are responsible for reward - related cognition, including associative learning (primarily classical conditioning and operant reinforcement), incentive salience (i.e., motivation and "wanting '', desire, or craving for a reward), and positive emotions, particularly emotions that involve pleasure (i.e., hedonic "liking '').
Terms that are commonly used to describe behavior related to the "wanting '' or desire component of reward include appetitive behavior, approach behavior, preparatory behavior, instrumental behavior, anticipatory behavior, and seeking. Terms that are commonly used to describe behavior related to the "liking '' or pleasure component of reward include consummatory behavior and taking behavior.
The three primary functions of rewards are their capacity to:
The brain structures that compose the reward system are located primarily within the cortico - basal ganglia - thalamo - cortical loop; the basal ganglia portion of the loop drives activity within the reward system. Most of the pathways that connect structures within the reward system are glutamatergic interneurons, GABAergic medium spiny neurons, and dopaminergic projection neurons, although other types of projection neurons contribute (e.g., orexinergic projection neurons). The reward system includes the ventral tegmental area, ventral striatum (i.e., the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle), dorsal striatum (i.e., the caudate nucleus and putamen), substantia nigra (i.e., the pars compacta and pars reticulata), prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus (particularly, the orexinergic nucleus in the lateral hypothalamus), thalamus (multiple nuclei), subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus (both external and internal), ventral pallidum, parabrachial nucleus, amygdala, and the remainder of the extended amygdala. The dorsal raphe nucleus and cerebellum appear to modulate some forms of reward - related cognition (i.e., associative learning, motivational salience, and positive emotions) and behaviors as well. The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, pedunculopontine nucleus, and lateral habenula (both directly and indirectly via the rostromedial tegmental nucleus) are also capable of inducing aversive salience and incentive salience through their projections to the VTA.
Most of the dopamine pathways (i.e., neurons that use the neurotransmitter dopamine to communicate with other neurons) that project out of the ventral tegmental area are part of the reward system; in these pathways, dopamine acts on D1 - like receptors or D2 - like receptors to either stimulate (D1 - like) or inhibit (D2 - like) the production of cAMP. The GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the striatum are components of the reward system as well. The glutamatergic projection nuclei in the subthalamic nucleus, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and amygdala connect to other parts of the reward system via glutamate pathways. The medial forebrain bundle, which is a set of many neural pathways that mediate brain stimulation reward (i.e., reward derived from direct electrochemical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus), is also a component of the reward system.
Two theories exist with regard to the activity of the nucleus accumbens and the generation liking and wanting. The inhibition (or hyperpolarization) hypothesis proposes that the nucleus accumbens exerts tonic inhibitory effects on downstream structures such as the ventral pallidum, hypothalamus or ventral tegmental area, and that in inhibiting NAc MSNs, these structures are excited, "releasing '' reward related behavior. While GABA agonists are capable of eliciting both "liking '' and "wanting '' reactions in the nucleus accumbens, glutaminergic inputs from the basolateral amygdala, ventral hippocampus, and medial prefrontal cortex can drive incentive salience. Furthermore, while most studies find that NAc neurons reduce firing in response to reward, a number of studies find the opposite response. This had lead to the proposal of the disinhibition (or depolarization) hypothesis, that proposes that excitation or NAc neurons, or at least certain subsets, drives reward related behavior.
After nearly 50 years of research on brain - stimulation reward, experts have certified that dozens of sites in the brain will maintain intracranial self - stimulation. Regions include the lateral hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundles, which are especially effective. Stimulation there activates fibers that form the ascending pathways; the ascending pathways include the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which projects from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens. There are several explanations as to why the mesolimbic dopamine pathway is central to circuits mediating reward. First, there is a marked increase in dopamine release from the mesolimbic pathway when animals engage in intracranial self - stimulation. Second, experiments consistently indicate that brain - stimulation reward stimulates the reinforcement of pathways that are normally activated by natural rewards, and drug reward or intracranial self - stimulation can exert more powerful activation of central reward mechanisms because they activate the reward center directly rather than through the peripheral nerves. Third, when animals are administered addictive drugs or engage in naturally rewarding behaviors, such as feeding or sexual activity, there is a marked release of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens. However, dopamine is not the only reward compound in the brain.
Pleasure is a component of reward, but not all rewards are pleasurable (e.g., money does not elicit pleasure unless this response is conditioned). Stimuli that are naturally pleasurable, and therefore attractive, are known as intrinsic rewards, whereas stimuli that are attractive and motivate approach behavior, but are not inherently pleasurable, are termed extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards (e.g., money) are rewarding as a result of a learned association with an intrinsic reward. In other words, extrinsic rewards function as motivational magnets that elicit "wanting '', but not "liking '' reactions once they have been acquired.
The reward system contains pleasure centers or hedonic hotspots -- i.e., brain structures that mediate pleasure or "liking '' reactions from intrinsic rewards. As of May 2015, hedonic hotspots have been identified in subcompartments within the nucleus accumbens shell, ventral pallidum, parabrachial nucleus of the pons, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula. Opioid and endocannabinoid, but not dopamine, injections in the ventrorostral region of the nucleus accumbens are able to increase liking, while injection in other regions may produce aversion or wanting, as dopamine microinjections do.
The simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.
Incentive salience is the "wanting '' or "desire '' attribute, which includes a motivational component, that is assigned to a rewarding stimulus by the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcc shell). The degree of dopamine neurotransmission into the NAcc shell from the mesolimbic pathway is highly correlated with the magnitude of incentive salience for rewarding stimuli.
Activation of the dorsorostral region of the nucleus accumbens correlates with increases in wanting without concurrent increases in liking. However, the dopaminergic neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens shell is not only responsible for appetitive motivational salience (i.e., incentive salience) towards rewarding stimuli, but also for aversive motivational salience, which directs behavior away from undesirable stimuli. In the dorsal striatum, activation of D1 expressing MSNs produces appetitive incentive salience, while activation of D2 expressing MSNs produces aversion. In the NAcc, such a dichotomy is not as clear cut, and activation of both D1 and D2 MSNs is sufficient to enhance motivation, likely via disinhibiting the VTA through inhibiting the ventral pallidum.
Robinson and Berridge 's incentive - sensitization theory (1993) proposed that reward contains separable psychological components: wanting (incentive) and liking (pleasure). To explain increasing contact with a certain stimulus such as chocolate, there are two independent factors at work -- our desire to have the chocolate (wanting) and the pleasure effect of the chocolate (liking). According to Robinson and Berridge, wanting and liking are two aspects of the same process, so rewards are usually wanted and liked to the same degree. However, wanting and liking also change independently under certain circumstances. For example, rats that do not eat after receiving dopamine (experiencing a loss of desire for food) act as though they still like food. In another example, activated self - stimulation electrodes in the lateral hypothalamus of rats increase appetite, but also cause more adverse reactions to tastes such as sugar and salt; apparently, the stimulation increases wanting but not liking. Such results demonstrate that our reward system includes independent processes of wanting and liking. The wanting component is thought to be controlled by dopaminergic pathways, whereas the liking component is thought to be controlled by opiate - benzodiazepine systems.
Animals quickly learn to press a bar to obtain an injection of opiates directly into the midbrain tegmentum or the nucleus accumbens. The same animals do not work to obtain the opiates if the dopaminergic neurons of the mesolimbic pathway are inactivated. In this perspective, animals, like humans, engage in behaviors that increase dopamine release.
Kent Berridge, a researcher in affective neuroscience, found that sweet (liked) and bitter (disliked) tastes produced distinct orofacial expressions, and these expressions were similarly displayed by human newborns, orangutans, and rats. This was evidence that pleasure (specifically, liking) has objective features and was essentially the same across various animal species. Most neuroscience studies have shown that the more dopamine released by the reward, the more effective the reward is. This is called the hedonic impact, which can be changed by the effort for the reward and the reward itself. Berridge discovered that blocking dopamine systems did not seem to change the positive reaction to something sweet (as measured by facial expression). In other words, the hedonic impact did not change based on the amount of sugar. This discounted the conventional assumption that dopamine mediates pleasure. Even with more - intense dopamine alterations, the data seemed to remain constant.
Berridge developed the incentive salience hypothesis to address the wanting aspect of rewards. It explains the compulsive use of drugs by drug addicts even when the drug no longer produces euphoria, and the cravings experienced even after the individual has finished going through withdrawal. Some addicts respond to certain stimuli involving neural changes caused by drugs. This sensitization in the brain is similar to the effect of dopamine because wanting and liking reactions occur. Human and animal brains and behaviors experience similar changes regarding reward systems because these systems are so prominent.
The first clue to the presence of a reward system in the brain came with an accident discovery by James Olds and Peter Milner in 1954. They discovered that rats would perform behaviors such as pressing a bar, to administer a brief burst of electrical stimulation to specific sites in their brains. This phenomenon is called intracranial self - stimulation or brain stimulation reward. Typically, rats will press a lever hundreds or thousands of times per hour to obtain this brain stimulation, stopping only when they are exhausted. While trying to teach rats how to solve problems and run mazes, stimulation of certain regions of the brain where the stimulation was found seemed to give pleasure to the animals. They tried the same thing with humans and the results were similar. The explanation to why animals engage in a behavior that has no value to the survival of either themselves or their species is that the brain stimulation is activating the system underlying reward.
In a fundamental discovery made in 1954, researchers James Olds and Peter Milner found that low - voltage electrical stimulation of certain regions of the brain of the rat acted as a reward in teaching the animals to run mazes and solve problems. It seemed that stimulation of those parts of the brain gave the animals pleasure, and in later work humans reported pleasurable sensations from such stimulation. When rats were tested in Skinner boxes where they could stimulate the reward system by pressing a lever, the rats pressed for hours. Research in the next two decades established that dopamine is one of the main chemicals aiding neural signaling in these regions, and dopamine was suggested to be the brain 's "pleasure chemical ''.
Ivan Pavlov was a psychologist who used the reward system to study classical conditioning. Pavlov used the reward system by rewarding dogs with food after they had heard a bell or another stimulus. Pavlov was rewarding the dogs so that the dogs associated food, the reward, with the bell, the stimulus. Edward L. Thorndike used the reward system to study operant conditioning. He began by putting cats in a puzzle box and placing food outside of the box so that the cat wanted to escape. The cats worked to get out of the puzzle box to get to the food. Although the cats ate the food after they escaped the box, Thorndike learned that the cats attempted to escape the box without the reward of food. Thorndike used the rewards of food and freedom to stimulate the reward system of the cats. Thorndike used this to see how the cats learned to escape the box.
ΔFosB (DeltaFosB) -- a gene transcription factor -- overexpression in the D1 - type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens is the crucial common factor among virtually all forms of addiction (i.e., behavioral addictions and drug addictions) that induces addiction - related behavior and neural plasticity. In particular, ΔFosB promotes self - administration, reward sensitization, and reward cross-sensitization effects among specific addictive drugs and behaviors.
Addictive drugs and behaviors are rewarding and reinforcing (i.e., are addictive) due to their effects on the dopamine reward pathway.
The lateral hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundle has been the most - frequently - studied brain - stimulation reward site, particularly in studies of the effects of drugs on brain stimulation reward. The neurotransmitter system that has been most - clearly identified with the habit - forming actions of drugs - of - abuse is the mesolimbic dopamine system, with its efferent targets in the nucleus accumbens and its local GABAergic afferents. The reward - relevant actions of amphetamine and cocaine are in the dopaminergic synapses of the nucleus accumbens and perhaps the medial prefrontal cortex. Rats also learn to lever - press for cocaine injections into the medial prefrontal cortex, which works by increasing dopamine turnover in the nucleus accumbens. Nicotine infused directly into the nucleus accumbens also enhances local dopamine release, presumably by a presynaptic action on the dopaminergic terminals of this region. Nicotinic receptors localize to dopaminergic cell bodies and local nicotine injections increase dopaminergic cell firing that is critical for nicotinic reward. Some additional habit - forming drugs are also likely to decrease the output of medium spiny neurons as a consequence, despite activating dopaminergic projections. For opiates, the lowest - threshold site for reward effects involves actions on GABAergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area, a secondary site of opiate - rewarding actions on medium spiny output neurons of the nucleus accumbens. Thus GABAergic afferents to the mesolimbic dopamine neurons (primary substrate of opiate reward), the mesolimbic dopamine neurons themselves (primary substrate of psychomotor stimulant reward), and GABAergic efferents to the mesolimbic dopamine neurons (a secondary site of opiate reward) form the core of currently characterized drug - reward circuitry.
Dysfunctional motivational salience appears in a number of psychiatric symptoms and disorders. Anhedonia, traditionally defined as a reduced capacity to feel pleasure, has been reexamined as reflecting blunted incentive salience, as most anhedonic populations exhibit intact "liking ''. On the other wnd of the spectrum, heightened incentive salience that is narrowed for specific stimuli is characteristic of behavioral and drug addictions. In the case of fear or paranoia, dysfunction may lie in elevated aversive salience.
Neuroimaging studies across diagnoses have reported reduced activity in the OFC and ventral striatum. One meta analysis reported anhedonia was associated with reduced caudate, putamen, ACC and mPFC response to reward anticipation.
Depression is associated with reduced motivation, as assessed by willingness to expend effort for reward. These abnormalities have been tentatively linked to reduced activity in areas of the striatum. Although postmortem and neuroimaging studies have found abnormalities in numerous regions of the reward system, few findings are consistently replicated. A few studies have reported reduced NAc, hippocampus, mPFC, and OFC activity and elevated basolateral amygdala and subgenual cingulate cortex during tasks related to reward or positive stimuli. These neuroimaging abnormalities are complimented by little post mortem research, but what research has been done suggests reduced excitatory synapses in the mPFC.
Attempts to investigate underlying neural circuitry in animal models has yielded conflicting results. Two paradigms are commonly used, chronic social defeat (CSDS), and chronic mild stress (CMS), although many exist. CSDS produces reduced preference for sucrose, reduced social interactions, and increased immobility in the forced swim test. Animals susceptible to CSDS exhibit increased phasic VTA firing, and inhibition of VTA - NAc projections attenuates behavioral deficits. However, inhibition of VTA - mPFC projections exacerbates social withdrawal. On the other hand, CMS associated reductions in sucrose preference and mobility were attenuated and exacerbated by VTA excitation and inhibition, respectively. Although these differences may be attributable to different stimulation protocols or poor translational paradigms, variable results may also lie in the heterogenous functionality of reward related regions.
Schizophrenia is associated with deficits in motivation and anhedonia, commonly grouped under other negative symptoms such as reduced spontaneous speech. The experience of "liking '' is frequently reported to be intact, both behaviorally and neurally, although variability by paradigm is also reported. Furthermore, implicit learning and simple reward related tasks are also intact in schizophrenia. Rather, deficits in the reward system present during reward related tasks that are cognitively conplex. These deficits are associated with both abnormal striatal and OFC activity, as well as abnormalities in regions associated with cognitive functions such as the dlPFC.
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when was the first star wars movie filmed | Star Wars (film) - Wikipedia
Star Wars (later retitled Star Wars: Episode IV -- A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas. It is the first film in the original Star Wars trilogy and the beginning of the Star Wars franchise. Starring Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, David Prowse, James Earl Jones, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, and Peter Mayhew, the film 's plot focuses on the Rebel Alliance, led by Princess Leia (Fisher), and its attempt to destroy the Galactic Empire 's space station, the Death Star. This conflict disrupts the isolated life of farmhand Luke Skywalker (Hamill), who inadvertently acquires two droids that possess stolen architectural plans for the Death Star. When the Empire begins a destructive search for the missing droids, Skywalker accompanies Jedi Master Obi - Wan Kenobi (Guinness) on a mission to return the plans to the Rebel Alliance and rescue Leia from her imprisonment by the Empire.
Star Wars was released in theatres in the United States on May 25, 1977. It earned $461 million in the U.S. and $314 million overseas, totaling $775 million. It surpassed Jaws (1975) to become the highest - grossing film of all time until the release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982). When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the second - highest - grossing film in North America, and the third - highest - grossing film in the world. It received ten Academy Award nominations (including Best Picture), winning seven. It was among the first films to be selected as part of the U.S. Library of Congress ' National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. At the time, it was the most recent film on the registry and the only one chosen from the 1970s. In 2005, the British Film Institute included it in their list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14. Its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. Today, it is regarded as one of the most important films in the history of motion pictures. It launched an industry of tie - in products, including TV series spinoffs, novels, comic books, video games, amusement park attractions, and merchandise including toys, games, and clothing.
The film was reissued multiple times at Lucas ' behest, incorporating many changes including modified computer - generated effects, altered dialogue, re-edited shots, remixed soundtracks and added scenes. The film 's success led to two critically and commercially successful sequels, The Empire Strikes Back in 1980 and Return of the Jedi in 1983, a prequel trilogy, a sequel trilogy, and anthology films.
The galaxy is in the midst of a civil war. Spies for the Rebel Alliance have stolen plans to the Galactic Empire 's Death Star, a space station capable of destroying an entire planet. Rebel leader Princess Leia has the plans, but her ship is captured by Imperial forces under the command of the ruthless Sith Lord, Darth Vader. Before she is captured, Leia hides the plans in the memory of an astromech droid, R2 - D2, along with a holographic recording. R2 - D2 flees to the desert planet Tatooine with C - 3PO, a protocol droid.
The droids are captured by Jawa traders, who sell them to moisture farmers Owen and Beru Lars, and their nephew Luke Skywalker. While cleaning R2 - D2, Luke accidentally triggers part of Leia 's message, in which she requests help from Obi - Wan Kenobi. The next morning, Luke finds R2 - D2 missing, and meets Ben Kenobi, an old hermit who lives in the hills, and reveals himself to be Obi - Wan. Obi - Wan tells Luke of his days as one of the Jedi Knights, former Galactic Republic peacekeepers with supernatural powers derived from an energy called the Force, who were all but wiped out by the Empire. Contrary to his uncle 's statements, Luke learns that his father fought alongside Obi - Wan as a Jedi Knight. Obi - Wan tells Luke that Vader was his former pupil, who turned to the dark side of the Force and murdered Luke 's father. Obi - Wan then presents to Luke his father 's weapon -- a lightsaber.
Obi - Wan views Leia 's complete message, in which she begs him to take the Death Star plans to her home planet of Alderaan and give them to her father for analysis. Obi - Wan invites Luke to accompany him to Alderaan and learn the ways of the Force. Luke declines, but changes his mind after discovering that Imperial stormtroopers have destroyed the moisture farm, killing his aunt and uncle. Obi - Wan and Luke travel to Mos Eisley, where they meet smuggler Han Solo and his Wookiee first mate Chewbacca at a Cantina. They join forces and board the Millennium Falcon.
Upon the Falcon 's arrival at the location of Alderaan, the group discovers that the planet has been destroyed by the Death Star 's superlaser on order of the commanding officer, Grand Moff Tarkin, as a show of power. The Falcon is captured by the Death Star 's tractor beam, and brought into its hangar bay. While Obi - Wan goes to disable the tractor beam, Luke discovers that Leia is imprisoned aboard, and with the help of Han and Chewbacca, Luke rescues her. After several escapes, the group makes its way back to the Falcon. On the way back to the Falcon, Obi - Wan engages in a lightsaber duel with Vader. To ensure the rest of the team escapes the Death Star alive, Obi - Wan sacrifices himself at the hands of Darth Vader. The Falcon escapes from the Death Star, unknowingly carrying a tracking beacon, which the Empire follows to the Rebels ' hidden base on Yavin IV.
The Rebels analyze the Death Star 's plans and identify a vulnerable exhaust port that connects to the station 's main reactor, and that the Death Star can be destroyed through a chain reaction. Luke joins the Rebel 's squadron, while Han collects his payment for the transport and intends to leave, despite Luke 's request that he should stay and help. In the ensuing battle, the Rebels suffer heavy losses after several unsuccessful attack runs, leaving Luke as one of the few surviving pilots. Vader leads a squadron of TIE fighters and prepares to attack Luke 's X-wing fighter, but Han returns and fires at the Imperials, sending Vader spiraling away. Helped by guidance from Obi - Wan 's spirit, Luke uses the Force to destroy the Death Star seconds before it can fire on the Rebel base. Back on Yavin IV, Leia awards Luke and Han with medals for their heroism.
Other actors include Phil Brown and Shelagh Fraser, respectively, as Owen and Beru, Luke 's uncle and aunt; Jack Purvis, Kenny Baker 's partner in his London comedy act, as the Chief Jawa in the film; Eddie Byrne as Vanden Willard, a Rebel general; Denis Lawson and Garrick Hagon as rebel pilots Wedge Antilles and Biggs Darklighter (Luke 's childhood friend), respectively; and Don Henderson and Leslie Schofield as Imperial Generals Cassio Tagge and Moradmin Bast, respectively. Richard LeParmentier plays an admiral, named Conan Antonio Motti, who dares mock Darth Vader 's faith in the force and his failure to locate the rebel base and the stolen Death Star plans, and is nearly force choked to death by Vader, only saved by Tarkin intervening and ordering Vader to release him. Michael Leader plays a minor role as a Stormtrooper known for accidentally hitting his helmet against a door.
Elements of the history of Star Wars are commonly disputed, as George Lucas ' statements about it have changed over time. One of the claims is that he intended to make the film a space western. Lucas has said that it was early as 1971 -- after he completed directing his first full - length feature, THX 1138 -- that he first had an idea for a space fantasy film, though he has also claimed to have had the idea long before then. In the 2010 coffee table book Star Wars: Year by Year: A Visual Chronicle produced by DK Publishing and Lucasfilm, Lucas is said to have made Star Wars as a direct contrast to THX 1138. He felt that the bleak tone of the film led to it being poorly received, and therefore chose to make Star Wars more optimistic. This is what led to the fun and adventurous tone of the space opera. Originally, Lucas wanted to adapt the Flash Gordon space adventure comics and serials into his own films, having been fascinated by them since he was young. In 1979, he said, "I especially loved the Flash Gordon serials... Of course I realize now how crude and badly done they were... loving them that much when they were so awful, I began to wonder what would happen if they were done really well. ''
At the Cannes Film Festival following the completion of THX 1138, Lucas was granted a two - film development deal with United Artists; the two films were American Graffiti, and an untitled Flash Gordon-esque space fantasy film. He pushed towards buying the Flash Gordon rights. He said:
I wanted to make a Flash Gordon movie, with all the trimmings, but I could n't obtain the rights to the characters. So I began researching and went right back and found where Alex Raymond (who had done the original Flash Gordon comic strips in newspapers) had got his idea from. I discovered that he 'd got his inspiration from the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs (author of Tarzan) and especially from his John Carter of Mars series books. I read through that series, then found that what had sparked Burroughs off was a science - fantasy called Gulliver on Mars, written by Edwin Arnold and published in 1905. That was the first story in this genre that I have been able to trace. Jules Verne had got pretty close, I suppose, but he never had a hero battling against space creatures or having adventures on another planet. A whole new genre developed from that idea.
Director Francis Ford Coppola, who accompanied Lucas in trying to buy the Flash Gordon rights, recounted in 1999: "(George) was very depressed because he had just come back and they would n't sell him Flash Gordon. And he says, ' Well, I 'll just invent my own. ' '' Lucas envisioned his own space opera and called it The Star Wars. After his failed attempt to gain the Flash Gordon rights, Lucas went to United Artists and showed the script for American Graffiti, but they passed on the film, which was then picked up by Universal Pictures. United Artists also passed on Lucas 's The Star Wars concept, which he shelved for the time being. After spending the next two years completing American Graffiti, Lucas turned his attention to The Star Wars.
Lucas began writing in January 1973, "eight hours a day, five days a week '', by taking small notes, inventing odd names and assigning them possible characterizations. Lucas would discard many of these by the time the final script was written, but he included several names and places in the final script or its sequels. He revived others decades later when he wrote his prequel trilogy. He used these initial names and ideas to compile a two - page synopsis titled Journal of the Whills, which told the tale of the training of apprentice CJ Thorpe as a "Jedi - Bendu '' space commando by the legendary Mace Windu. Frustrated that his story was too difficult to understand, Lucas then began writing a 13 - page treatment called The Star Wars on April 17, 1973, which had thematic parallels with Akira Kurosawa 's 1958 film The Hidden Fortress.
After United Artists declined to budget the film, Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz presented the film treatment to Universal Pictures, the studio that financed American Graffiti; however, it rejected its options for the film because the concept was "a little strange '', and it said that Lucas should follow American Graffiti with more consequential themes. Lucas said, "I 've always been an outsider to Hollywood types. They think I do weirdo films. '' According to Kurtz, Lew Wasserman, the studio 's head, "just did n't think much of science fiction at that time, did n't think it had much of a future then, with that particular audience. '' He said that "science fiction was n't popular in the mid - ' 70s... what seems to be the case generally is that the studio executives are looking for what was popular last year, rather than trying to look forward to what might be popular next year. '' Lucas explained in 1977 that the film is not "about the future '' and that it "is a fantasy much closer to the Brothers Grimm than it is to 2001 ''. He added: "My main reason for making it was to give young people an honest, wholesome fantasy life, the kind my generation had. We had westerns, pirate movies, all kinds of great things. Now they have The Six Million Dollar Man and Kojak. Where are the romance, the adventure, and the fun that used to be in practically every movie made? '' Kurtz said, "Although Star Wars was n't like (then - current science fiction) at all, it was just sort of lumped into that same kind of category. ''
There were also concerns regarding the project 's potentially high budget. Lucas and Kurtz, in pitching the film, said that it would be "low - budget, Roger Corman style, and the budget was never going to be more than -- well, originally we had proposed about 8 million, it ended up being about 10. Both of those figures are very low budget by Hollywood standards at the time. '' After Walt Disney Productions rejected the project, Lucas and Kurtz persisted in securing a studio to support the film because "other people had read it and said, ' Yeah, it could be a good idea... ' '' Lucas pursued Alan Ladd Jr., the head of 20th Century Fox, and in June 1973 completed a deal to write and direct the film. Although Ladd did not grasp the technical side of the project, he believed that Lucas was talented. Lucas later stated that Ladd "invested in me, he did not invest in the movie. '' The deal gave Lucas $150,000 to write and direct the film.
-- George Lucas, 1977
Since commencing his writing process in January 1973, Lucas had done "various rewrites in the evenings after the day 's work. '' He would write four different screenplays for Star Wars, "searching for just the right ingredients, characters and storyline. It 's always been what you might call a good idea in search of a story. '' By May 1974, he had expanded the film treatment into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a general by the name of Annikin Starkiller. He changed Starkiller to an adolescent boy, and he shifted the general into a supporting role as a member of a family of dwarfs. Lucas envisioned the Corellian smuggler, Han Solo, as a large, green - skinned monster with gills. He based Chewbacca on his Alaskan Malamute dog, Indiana (whom he would later use as namesake for his character Indiana Jones), who often acted as the director 's "co-pilot '' by sitting in the passenger seat of his car.
Lucas began researching the science fiction genre by watching films and reading books and comics. His first script incorporated ideas from many new sources. The script would also introduce the concept of a Jedi Master father and his son, who trains to be a Jedi under his father 's friend; this would ultimately form the basis for the film and, later, the trilogy. However, in this draft, the father is a hero who is still alive at the start of the film.
Lucas completed a second draft of The Star Wars in January 1975, making heavy simplifications and introducing the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke 's father, a wise Jedi knight. "The Force '' was also introduced as a mystical energy field. This second draft still had some differences from the final version in the characters and relationships. For example, Luke had several brothers, as well as his father, who appears in a minor role at the end of the film. The script became more of a fairy tale quest as opposed to the action - adventure of the previous versions. This version ended with another text crawl, previewing the next story in the series. This draft was also the first to introduce the concept of a Jedi turning to the dark side: the draft included a historical Jedi who became the first to ever fall to the dark side, and then trained the Sith to use it. Impressed with his works, Lucas hired conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie to create paintings of certain scenes around this time. When Lucas delivered his screenplay to the studio, he included several of McQuarrie 's paintings.
A third draft, dated August 1, 1975, was titled The Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Starkiller. This third draft had most of the elements of the final plot, with only some differences in the characters and settings. The draft characterized Luke as an only child, with his father already dead, replacing him with a substitute named Ben Kenobi. This script would be re-written for the fourth and final draft, dated January 1, 1976, as The Adventures of Luke Starkiller as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. Lucas worked with his friends Gloria Katz and Willard Huyck to revise the fourth draft into the final pre-production script. 20th Century Fox approved a budget of $8.25 million; American Graffiti 's positive reception afforded Lucas the leverage necessary to renegotiate his deal with Alan Ladd Jr. and request the sequel rights to the film. For Lucas, this deal protected Star Wars 's unwritten segments and most of the merchandising profits.
Lucas finished writing his script in March 1976, when the crew started filming. He said, "What finally emerged through the many drafts of the script has obviously been influenced by science - fiction and action - adventure I 've read and seen. And I 've seen a lot of it. I 'm trying to make a classic sort of genre picture, a classic space fantasy in which all the influences are working together. There are certain traditional aspects of the genre I wanted to keep and help perpetuate in Star Wars. '' During production, he changed Luke 's name from Starkiller to Skywalker and altered the title to The Star Wars and later Star Wars. He would also continue to tweak the script during filming, including adding the death of Obi - Wan after realizing he served no purpose in the ending of the film.
For the film 's opening crawl, Lucas originally wrote a composition consisting of six paragraphs with four sentences each. He said, "The crawl is such a hard thing because you have to be careful that you 're not using too many words that people do n't understand. It 's like a poem. '' Lucas showed his draft to his friends. Director Brian De Palma, who was there, described it: "The crawl at the beginning looks like it was written on a driveway. It goes on forever. It 's gibberish. '' Lucas recounted what De Palma said the first time he saw it: "George, you 're out of your mind! Let me sit down and write this for you. '' De Palma helped to edit the text into the form used in the film.
George Lucas recruited many conceptual designers, including Colin Cantwell, who worked on 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), to conceptualize the initial spacecraft models; Alex Tavoularis to create the preliminary conceptual storyboard sketches of early scripts; and Ralph McQuarrie to visualize the characters, costumes, props and scenery. McQuarrie 's pre-production paintings of certain scenes from Lucas 's early screenplay drafts helped 20th Century Fox visualize the film, which positively influenced their decision to fund the project. After McQuarrie 's drawings for Lucas 's colleagues Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins (who were collaborating for a film) caught his interest, Lucas met with McQuarrie to discuss his plans for the then - untitled space fantasy film he wanted to make. Two years later, after completing American Graffiti, Lucas approached McQuarrie and asked him if he would be interested "in doing something for Star Wars. '' McQuarrie produced a series of artworks from simple sketches; these set a visual tone for the film, and for the rest of the original trilogy.
-- Lucas on his "used future '' backdrop
The film was ambitious as Lucas wanted to create fresh prop prototypes and sets (based on McQuarrie 's paintings) that had never been realized before in science fiction films. He commissioned production designers John Barry and Roger Christian, who were working on the sets of the film Lucky Lady (1975) when Lucas first approached them, to work on the production sets. Christian recounted in 2014: "George came to the set I was doing, it was an old salt factory design and he helped me shovel salt, just like two students in plaid shirts and sneakers. And we spoke and he looked at the set and could n't believe it was n't real. '' They had a conversation with Lucas on what he would like the film to appear like, with them creating the desired sets. Christian said that Lucas "did n't want anything (in Star Wars) to stand out, he wanted it (to look) all real and used. And I said, ' Finally somebody 's doing it the right way. ' ''
Lucas described a "used future '' concept to the production designers in which all devices, ships, and buildings looked aged and dirty. Instead of following the traditional sleekness and futuristic architecture of science fiction films that came before, the Star Wars sets were designed to look inhabited and used. Barry said that the director "wants to make it look like it 's shot on location on your average everyday Death Star or Mos Eisley Spaceport or local cantina. '' Lucas believed that "what is required for true credibility is a used future '', opposing the interpretation of "future in most futurist movies '' that "always looks new and clean and shiny. '' Christian supported Lucas 's vision, saying "All science fiction before was very plastic and stupid uniforms and Flash Gordon stuff. Nothing was new. George was going right against that. ''
The designers started working with the director before Star Wars was approved by 20th Century Fox. For four to five months, in a studio in Kensal Rise, England, they attempted to plan the creation of the props and sets with "no money ''. Although Lucas initially provided funds using his earnings from American Graffiti, it was inadequate. As they could not afford to dress the sets, Christian was forced to use unconventional methods and materials to achieve the desired look. He suggested that Lucas use scrap in making the dressings, and the director agreed. Christian said, "I 've always had this idea. I used to do it with models when I was a kid. I 'd stick things on them and we 'd make things look old. '' Barry, Christian, and their team began designing the props and sets at Elstree Studios.
According to Christian, the Millennium Falcon set was the most difficult to build. Christian wanted the interior of the Falcon to look like that of a submarine. He found scrap airplane metal "that no one wanted in those days and bought them ''. He began his creation process by breaking down jet engines into scrap pieces, giving him the chance to "stick it in the sets in specific ways ''. It took him several weeks to finish the chess set (which he described as "the most encrusted set '') in the hold of the Falcon. The garbage compactor set "was also pretty hard, because I knew I had actors in there and the walls had to come in, and they had to be in dirty water and I had to get stuff that would be light enough so it would n't hurt them but also not bobbing around ''. A total of 30 sets consisting of planets, starships, caves, control rooms, cantinas, and the Death Star corridors were created; all of the nine sound stages at Elstree were used to accommodate them. The massive rebel hangar set was housed at a second sound stage at Shepperton Studios; the stage was the largest in Europe at the time.
In 1975, Lucas formed his own visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) after discovering that 20th Century Fox 's visual effects department had been disbanded. ILM began its work on Star Wars in a warehouse in Van Nuys, California. Most of the visual effects used pioneering digital motion control photography developed by John Dykstra and his team, which created the illusion of size by employing small models and slowly moving cameras.
George Lucas tried "to get a cohesive reality '' for his feature. However, since the film is a fairy tale, as he had described, "I still wanted it to have an ethereal quality, yet be well composed and, also, have an alien look. '' He designed the film to have an "extremely bizarre, Gregg Toland - like surreal look with strange over-exposed colors, a lot of shadows, a lot of hot areas. '' Lucas wanted Star Wars to embrace the combination of "strange graphics of fantasy '' and "the feel of a documentary '' to impress a distinct look. To achieve this, he hired the British cinematographer Gilbert Taylor. Originally, Lucas 's first choice for the position was Geoffrey Unsworth, who also provided the cinematography for Stanley Kubrick 's 2001: A Space Odyssey. Unsworth was interested in working with the director, and initially accepted the job when it was offered to him by Lucas and Kurtz. However, he eventually withdrew to work on the Vincente Minnelli - directed A Matter of Time (1976) instead, which "really annoy (ed) '' Kurtz. Lucas called up for other cinematographers, and eventually chose Taylor, basing his choice on Taylor 's cinematography for Dr. Strangelove and A Hard Day 's Night (both 1964). On his decision, Lucas said: "I thought they were good, eccentrically photographed pictures with a strong documentary flavor ''.
Taylor said that Lucas, who was consumed by the details of the complicated production, "avoided all meetings and contact with me from day one, so I read the extra-long script many times and made my own decisions as to how I would shoot the picture. '' He also "took it upon myself to experiment with photographing the lightsabers and other things onstage before we moved on to our two weeks of location work in Tunisia ''. Taylor was aware of the "enormous amount of process work '' to follow principal photography and believed "a crisp result would help ''.
During production, Lucas and Taylor -- whom Kurtz called "old - school '' and "crotchety '' -- had disputes over filming. With a background in independent filmmaking, Lucas was accustomed to creating most of the elements of the film himself. His lighting suggestions were rejected by Taylor, who felt that Lucas was overstepping his boundaries by giving specific instructions, sometimes even moving lights and cameras himself. Taylor refused to use the soft - focus lenses and gauze Lucas wanted after Fox executives complained about the look. Kurtz stated that "In a couple of scenes (...) rather than saying, ' It looks a bit over lit, can you fix that? ', (Lucas would) say, ' turn off this light, and turn off that light. ' And Gil would say, ' No, I wo n't do that, I 've lit it the way I think it should be -- tell me what 's the effect that you want, and I 'll make a judgment about what to do with my lights. ' ''
Originally, Lucas envisioned the planet of Tatooine, where much of the film would take place, as a jungle planet. Gary Kurtz traveled to the Philippines to scout locations; however, because of the idea of spending months filming in the jungle would make Lucas "itchy '', the director refined his vision and made Tatooine a desert planet instead. Kurtz then researched all American, North African, and Middle Eastern deserts, and found Tunisia, near the Sahara desert, as the ideal location. In the director 's commentary of the 2004 DVD edition of A New Hope, Lucas said he wanted to also make it look more "spacy '' or outer space - like in style.
When principal photography began on March 22, 1976, in the Tunisian desert for the scenes on Tatooine, the project faced several problems. Lucas fell behind schedule in the first week of shooting due to malfunctioning props and electronic breakdowns. Moreover, a rare Tunisian rainstorm struck the country, which further disrupted filming. Taylor said, "you could n't really see where the land ended and the sky began. It was all a gray mess, and the robots were just a blur. '' Given this situation, Lucas requested for heavy filtration, which Taylor rejected, who said: "I thought the look of the film should be absolutely clean... But George saw it differently, so we tried using nets and other diffusion. He asked to set up one shot on the robots with a 300mm, and the sand and sky just mushed together. I told him it would n't work, but he said that was the way he wanted to do the entire film, all diffused. '' This difference was later settled by 20th Century Fox executives, who backed Taylor 's suggestion.
Filming began in Chott el Djerid, while a construction crew in Tozeur took eight weeks to transform the desert into the desired setting. Other locations included the sand dunes of the Tunisian desert near Nafta, where a scene featuring a giant skeleton of a creature lying in the background as R2 - D2 and C - 3PO make their way across the sands was filmed. When actor Anthony Daniels wore the C - 3PO outfit for the first time in Tunisia, the left leg piece shattered down through the plastic covering his left foot, stabbing him. He also could not see through his costume 's eyes, which was covered with gold to prevent corrosion. Abnormal radio signals caused by the Tunisian sands made the radio - controlled R2 - D2 models run out of control. Kenny Baker, who portrayed R2 - D2, said: "I was incredibly grateful each time an (R2) would actually work right. '' After several scenes were filmed against the volcanic canyons outside Tozeur, production moved to Matmata to film Luke 's home on Tatooine. Lucas chose Hotel Sidi Driss, which is larger than the typical underground dwellings, to shoot the interior of Luke 's homestead. Additional scenes for Tatooine were filmed at Death Valley in North America.
After completing two and a half weeks of filming in Tunisia, the cast and crew moved into the more controlled environment of Elstree Studios, near London. Difficulties encountered in Tunisia were assumed to cease; however, due to strict British working conditions adhered to on set, a new problem arose: filming had to finish by 5: 30 pm, unless Lucas was in the middle of a scene. The interiors were shot in London due to its proximity to North Africa and because of the availability of top technical crews at Elstree Studios. The film studio was the only one of its kind in Britain or America that could cater nine large stages at the same time and allow the company complete freedom to use its own personnel. Despite Lucas ' efforts, his crew had little interest in the film and did not take the project seriously. Most of the crew considered the project a "children 's film '', rarely took their work seriously, and often found it unintentionally humorous. Actor Baker later confessed that he thought the film would be a failure. Harrison Ford found it strange that "there 's a princess with weird buns in her hair '', and he called Chewbacca a "giant in a monkey suit ''.
The Elstree sets designed by John Barry, according to Gilbert Taylor, "were like a coal mine ''. He said that "they were all black and gray, with really no opportunities for lighting at all ''. To resolve the problem, he worked the lighting into the sets by chopping in its walls, ceiling and floors. This would result in "a ' cut - out ' system of panel lighting '', with quartz lamps that could be placed in the holes in the walls, ceiling and floors. His idea was supported by the Fox studio, which agreed that "we could n't have this ' black hole of Calcutta ' ''. The lighting approach Taylor devised "allowed George to shoot in almost any direction without extensive relighting, which gave him more freedom. '' In total, filming the scenes in Britain took 14 and a half weeks.
The moon Yavin 4, which acted as the rebel base in the film, was filmed in the Mayan temples at Tikal, Guatemala. Lucas selected the location as a potential filming site after seeing a poster of it hanging at a travel agency while he was filming in Britain. This inspired him to send a film crew to Guatemala in March 1977 to shoot scenes. While filming in Tikal, the crew paid locals with a six pack of beer to watch over the camera equipment for several days.
Lucas rarely spoke to the actors, who felt that he expected too much of them while providing little direction. His directions to the actors usually consisted of the words "faster '' and "more intense ''. Kurtz stated that "it happened a lot where he would just say, ' Let 's try it again a little bit faster. ' That was about the only instruction he 'd give anybody. A lot of actors do n't mind -- they do n't care, they just get on with it. But some actors really need a lot of pampering and a lot of feedback, and if they do n't get it, they get paranoid that they might not be doing a good job. '' Kurtz has said that Lucas "was n't gregarious, he 's very much a loner and very shy, so he did n't like large groups of people, he did n't like working with a large crew, he did n't like working with a lot of actors. ''
Ladd offered Lucas some of the only support from the studio; he dealt with scrutiny from board members over the rising budget and complex screenplay drafts. Initially, Fox approved $8 million for the project; Gary Kurtz said: "we proceeded to pick a production plan and do a more final budget with a British art department and look for locations in North Africa, and kind of pulled together some things. Then, it was obvious that 8 million was n't going to do it -- they had approved 8 million. '' After requests from the team that "it had to be more '', the executives "got a bit scared ''. For two weeks, Lucas and his crew "did n't really do anything except kind of pull together new budget figures ''. At the same time, after production fell behind schedule, Ladd told Lucas he had to finish production within a week or he would be forced to shut down production. Kurtz said that "it came out to be like 9.8 or. 9 or something like that, and in the end they just said, ' Yes, that 's okay, we 'll go ahead. ' '' The crew split into three units, with those units led by Lucas, Kurtz, and production supervisor Robert Watts. Under the new system, the project met the studio 's deadline.
During production, the cast attempted to make Lucas laugh or smile, as he often appeared depressed. At one point, the project became so demanding that Lucas was diagnosed with hypertension and exhaustion and was warned to reduce his stress level. Post-production was equally stressful due to increasing pressure from 20th Century Fox. Moreover, Mark Hamill 's car accident left his face visibly scarred, which restricted re-shoots.
Star Wars was originally slated for release on Christmas 1976; however, its production delays pushed the film 's release to summer 1977. Already anxious about meeting his deadline, Lucas was shocked when editor John Jympson 's first cut of the film was a "complete disaster ''. According to an article in Star Wars Insider No. 41 by David West Reynolds, this first edit of Star Wars contained about 30 -- 40 % different footage from the final version. After attempting to persuade Jympson to cut the film his way, Lucas replaced him with Paul Hirsch and Richard Chew. He also allowed his then - wife, Marcia Lucas, to aid the editing process while she was cutting the film New York, New York (1977) with Lucas 's friend Martin Scorsese. Richard Chew found the film to have a lethargic pace and to have been cut in a by - the - book manner: scenes were played out in master shots that flowed into close - up coverage. He found that the pace was dictated by the actors instead of the cuts. Hirsch and Chew worked on two reels simultaneously.
Jympson 's original assembly contained a large amount of footage which differed from the final cut of the film, including several alternate takes and a number of scenes which were subsequently deleted to improve the narrative pace. The most significant material cut was a series of scenes from the first part of the film which served to introduce the character of Luke Skywalker. These early scenes, set in Anchorhead on the planet Tatooine, presented the audience with Luke 's everyday life among his friends as it is affected by the space battle above the planet; they also introduced the character of Biggs Darklighter, Luke 's closest friend who departs to join the Rebellion. Chew explained the rationale behind removing these scenes as a narrative decision: "In the first five minutes, we were hitting everybody with more information than they could handle. There were too many story lines to keep straight: the robots and the Princess, Vader, Luke. So we simplified it by taking out Luke and Biggs ''. After viewing a rough cut, Alan Ladd likened these Anchorhead scenes to "American Graffiti in outer space ''. Lucas was looking for a way of accelerating the storytelling, and removing Luke 's early scenes would distinguish Star Wars from his earlier teenage drama and "get that American Graffiti feel out of it ''. Lucas also stated that he wanted to move the narrative focus to C - 3PO and R2 - D2: "At the time, to have the first half - hour of the film be mainly about robots was a bold idea. ''
Meanwhile, Industrial Light & Magic was struggling to achieve unprecedented special effects. The company had spent half of its budget on four shots that Lucas deemed unacceptable. Moreover, theories surfaced that the workers at ILM lacked discipline, forcing Lucas to intervene frequently to ensure that they were on schedule. With hundreds of uncompleted shots remaining, ILM was forced to finish a year 's work in six months. Lucas inspired ILM by editing together aerial dogfights from old war films, which enhanced the pacing of the scenes.
During the chaos of production and post-production, the team made decisions about character voicing and sound effects. Sound designer Ben Burtt had created a library of sounds that Lucas referred to as an "organic soundtrack ''. Blaster sounds were a modified recording of a steel cable, under tension, being struck. The lightsaber sound effect was developed by Burtt as a combination of the hum of idling interlock motors in aged movie projectors and interference caused by a television set on a shieldless microphone. Burtt discovered the latter accidentally as he was looking for a buzzing, sparking sound to add to the projector - motor hum. For Chewbacca 's growls, Burtt recorded and combined sounds made by dogs, bears, lions, tigers, and walruses to create phrases and sentences. Lucas and Burtt created the robotic voice of R2 - D2 by filtering their voices through an electronic synthesizer. Darth Vader 's breathing was achieved by Burtt breathing through the mask of a scuba regulator implanted with a microphone.
In February 1977, Lucas screened an early cut of the film for Fox executives, several director friends, along with Roy Thomas and Howard Chaykin of Marvel Comics who were preparing a Star Wars comic book. The cut had a different crawl from the finished version and used Prowse 's voice for Darth Vader. It also lacked most special effects; hand - drawn arrows took the place of blaster beams, and when the Millennium Falcon fought TIE fighters, the film cut to footage of World War II dogfights. The reactions of the directors present, such as Brian De Palma, John Milius, and Steven Spielberg, disappointed Lucas. Spielberg, who claimed to have been the only person in the audience to have enjoyed the film, believed that the lack of enthusiasm was due to the absence of finished special effects. Lucas later said that the group was honest and seemed bemused by the film. In contrast, Ladd and the other studio executives loved the film; Gareth Wigan told Lucas: "This is the greatest film I 've ever seen '' and cried during the screening. Lucas found the experience shocking and rewarding, having never gained any approval from studio executives before. The delays increased the budget from $8 million to $11 million.
With the project $2 million over budget, Lucas was forced to make numerous artistic compromises to complete Star Wars. Ladd reluctantly agreed to release an extra $20,000 funding and in early 1977 second unit filming completed a number of sequences including exterior desert shots for Tatooine in Death Valley and China Lake Acres in California, and exterior Yavin jungle shots in Guatemala, along with additional studio footage to complete the Mos Eisley Cantina sequence. Lucas had planned to rework a confrontation scene between Han Solo and Jabba the Hutt in Mos Eisley Spaceport by compositing a stop - motion animated model of Jabba to replace the actor Declan Mulholland, but with time and money running out, Lucas reluctantly decided to cut the scene entirely. The sequence was later re-instated in the 1997 Special Edition with a computer - generated version of Jabba.
On the recommendation of his friend Steven Spielberg, Lucas hired composer John Williams. Williams had worked with Spielberg on the film Jaws, for which he won an Academy Award. Lucas felt that the film would portray visually foreign worlds, but that the musical score would give the audience an emotional familiarity; he wanted a grand musical sound for Star Wars, with leitmotifs to provide distinction. Therefore, he assembled his favorite orchestral pieces for the soundtrack, until Williams convinced him that an original score would be unique and more unified. However, a few of Williams ' pieces were influenced by the tracks given to him by Lucas: the "Main Title Theme '' was inspired by the theme from the 1942 film Kings Row, scored by Erich Wolfgang Korngold; and the track "Dune Sea of Tatooine '' drew from the soundtrack of Bicycle Thieves, scored by Alessandro Cicognini.
In March 1977, Williams conducted the London Symphony Orchestra to record the Star Wars soundtrack in 12 days. The original soundtrack was released as a double LP in 1977 by 20th Century Records. 20th Century Records also released The Story of Star Wars that same year, a narrated audio drama adaptation of the film utilizing some of its original music, dialogue, and sound effects. The American Film Institute 's list of best film scores ranks the Star Wars soundtrack at number one.
According to Lucas, different concepts of the film were inspired by numerous sources, such as Beowulf and King Arthur for the origins of myth and religion. Lucas had originally intended to remake the 1930s Flash Gordon film serials, but was unable to obtain the rights; thus, he resorted to drawing from Akira Kurosawa 's 1958 film The Hidden Fortress, and Joseph Campbell 's The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Star Wars features many elements derived from Flash Gordon, such as the conflict between Rebels and Imperial Forces, the wipes between scenes, the fusion of futuristic technology and traditional mythology, and the famous opening crawl that begins each film. The film has also been compared to The Wizard of Oz.
The influence of The Hidden Fortress can be seen in the relationship between C - 3PO and R2 - D2, which evolved from the two bickering peasants, Tahei and Matashichi, and a Japanese family crest seen in the earlier film is similar to the Imperial Crest. Star Wars also borrows heavily from another Kurosawa film, Yojimbo. In both films, several men threaten the hero, bragging about how wanted they are by the authorities, and have an arm being cut off by a blade; Kuwabatake Sanjuro (portrayed by Toshiro Mifune) is offered "... twenty - five ryo now, twenty - five when you complete the mission... '', whereas Han Solo is offered "Two thousand now, plus fifteen when we reach Alderaan. ''
Tatooine is similar to Arrakis from Frank Herbert 's Dune series. Arrakis is the only known source of a longevity spice called Melange. References to "spice '', various illegal stimulant drugs, occur throughout the last three films of the Star Wars saga. In the original film, Han Solo is a smuggler who has been through the spice mines of Kessel. In the conversation at Obi - Wan Kenobi 's home, between Obi - Wan and Luke, Luke expresses a belief that his father was a navigator on a spice freighter. Other similarities include those between Princess Leia and Princess Alia, and between Jedi mind tricks and "The Voice '', a controlling ability used by the Bene Gesserit. In passing, Uncle Owen and Aunt Beru are "moisture farmers ''; in Dune, dew collectors are used by Fremen to "provide a small but reliable source of water. '' Frank Herbert reported that "David Lynch, (director of the 1984 film Dune) had trouble with the fact that Star Wars used up so much of Dune. '' The pair found "sixteen points of identity '' and they calculated that "the odds against coincidence produced a number larger than the number of stars in the universe. ''
The Death Star assault scene was modeled after the World War II film The Dam Busters (1955), in which Royal Air Force Lancaster bombers fly along heavily defended reservoirs and aim bouncing bombs at dams, in order to cripple the heavy industry of Germany 's Ruhr region. Some of the dialogue in The Dam Busters is repeated in the Star Wars climax; Gilbert Taylor also filmed the special effects sequences in The Dam Busters. In addition, the sequence was partially inspired by the climax of the film 633 Squadron (1964), directed by Walter Grauman, in which RAF de Havilland Mosquitos attack a German heavy water plant by flying down a narrow fjord to drop special bombs at a precise point, while avoiding anti-aircraft guns and German fighters. Clips from both films were included in Lucas 's temporary dogfight footage version of the sequence.
The opening shot of Star Wars, in which a detailed spaceship fills the screen overhead, is a reference to the scene introducing the interplanetary spacecraft Discovery One in Stanley Kubrick 's seminal 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. The earlier big - budget science fiction film influenced the look of Star Wars in many other ways, including the use of EVA pods and hexagonal corridors. The Death Star has a docking bay reminiscent of the one on the orbiting space station in 2001. Although golden and male, C - 3PO was inspired by the silver female robot Maria, the Maschinenmensch from Fritz Lang 's 1927 film Metropolis.
The film was originally released in 1977 with the title "Star Wars ''. The subtitles Episode IV and A New Hope were only added to the opening crawl in subsequent re-releases. Accounts differ as to when this designation was first added; some date the change at the theatrical re-release of April 10, 1981, while others place it much earlier at the re-release in July 1978. The retroactive addition of these subtitles was intended to bring the film into line with the introduction to its sequel, The Empire Strikes Back, which was released in 1980 bearing the designation "Episode V ''. It is uncertain if the introduction of an episodic naming convention was an indicator of Lucas 's original intent, or if this was simply a later redraft of the narrative. According to some accounts, Lucas has claimed that he was discouraged by Twentieth Century Fox from using an episode number on a new film because it would confuse audiences. Gary Kurtz has stated that he and Lucas had originally considered using an episode number for Star Wars to emulate the chapter numbering used in the 1936 Flash Gordon installments, but they were uncertain whether they should designate it Episode III, IV or V. However, some of Lucas 's early script drafts bear titles such as "The Adventures of the Starkiller (Episode One): The Star Wars '' (1975) or "The Adventures of Luke Starkiller as Taken from the Journal of the Whills: Saga One: Star Wars '' (1976). The Revised Fourth Draft of the script dated January 1975 acquired the subtitle "Episode IV -- A New Hope -- from the Journal of the Whills '' when published in the 1979 book The Art of Star Wars.
While the film was in production, a logo was commissioned from Dan Perri, a title sequence designer who had worked on the titles for films such as The Exorcist (1973), Taxi Driver (1976). Perri devised a foreshortened STAR WARS logotype consisting of block - capital letters filled with stars and skewed towards a vanishing point. This logo design was originally conceived to follow the same perspective as the film 's opening crawl. In the end, Perri 's logo was not used for the film 's opening title sequence, although it was used widely on pre-release print advertising and on cinema marquees.
The logotype eventually selected for on - screen use originated in a promotional brochure that was distributed by Fox to cinema owners in 1976. This brochure was designed by Suzy Rice, a young art director at the Los Angeles advertising agency Seiniger Advertising. On a visit to ILM in Van Nuys, Rice was instructed by Lucas to produce a logo that would intimidate the viewer, and he reportedly asked for the logo to appear "very fascist '' in style. Rice 's response to her brief was to use an outlined, modified Helvetica Black. After some feedback from Lucas, Rice decided to join the S and T of STAR and the R and S of WARS. Lucas signed off on the brochure in between takes while filming inserts for the Mos Eisley Cantina scene. Gary Kurtz was impressed with Rice 's logo and selected it over Perri 's design for the film 's opening titles, after modifying the letter W to flatten the pointed tips originally designed by Rice. This finalised the design of one of the most recognisable logos in cinema design, although Rice 's contribution was not credited in the film.
For the US release in 1977, 20th Century Fox commissioned a promotional film poster from the advertising agency Smolen, Smith and Connolly. They used the freelance artist Tom Jung who was given the brief of "good over evil ''. His poster, known as Style ' A ', depicted Luke Skywalker standing in a heroic pose, brandishing a shining lightsaber above his head, with Princess Leia below him, and a large, ghostly image of Darth Vader 's helmet looming behind them. Some Fox executives considered this poster "too dark '' and commissioned the Brothers Hildebrandt, a pair of well - known fantasy artists, to rework the poster for the UK release. When the film opened in British theaters, the Hildebrandts ' Style ' B ' poster was used in cinema billboards. Fox and Lucasfilm subsequently decided that they wanted to promote the new film with a less stylised and more realistic depiction of the lead characters. Producer Gary Kurtz turned to the film poster artist Tom Chantrell, who was already well known for his prolific work for Hammer horror films, and commissioned a new version. Two months after Star Wars opened, the Hildebrandts ' poster was replaced by Chantrell 's Style ' C ' poster in UK cinemas.
Lucasfilm hired Charles Lippincott as marketing director for Star Wars. As 20th Century Fox gave little support for marketing beyond licensing T - shirts and posters, Lippincott was forced to look elsewhere. He secured deals with Marvel Comics for a comic book adaptation, and with Del Rey Books for a novelization. A fan of science fiction, he used his contacts to promote the film at the San Diego Comic - Con and elsewhere within science fiction fandom. Worried that Star Wars would be beaten out by other summer films, such as Smokey and the Bandit, 20th Century Fox moved the release date to May 25, the Wednesday before Memorial Day. However, fewer than 40 theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, the studio demanded that theaters order Star Wars if they wanted the eagerly anticipated The Other Side of Midnight based on the novel by the same name.
-- Producer Gary Kurtz, on when he realized Star Wars had become a cultural phenomenon
Star Wars debuted on Wednesday, May 25, 1977, in fewer than 32 theaters, and eight more on Thursday and Friday. Kurtz said in 2002, "That would be laughable today. '' It immediately broke box office records, effectively becoming one of the first blockbuster films, and Fox accelerated plans to broaden its release. Lucas himself was not able to predict how successful Star Wars would be. After visiting the set of the Steven Spielberg film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Lucas was sure Close Encounters would outperform the yet - to - be-released Star Wars at the box office. Spielberg disagreed, and felt Star Wars would be the bigger hit. Lucas proposed they trade 2.5 % of the profit on each other 's films; Spielberg took the trade, and still receives 2.5 % of the profits from Star Wars.
Fox initially had doubts if Star Wars would emerge successful. The Other Side of Midnight was supposed to be the studio 's big summer hit, while Lucas ' movie was considered the "B track '' for theater owners nationwide. While Fox requested Mann 's Chinese Theatre, the studio promised that the film only needed two weeks. Fearing that the film would fail, Lucas had made plans to be in Hawaii with his wife Marcia. Having forgotten that the film would open that day, he spent most of Wednesday in a sound studio in Los Angeles. When Lucas went out for lunch with Marcia, they encountered a long line of people along the sidewalks leading to Mann 's Chinese Theatre, waiting to see Star Wars. He was still skeptical of the film 's success despite Ladd and the studio 's enthusiastic reports. While in Hawaii, it was not until he watched Walter Cronkite discuss the gigantic crowds for Star Wars on the CBS Evening News that Lucas realized he had become very wealthy (Francis Ford Coppola, who needed money to finish Apocalypse Now, sent a telegram to Lucas 's hotel asking for funding). Even technical crew members, such as model makers, were asked for autographs, and cast members became instant household names; when Ford visited a record store to buy an album, enthusiastic fans tore half his shirt off.
The film was a huge success for 20th Century Fox, and was credited for reinvigorating the company. Within three weeks of the film 's release, the studio 's stock price had doubled to a record high. Prior to 1977, 20th Century Fox 's greatest annual profits were $37 million, while in 1977, the company broke that record by posting a profit of $79 million. Although the film 's cultural neutrality helped it to gain international success, Ladd became anxious during the premiere in Japan. After the screening, the audience was silent, leading him to fear that the film would be unsuccessful. Ladd was later told by his local contacts that, in Japan, silence was the greatest honor to a film, and the subsequent strong box office returns confirmed its popularity.
After two weeks William Friedkin 's Sorcerer replaced Star Wars at Mann 's Chinese Theatre because of contractual obligations; Mann Theatres moved the film to a less - prestigious location after quickly renovating it. When Star Wars made an unprecedented second opening at Mann 's Chinese Theatre on August 3, 1977, after Sorcerer failed, thousands of people attended a ceremony in which C - 3PO, R2 - D2 and Darth Vader placed their footprints in the theater 's forecourt. At that time Star Wars was playing in 1,096 theaters in the United States. Approximately 60 theaters played the film continuously for over a year; in 1978, Lucasfilm distributed "Birthday Cake '' posters to those theaters for special events on May 25, the one - year anniversary of the film 's release. Star Wars premiered in the UK on December 27, 1977.
Star Wars was re-released theatrically in 1978, 1979, 1981 and 1982. After ILM used computer - generated effects for Steven Spielberg 's 1993 film Jurassic Park, Lucas claimed that digital technology had caught up to his "original vision '' for Star Wars. For the film 's 20th anniversary in 1997, Star Wars was digitally remastered and re-released to movie theaters, along with The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, under the campaign title Star Wars Trilogy: Special Edition. This version of the film runs 124 minutes.
The Special Edition contains visual shots and scenes that were unachievable in the original release due to financial, technological, and time constraints; one such scene involves a meeting between Han Solo and Jabba the Hutt. The process of creating the new visual effects for Star Wars was featured in the documentary film, Special Effects: Anything Can Happen, directed by Star Wars sound designer, Ben Burtt. Although most changes are minor or cosmetic in nature, many fans and critics believe that Lucas degraded the film with the additions. A particularly controversial change in which a bounty hunter named Greedo shoots first when confronting Han Solo has inspired T - shirts brandishing the phrase "Han Shot First ''.
Star Wars required extensive recovery of misplaced footage and restoration of the whole, before Lucas 's Special Edition modifications could be attempted. It was discovered that in addition to the negative motion picture stocks commonly used on feature films, Lucas had also used internegative film, a reversal stock which deteriorated faster than negative stocks did. This meant that the entire printing negative had to be disassembled, and the CRI (color reversal internegative) portions cleaned separately from the negative portions. Once the cleaning was complete, the film was scanned into the computer for restoration. In many cases, entire scenes had to be reconstructed from their individual elements. Digital compositing technology allowed them to correct for problems such as alignment of mattes, "blue - spill '', and so forth.
The 1977 theatrical version of Star Wars was selected by the National Film Registry of the United States Library of Congress in 1989. While it was initially unclear which version of the film had been archived by the Library, it was subsequently revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical release, sans A New Hope titling and other later changes. Although the agency has a mandate to register films for preservation, it has no authority to secure its selections from modification by authors or copyright holders.
In the United States, France, Germany, Italy and Japan, parts of or the whole film were released on Super 8 movie film. The whole film was released for all these countries (including silent editions and an American Spanish - language edition), except for Italy, where it was released as seven brief scenes: Battaglia spaziale ("Space battle '', the Battle of Yavin), Duello col laser ("Duel with the laser '', Obi - Wan and Darth Vader 's duel), La liberazione di Leia ("Leia 's liberation '', the adventure on the Death Star), Messaggio dallo spazio ("Message from space '', Leia giving R2 - D2 the plans), SOS nella galassia ("SOS in the galaxy '') and Trappola mortale ("Deadly trap '').
Star Wars debuted on Betamax, CED, LaserDisc, Video 2000, and VHS between the 1980s and 1990s by CBS / Fox Video. The final issue of the original theatrical release (pre-Special Edition) to VHS format occurred in 1995, as part of "Last Chance to Own the Original '' campaign, available as part of a trilogy set and as a standalone purchase. The film was released for the first time on DVD on September 21, 2004, in a box set with The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi, and a bonus disc of supplementary material. The films were digitally restored and remastered, and more changes were made by George Lucas. The DVD features a commentary track from Lucas, Ben Burtt, Dennis Muren, and Carrie Fisher. The bonus disc contains the documentary Empire of Dreams: The Story of the Star Wars Trilogy, three featurettes, teasers, theatrical trailers, TV spots, still galleries, an exclusive preview of Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, a playable Xbox demo of the LucasArts game Star Wars: Battlefront, and a "Making Of '' documentary on the Episode III video game. The set was reissued in December 2005 as part of a three - disc limited edition boxed set without the bonus disc.
The trilogy was re-released on separate two - disc limited edition DVD sets from September 12 to December 31, 2006, and again in a limited edition tin box set on November 4, 2008; the original versions of the films were added as bonus material. The release was met with criticism as the unaltered versions were from the 1993 non-anamorphic LaserDisc masters and were not re-transferred using modern video standards. The transfer led to problems with colors and digital image jarring.
All six Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc on September 16, 2011 in three different editions, with A New Hope available in both a box set of the original trilogy and with the other five films on Star Wars: The Complete Saga, which includes nine discs and over 40 hours of special features. The original theatrical versions of the films were not included in the box set; however, the new 2011 revisions of the trilogy were leaked a month prior to release, inciting controversy the new changes made to these movies and causing an online uproar against Lucas.
On April 7, 2015, Walt Disney Studios, 20th Century Fox, and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films. Fox released A New Hope for digital download on April 10, 2015 and Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the other five films.
In December 2016, an interview done by Rogue One: A Star Wars Story director Gareth Edwards revealed that Lucasfilm had recently completed a 4K restoration of the film, but did not elaborate on whether the restored version was based on the 1977 original or a subsequent re-release.
In 2010, George Lucas announced that all six previously released Star Wars films would be scanned and transferred to 3D, with a corresponding theatrical release. The Phantom Menace was the first of these films and saw its theatrical release in 2012. However, due to The Force Awakens, Lucas delayed the releases of the rest of the saga. While both Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith 3D versions were screened at the 2013 and 2015 Star Wars Celebration, Lucas never released the original trilogy in 3D before Disney bought the franchise in December 2012.
Star Wars remains one of the most financially successful films of all time. The film earned $1,554,475 through its opening weekend ($6.28 million in 2017 dollars), building up to $7 million weekends as it entered wide release ($28.3 million in 2017 dollars). It replaced Jaws as the highest - earning film in North America just six months into release, eventually earning over $220 million during its initial theatrical run ($888 million in 2017 dollars). Star Wars entered international release towards the end of the year, and in 1978 added the worldwide record to its domestic one, earning $410 million in total.
On July 21, 1978 while still in current release in 38 theatres in the U.S., the film expanded into a 1,744 theatre national saturation windup of release and set a new U.S. weekend record of $10,202,726. The gross prior to the expansion was $221,280,994. The expansion added a further $43,774,911 to take its gross to $265,055,905. Reissues in 1979 ($22,455,262), 1981 ($17,247,363), and 1982 ($17,981,612) brought its cumulative gross in the U.S and Canada to $323 million, and extended its global earnings to $530 million. The film remained the highest - grossing film of all time until E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial broke that record in 1983.
Following the release of the Special Edition in 1997, Star Wars briefly reclaimed the North American record before losing it again the following year to Titanic. In total, the film has earned $775,398,007 worldwide (including $460,998,007 in North America alone). Adjusted for inflation, it has earned over $2.5 billion worldwide at 2011 prices, making it the most successful franchise film of all time. According to Guinness World Records, the film ranks as the third - highest - grossing film when adjusting for inflation; at the North American box office, it ranks second behind Gone with the Wind on the inflation - adjusted list.
-- Roger Ebert, in his review for the Chicago Sun - Times
The film was met with critical acclaim upon its release. In his 1977 review, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times called the film "an out - of - body experience '', compared its special effects to those of 2001: A Space Odyssey, and opined that the true strength of the film was its "pure narrative ''. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "the movie that 's going to entertain a lot of contemporary folk who have a soft spot for the virtually ritualized manners of comic - book adventure '' and "the most elaborate, most expensive, most beautiful movie serial ever made. '' A.D. Murphy of Variety described the film as "magnificent '' and claimed George Lucas had succeeded in his attempt to create the "biggest possible adventure fantasy '' based on the serials and older action epics from his childhood. Writing for The Washington Post, Gary Arnold gave the film a positive review, writing that the film "is a new classic in a rousing movie tradition: a space swashbuckler. '' However, the film was not without its detractors: Pauline Kael of The New Yorker criticized Star Wars, stating that "there 's no breather in the picture, no lyricism '', and that it had no "emotional grip ''. John Simon of New York magazine also panned the film and wrote, "Strip Star Wars of its often striking images and its highfalutin scientific jargon, and you get a story, characters, and dialogue of overwhelming banality. '' Stanley Kauffmann, reviewing the film in The New Republic, opined that it "was made for those (particularly males) who carry a portable shrine within them of their adolescence, a chalice of a Self that was Better Then, before the world 's affairs or -- in any complex way -- sex intruded. ''
When Star Wars opened in the UK, stating that Lucas 's earlier films were better, Derek Malcolm of The Guardian concluded that it "plays enough games to satisfy the most sophisticated. '' The Daily Telegraph 's science correspondent Adrian Berry said that Star Wars "is the best such film since 2001 and in certain respects it is one of the most exciting ever made. '' He described the plot as "unpretentious and pleasantly devoid of any ' message. ' ''
The film continues to receive critical acclaim from modern critics. The film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes rates it 93 % positive based on 104 reviews with an overall rating of 8.6 / 10. Its consensus states in summary, "A legendary expansive and ambitious start to the sci - fi saga, George Lucas opens our eyes to the possibilities of blockbuster film - making and things have never been the same. '' Metacritic reports an aggregate score of 92 out of 100 (based on 14 reviews), indicating "universal acclaim ''. In his 1997 review of the film 's 20th anniversary release, Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars, saying, "A grandiose and violent epic with a simple and whimsical heart. '' A San Francisco Chronicle staff member described the film as "a thrilling experience. '' In 2001 Matt Ford of the BBC awarded the film five out of five stars and wrote, "Star Wars is n't the best film ever made, but it is universally loved. '' CinemaScore reported that audiences for Star Wars 's 1999 re-release gave the film a "A + '' grade.
Gene Siskel, writing for the Chicago Tribune in 1999, said, "What places it a sizable cut above the routine is its spectacular visual effects, the best since Stanley Kubrick 's 2001. '' Andrew Collins of Empire magazine awarded the film five out of five and said, "Star Wars ' timeless appeal lies in its easily identified, universal archetypes -- goodies to root for, baddies to boo, a princess to be rescued and so on -- and if it is most obviously dated to the 70s by the special effects, so be it. '' In his 2009 review, Robert Hatch of The Nation called the film "an outrageously successful, what will be called a ' classic, ' compilation of nonsense, largely derived but thoroughly reconditioned. I doubt that anyone will ever match it, though the imitations must already be on the drawing boards. '' In a more critical review, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader stated, "None of these characters has any depth, and they 're all treated like the fanciful props and settings. '' Peter Keough of the Boston Phoenix said, "Star Wars is a junkyard of cinematic gimcracks not unlike the Jawas ' heap of purloined, discarded, barely functioning droids. ''
The film garnered numerous accolades after its release. Star Wars won six competitive Academy Awards at the 50th Academy Awards: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score, Best Sound and Best Visual Effects. A Special Achievement for Sound Effects Editing went to sound designer Ben Burtt and a Scientific and Engineering Award went to John Dykstra for the development of the Dykstraflex Camera (shared with Alvah J. Miller and Jerry Jeffress, who were both granted for the engineering of the Electronic Motion Control System). Additional nominations included Alec Guinness for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, which went to Jason Robards for Julia and George Lucas for Best Original Screenplay, Best Director, and Best Picture, which were instead awarded to Woody Allen 's Annie Hall.
At the 35th Golden Globe Awards, the film was nominated for Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Supporting Actor (Alec Guinness), and it won the award for Best Score. It received six British Academy Film Awards nominations: Best Film, Best Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Production / Art Design, Best Sound, and Best Score; the film won in the latter two categories. John Williams ' soundtrack album won the Grammy Award for Best Album of Original Score for a Motion Picture or Television Program, and the film attained the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.
The film also received twelve nominations at the Saturn Awards, winning nine: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Direction and Best Writing for George Lucas, Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness, Best Music for John Williams, Best Costume for John Mollo, Best Make - up for Rick Baker and Stuart Freeborn, Best Special Effects for John Dykstra and John Stears, and Outstanding Editing for Paul Hirsch, Marcia Lucas and Richard Chew.
The original Star Wars trilogy is considered one of the best film trilogies in history. Lucas has often stated that the entire trilogy was intended to be considered one film. However, he said that his story material for Star Wars was too long for a single film, prompting Lucas to split the story into multiple films. Lucas also stated that the story evolved over time and that "There was never a script completed that had the entire story as it exists now (in 1983)... As the stories unfolded, I would take certain ideas and save them... I kept taking out all the good parts, and I just kept telling myself I would make other movies someday. '' In early interviews, it was suggested the series might comprise nine or twelve films.
Star Wars launched the careers of Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, and Carrie Fisher. Ford, who subsequently starred in the Indiana Jones series (1981 -- 2008), Blade Runner (1982), and Witness (1985) after working on the film, told the Daily Mirror that Star Wars "boosted my career '', and said, "I think the great luck of my career is that I 've made these family movies which are introduced to succeeding generations of kids by their families at the time it seems appropriate. ''
The film has spawned a series of films consisting of three trilogies (including the original film), anthology films and an extensive media franchise called the Star Wars expanded universe including books, television series, computer and video games, and comic books. All of the main films have been box office successes, with the overall box office revenue generated by the Star Wars films (including the theatrical The Clone Wars) totaling over $6.5 billion, making it the third highest - grossing film series.
The film also spawned the Star Wars Holiday Special, which debuted on CBS on November 17, 1978 and is often considered a failure; Lucas himself disowned it. The special has never been aired after its original broadcast, and it has never been officially released on home video. However, many bootleg copies exist, and the special has consequently become something of an underground legend.
A radio drama adaptation of the film was broadcast on the American National Public Radio network in 1981. The adaptation was written by Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was produced with cooperation from George Lucas, who donated the rights to NPR. John Williams ' music and Ben Burtt 's sound design were retained for the show, and Mark Hamill (Luke Skywalker) and Anthony Daniels (C - 3PO) reprised their roles. The radio drama narrative began with a version of the backstory to the film which relates Princess Leia 's acquisition of the secret Death Star plans. It also featured scenes not seen in the final cut of the film, such as Luke Skywalker 's observation of the space battle above Tatooine through binoculars, a skyhopper race, and Darth Vader 's interrogation of Princess Leia. The radio version was originally considered to be part of the official Star Wars canon, but has since been supplanted by revised canonical narratives.
Star Wars and its ensuing film installments have been explicitly referenced and satirized across a wide range of media. Hardware Wars, released in 1978, was one of the first fan films to parody Star Wars. It received positive critical reaction, went to earn over $1 million, and is one of Lucas 's favorite Star Wars spoofs. Writing for The New York Times, Frank DeCaro said, "Star Wars littered pop culture of the late 1970s with a galaxy of space junk. '' He cited Quark (a short - lived 1977 sitcom that parodied the science fiction genre) and Donny & Marie (a 1970s variety show that produced a 10 - minute musical adaptation of Star Wars guest starring Daniels and Mayhew) as "television 's two most infamous examples ''. Mel Brooks 's Spaceballs, a satirical comic science fiction parody, was released in 1987 to mixed reviews. Lucas permitted Brooks to make a spoof of the film under "one incredibly big restriction: no action figures. ''
Contemporary animated comedy TV series Family Guy, Robot Chicken, and The Simpsons have produced episodes satirizing the film series. Star Wars, together with Lucas, was also the subject of the 2010 documentary film The People vs. George Lucas that details the issues of filmmaking and fanaticism pertaining to the film franchise and its creator. Many elements of the film have also endured presence in popular culture. The iconic weapon of choice of the Jedi, the lightsaber, was voted as the most popular weapon in film history in a survey of approximately 2,000 film fans. Characters such as Darth Vader, Han Solo and Yoda have become iconic, and all three were named in the top twenty of the British Film Institute 's "Best Sci - Fi Characters of All - Time '' list. The expressions "Evil empire '' and "May the Force be with you '' have become part of the popular lexicon. A pun on the latter phrase has led to May 4 being regarded by many fans of the franchise as an unofficial Star Wars Day. To commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary in May 2007, the United States Postal Service issued a set of 15 stamps depicting the characters of the franchise. Approximately 400 mailboxes across the country were also designed to look like R2 - D2.
Film critic Roger Ebert wrote in his book The Great Movies, "Like The Birth of a Nation and Citizen Kane, Star Wars was a technical watershed that influenced many of the movies that came after. '' It began a new generation of special effects and high - energy motion pictures. The film was one of the first films to link genres together to invent a new, high - concept genre for filmmakers to build upon. Finally, along with Steven Spielberg 's Jaws, it shifted the film industry 's focus away from personal filmmaking of the 1970s and towards fast - paced, big - budget blockbusters for younger audiences.
Filmmakers who have said to have been influenced by Star Wars include James Cameron, J.J. Abrams, Damon Lindelof, Dean Devlin, Gareth Edwards, Roland Emmerich, John Lasseter, David Fincher, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Christopher Nolan, Ridley Scott, John Singleton, and Kevin Smith. Scott, Cameron, and Jackson were influenced by Lucas 's concept of the "used future '' (where vehicles and culture are obviously dated) and extended the concept for their films, such as Scott 's science fiction films Alien (1979) and Blade Runner (1982), Cameron 's acclaimed sequel Aliens (1986) and his earlier breakthrough film The Terminator (1984). Jackson used the concept for his production of The Lord of the Rings trilogy to add a sense of realism and believability. Christopher Nolan cited Star Wars as an influence when making the 2010 blockbuster film, Inception.
Some critics have blamed Star Wars, as well as Jaws, for ruining Hollywood by shifting its focus from "sophisticated '' films such as The Godfather, Taxi Driver, and Annie Hall to films about spectacle and juvenile fantasy. One such critic, Peter Biskind, complained, "When all was said and done, Lucas and Spielberg returned the 1970s audience, grown sophisticated on a diet of European and New Hollywood films, to the simplicities of the pre-1960s Golden Age of movies... They marched backward through the looking - glass. '' In an opposing view, Tom Shone wrote that through Star Wars and Jaws, Lucas and Spielberg "did n't betray cinema at all: they plugged it back into the grid, returning the medium to its roots as a carnival sideshow, a magic act, one big special effect '', which was "a kind of rebirth ''.
In its May 30, 1977 issue, the film 's year of release, Time magazine named Star Wars the "Movie of the Year ''. The publication claimed it was a "big early supporter '' of the vision which would become Star Wars. In an article intended for the cover of the issue, Time 's Gerald Clarke wrote that Star Wars is "a grand and glorious film that may well be the smash hit of 1977, and certainly is the best movie of the year so far. The result is a remarkable confection: a subliminal history of the movies, wrapped in a riveting tale of suspense and adventure, ornamented with some of the most ingenious special effects ever contrived for film. '' Each of the subsequent films of the Star Wars saga has appeared on the magazine 's cover.
American Film Institute
Star Wars was voted the second most popular film by Americans in a 2008 nationwide poll conducted by the market research firm, Harris Interactive. Star Wars has also been featured in several high - profile audience polls: in 1997, it ranked as the 10th Greatest American Film on the Los Angeles Daily News Readers ' Poll; in 2002, the film and its sequel The Empire Strikes Back were voted as the greatest films ever made in Channel 4 's 100 Greatest Films poll; in 2011, it ranked as Best Sci - Fi Film on Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, a primetime special aired by ABC that counted down the best films as chosen by fans, based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People magazine; in 2014 the film placed 11th in a poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which balloted every studio, agency, publicity firm, and production house in the Hollywood region.
Reputable publications also have included Star Wars in their best films lists: in 2008, Empire magazine ranked Star Wars at No. 22 on its list of the "500 Greatest Movies of All Time ''; in 2010, the film ranked among the "All - Time 100 '' list of the greatest films as chosen by Time magazine film critic Richard Schickel; the film was also placed on a similar list created by The New York Times, "The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made ''; in 2012, the film was included in Sight & Sound 's prestigious decennial critics poll "Critics ' Top 250 Films '', ranking at 171st on the list, and in their directors poll at 224th.
Lucas 's original screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America as the 68th greatest of all time. In 1989, the United States Library of Congress named Star Wars among its first selections to the National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''; at the time, it was the most recent film to be selected and it was the only film from the 1970s to be chosen. Although Lucas declined to provide the Library with a workable copy of the original film upon request (instead offering the Special Edition), a viewable scan was made of the original copyright deposit print. The soundtrack was added to the United States National Recording Registry 15 years later (in 2004). The lack of a commercially available version of the 1977 original theatrical edit of the film since early ' 80s VHS releases has spawned numerous restorations by disgruntled fans over the years, such as Harmy 's Despecialized Edition.
In addition to the film 's multiple awards and nominations, Star Wars has also been recognized by the American Film Institute on several of its lists. The film ranks first on 100 Years of Film Scores, second on Top 10 Sci - Fi Films, 15th on 100 Years... 100 Movies (ranked 13th on the updated 10th anniversary edition), 27th on 100 Years... 100 Thrills, and 39th on 100 Years... 100 Cheers. In addition, the quote "May the Force be with you '' is ranked eighth on 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes, and Han Solo and Obi - Wan Kenobi are ranked as the 14th and 37th greatest heroes respectively on 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains.
Little Star Wars merchandise was available for several months after the film 's debut, as only Kenner Products had accepted marketing director Charles Lippincott 's licensing offers. Kenner responded to the sudden demand for toys by selling boxed vouchers in its "empty box '' Christmas campaign. Television commercials told children and parents that vouchers within a "Star Wars Early Bird Certificate Package '' could be redeemed for four action figures between February and June 1978. Jay West of the Los Angeles Times said that the boxes in the campaign "became the most coveted empty box (es) in the history of retail. '' In 2012, the Star Wars action figures were inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame.
The novelization of the film was published in December 1976, six months before the film was released. The credited author was George Lucas, but the book was revealed to have been ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster, who later wrote the first Star Wars expanded universe novel, Splinter of the Mind 's Eye (1978). The book was first published as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker; later editions were titled simply Star Wars (1995) and, later, Star Wars: A New Hope (1997), to reflect the retitling of the film. Marketing director Charles Lippincott secured the deal with Del Rey Books to publish the novelization in November 1976. By February 1977, a half - million copies had been sold.
Marvel Comics also adapted the film as the first six issues of its licensed Star Wars comic book, with the first issue sold in April 1977. Roy Thomas was the writer and Howard Chaykin was the artist of the adaptation. Like the novelization, it contained certain elements, such as the scene with Luke and Biggs, that appeared in the screenplay but not in the finished film. The series was so successful that, according to Jim Shooter, it "single - handedly saved Marvel ''. In 2013, Dark Horse Comics published a comic adaption of the original screenplay 's plot.
Lucasfilm adapted the story for a children 's book - and - record set. Released in 1979, the 24 - page Star Wars read - along book was accompanied by a 331⁄3 rpm 7 - inch phonograph record. Each page of the book contained a cropped frame from the movie with an abridged and condensed version of the story. The record was produced by Buena Vista Records, and its content was copyrighted by Black Falcon, Ltd., a subsidiary of Lucasfilm "formed to handle the merchandising for Star Wars ''. The Story of Star Wars was a 1977 record album presenting an abridged version of the events depicted in Star Wars, using dialogue and sound effects from the original film. The recording was produced by George Lucas and Alan Livingston, and was narrated by Roscoe Lee Browne. The script was adapted by E. Jack Kaplan and Cheryl Gard.
An audio CD boxed set of the Star Wars radio series was released in 1993, containing the original 1981 radio drama along with the radio adaptations of the sequels, The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi.
Bibliography
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how did rita's husband die in dexter | Dexter (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of Dexter premiered on September 30, 2007, and ended on December 16, 2007. "It 's Alive '', the season premiere, attracted 1.09 million viewers in the United States, making Dexter the first Showtime series to attract more than a million viewers with a season premiere. The season finale, "The British Invasion '', attracted 1.4 million viewers, making it the program 's most - watched episode until the airing of the season three finale, "Do You Take Dexter Morgan? ''. Including digital video recorder (DVR) usage, season two was watched by an average of 2.4 million viewers on a weekly basis through 11 full weeks, outperforming season one by 21 %. The season received universal acclaim from critics, and was praised as "one of the best shows on TV this decade '' by the Chicago Sun - Times, while Variety considers Hall 's portrayal of the title character as a "towering achievement, one that eclipses the show 's other shortcomings and rough patches ''; the aggregate site Metacritic scored the season at 85 out of 100 based on 11 reviews.
In the season, the bodies of Dexter 's victims are uncovered and an investigation is launched in Dexter 's own department to find the killer, dubbed the "Bay Harbor Butcher ''. During this time, Debra struggles to recover after surviving the Ice Truck Killer 's attempts to murder her, and Rita sends Dexter to Narcotics Anonymous meetings when she suspects that he has an addiction. Sergeant James Doakes (Erik King), stalks Dexter, suspecting that he is connected with the "Ice Truck Killer '' killings. Three new characters are introduced: Keith Carradine appears as Special Agent Frank Lundy, an FBI agent who heads the "Bay Harbor Butcher '' investigation, JoBeth Williams as Rita 's mother Gail, and Jaime Murray as Lila Tournay, Dexter 's Narcotics Anonymous sponsor.
Starting with this season, the show no longer adapts the Dexter novels. Taking place a month after the first season finale, Dexter has been unable to kill anyone due to Sgt. James Doakes monitoring his activities and his sister Debra now living with him as she recovers from her traumatic experiences concerning Brian, the Ice Truck Killer. Dexter also realizes that he 's having trouble killing even when he has the opportunity, due to feelings of guilt over killing his brother Brian.
Rita doubts Dexter 's reliability and honesty after finding evidence that he set up her husband Paul to be returned to prison. After her husband dies in a prison fight, Rita confronts Dexter with her suspicions. He admits to setting up Paul but ca n't fully explain how he knew to stage convincing evidence that the man was using heroin. Rita incorrectly concludes that Dexter is, like Paul, a drug addict and that this explains his occasional absences and odd behavior. Dexter decides to falsely admit that this is the case and promises to seek help by joining Narcotics Anonymous. There, he meets Lila Tournay, who offers to be his sponsor. Sgt. James Doakes remains suspicious of Dexter 's true motives, and constantly monitors Dexter 's whereabouts.
Divers accidentally stumble upon Dexter 's underwater burial ground, discovering the many bags containing the body parts of his victims. Realizing this dumping ground is the work of a serial killer, the media dubs these bodies the work of the "Bay Harbor Butcher. '' When it 's revealed that each victim was a criminal and killer, some members of the public openly support the Bay Harbor Butcher; the case even inspires the creation of a knife - wielding comic book superhero "The Dark Defender. '' To oversee the investigation of the Butcher 's crimes, an FBI special team is assigned to Miami, led by FBI Special Agent Lundy. Working with Miami Metro PD, Lundy brings in several of the Miami detectives, including Debra, to join his team. Over time, Debra and Lundy become romantically involved.
To ensure he 's not identified as the Bay Harbor Butcher, Dexter finds a new dumping ground that leads to the Atlantic Ocean. He also falsifies records, destroys evidence, and contaminates refrigerated remains to throw the investigators off his trail. Despite this, Lundy narrows down his suspect search to people in Miami with police training. Dexter puts his guilt over Brian behind him and returns to killing. Dexter later learns that his biological mother died because she was a criminal working as a confidential informant for Harry and had an affair with him. Dexter wonders if he was adopted because Harry felt guilty for his mother 's death and he also learns that Harry did n't die of natural causes but purposefully overdosed to cause his own death. He does n't understand why until later in the season.
Doakes becomes confident of Dexter 's guilt and confronts him. Dexter then tricks Doakes into assaulting him in public, leading others to side with Dexter that the Sergeant is out of control and unjustly targeting him. Becoming more desperate, Doakes breaks into Dexter 's apartment and finds the box of blood samples collected from his victims. However, the investigative team mistakenly concluded that Doakes is the Butcher after finding the box in his car, and Doakes goes into hiding while still tracking Dexter 's movements. Lieutenant LaGuerta attempts to vouch for the innocence of her former partner, but Lundy refuses to consider her evidence after he learns that she did n't share certain information with him because of her emotional involvement with Doakes.
Meanwhile, Dexter 's relationship with Lila becomes more romantic as she shows him how to accept who he is; this further hurts Dexter 's relationship with Rita. Dexter learns that Lila is a pyromaniac, at one point purposely setting fire to her apartment and feigning innocence to draw Dexter back to her. When she starts to follow him obsessively, he takes measures to distance himself from her, eventually foregoing their relationship. Realizing he is developing genuine connection to Rita and her children Astor and Cody, Dexter returns to them. Lila is furious and begins to track Dexter 's movements, while also dating Detective Angel Batista. Dexter warns Batista that Lila is not to be trusted but he dismisses the concern. Later, Lila brings rape charges against Batista and tells Dexter she 'll drop them if he returns to her. Debra investigates Lila and finds that she is in the country illegally, threatening her with deportation if she does n't leave Miami.
Dexter tracks down the men responsible for his mother 's death. One is dead, one is in jail and one, a drug dealer named Jimenez, is alive. Dexter targets Jimenez and tracks down the dealer 's secluded cabin in the nearby swamps, where Dexter kills him. Dexter is called away before he can dispose of the body, but feels confident that the cabin is remote. When he finally goes back, he is unaware that Doakes is following him. Dexter subdues Doakes and locks him in a makeshift cell within the cabin, admitting to the sergeant that he is indeed the Bay Harbor Butcher. Dexter decides that he 'll escape the law by convincing others that Doakes is the butcher. He kills a drug lord in the cabin in front of Doakes, shocking the police sergeant. Seeing Doakes ' reaction to his actions reminds Dexter of something Harry said days before he died. Dexter suddenly realizes that his father committed suicide because he was ashamed of training Dexter to be a serial killer. Horrified, Dexter tells Doakes, "I killed my father. ''
While Dexter considers that he must be held responsible for his crimes, Lila takes the GPS device from Dexter 's car and uses it to locate the cabin. She finds Doakes, who explains that he is a prisoner of Dexter Morgan, the Bay Harbor Butcher, and needs help. Deciding she now understands Dexter and must help him, Lila leaves Doakes imprisoned and then lights the cabin 's gas stove and opens a propane tank. She leaves and Doakes fails to escape, dying in the explosion. Finding Doakes ' body and the other evidence Dexter left behind, the FBI concludes that Sgt. Doakes was indeed the Bay Harbor Butcher.
Lila admits her actions to Dexter and reaches out to him. Although he is glad not to be going to jail, Dexter did not intend to kill Doakes since he did n't fit the requirements of "Harry 's Code. '' However, since Lila is a murderer, he plans to kill her since she is too dangerous to his personal life. He pretends that he wants to run away with Lila, but she realizes the truth and kidnaps Rita 's children Astor and Cody. At the same time, Debra is on her way to leaving Miami with Lundy rather than letting their relationship end, but then misses the flight when she learns that the children are in danger and Dexter needs her. Lila lures Dexter to her apartment and then sets it on fire with him and the kids still inside. She leaves, sure that they will all die, but Dexter and the children escape. Debra arrives just as Dexter has gotten to safety and decides to remain in Miami after all.
The season concludes with Dexter tracking down Lila to Paris and killing her, avenging Doakes and ensuring that no one alive knows his secret life as a serial killer.
Series developer James Manos, Jr. left his first season role as executive producer. First season executive producers John Goldwyn, Sara Colleton and Clyde Phillips all returned for the second season. First season co-executive producer Daniel Cerone was promoted to executive producer for the second season. First season consulting producer Melissa Rosenberg took a staff position as co-executive producer for the second season. Scott Buck joined the crew as a co-executive producer and writer. Robert Lloyd Lewis returned as the on set producer.
First season Story Editor Timothy Schlattmann was promoted to Executive Story Editor for the second season and continued to write episodes. Lauren Gussis was promoted from staff writer to Story Editor and continued to write for the show. Chad Tomasoski, who had not worked on the show since the pilot episode, rejoined the crew as an associate producer.
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did antonio brown win dancing with the stars | Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 22) - wikipedia
Season twenty - two of Dancing with the Stars premiered March 21, 2016, on the ABC network. Hosts Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews returned, as did judges Carrie Ann Inaba and Bruno Tonioli. Len Goodman returned as head judge, after being absent for the previous season.
On May 24, 2016, Nyle DiMarco and his partner Peta Murgatroyd were crowned champions; this was Murgatroyd 's second win on the show, as she also won season 14 with Donald Driver. DiMarco is also the first deaf contestant to win the show. Paige VanZant and Mark Ballas finished second, while Ginger Zee and Valentin Chmerkovskiy placed third.
The cast was revealed on March 8, 2016 on Good Morning America. Edyta Śliwińska returned as a professional dancer this season after an eleven - season hiatus. Also returning to the pro roster are Artem Chigvintsev and Peta Murgatroyd, both of whom did not appear last season as professional dancers, as well as Sasha Farber, who is once again promoted from troupe member to pro dancer. Last season 's champion Derek Hough is not returning for this season. Also not returning are Allison Holker, Emma Slater, Anna Trebunskaya, and Louis van Amstel.
Actress Jodie Sweetin was the first celebrity revealed on Good Morning America on March 2, 2016, while TV meteorologist Ginger Zee was also revealed on that show two days later, March 4. The remaining celebrities and professionals dancers were later revealed, also on Good Morning America, on March 8.
Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews returned as hosts, while judges Carrie Ann Inaba and Bruno Tonioli returned this season. Head judge Len Goodman has returned after missing last season, while Julianne Hough, who served as a judge during the previous three seasons, did not return.
This table only counts dances scored on a 30 - point scale (scores by guest judges are excluded).
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' 30 - point scale are as follows (scores by guest judges are excluded):
Scores are based upon a potential 30 - point maximum (scores by guest judges are excluded).
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples danced the cha - cha - cha, foxtrot, jive, quickstep, or tango.
The couples danced a Latin - inspired routine; Argentine tango, paso doble, rumba, salsa, and samba are introduced.
Due to a back injury, Mark Ballas was unable to dance with Paige VanZant; troupe member Alan Bersten performed in his place.
The couples performed one unlearned dance to celebrate the most memorable year of their lives; contemporary and waltz are introduced.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Zendaya, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples performed one unlearned dance to a song from a Disney film; jazz and Viennese Waltz are introduced.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Bruno Tonioli.
The celebrities performed one unlearned dance with a different partner selected by the general public; due to the nature of the week, no elimination took place.
The couples performed one unlearned dance that paid tribute to iconic dance performances from films, music videos, or live performances; Bollywood is introduced.
The couples performed one unlearned dance and a team dance to songs from popular musical icons.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli, America 's Score.
The couples performed one unlearned dance and a team - up dance with another couple that was designed and coached by one of the three judges.
To avoid favoritism, the judges did not score their own teams. Instead, the general public was able to score the team - up dances on a scale from 1 to 10, with an averaged score counting alongside the remaining judges.
The couples performed a trio dance involving an eliminated pro or a member of the troupe and an unlearned dance; Charleston is introduced.
On the first night, the couples performed a redemption dance and a freestyle.
On the second night, the couples danced a fusion dance that fused two dance styles.
The celebrities and professional partners will dance one of these routines for each corresponding week:
Beginning in week four of the live shows, a celebrity guest judge was present at the judges table to comment on and score the dance routines. Season 16 runner - up Zendaya was the first celebrity guest judge on April 11.
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which is not a clinical manifestation of chronic kidney disease | Chronic kidney disease - wikipedia
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of kidney disease in which there is gradual loss of kidney function over a period of months or years. Early on there are typically no symptoms. Later, leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, or confusion may develop. Complications may include heart disease, high blood pressure, bone disease, or anemia.
Causes of chronic kidney disease include diabetes, high blood pressure, glomerulonephritis, and polycystic kidney disease. Risk factors include a family history of the condition. Diagnosis is generally by blood tests to measure the glomerular filtration rate and urine tests to measure albumin. Further tests such as an ultrasound or kidney biopsy may be done to determine the underlying cause. A number of different classification systems exist.
Screening at - risk people is recommended. Initial treatments may include medications to manage blood pressure, blood sugar, and lower cholesterol. NSAIDs should be avoided. Other recommended measures include staying active and certain dietary changes. Severe disease may require hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or a kidney transplant. Treatments for anemia and bone disease may also be required.
Chronic kidney disease affected about 323 million people globally in 2015. In 2015 it resulted in 1.2 million deaths, up from 409,000 in 1990. The causes that contribute to the greatest number of deaths are high blood pressure at 550,000, followed by diabetes at 418,000, and glomerulonephritis at 238,000.
CKD is initially without specific symptoms and is generally only detected as an increase in serum creatinine or protein in the urine. As the kidney function decreases:
People with CKD suffer from accelerated atherosclerosis and are more likely to develop cardiovascular disease than the general population. Patients afflicted with CKD and cardiovascular disease tend to have significantly worse prognoses than those suffering only from the latter.
Sexual dysfunction is very common in both men and women with CKD. A majority of men have a reduced sex drive, difficulty obtaining an erection, and reaching orgasm, and the problems get worse with age. A majority of women have trouble with sexual arousal, and painful menstruation and problems with performing and enjoying sex are common.
The most common cause of CKD as of 2015 is diabetes mellitus followed by high blood pressure and glomerulonephritis. Other causes of CKD include idiopathic (i.e. unknown cause, often associated with small kidneys on renal ultrasound). Together, these cause about 75 % of all adult cases.
Historically, kidney disease has been classified according to the part of the kidney anatomy involved.
Diagnosis of CKD is largely based on history, examination and urine dipstick combined with the measurement of the serum creatinine level (see above). It is important to differentiate CKD from acute kidney injury (AKI) because AKI can be reversible. One diagnostic clue that helps differentiate CKD from AKI is a gradual rise in serum creatinine (over several months or years) as opposed to a sudden increase in the serum creatinine (several days to weeks). In many CKD patients, previous kidney disease or other underlying diseases are already known. A significant number present with CKD of unknown cause.
In CKD numerous uremic toxins accumulate in the blood. Even when ESKD (largely synonymous with CKD5) is treated with dialysis, the toxin levels do not go back to normal as dialysis is not that efficient. Similarly, after a kidney transplant, the levels may not go back to normal as the transplanted kidney may not work 100 %. If it does, the creatinine level is often normal. The toxins show various cytotoxic activities in the serum and have different molecular weights, and some of them are bound to other proteins, primarily to albumin. Such toxic protein - bound substances are receiving the attention of scientists who are interested in improving the standard chronic dialysis procedures used today.
Screening those who have neither symptoms nor risk factors for CKD is not recommended. Those who should be screened include: those with hypertension or history of cardiovascular disease, those with diabetes or marked obesity, those aged > 60 years, subjects with indigenous racial origin, those with a history of kidney disease in the past and subjects who have relatives who had kidney disease requiring dialysis. Screening should include calculation of estimated GFR from the serum creatinine level, and measurement of urine albumin - to - creatinine ratio (ACR) in a first - morning urine specimen (this reflects the amount of a protein called albumin in the urine), as well as a urine dipstick screen for hematuria. The GFR (glomerular filtration rate) is derived from the serum creatinine and is proportional to 1 / creatinine, i.e. it is a reciprocal relationship (the higher the creatinine, the lower the GFR). It reflects one aspect of kidney function: how efficiently the glomeruli (filtering units) work. But as they make up < 5 % of the mass of the kidney, the GFR does not indicate all aspects of kidney health and function. This can be done by combining the GFR level with the clinical assessment of the patient (especially fluid state) and measuring the levels of hemoglobin, potassium, phosphate and parathyroid hormone (PTH). Normal GFR is 90 - 120 mLs / min. The units of creatinine vary from country to country.
Guidelines for referral to a nephrologist vary between countries. Though most would agree that nephrology referral is required by Stage 4 CKD (when eGFR / 1.73 m is less than 30 ml / min; or decreasing by more than 3 ml / min / year); and may be useful at an earlier stage (e.g. CKD3) when urine albumin - to - creatinine ratio is more than 30 mg / mmol, when blood pressure is difficult to control, or when hematuria or other findings suggest either a primarily glomerular disorder or secondary disease amenable to specific treatment. Other benefits of early nephrology referral include proper patient education regarding options for renal replacement therapy as well as pre-emptive transplantation, and timely workup and placement of an arteriovenous fistula in those patients opting for future hemodialysis
Additional tests may include nuclear medicine MAG3 scan to confirm blood flow and establish the differential function between the two kidneys. Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scans are also used in kidney imaging; with both MAG3 and DMSA being used chelated with the radioactive element technetium - 99.
All individuals with a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) < 60 ml / min / 1.73 m for 3 months are classified as having chronic kidney disease, irrespective of the presence or absence of kidney damage. The rationale for including these individuals is that reduction in kidney function to this level or lower represents loss of half or more of the adult level of normal kidney function, which may be associated with a number of complications such as the development of cardiovascular disease.
Protein in the urine is regarded as an independent marker for worsening of kidney function and cardiovascular disease. Hence, British guidelines append the letter "P '' to the stage of chronic kidney disease if protein loss is significant.
Stage 1 Slightly diminished function; kidney damage with normal or relatively high GFR (≥ 90 ml / min / 1.73 m) and persistent albuminuria. Kidney damage is defined as pathological abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine tests or imaging studies.
Stage 2 Mild reduction in GFR (60 -- 89 ml / min / 1.73 m) with kidney damage. Kidney damage is defined as pathological abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine tests or imaging studies.
Stage 3 Moderate reduction in GFR (30 -- 59 ml / min / 1.73 m):. British guidelines distinguish between stage 3A (GFR 45 -- 59) and stage 3B (GFR 30 -- 44) for purposes of screening and referral.
Stage 4 Severe reduction in GFR (15 -- 29 ml / min / 1.73 m) Preparation for renal replacement therapy.
Stage 5 Established kidney failure (GFR < 15 ml / min / 1.73 m), permanent renal replacement therapy, or end - stage kidney disease.
The term "non-dialysis - dependent chronic kidney disease '' (NDD - CKD) is a designation used to encompass the status of those persons with an established CKD who do not yet require the life - supporting treatments for kidney failure known as renal replacement therapy (RRT, including maintenance dialysis or kidney transplantation). The condition of individuals with CKD, who require either of the two types of renal replacement therapy (dialysis or transplant), is referred to as the end - stage kidney disease (ESKD). Hence, the start of the ESKD is practically the irreversible conclusion of the NDD - CKD. Even though the NDD - CKD status refers to the status of persons with earlier stages of CKD (stages 1 to 4), patients with advanced stage of CKD (stage 5), who have not yet started renal replacement therapy, are also referred to as NDD - CKD.
Renal ultrasonography is useful for diagnostic and prognostic purposes in chronic kidney disease. Whether the underlying pathologic change is glomerular sclerosis, tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis or inflammation, the result is often increased echogenicity of the cortex. The echogenicity of the kidney should be related to the echogenicity of either the liver or the spleen (Figure 22 and Figure 23). Moreover, decreased renal size and cortical thinning are also often seen and especially when disease progresses (Figure 24 and Figure 25). However, kidney size correlates to height, and short persons tend to have small kidneys; thus, kidney size as the only parameter is not reliable.
Chronic renal disease caused by glomerulonephritis with increased echogenicity and reduced cortical thickness. Measurement of kidney length on the US image is illustrated by ' + ' and a dashed line.
Nephrotic syndrome. Hyperechoic kidney without demarcation of cortex and medulla.
Chronic pyelonephritis with reduced kidney size and focal cortical thinning. Measurement of kidney length on the US image is illustrated by ' + ' and a dashed line.
End - stage chronic kidney disease with increased echogenicity, homogenous architecture without visible differentiation between parenchyma and renal sinus and reduced kidney size. Measurement of kidney length on the US image is illustrated by ' + ' and a dashed line.
Apart from controlling other risk factors, the goal of therapy is to slow down or halt the progression of CKD. Control of blood pressure and treatment of the original disease are the broad principles of management.
Generally, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARBs) are used, as they have been found to slow the progression. They have also been found to reduce the risk of major cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and death from cardiovascular disease when compared to placebo in individuals with CKD. Furthermore, ACEIs may be superior to ARBs for protection against progression to kidney failure and death from any cause in those with CKD. Aggressive blood pressure lowering decreases peoples risk of death.
Although the use of ACE inhibitors and ARBs represents the current standard of care for people with CKD, people progressively lose kidney function while on these medications, as seen in the IDNT and RENAL studies, which reported a decrease over time in estimated GFR (an accurate measure of CKD progression, as detailed in the K / DOQI guidelines) in people treated by these conventional methods.
Aggressive treatment of high blood lipids is warranted. Low - protein, low - salt diet may result in slower progression of CKD and reduction in proteinuria as well as controlling symptoms of advanced CKD to delay dialysis start. Replacement of erythropoietin and calcitriol, two hormones processed by the kidney, is often necessary in people with advanced disease. Guidelines recommend treatment with parenteral iron prior to treatment with erythropoietin. A target hemoglobin level of 9 -- 12 g / dL is recommended. The normalization of hemoglobin has not been found to be of benefit. It is unclear if androgens help with anemia. Phosphate binders are also used to control the serum phosphate levels, which are usually elevated in advanced chronic kidney disease. Although the evidence for them is limited, phosphodiesterase - 5 inhibitors and zinc show potential for helping men with sexual dysfunction.
At stage 5 CKD, renal replacement therapy is usually required, in the form of either dialysis or a transplant.
CKD increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, and people with CKD often have other risk factors for heart disease, such as high blood lipids. The most common cause of death in people with CKD is cardiovascular disease rather than kidney failure.
Chronic kidney disease results in worse all - cause mortality (the overall death rate) which increases as kidney function decreases. The leading cause of death in chronic kidney disease is cardiovascular disease, regardless of whether there is progression to stage 5.
While renal replacement therapies can maintain people indefinitely and prolong life, the quality of life is negatively affected. Kidney transplantation increases the survival of people with stage 5 CKD when compared to other options; however, it is associated with an increased short - term mortality due to complications of the surgery. Transplantation aside, high - intensity home hemodialysis appears to be associated with improved survival and a greater quality of life, when compared to the conventional three - times - a-week hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
Patients with ESKD are at increased overall risk for cancer. This risk is particularly high in younger patients and gradually diminishes with age. Medical specialty professional organizations recommend that physicians do not perform routine cancer screening in patients with limited life expectancies due to ESKD because evidence does not show that such tests lead to improved patient outcomes.
About one in ten people have chronic kidney disease. African Americans, American Indians, Hispanics, and South Asians, particularly those from Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and India, are at high risk of developing CKD. African Americans are at greater risk due to a prevalence of hypertension among them. As an example, 37 % of ESKD cases in African Americans can be attributed to high blood pressure, compared with 19 % among Caucasians.
People with high blood pressure and diabetes are also at high risk of suffering from CKD than those people without these underlying conditions. About one of five adults with hypertension and one of three adults with diabetes have CKD. Other health conditions that may lead to CKD are obesity, high cholesterol, a family history of the disease, lupus, and other forms of cardiovascular diseases.
Chronic kidney disease was the cause of 956,000 deaths globally in 2013, up from 409,000 deaths in 1990. In Canada 1.9 to 2.3 million people were estimated to have CKD in 2008. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that CKD affected an estimated 16.8 % of U.S. adults aged 20 years and older in the period from 1999 to 2004. UK estimates suggested that in 2007 8.8 % of the population of Great Britain and Northern Ireland had symptomatic CKD.
Treatment efficacy also differs between racial groups. Administration of antihypertensive drugs generally halts disease progression in white populations but has little effect in slowing kidney disease among blacks, and additional treatment such as bicarbonate therapy is often required. While lower socioeconomic status contributes to the prevalence of CKD, significant differences in CKD prevalence are still evident between African Americans and Whites when controlling for environmental factors.
Studies have shown a true association between history of chronic kidney disease in first - or second - degree relatives, and risk of disease. In addition, African Americans may have higher serum levels of human leukocyte antigens (HLA). High HLA concentrations can contribute to increased systemic inflammation, which indirectly may lead to heightened susceptibility for developing kidney disease. Lack of nocturnal reduction in blood pressure among groups of African Americans is also offered as an explanation, which lends further credence to a genetic cause of CKD racial disparities.
A high and so - far unexplained incidence of CKD, referred to as the Mesoamerican nephropathy, has been noted among male workers in Central America, mainly in sugar cane fields in the lowlands of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Heat stress from long hours of piece - rate work at high average temperatures of about 36 ° C (96 ° F) is suspected, as are agricultural chemicals and other factors. In Sri Lanka, another epidemic of CKD of unknown cause has become a serious public health concern.
In the US, the National Kidney Foundation is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. The American Kidney Fund is a national nonprofit organization providing treatment - related financial assistance to one of every five dialysis patients each year. The Renal Support Network is a nonprofit, patient - focused, patient - run organization that provides nonmedical services to those affected by CKD. The American Association of Kidney Patients is a nonprofit, patient - centric group focused on improving the health and well - being of CKD and dialysis patients. The Renal Physicians Association is an association representing nephrology professionals.
In the United Kingdom, the UK National Kidney Federation and British Kidney Patient Association (BKPA) represents patients, and the Renal Association represents renal physicians and works closely with the National Service Framework for kidney disease. Kidney Health Australia serves that country.
The International Society of Nephrology is an international body representing specialists in kidney diseases.
Currently, several compounds are in development for the treatment of CKD. These include the angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) olmesartan medoxomil and sulodexide, a mixture of low molecular weight heparin and dermatan sulfate.
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where did the saying what does that have to do with the price of tea in china come from | What 's that got to do with the...? - Wikipedia
"What 's that got to do with the...? '' is an expression denoting an irrelevance or non sequitur in the current discussion.
A common form, what does that have to do with the price of tea in China?, is a retort to an irrelevant suggestion. This facetious usage implies that the topic under discussion might as well be the price of tea in China for all the relevance the speaker 's suggestion bears on it. It has been said that this expression has stemmed from economists, who describe everything economic as affecting everything else, trying to find an expression which denotes the farthest logical connection from their current economic focus, in a sort of butterfly effect. In this way, the price of tea in China was used to denote the farthest possibility. It can also be used to denote an irrelevant topic.
Another explanation of the phrase 's origin is that in the 19th century the price for tea in England was the highest when the first ship with the newly harvested tea from the tightly controlled Chinese markets came in. So for the ship owners it was important to be as fast as possible back to England with the load, otherwise the cost of the passage might not be recovered from the sale of the tea. Thus there were real races (the tea clipper races) where the sail ships managed to travel the whole distance from China to England in about 80 to 90 days.
The difference in prices from the first load to the later ones was so high that the original price which was paid for the tea in China was quite unimportant. So the "price of tea in China '' was something that really did n't matter for the ship owners. They had to have the tea in England as fast as possible.
A related expression in Hebrew can be found in a commentary on the Biblical commandment of the septennial sabbatical year. Leviticus 25: 1 specifically states that God spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai; while this was a common location for God to speak to Moses, the text 's explicit reference to it is very rare. Accordingly, Rashi 's commentary begins with the question "What is the connection between Shmita and Mount Sinai? '' (? מה עניין שמיטה אצל הר סיני) The question has since taken on a general meaning equivalent to that of the "price of tea in China '' expression.
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where did bradford city play after the fire | Bradford City stadium fire - wikipedia
The Bradford City stadium fire occurred during an English League Third Division fixture between Bradford City and Lincoln City on Saturday, 11 May 1985, killing 56 and injuring at least 265.
The Valley Parade stadium, long - established home to Bradford City Football Club, was known for its antiquated design and facilities, including the wooden roof of the main stand. Warnings had been given about a major build - up of litter just below the seats. The stand had been officially condemned and was due for demolition.
The match against Lincoln City had started in a celebratory atmosphere, with the home - team receiving the Football League Third Division trophy. At 3.40 p.m., a small fire was reported by TV commentator John Helm, but in less than four minutes, in windy conditions, it had engulfed the whole stand, trapping some people in their seats. In the panic that ensued, fleeing crowds had to break down locked exits to escape, and many were burnt to death at the turnstiles, which were also locked. There were many cases of heroism, with more than 50 people receiving police awards or commendations.
The disaster led to new safety standards in UK football grounds, including the banning of new wooden grandstands.
Bradford City continues to support the Burns Unit at Bradford Royal Infirmary as its official charity.
Bradford City Association Football Club had played their home games at Valley Parade, in Bradford, since the club was formed in 1903. It had been the former home of Manningham Rugby Football Club, which had moved into the ground in 1886. The playing area and stands were very basic but the ground had enough room for 18,000 spectators. When the association football club was formed, the ground was changed very little and had no covered accommodation. However, when Bradford City won promotion to the highest level of English football, Division One, in 1908, club officials sanctioned an upgrade programme. Football architect Archibald Leitch was commissioned to carry out the work. By 1911, his work was completed. It included a main stand which seated 5,300 fans, and had room for a further 7,000 standing spectators in the paddock in front. The main stand was described as a "mammoth structure '', but was unusual for its time because of its place on the side of a hill. The entrances to the stand were all at the rear and were higher than the rest of the ground.
Although there had been some changes to other parts of the ground, the main stand remained unaltered by 1985. Football ground writer Simon Inglis had described the view from the stand as "like watching football from the cockpit of a Sopwith Camel '' because of its antiquated supports and struts. However, he also warned the club of a build - up of litter beneath the stand because of a gap between the seats. Some repair work was carried out, but in July 1984, the club was warned again, this time by a county council engineer, because of the club 's plans to claim for ground improvements from the Football Trust. One letter from the council said the problems "should be rectified as soon as possible ''; a second said: "A carelessly discarded cigarette could give rise to a fire risk. '' In March 1985, the club 's plans became more apparent when it took delivery of steel for a new roof.
The 1984 -- 85 season had been one of Bradford City 's most successful seasons. Following a 1 -- 0 defeat to Leyton Orient at the end of September, the side went 13 games undefeated, during which they went top of the Division Three table by defeating Millwall 3 -- 1. City maintained their superiority and opened up an 11 - point gap over the rest of the league by February, and were assured of the championship title courtesy of a 2 -- 0 victory against Bolton Wanderers in the penultimate game of the season, guaranteeing Division Two football for the first time since 1937. As a result, Bradford - born captain Peter Jackson was presented with the league trophy before the final game of the season with mid-table Lincoln City at Valley Parade on 11 May 1985.
As it was the first piece of league silverware that the club had captured since they won the Division Three (North) title 56 years earlier, 11,076 supporters were in the ground. It was nearly double the season 's average of 6,610 and included 3,000 fans in the ground 's main stand. In the crowd were local dignitaries and guests from three of Bradford 's twin towns -- Verviers, in Belgium, and Mönchengladbach and Hamm, in Germany. The city 's newspaper, the Telegraph & Argus, published a souvenir issue for the day, entitled "Spit and Polish for the Parade Ground ''. It detailed the safety work which would be carried out as a result of the club 's promotion, admitting the ground was "inadequate in so many ways for modern requirements ''. Steel was to be installed in the roof, and the wooden terracing was to be replaced with concrete. The work was expected to cost £ 400,000.
The Bradford City matchday squad of players and staff consisted of Terry Yorath, Trevor Cherry, Chris Withe, Don Goodman, Eric McManus, Tony Clegg, John Hawley, Dave Evans, Bryan Edwards, John Hendrie, Mark Ellis, Stuart McCall, Peter Jackson, Bobby Campbell, Martin Singleton and Greg Abbott.
After 40 minutes of the first half, the score remained 0 -- 0, in what was described as a drab affair with neither team threatening to score. At 3: 40 pm, five minutes before half - time, the first sign of a fire -- a glowing light -- was noticed three rows from the back of block G, as reported by TV commentator John Helm.
Helm described the start of the fire in an interview to the Express newspaper: "a man over from Australia visiting his son got two tickets to the game. He lit a cigarette and when it was coming to an end he put it down on to the floorboard and tried to put his foot on it to put it out. It slipped through a hole in the floorboard. A minute later he saw a small plume of smoke so he poured his coffee on it and so did his son. It seemed to put it out. But a minute or so later there was suddenly a bigger whoosh of smoke so they went to get a steward. By the time they got back, the whole thing had taken off. ''
One witness saw paper or debris on fire, about nine inches (230 mm) below the floor boards. The stand seats did not have risers; this had allowed a huge accumulation of rubbish and paper under the stand.
Spectators initially felt their feet becoming warmer; one of them ran to the back of the stand for a fire extinguisher but found none. A police officer shouted to a colleague for an extinguisher. However, his call was misheard and instead the fire brigade were radioed. The call was timed at 3: 43 pm. However, the fire escalated rapidly and flames became visible, and so police started to evacuate the stand. The blaze began to spread; the roof and wooden stands were soon on fire. One eyewitness, Geoffrey Mitchell, told the BBC: "It spread like a flash. I 've never seen anything like it. The smoke was choking. You could hardly breathe. '' One of the linesmen informed match referee Norman Glover who stopped the game with three minutes remaining before half - time. The original match referee (as named on the match programme) was Don Shaw, but he could not officiate due to injury and Glover (Chorley) was appointed. Shaw is still sometimes named as the match referee.
The stand 's wooden roof, covered with layers of highly - flammable bituminous roofing felt, offered no resistance to the flames. Burning timbers and molten materials fell from the roof onto the crowd and seating below, and black smoke enveloped a passageway behind the stand, where many spectators were trying to escape. It took less than four minutes for the entire stand to be engulfed in flames.
There were no extinguishers in the stand 's passageway for fear of vandalism and one spectator ran to the clubhouse to find one, but was overcome by smoke and others trying to escape. Supporters either ran upwards to the back of the stand or downwards to the pitch to escape. The stand had no perimeter fencing to keep fans from accessing the pitch, thus averting an instance of crush asphyxia, such as one that would occur in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster. Footage of the accident at this point shows levels of confusion among the spectators -- while many were trying to escape or to cross the pitch to the relative safety of the neighbouring stands, other spectators were observed cheering or waving to the still - rolling pitchside cameras. The lack of perimeter fencing undoubtedly kept the death toll down, and prevented it from reaching the hundreds or potentially the thousands, although the Bradford City stadium fire was still the worst sporting tragedy of its kind in England at the time of the fatalities. Elsewhere in Britain, only the 66 deaths at Ibrox Stadium in Scotland 14 years earlier had seen a higher death toll.
Most of the exits at the back were locked or shut, and there were no stewards present to open them, but seven were forced open or found open. Three men smashed down one door and at least one exit was opened by people outside, which again helped prevent further deaths. Geoffrey Mitchell said: "There was panic as fans stampeded to an exit which was padlocked. Two or three burly men put their weight against it and smashed the gate open. Otherwise, I would not have been able to get out. '' At the front of the stand, men threw children over the wall to help them escape. Most of those who escaped onto the pitch were saved.
People who had escaped the fire then tried to assist their fellow supporters. Police officers also assisted in the rescue attempts. One man clambered over burning seats to help a fan, as did player John Hawley, and one officer led fans to an exit, only to find it shut and turn around. Bradford City 's coach Terry Yorath, whose family was in the stand, ran onto the pitch to help evacuate people. Another player went into the office space to ensure there was nobody there. One fan put his jumper over a fellow supporter 's head to extinguish flames. Those who escaped were taken out of the ground to neighbouring homes and a pub, where a television screened World of Sport, which had live pictures from the ground. They queued there for a telephone to ring their families.
The fire brigade arrived at the ground four minutes after they were called. However, the fire had consumed the stand by that point and they were faced with huge flames and dense smoke. Because supporters were still being rescued from the stand, they were unable to immediately start fighting the fire. The fire destroyed the main stand and left only burned seats, lamps and fences. Some of those who died were still sitting upright in their seats, covered by remnants of tarpaulin from the roof. Police worked until 4 am the next morning, under lighting, to remove all the bodies. Within a few hours of the blaze starting, it was established that 56 people had been killed, although some of them had survived until reaching hospital.
Of the 56 people who died in the fire, 54 were Bradford supporters and two were Lincoln. They included three who tried to escape through the toilets, 27 who were found by exit K and turnstiles 6 to 9 at the rear centre of the stand, and two elderly people who died in their seats. Some had been crushed as they tried to crawl under turnstiles to escape. One retired mill worker made his way to the pitch, but was walking about on fire from head to foot. People smothered him to extinguish the flames, but he later died in hospital. Half of those who died were either aged under 20 or over 70, and the oldest victim was the club 's former chairman, Sam Firth, aged 86. More than 265 supporters were injured; the fire was described as the worst fire disaster in the history of British football, and the worst football disaster since 66 spectators died at Ibrox in 1971.
The match was recorded by Yorkshire Television for their occasional regional edition of the ITV Sunday afternoon football show The Big Match. Coverage of the fire was transmitted minutes after the event on World of Sport and the BBC 's Grandstand.
The tragedy received media attention and support from around the world, with those offering their sympathy including Queen Elizabeth II, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Pope John Paul II. Messages of condolence were also received from Helmut Kohl, Chedli Klibi and Felipe González.
The club 's chairman, Stafford Heginbotham, said: "It was to be our day ''. Coach Terry Yorath described the events as "the worst day in my life. '' Police Superintendent Barry Osborne, divisional commander for the area, said many of his officers cried when they saw how badly people had been burned. Matthew Wildman was 17 at the time and suffered from rheumatoid arthritis, which meant he needed crutches to walk. He was helped out of the stand by other fans and spent a period of time in hospital. He later said: "I have never known anything like it, either before, or since. Everybody in the city was devastated, but there was an amazing number of volunteers. (...) I still have terrible memories of the day, but it is the humanity of those that helped us that I reflect on. ''
The Bradford Disaster Appeal fund, set up within 48 hours of the disaster, eventually raised over £ 3.5 million. The most memorable of hundreds of fundraising events was a reunion of the 1966 World Cup Final Starting XI that began with the original starting teams of both England and West Germany, and was held at Leeds United 's stadium, Elland Road, in July 1985 to raise funds for the Appeal fund. England won the re-match 6 -- 4.
Part of the Appeal funds were raised by The Crowd 's recording of "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' from Rodgers and Hammerstein 's musical Carousel, which reached number 1 in the UK Singles chart. The money raised from this record was contributed to fund the internationally renowned burns unit that was established in partnership between the University of Bradford and Bradford Royal Infirmary, immediately after the fire, which has also been Bradford City 's official charity for well over a decade.
For the 30th anniversary of the fire a new version of "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' was recorded at Voltage Studios in Bradford. On the recording are Dene Michael (Black Lace), The Chuckle Brothers, Clive Jackson of Dr & The Medics, Owen Paul, Billy Pearce, Billy Shears, Flint Bedrock, Danny Tetley and Rick Wild of The Overlanders. It was the brainchild of Bradford City fan Lloyd Spencer with all profits going to the Bradford Royal Infirmary Burns Unit.
A capacity 6,000 crowd attended a multi-denominational memorial service, held on the pitch in the sunny shadow of the burnt out stand at Valley Parade in July 1985. A giant Christian cross, made up of two large charred wooden members that had once been part of the stand, was constructed in front of the middle of the stand and behind the pitchside speaker 's platform. Part of the service was also held in Urdu and Punjabi as a sign of appreciation to the local ethnically Asian Subcontinental community in Manningham, Bradford and around Valley Parade that had opened up their doors to Bradford City supporters in the immediate aftermath of the disaster. The next day work began on clearing the burnt out shell of the stand, and Justice Popplewell released his findings into the disaster.
Whilst Bradford City initially prospered in the Second Division -- only missing out on promotion to the First Division in 1988 after failing to beat Ipswich Town at home on the final day of their first full season back at Valley Parade (a match which coincided with the third anniversary of the fire and at which no minute 's silence was held before the game).
At Valley Parade there are now two memorials. One, now re-situated to that end of the stand where the fire began, is a sculpture donated on the initial re-opening of Valley Parade in December 1986 by Sylvia Graucob, a then Jersey - based former West Yorkshire woman. The other, situated by the main entrance, was donated by the club after its £ 7.5 million rebuilding of the original main stand in 2002. It has a black marble fascia on which the names and ages of those that died are inscribed in gold, and a black marble platform on which people can leave flowers and mementos. There is a twin memorial sculpture, unveiled on 11 May 1986, which has the names of the dead inscribed on it. They were donated by Bradford 's twin city of Hamm, Germany, and are situated in front of Bradford City Hall in both locations. After the fire, Bradford City also announced they would thereafter play with black trim on their shirt collars and arms as a permanent memorial to those who had died.
Four police officers, Police Constables David Britton and John Richard Ingham and Chief Inspectors Charles Frederick Mawson and Terence Michael Slocombe, and two spectators, Richard Gough and David Hustler, were awarded the Queen 's Gallantry Medal for their actions. PCs Peter Donald Barrett and David Charles Midgley, along with spectators Michael William Bland and Timothy Peter Leigh received the Queen 's Commendation for Brave Conduct. In total, 28 police officers and 22 supporters, who were publicly documented as having saved at least one life, later received police commendations or bravery awards. Together, flanked by undocumented supporters, they managed to clear all but one person who made it to the front of the stand. Club coach Terry Yorath incurred minor injuries while taking part in the rescue.
While Valley Parade was re-developed, Bradford City played games at various neighbouring grounds: Elland Road, Leeds; Leeds Road, Huddersfield; and Odsal Stadium, Bradford. Valley Parade re-opened on 14 December 1986, when Bradford City beat an England XI 2 -- 1 in a friendly. Since then, it has been further re-developed and, today, Valley Parade is a modern 25,136 all - seater stadium, which is virtually unrecognisable from how it was at the time of the disaster, save for the original clubhouse that still stands beside the main stand, and the flank support wall that runs down the Hollywell Ash Lane at the "Bradford End ''.
Lincoln City suffered two successive relegations, first to the Fourth Division in 1986, and again in 1987, becoming the first team to be automatically relegated from the Football League itself. They were immediately promoted back to the Football League in 1988, and survived for 23 years before being relegated again in 2011. Although some attributed Lincoln City 's sudden demise to the psychological effects of the fire on its players (together with the resignation of successful manager Colin Murphy shortly before the fire), it symbolised the wider crisis that the introduction of new safety legislation brought to Lincoln 's Sincil Bank home. The timber construction of St. Andrew 's Stand, Main Stand and the roof of its popular Railway End terrace were immediately condemned as fire hazards, which saw seating capacity briefly cut to nil. Lincoln City 's board responded by committing £ 1,100,000 to their ground 's renovation in the year that immediately followed the fire at Valley Parade, and over the following decade made improvements that eventually totalled £ 3,000,000. After its renovation in 1990 they named the home end of their ground the ' Stacey - West Stand ', in honour of Bill Stacey and Jim West, the two Lincoln City supporters who were amongst the 56 to die at Bradford. Each year Lincoln send representatives to the annual memorial service in Bradford city centre and between 2007 and 2009, were managed by Bradford 's captain that day, Peter Jackson.
The two sides met for the first time after the fire in April 1989, when they arranged a benefit match in aid of the Hillsborough disaster, at Valley Parade.
The Bradford Burns Unit was set up by Professor David Sharpe after he received many of the victims following the fire. As he received the injured at Bradford Royal Infirmary he was able to call upon 10 % of the UK 's population of plastic surgeons. It was during this treatment that Professor Sharpe began to create the Bradford Sling, which applies even pressure across sensitive areas. The sling is now used internationally in the treatment of burns.
Immediately after the fire, Professor Sharpe planned and treated the injuries of over 200 individuals, with many experimental treatments being used. Mathew Wildman, aged 17 at the time of the fire, commented that "I must have had five different experiments carried out on me with all sorts of new techniques for skin grafts and I had potions injected into me that helped my face repair naturally over time. ''
On the 25th anniversary of the fire, the University of Bradford established the United Kingdom 's largest academic research centre in skin sciences as an extension to its plastic surgery and burns research unit.
The inquiry into the disaster, chaired by Sir Oliver Popplewell and known as the Popplewell Inquiry, led to the introduction of new legislation to improve safety at the UK 's football grounds. Among the main outcomes of the inquiry were the banning of new wooden grandstands at all UK sports grounds, the immediate closure of other wooden stands deemed unsafe and the banning of smoking in other wooden stands.
At the time of the disaster, many stadiums had perimeter fencing between the stands and the pitch to prevent incidents of football hooliganism -- particularly pitch invasions -- which were rife during the 1980s. The main stand at Bradford was not surrounded by fencing, and therefore most of the spectators in it could escape onto the pitch -- if they had been penned in then the death toll would inevitably have been in the hundreds if not the thousands. However, the turnstiles were locked and none of the stadium staff were present to unlock them, leaving no escape through the normal entrances and exits. Most of the fans who took this escape route were killed or seriously injured. Fans in the next stand (the "Bradford End '') pulled down the fence separating them from the pitch.
The Popplewell Inquiry found that the club had been warned about the fire risk that the rubbish accumulating under the stand had posed. The stand had already been condemned, and the demolition teams were due to start work two days later. However, as there was no real precedent, most Bradfordians accepted that the fire was a terrible piece of misfortune. A discarded cigarette and a dilapidated wooden stand, which had survived because the club did not have the money to replace it, were considered to have conspired to cause the worst disaster in the history of the Football League.
In July 1985, an inquest was held into the deaths, at the hearings the coroner James Turnbull recommended a death by misadventure outcome, which the jury agreed upon. Following the hearing in 1986, a test case was brought against the club by David Britton, a police sergeant serving on the day, and by Susan Fletcher, who lost her husband John, 11 - year - old son Andrew, John 's brother Peter and his father Edmond in the fire. On 23 February 1987, Sir Joseph Cantley found the club two thirds responsible and the county council (which by this time had been abolished) one third responsible.
Explaining his decision, Sir Joseph Canley stated: "As I have already stated, the primary duty was on the Club and the functions of the County Council were supervisory and its liability is for negligent breach of a common law duty arising out of the way in which they dealt with or ignored their statutory powers. That duty was not a duty to the Club but a duty to the spectators and other persons in the stand. However, the responsibility of the Club is, in my view, very much the greater and I apportion responsibility between the two defendants as to two - thirds on the first defendant and one - third on the third (sic) defendant. ''
West Yorkshire Metropolitan Borough Council was found to have failed in its duty under the Fire Precautions Act 1971. The Health and Safety Executive who were also part of the legal action were found to be non-liable. Criticising Bradford City during the case, Mr. Michael Ogden QC, highlighted that the Club ' gave no or very little thought to fire precautions ', despite repeated warnings.
The outcome of the test case resulted in over 154 claims being addressed (110 civilians and 44 police officers) by the injured or bereaved. Speaking at the close of the case, the Judge said "They (the club) were at fault, no one in authority seemed to have appreciated the fire hazard. No one gave it the attention it ought to have received... The fact is that no one person was concerned with the safety of the premises. ''
Central to the test case were two letters sent to Bradford City 's Club Secretary at the time, the second letter dated 18 July 1984 highlighted in full the improvements needed to be actioned at the ground as well as the fire risk at the main stand. When cross examined by QC Robert Smith, then Chairman Stafford Heginbotham said he knew about the fire risk at the ground.
During the case, Sir Joseph Canley stated that: "It is only right that I should say that I think it would be unfair to conclude that Mr Heginbotham, Mr Tordoff, the Board of Directors, or any of them, were intentionally and callously indifferent to the safety of spectators using the stand. They were at fault, but the fault was that no - one in authority seems ever to have properly appreciated the real gravity of this fire hazard and consequently no - one gave it the attention it certainly ought to have received. ''
The total amount of compensation to the 154 claimants was reported to be as high as £ 20 million, with the payouts covered by insurance taken out by the club. In 1988, the first compensation payments were made to survivors of the fire, with over 40 people receiving up to £ 40,000 each. By this date the appeal fund set up for survivors had paid out more than £ 4m with further payouts expected as the effects of physical and mental injury were determined.
In 2010, Susan Fletcher 's son and survivor of the Bradford City fire (and witness to the Hillsborough disaster), Martin Fletcher, openly criticised the club 's hierarchy at the time of the fire and the subsequent investigation. Fletcher said that "The club at the time took no actual responsibility for its actions and nobody has ever really been held accountable for the level of negligence which took place. It was appalling that public money was given to the club while it was still owned by the same shareholders under whose direction the fire had happened. I do not include the people currently running the club, who have always displayed a great, sensitive duty to the memory of those who died. ''
After controversial comments made by Sir Oliver Popplewell about the Hillsborough Disaster, Fletcher raised further concerns about the events following the fire saying that "I have many unanswered questions still about the fire in which four of my family died, as does my mother. Popplewell 's report was nowhere close to the quality of Lord Justice Taylor 's report after Hillsborough, and since reading it as an adult I have always been very disappointed in it and considered it a poor piece of work. ''
Fletcher subsequently published a book in 2015, Fifty - Six: The Story of the Bradford Fire which revealed a history of fires at businesses owned by the Bradford City chairman Stafford Heginbotham. Eight fires in the 18 years before the Bradford City fire were identified, many catastrophic and leading to large insurance payouts.
In 2014, the theatre company Funny You Should Ask (FYSA) premiered their heartfelt tribute to the 56 people who died at the fire. Called ' The 56 ' the play dramatises actual accounts of the Bradford City Fire with the purpose of the play showing how in times of adversity, the Football Club and the local community came together. Scriptwriters of the play spent hours with the survivors and victims families. Profits from the play 's run at The Edinburgh Fringe were donated to the Bradford Burns Unit.
Parrs Wood Press published Four Minutes to Hell: The Story of the Bradford City Fire (2005) by author Paul Firth; the title refers to the estimated time it took for the stand to be completely ablaze from the first flames being spotted. Another book; 56: The Story of the Bradford Fire (2015) was written by Martin Fletcher to discuss how the disaster was caused, and follows his loss of his father, brother, uncle and grandfather.
On 1 May 2010, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fire the football TV show Football Focus was hosted from Valley Parade by Dan Walker, the show included interviews with Terry Yorath and John Hendrie.
In 1986, a year after the disaster, Yorkshire Television aired a documentary presented by John Helm entitled Bradford City -- A Year of Healing. The Documentary highlighted the ' poison pen letters ' and graffiti targeted at the then club chairman Stafford Heginbotham over accusations that he was in some way responsible for the deaths of the 56 people who died at the fire.
Following the release of Martin Fletcher 's book Fifty - Six: The Story of the Bradford Fire, fire investigator Nigel Adams joined the call for a fresh inquiry into the disaster stating that Fletcher 's book was "one of the best accounts of a fire, as seen from a victim 's point of view, and as a piece of investigative writing, I have ever read ''. He agreed that the inquiry into Bradford, led by the judge Oliver Popplewell, was inadequate and that there are many unanswered questions. He went on to state:
"In 1985 fire investigation in Britain was in its infancy and some would say at that time most fire investigators were not much more than dust - kickers. Like all areas of forensic investigations, it has come on leaps and bounds. However, there is a lot in this book that troubles me about the science, or lack of it, used in the testing of the investigators ' hypothesis as to the source of the ignition. The book also raises concerns about the speed of the inquiry and the fact that it commenced a few weeks after the fire and lasted for only a few days, whereas other inquiries into similar incidents, pre and post the Bradford fire, have taken years to come to fruition and months to be heard. The fact the inquiry also embraced the investigation into another incident which happened on the same day, a riot in which a young boy died at Birmingham City, makes it seem more frivolous. ''
Adams also went on to state that "I have read in some newspapers that he is being berated for his campaign to have a new inquiry. I do n't see that. There is no malicious vendetta, there is no over-exaggeration, there are no trumped - up facts. It is a simple account laid out for all to see. Fletcher has taken facts and presented them in such a way that it should make it moralistically impossible for this incident not to be looked at again. ''
On 26 January 2016, the IPCC declined calls for an investigation and published its full response online.
On 17 April 2015, retired Detective Inspector Raymond Falconer, in a report by the Bradford Telegraph and Argus, admitted the police were aware of an Australian man who admitted to starting the fire. Following the 30th anniversary of the fire, a number of news organisations named this man as Eric Bennett who was visiting his nephew in Bradford from Australia and attended the game on the day. Following this report, Leslie Brownlie, who was the nephew in question, is reported to have said that his uncle never made such an admission of starting the fire. He is quoted as saying: "I do n't believe the statement of (retired Detective Inspector Raymond) Falconer at all. I do n't know where Falconer is getting this cock - and - bull story from... the inaccuracies in this report (documentary) are dumbfounding. ''. Raymond Falconer 's reliability had previously been questioned by Daniel Taylor in The Guardian who stated that: "The Bradford Telegraph and Argus described him as a ' top detective '. He was actually one of the detectives involved in one of the gravest miscarriages of justices in the country, the murder of Carol Wilkinson in Bradford, where someone was locked up for 20 years for a murder he did n't commit. ''
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what does not pass through very thick forest | Xerophyte - wikipedia
A xerophyte (from Greek ξηρός xeros dry, φυτόν phuton plant) is a species of plant that has adapted to survive in an environment with little liquid water, such as a desert or an ice - or snow - covered region in the Alps or the Arctic.
The morphology and physiology of xerophytes are variously adapted to conserve water, and commonly also to store large quantities of water, during dry periods. Other species may be adapted to survive long periods of desiccation of their tissues, during which their metabolic activity may effectively shut down. Plants with such morphological and physiological adaptations are xeromorphic.
Plants absorb water from the soil, which then evaporates from their outer surfaces; this process is known as transpiration. In dry environments, a typical (mesophytic) plant would evaporate water faster than the rate at which water was replaced in the soil, leading to wilting. To reduce this effect, xerophytic plants exhibit a variety of specialized adaptations to survive in such conditions. Xerophytes may use water from their own storage, allocate water specifically to sites of new tissue growth, or lose less water to the atmosphere and so convert a greater proportion of water in the soil to growth, or have other adaptations to manage water supply and enable them to survive.
Cacti and other succulents are commonly found in deserts, where there is little rainfall. Other xerophytes, such as certain bromeliads, can survive through both extremely wet and extremely dry periods and can be found in seasonally moist habitats such as tropical forests, exploiting niches where water supplies are too intermittent for mesophytic plants to survive. Likewise, chaparral plants are adapted to Mediterranean climates, which have wet winters and dry summers. Plants that live under arctic conditions also have a need for xerophytic adaptations, since water is unavailable for uptake when the ground is frozen.
Succulent plants store water in their stems or leaves. They include the Cactaceae family, which has round stems and can store a lot of water. The leaves are often vestigial, as in the case of cacti, wherein the leaves are reduced to spines, or they do not have leaves at all.
Xerophytes are commonly found in arid environments, where plants such as pineapples and cacti may grow. Water is stored in the bulbs of some plants, at or below ground level. They may be dormant during drought conditions and are, therefore, known as drought evaders.
If the water potential (or strictly, water vapour potential) inside a leaf is higher than outside, the water vapour will diffuse out of the leaf down this gradient. This loss of water vapour from the leaves is called transpiration, and the water vapour diffuses through the open stomata. Transpiration is natural and inevitable for plants, and much water is lost through this process. However, it is vital that plants living in dry conditions are adapted so as to reduce this water loss and decrease the size of the open stomata, in order to reduce unnecessary loss from the plant. It is important for a plant living in these conditions to conserve water because, without enough water, plant cells lose turgor. This is known as plasmolysis. If the plant loses too much water, it will pass its permanent wilting point, and die.
In brief, the rate of transpiration is governed by the number of stomata, leaf area (allowing for more stomata), temperature differential, the relative humidity, the presence of wind or air movement, the light intensity, and the presence of a waxy cuticle. It is important to note, that whilst it is vital to keep stomata closed, they have to be opened for gaseous exchange in photosynthesis.
Xerophytic plants may have similar shapes, forms, and structures and look very similar, even if the plants are not very closely related, through a process called convergent evolution. For example, some species of cacti (members of the family Cactaceae), which evolved only in the Americas, may appear similar to Euphorbia s, which are distributed worldwide. An unrelated species of caudiciforms, plants with swollen bases that are used to store water, may also display such similarities.
Xerophytic plants can have less overall surface area than other plants, so reducing the area that is exposed to the air and reducing water loss by evaporation. Xerophytes can have smaller leaves or fewer branches than other plants. An example of leaf surface reduction are the spines of a cactus. An example of compaction and reduction of branching are the barrel cacti. Other xerophytes may have their leaves compacted at the base, as in a basal rosette, which may be smaller than the plant 's flower. This adaptation is exhibited by some Agave and Eriogonum species, which can be found growing near Death Valley.
Some xerophytes have tiny hairs on their surface to provide a wind break and reduce air flow, thereby reducing the rate of evaporation. When a plant surface is covered with tiny hairs, it is called tomentose.
In a still environment, the areas under the leaves / spines where transpiration is taking place form a small localised environment that is more saturated than normal with water vapour. If this is not blown away by wind, the water vapour potential gradient is reduced and so is transpiration. Thus, in a windier situation, this localization is not held and so the gradient remains high, which aids the loss of water vapour. Spines trap a layer of moisture and also slow air movement over tissues.
The color of a plant, or of the waxes or hairs on its surface, may serve to reflect sunlight and reduce evaporation. An example is the white chalky wax (epicuticular wax) coating of Dudleya brittonii, which has the highest ultraviolet light (UV) reflectivity of any known naturally occurring biological substance.
Some plants can store water in root structures, trunk structures, stems, and leaves. Water storage in swollen parts of the plant is known as succulence. A swollen trunk or root at the ground level of a plant is called a caudex and plants with swollen bases are called caudiciforms.
The stomata may open only at night, so as to reduce evaporation.
Plants may secrete resins and waxes (epicuticular wax) on their surfaces, which reduce evaporation. Examples are the heavily scented and flammable resins (volatile organic compounds) of some chaparral plants, such as Malosma laurina, or the chalky wax of Dudleya pulverulenta.
Plants may drop their leaves in times of dryness (drought deciduous), or modify the leaves produced so that they are smaller.
During dry times, xerophytic plants may stop growing and go dormant, or change the allocation of the products of photosynthesis from growing new leaves to the roots.
Seeds may be modified to require an excessive amount of water before germinating, so as to ensure a sufficient water supply for the seedling 's survival. An example of this is the California poppy, whose seeds lie dormant during drought and then germinate, grow, flower, and form seeds within four weeks of rainfall.
The leaf litter on the ground around a plant can provide an evaporative barrier to prevent water loss. A plant 's root mass itself may also hold organic material that retains water, as in the case of the arrowweed (Pluchea sericea).
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who played mateo on days of our lives | Days of Our Lives cast members - wikipedia
Days of Our Lives is a long - running American television soap opera drama, airing on NBC. Created by Ted and Betty Corday, the series premiered on November 8, 1965. The longest - running cast member is Suzanne Rogers, who has portrayed Maggie Horton since August 20, 1973, making her one of the longest - tenured actors in American soap operas. Original cast member, Frances Reid, was previously the soap 's longest - running cast member, portraying Horton family matriarch, Alice Horton, from 1965 to 2007. Actresses Susan Seaforth Hayes and Deidre Hall, who portray Julie Olson Williams and Dr. Marlena Evans, are currently the second and third longest tenured actors on Days of Our Lives, joining in 1968 and 1976, respectively. The following list is of cast members who are currently on the show: the main and recurring cast members, or those who are debuting, departing or returning to the series.
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who appoints judges ambassadors and the secretary of state | Appointments Clause - wikipedia
The Appointments Clause is part of Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, which empowers the President of the United States to appoint certain public officials with the "advice and consent '' of the United States Senate. This clause also allows lower - level officials to be appointed without the advice and consent process.
The relevant provision of the Appointments Clause is:
The first part of this clause is known as the Treaty Clause.
In the federal government of the United States, "advice and consent '' is a power of the United States Senate -- in this instance, the power to approve appointments by the President of the United States to public positions, including Cabinet secretaries, federal judges, and ambassadors. The term "advice and consent '' first appears in the United States Constitution in Article II, Section 2, Clause 2, referring to the Senate 's role in the signing and ratification of treaties. This term is then used again, to describe the Senate 's role in the appointment of public officials, immediately after describing the President 's duty to nominate such officials.
Several framers of the U.S. Constitution explained that the required role of the Senate is to advise the President after the nomination has been made by the President. Roger Sherman believed that advice before nomination could still be helpful. Likewise, President George Washington took the position that pre-nomination advice was allowable but not mandatory. The notion that pre-nomination advice is optional has developed into the unification of the "advice '' portion of the power with the "consent '' portion, although several Presidents have consulted informally with Senators over nominations and treaties.
The actual motion adopted by the Senate when exercising the power is "to advise and consent '', which shows how initial advice on nominations and treaties is not a formal power exercised by the Senate. On Nov. 21, 2013, the Senate changed its rules regarding the number of votes needed to end debate on a presidential nomination and bring it to a vote. Before that date, a minority of senators could engage in a filibuster and block a vote on a nomination unless three - fifths of senators voted to end debate. Under the new rules, a simple majority is all that is needed to end debate. The only exception was for nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States, which could still be blocked from going to a vote by a filibuster, until the Senate rules were again changed on April 6th, 2017 during Senate debate on the nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Count.
Congress itself may not exercise the appointment power; its functions are limited to the Senate 's role in advice and consent, and to deciding whether to vest a direct appointment power over a given office in the President, a Head of Department, or the Courts of Law. The Framers of the U.S. Constitution were particularly concerned that Congress might seek to exercise the appointment power and fill offices with their supporters, to the derogation of the President 's control over the executive branch. The Appointments Clause thus functions as a restraint on Congress and as an important structural element in the separation of powers. Attempts by Congress to circumvent the Appointments Clause, either by making appointments directly, or through devices such as "unilaterally appointing an incumbent to a new and distinct office '' under the guise of legislating new duties for an existing office, have been rebuffed by the courts.
The Appointments Clause divides constitutional officers into two classes: principal officers, who must be appointed through the advice and consent mechanism; and inferior officers, who may be appointed through advice and consent of the Senate, but whose appointment Congress may place instead in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. An earlier version of the Appointments Clause would have given the President a broader power to "appoint officers in all cases not otherwise provided for by this Constitution, '' but some delegates of the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention worried that this language would permit the President to create offices as well as to fill them, a classic case of institutional corruption. The requirement that the President can appoint inferior officers only when Congress has "by Law vest (ed) '' that power in the President sought to preclude that possibility.
One chief questions recurs under the "by Law '' language: Who are "inferior Officers, '' not subject to the requirement of advice and consent; and (2) what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? As an initial matter, most government employees are not officers and thus are not subject to the Appointments Clause. In Buckley v. Valeo, the Supreme Court held that only those appointees "exercising significant authority pursuant to the laws of the United States '' are "Officers of the United States, '' and hence it is only those who exercise such "significant authority '' who must be appointed by a mechanism set forth in the Appointments Clause. The Framers of the U.S. constitution did not define the line between principal officers and inferior officers, and the Supreme Court has been content to approach the analysis on a case - by - case basis rather than through a definitive test. The Court listed in Morrison v. Olson (1988) certain factors as hallmarks of "inferior Officer '' status, such as removability by a higher executive branch official other than the President, and limitations on the officer 's duties, jurisdiction, and tenure. In Edmond v. United States (1997) the Court stated that "' inferior Officers ' are officers whose work is directed and supervised at some level by others who were appointed by Presidential nomination with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Among those officers recognized as "inferior '' are district court clerks, federal supervisors of elections, the Watergate Special Prosecutor, and an Independent Counsel appointed under the Ethics in Government Act of 1978.
Another chief question is, what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? The phrase "Heads of Departments '' has not been precisely defined by the Supreme Court. On the one hand, judicial interpretations of the phrase refer to the heads of departments that are within the executive branch, or according to Buckley v. Valeo "at least have some connection with that branch. '' Under this view, the heads of all agencies and departments exercising executive power under the President would seem to qualify as "Heads of Departments. '' The Court interpreted in Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue (1991) "Heads of Departments '' to refer "to executive divisions like the Cabinet - level departments. '' The use of the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' could mean that, in addition to the Cabinet departments, other entities within the executive branch that are sufficiently analogous to the Cabinet departments may qualify as "Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. On the other hand, the Freytag Court itself seemed unclear what it meant by the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments, '' and certainly stepped back from any bright - line test. The Freytag Court sought to harmonize its analysis with the interpretation given the different term "executive Departments '' in the Opinion Clause (which has been interpreted to refer only to Cabinet departments) and with earlier cases that suggested that only the Cabinet Secretaries qualified as "Heads of Departments. '' Ultimately, the Freytag Court seems to have reserved the question whether the heads of non-Cabinet executive - branch agencies could be deemed to be "Heads of Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. Perhaps the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' was included in Freytag as an indication that the Court would not necessarily be inflexible about requiring Cabinet status in future cases. If that is so, then "Heads of Departments '' would appear to include (as Justice Antonin Scalia reasons in his concurrence in Freytag) the heads of the Cabinet Departments and also the heads of "all independent executive establishments. ''
From 1999 to 2008, a change in the statute governing the United States Patent and Trademark Office ("USPTO '') permitted a number of judges of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences and the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to be appointed by the USPTO Director. This arrangement was challenged as unconstitutional under the Appointments Clause because the appointing party was not the Heads of the Department. In order to avoid the crisis that would result from new challenges to many BPAI and TTAB decisions made in that period, Congress passed a 2008 amendment to the statute which specifies that the Secretary of Commerce is responsible for such appointments, and permitting the Secretary to retroactively appoint those persons named by the USPTO Director.
See also: List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation
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when was the term mental illness first used | History of mental disorders - Wikipedia
For thousands of years, humans have tried to explain and control problematic behavior. But our efforts always derive from theories or models of behavior popular at the time, and the purpose is to explain ' why someone is like that '. Three major models, namely, supernatural model, biological model and psychological model.
For much of our recorded history, deviant behavior has been considered a reflection of the battle between good and evil. When confronted with unexplainable, irrational behavior and by suffering and upheaval, people have perceived evil. In fact, in the Great Persian Empire from 900 to 600 B.C., all physical and mental disorders were considered the work of the devil.
Physical causes of mental disorders have been sought in history. Important to this tradition are a man, Hippocrates; a disease, syphilis; and the early consequences of believing that psychological disorders are biologically caused.
This was a precursor to modern psychosocial treatment approaches to the causation of psychopathology, with the focus on psychological, social and cultural factors. Well known philosophers like Aristotle, Plato, etc., wrote about the importance of fantasies, dreams, cognitions, and thus anticipated, to some extent, later developments in psychoanalytic thought and cognitive science. They also advocated humane and responsible care for individuals with psychological disturbances.
Mental illnesses were well known in ancient Mesopotamia, where diseases and mental disorders were believed to be caused by specific deities. Because hands symbolized control over a person, mental illnesses were known as "hands '' of certain deities. One psychological illness was known as Qāt Ištar, meaning "Hand of Ishtar ''. Others were known as "Hand of Shamash '', "Hand of the Ghost '', and "Hand of the God ''. Descriptions of these illnesses, however, are so vague that it is usually impossible to determine which illnesses they correspond to in modern terminology. Mesopotamian doctors kept detailed record of their patients ' hallucinations and assigned spiritual meanings to them. A patient who hallucinated that he was seeing a dog was predicted to die; whereas, if he saw a gazelle, he would recover. The royal family of Elam was notorious for its members frequently suffering from insanity. Erectile dysfunction was recognized as being rooted in psychological problems.
Limited notes in an ancient Egyptian document known as the Ebers papyrus appear to describe the affected states of concentration, attention, and emotional distress in the heart or mind. Some of these were interpreted later, and renamed as hysteria and melancholy. Somatic treatments included applying bodily fluids while reciting magical spells. Hallucinogens may have been used as a part of the healing rituals. Religious temples may have been used as therapeutic retreats, possibly for the induction of receptive states to facilitate sleep and the interpretation of dreams.
Ancient Hindu scriptures - Ramayana and Mahabharata - contain fictional descriptions of depression and anxiety. Mental disorders were generally thought to reflect abstract metaphysical entities, supernatural agents, sorcery and witchcraft. The Charaka Samhita from circa 600 BC, which is a part of the Hindu Ayurveda ("knowledge of life ''), saw ill health as resulting from an imbalance among three the three body fluids or forces called Tri-Dosha. These also affected the personality types among people. Suggested causes included inappropriate diet, disrespect towards the gods, teachers or others, mental shock due to excessive fear or joy, and faulty bodily activity. Treatments included the use of herbs and ointments, charms and prayers, and moral or emotional persuasion.
The earliest known record of mental illness in ancient China dates back to 1100 B.C. Mental disorders were treated mainly under Traditional Chinese Medicine using herbs, acupuncture or "emotional therapy ''. The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor described symptoms, mechanisms and therapies for mental illness, emphasizing connections between bodily organs and emotions. The ancient Chinese believed that demonic possession played a role in mental illness during this time period. They felt that areas of emotional outbursts such as funeral homes could open up the Wei Chi and allow entities to possess an individual. Trauma was also considered to be something that caused high levels of emotion. Thus, trauma is a possible catalyst for mental illness, due to its ability to allow the Wei Chi open to possession. This explains why the ancient Chinese believed that a mental illness was in reality a demonic possession. According to Chinese thought, five stages or elements comprised the conditions of imbalance between Yin and yang. Mental illness, according to the Chinese perspective is thus considered as an imbalance of the yin and yang because optimum health arises from balance with nature.
China was one of the earliest developed civilizations in which medicine and attention to mental disorders were introduced (Soong, 2006) As in the West, Chinese views of mental disorders regressed to a belief in supernatural forces as causal agents. From the later part of the second century through the early part of the ninth century, ghosts and devils were implicated in "ghostevil '' insanity, which presumably resulted from possession by evil spirits. The "Dark Ages '' in China, however, were neither so severe (in terms of the treatment of mental patients) nor as long - lasting as in the West. A return to biological, somatic (bodily) views and an emphasis on psychosocial factors occurred in the centuries that followed. Over the past 50 years, China has been experiencing a broadening of ideas in mental health services and has been incorporating many ideas from Western psychiatry (Zhang & Lu, 2006)
In ancient Greece and Rome, madness was associated stereotypically with aimless wandering and violence. However, Socrates considered positive aspects including prophesying (a ' manic art '); mystical initiations and rituals; poetic inspiration; and the madness of lovers. Now often seen as the very epitome of rational thought and as the founder of philosophy, Socrates freely admitted to experiencing what are now called "command hallucinations '' (then called his ' daemon '). Pythagoras also heard voices. Hippocrates (470 -- ca. 360 BC) classified mental disorders, including paranoia, epilepsy, mania and melancholia.
Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans absorbed many Greek (and other) ideas on medicine. The humoral theory fell out of favor in some quarters. The Greek physician Asclepiades (ca. 124 -- 40 BC), who practiced in Rome, discarded it and advocated humane treatments, and had insane persons freed from confinement and treated them with natural therapy, such as diet and massages. Arateus (ca. AD 30 -- 90) argued that it is hard to pinpoint from where a mental illness comes. However, Galen (AD 129 -- ca. 200), practicing in Greece and Rome, revived humoral theory. Galen, however, adopted a single symptom approach rather than broad diagnostic categories, for example studying separate states of sadness, excitement, confusion and memory loss.
Playwrights such as Homer, Sophocles and Euripides described madmen driven insane by the gods, imbalanced humors or circumstances. As well as the triad (of which mania was often used as an overarching term for insanity) there were a variable and overlapping range of terms for such things as delusion, eccentricity, frenzy, and lunacy. Physician Celsus argued that insanity is really present when a continuous dementia begins due to the mind being at the mercy of imaginings. He suggested that people must heal their own souls through philosophy and personal strength. He described common practices of dietetics, bloodletting, drugs, talking therapy, incubation in temples, exorcism, incantations and amulets, as well as restraints and "tortures '' to restore rationality, including starvation, being terrified suddenly, agitation of the spirit, and stoning and beating. Most, however, did not receive medical treatment but stayed with family or wandered the streets, vulnerable to assault and derision. Accounts of delusions from the time included people who thought themselves to be famous actors or speakers, animals, inanimate objects, or one of the gods. Some were arrested for political reasons, such as Jesus ben Ananias who was eventually released as a madman after showing no concern for his own fate during torture.
Passages of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament have been interpreted as describing mood disorders in figures such as Job, King Saul and in the Psalms of David. In the Book of Daniel, King Nebuchadnezzar is described as temporarily losing his sanity. Mental disorder was not a problem like any other, caused by one of the gods, but rather caused by problems in the relationship between the individual and God. They believed that abnormal behavior was the result of possessions that represented the wrath and punishment from God. This punishment was seen as a withdrawal of God 's protection and the abandonment of the individual to evil forces.
Persian and Arabic scholars were heavily involved in translating, analyzing and synthesizing Greek texts and concepts. As the Muslim world expanded, Greek concepts were integrated with religious thought and over time, new ideas and concepts were developed. Arab texts from this period contain discussions of melancholia, mania, hallucinations, delusions, and other mental disorders. Mental disorder was generally connected to loss of reason, and writings covered links between the brain and disorders, and spiritual / mystical meaning of disorders. wrote about fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, sadness and depression, and obsessions.
Authors who wrote on mental disorders and / or proposed treatments during this period include Al - Balkhi, Al - Razi, Al - Farabi, Ibn - Sina, Al - Majusi Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi, Averroes, and Unhammad.
Some thought mental disorder could be caused by possession by a djinn (genie), which could be either good or demon - like. There were sometimes beatings to exorcise the djin, or alternatively over-zealous attempts at cures. Islamic views often merged with local traditions. In Morocco the traditional Berber people were animists and the concept of sorcery was integral to the understanding of mental disorder; it was mixed with the Islamic concepts of djin and often treated by religious scholars combining the roles of holy man, sage, seer and sorcerer.
The first psychiatric hospital ward was founded in Baghdad in 705, and insane asylums were built in Fes in the early 8th century, Cairo in 800 and in Damascus and Aleppo in 1270. Insane patients were treated using baths, drugs, music and activities. In the centuries to come, The Muslim world would eventually serve as a critical way station of knowledge for Renaissance Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts. Ibn - Sina 's (Avicenna 's) Canon of Medicine became the standard of medical science in Europe for centuries, together with works of Hippocrates and Galen.
Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and transcendental. Theories of the four humors (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood) were applied, sometimes separately (a matter of "physic '') and sometimes combined with theories of evil spirits (a matter of "faith ''). Arnaldus de Villanova (1235 -- 1313) combined "evil spirit '' and Galen - oriented "four humours '' theories and promoted trephining as a cure to let demons and excess humours escape. Other bodily remedies in general use included purges, bloodletting and whipping. Madness was often seen as a moral issue, either a punishment for sin or a test of faith and character. Christian theology endorsed various therapies, including fasting and prayer for those estranged from God and exorcism of those possessed by the devil. Thus, although mental disorder was often thought to be due to sin, other more mundane causes were also explored, including intemperate diet and alcohol, overwork, and grief. The Franciscan monk Bartholomeus Anglicus (ca. 1203 -- 1272) described a condition which resembles depression in his encyclopedia, De Proprietatibis Rerum, and he suggested that music would help. A semi-official tract called the Praerogativa regis distinguished between the "natural born idiot '' and the "lunatic ''. The latter term was applied to those with periods of mental disorder; deriving from either Roman mythology describing people "moonstruck '' by the goddess Luna or theories of an influence of the moon.
Episodes of mass dancing mania are reported from the Middle Ages, "which gave to the individuals affected all the appearance of insanity ''. This was one kind of mass delusion or mass hysteria / panic that has occurred around the world through the millennia.
The care of lunatics was primarily the responsibility of the family. In England, if the family were unable or unwilling, an assessment was made by crown representatives in consultation with a local jury and all interested parties, including the subject himself or herself. The process was confined to those with real estate or personal estate, but it encompassed poor as well as rich and took into account psychological and social issues. Most of those considered lunatics at the time probably had more support and involvement from the community than people diagnosed with mental disorders today. As in other eras, visions were generally interpreted as meaningful spiritual and visionary insights; some may have been causally related to mental disorders, but since hallucinations were culturally supported they may not have had the same connections as today.
Some mentally disturbed people may have been victims of the witch - hunts that spread in waves in early modern Europe. However, those judged insane were increasingly admitted to local workhouses, poorhouses and jails (particularly the "pauper insane '') or sometimes to the new private madhouses. Restraints and forcible confinement were used for those thought dangerously disturbed or potentially violent to themselves, others or property. The latter likely grew out of lodging arrangements for single individuals (who, in workhouses, were considered disruptive or ungovernable) then there were a few catering each for only a handful of people, then they gradually expanded (e.g. 16 in London in 1774, and 40 by 1819). By the mid-19th century there would be 100 to 500 inmates in each. The development of this network of madhouses has been linked to new capitalist social relations and a service economy, that meant families were no longer able or willing to look after disturbed relatives.
Madness was commonly depicted in literary works, such as the plays of Shakespeare.
By the end of the 17th century and into the Enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon, no longer involving the soul or moral responsibility. The mentally ill were typically viewed as insensitive wild animals. Harsh treatment and restraint in chains was seen as therapeutic, helping suppress the animal passions. There was sometimes a focus on the management of the environment of madhouses, from diet to exercise regimes to number of visitors. Severe somatic treatments were used, similar to those in medieval times. Madhouse owners sometimes boasted of their ability with the whip. Treatment in the few public asylums was also barbaric, often secondary to prisons. The most notorious was Bedlam where at one time spectators could pay a penny to watch the inmates as a form of entertainment.
Concepts based in humoral theory gradually gave way to metaphors and terminology from mechanics and other developing physical sciences. Complex new schemes were developed for the classification of mental disorders, influenced by emerging systems for the biological classification of organisms and medical classification of diseases.
The term "crazy '' (from Middle English meaning cracked) and insane (from Latin insanus meaning unhealthy) came to mean mental disorder in this period. The term "lunacy '', long used to refer to periodic disturbance or epilepsy, came to be synonymous with insanity. "Madness '', long in use in root form since at least the early centuries AD, and originally meaning crippled, hurt or foolish, came to mean loss of reason or self - restraint. "Psychosis '', from Greek "principle of life / animation '', had varied usage referring to a condition of the mind / soul. "Nervous '', from an Indo - European root meaning to wind or twist, meant muscle or vigor, was adopted by physiologists to refer to the body 's electrochemical signalling process (thus called the nervous system), and was then used to refer to nervous disorders and neurosis. "Obsession '', from a Latin root meaning to sit on or sit against, originally meant to besiege or be possessed by an evil spirit, came to mean a fixed idea that could decompose the mind.
With the rise of madhouses and the professionalization and specialization of medicine, there was considerable incentive for medical doctors to become involved. In the 18th century, they began to stake a claim to a monopoly over madhouses and treatments. Madhouses could be a lucrative business, and many made a fortune from them. There were some bourgeois ex-patient reformers who opposed the often brutual regimes, blaming both the madhouse owners and the medics, who in turn resisted the reforms.
Towards the end of the 18th century, a moral treatment movement developed, that implemented more humane, psychosocial and personalized approaches. Notable figures included the medic Vincenzo Chiarugi in Italy under Enlightenment leadership; the ex-patient superintendent Pussin and the psychologically inclined medic Philippe Pinel in revolutionary France; the Quakers in England, led by businessman William Tuke; and later, in the United States, campaigner Dorothea Dix.
The 19th century, in the context of industrialization and population growth, saw a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country, a process called "the great confinement '' or the "asylum era ''. Laws were introduced to compel authorities to deal with those judged insane by family members and hospital superintendents. Although originally based on the concepts and structures of moral treatment, they became large impersonal institutions overburdened with large numbers of people with a complex mix of mental and social - economic problems. The success of moral treatment had cast doubt on the approach of medics, and many had opposed it, but by the mid-19th century many became advocates of it but argued that the mad also often had physical / organic problems, so that both approaches were necessary. This argument has been described as an important step in the profession 's eventual success in securing a monopoly on the treatment of lunacy. However, it is well documented that very little therapeutic activity occurred in the new asylum system, that medics were little more than administrators who seldom attended to patients, and then mainly for other physical problems.
Clear descriptions of some syndromes, such as the condition that would later be termed schizophrenia, have been identified as relatively rare prior to the 19th century, although interpretations of the evidence and its implications are inconsistent.
Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, taking an increasingly anatomical - clinical descriptive approach. The term "psychiatry '' was coined as the medical specialty became more academically established. Asylum superintendents, later to be psychiatrists, were generally called "alienists '' because they were thought to deal with people alienated from society; they adopted largely isolated and managerial roles in the asylums while milder "neurotic '' conditions were dealt with by neurologists and general physicians, although there was overlap for conditions such as neurasthenia.
In the United States it was proposed that black slaves who tried to escape were suffering from a mental disorder termed drapetomania. It was then argued in scientific journals that mental disorders were rare under conditions of slavery but became more common following emancipation, and later that mental illness in African Americans was due to evolutionary factors or various negative characteristics, and that they were not suitable for therapeutic intervention.
By the 1870s in North America, officials who ran Lunatic Asylums renamed them Insane Asylums. By the late century, the term "asylum '' had lost its original meaning as a place of refuge, retreat or safety, and was associated with abuses that had been widely publicized in the media, including by ex-patient organization the Alleged Lunatics ' Friend Society and ex-patients like Elizabeth Packard.
The relative proportion of the public officially diagnosed with mental disorders was increasing, however. This has been linked to various factors, including possibly humanitarian concern; incentives for professional status / money; a lowered tolerance of communities for unusual behavior due to the existence of asylums to place them in (this affected the poor the most); and the strain placed on families by industrialization.
The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which came to the fore later. Kraepelin 's classification gained popularity, including the separation of mood disorders from what would later be termed schizophrenia.
Asylum superintendents sought to improve the image and medical status of their profession. Asylum "inmates '' were increasingly referred to as "patients '' and asylums renamed as hospitals. Referring to people as having a "mental illness '' dates from this period in the early 20th century.
In the United States, a "mental hygiene '' movement, originally defined in the 19th century, gained momentum and aimed to "prevent the disease of insanity '' through public health methods and clinics. The term mental health became more popular, however. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions alongside psychiatry. Theories of eugenics led to compulsory sterilization movements in many countries around the world for several decades, often encompassing patients in public mental institutions. World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed "shell shock ''.
In Nazi Germany, the institutionalized mentally ill were among the earliest targets of sterilization campaigns and covert "euthanasia '' programs. It has been estimated that over 200,000 individuals with mental disorders of all kinds were put to death, although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and "constituted the connection '' to the later annihilation of Jews and other "undesirables '' such as homosexuals in the Holocaust.
In other areas of the world, funding was often cut for asylums, especially during periods of economic decline, and during wartime in particular many patients starved to death. Soldiers received increased psychiatric attention, and World War II saw the development in the US of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) followed suit with a section on mental disorders.
Previously restricted to the treatment of severely disturbed people in asylums, psychiatrists cultivated clients with a broader range of problems, and between 1917 and 1970 the number practicing outside institutions swelled from 8 percent to 66 percent. The term stress, having emerged from endocrinology work in the 1930s, was popularized with an increasingly broad biopsychosocial meaning, and was increasingly linked to mental disorders. "Outpatient commitment '' laws were gradually expanded or introduced in some countries.
Lobotomies, Insulin shock therapy, Electro convulsive therapy, and the "neuroleptic '' chlorpromazine came into use mid-century.
An antipsychiatry movement came to the fore in the 1960s. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. However, inadequate services and continued social exclusion often led to many being homeless or in prison. A consumer / survivor movement gained momentum.
Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as "psychic energizers '' and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world.
The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria - based classification, representing a return to a Kraepelin - like descriptive system. The number of "official '' diagnoses saw a large expansion, although homosexuality was gradually downgraded and dropped in the face of human rights protests. Different regions sometimes developed alternatives such as the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders or Latin American Guide for Psychiatric Diagnosis.
Starting from 2002 DSM - 5 Research Agenda researchers were invited to contribute with their publication to the literature basis for the DSM - 5, whose draft criteria are now available to the scientific community. In the meanwhile, serious limits of the current version of the DSM extremely high comorbidity, diagnostic heterogeneity of the categories, unclear boundaries have been interpreted as intrinsic anomalies of the criterial, neopositivistic approach leading the system to a state of scientific crisis. Accordingly, a radical rethinking of the concept of mental disorder and the need of a radical scientific revolution in psychiatric taxonomy was proposed.
This procedure included removing a part of the skull using an auger, bore or so. It was used 7000 years ago to remove headaches, mental illness and even perceived demonic possession.
This procedures saw its inception in the 1600s. Bleeding, purging and vomiting were thought to keep the balance of humors in the body. According to the Greek philosophy, the imbalance of these humors were considered to cause mental disorders. These techniques were used to treat more than just mental disorders.
The confinement of the mentally ill became prevalent in the 17th century. The idea behind these asylums was to isolate the abnormal and keep them separate from the normal. The poor sanitation conditions, and overcrowding along with violent treatment of the mentally ill were serious problems faced in these asylums.
This treatment was introduced in 1927 and was used till 1960. Physicians deliberately put the patient into a low blood sugar coma because they thought that large fluctuations in insulin levels could alter the function of the brain. Risks included prolong coma. Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) was later adopted as a substitution to this.
Prefrontal Lobotomies, required the surgical removal of the connections in between the prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes of the brain. The procedure took not more than five minutes to be performed. Though useful for some, it often created further impairments for others. It was discontinued in the mid-1950s.
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what is the atomic mass of the element cobalt (co) | Cobalt - wikipedia
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Like nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth 's crust only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver - gray metal.
Cobalt - based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass, but the color was later thought by alchemists to be due to the known metal bismuth. Miners had long used the name kobold ore (German for goblin ore) for some of the blue - pigment producing minerals; they were so named because they were poor in known metals, and gave poisonous arsenic - containing fumes when smelted. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), and this was ultimately named for the kobold.
Today, some types of cobalt are produced specifically from one of a number of metallic - lustered ores, such as for example cobaltite (Co As S). The element is however more usually produced as a by - product of copper and nickel mining. The copper belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Central African Republic and Zambia yields most of the global cobalt production. The DRC alone accounted for more than 50 % of world production in 2016 (123,000 tonnes), according to Natural Resources Canada.
Cobalt is primarily used in the manufacture of magnetic, wear - resistant and high - strength alloys. The compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt (II) aluminate (CoAl O, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt - 59. Cobalt - 60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high energy gamma rays.
Cobalt is the active center of a type of coenzymes called cobalamins. vitamin B, the best - known example of the type, is an essential trace mineral for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also a micronutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi.
Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is 1,115 ° C (2,039 ° F) and the magnetic moment is 1.6 -- 1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two - thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 ° C (842 ° F), but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.
Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by a passivating oxide film. It is attacked by halogens and sulfur. Heating in oxygen produces Co O which loses oxygen at 900 ° C (1,650 ° F) to give the monoxide CoO. The metal reacts with fluorine (F) at 520 K to give CoF; with chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br) and iodine (I), producing equivalent binary halides. It does not react with hydrogen gas (H) or nitrogen gas (N) even when heated, but it does react with boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur. At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, but not with dry, air.
Common oxidation states of cobalt include + 2 and + 3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from − 3 to + 5 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is + 2 (cobalt (II)). These salts form the pink - colored metal aquo complex (Co (H O)) in water. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue (CoCl.
In a borax bead flame test, cobalt shows deep blue in both oxidizing and reducing flames.
Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt (II) oxide (CoO) has rocksalt structure. It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt (III) hydroxide (Co (OH)). At temperatures of 600 -- 700 ° C, CoO oxidizes to the blue cobalt (II, III) oxide (Co O), which has a spinel structure. Black cobalt (III) oxide (Co O) is also known. Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Néel temperature 291 K) and Co O (Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe O), with a mixture of + 2 and + 3 oxidation states.
The principal chalcogenides of cobalt include the black cobalt (II) sulfides, CoS, which adopts a pyrite - like structure, and cobalt (III) sulfide (Co S).
Four dihalides of cobalt (II) are known: cobalt (II) fluoride (CoF, pink), cobalt (II) chloride (CoCl, blue), cobalt (II) bromide (CoBr, green), cobalt (II) iodide (CoI, blue - black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red.
The reduction potential for the reaction Co + e → Co is + 1.92 V, beyond that for chlorine to chloride, + 1.36 V. Consequently, cobalt (III) and chloride would result in the cobalt (III) being reduced to cobalt (II). Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high, + 2.87 V, cobalt (III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt (III) compounds. Cobalt (III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water.
As for all metals, molecular compounds and polyatomic ions of cobalt are classified as coordination complexes, that is, molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to several ligands. The principles of electronegativity and hardness -- softness of a series of ligands can be used to explain the usual oxidation state of cobalt. For example, Co complexes tend to have ammine ligands. Because phosphorus is softer than nitrogen, phosphine ligands tend to feature the softer Co and Co, an example being tris (triphenylphosphine) cobalt (I) chloride ((P (C H)) CoCl). The more electronegative (and harder) oxide and fluoride can stabilize Co and Co derivatives, e.g. caesium hexafluorocobaltate (Cs CoF) and potassium percobaltate (K CoO).
Alfred Werner, a Nobel - prize winning pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds of empirical formula (Co (NH)) Cl. One of the isomers determined was cobalt (III) hexammine chloride. This coordination complex, a typical Werner - type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six ammine orthogonal ligands and three chloride counteranions. Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives tris (ethylenediamine) cobalt (III) chloride ((Co (en)) Cl), which was one of the first coordination complexes to be resolved into optical isomers. The complex exists in the right - and left - handed forms of a "three - bladed propeller ''. This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow - gold needle - like crystals.
Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene with cobalt in place of iron. Cobaltocene is much more sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene. Cobalt carbonyl (Co (CO)) is a catalyst in carbonylation and hydrosilylation reactions. Vitamin B (see below) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only vitamin that contains a metal atom. An example of an alkylcobalt complex in the otherwise uncommon + 4 oxidation state of cobalt is the homoleptic complex tetrakis (1 - norbornyl) cobalt (IV) (Co (1 - norb)), a transition metal - alkyl complex that is notable for its stability toward to β - hydrogen elimination. The cobalt (III) and cobalt (V) complexes (Li (THF)) (Co (1 - norb)) and (Co (1 - norb)) (BF) are also known.
Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope that exists naturally on Earth. Twenty - two radioisotopes have been characterized; the most stable, Co has a half - life of 5.2714 years, and Co has a half - life of 271.8 days, Co a half - life of 77.27 days, and Co a half - life of 70.86 days. All the other radioactive isotopes of cobalt have half - lives shorter than 18 hours, and in most cases shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have half - lives shorter than 15 minutes.
The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (Co) to 73 u (Co). The primary decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, Co, is electron capture and the primary mode of decay in isotopes with atomic mass greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The primary decay products below Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes; above that the decay products are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907 AD) and the Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644 AD).
Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt - colored glass is from the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550 -- 1292 BC). The source for the cobalt the Egyptians used is not known.
The word cobalt is derived from the German kobalt, from kobold meaning "goblin '', a superstitious term used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first attempts to smelt those ores for copper or nickel failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt (II) oxide) instead. Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile arsenic oxide, adding to the notoriety of the ore.
Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694 -- 1768) is credited with discovering cobalt circa 1735, showing it to be a previously unknown element, different from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new "semi-metal. '' He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period, during which all the known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.
During the 19th century, a significant part of the world 's production of cobalt blue (a dye made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket. The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914, the mining operations shifted again. When the Shaba conflict started in 1978, the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production. The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic, and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases, industry was able to change to cobalt - free alternatives.
In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered the radioisotope cobalt - 60. This isotope was famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta decay.
After World War II, the US wanted to guarantee the supply of cobalt ore for military uses (as the Germans had been doing) and prospected for cobalt within the U.S. border. An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near Blackbird canyon in the side of a mountain. The firm Calera Mining Company started production at the site.
The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovas through the r - process. It comprises 0.0029 % of the Earth 's crust. Free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth because of the oxygen in the atmosphere and the chlorine in the ocean. Both are abundant enough in the upper layers of the Earth 's crust to prevent native metal cobalt from forming. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth. The element has a medium abundance but natural compounds of cobalt are numerous and all amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals.
In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal, though neither element is seen in that form in the ancient terrestrial crust.
Cobalt in compound form occurs in copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component that combines with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs), glaucodot ((Co, Fe) AsS), and skutterudite (CoAs) minerals. The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together with vaesite in the copper deposits of Katanga Province. When it reaches the atmosphere, weathering occurs; the sulfide minerals oxidize and form pink erythrite ("cobalt glance '': Co (AsO) 8H O) and spherocobaltite (CoCO).
Cobalt is also a constituent of tobacco smoke. The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals like cobalt from the surrounding soil in its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during tobacco smoking.
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by - products of nickel and copper mining and smelting.
Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One method is froth flotation, in which surfactants bind to different ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent roasting converts the ores to cobalt sulfate, and the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide. Leaching with water extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates. The residues are further leached with sulfuric acid, yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the slag of copper smelting.
The products of the above - mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co O). This oxide is reduced to metal by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace.
The United States Geological Survey estimates world reserves of cobalt at 7,100,000 metric tons. The Democratic Republic of the Congo currently produces 63 % of the world 's cobalt. This market share may reach 73 % by 2025 if planned mine expansions by Congolese mining producers like Glencore Plc take place as schedule. By 2030, global demand could be 47 times more than it was in 2017, Bloomberg New Energy Finance has estimated.
In 2005, the top producer of cobalt was the copper deposits in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 's Katanga Province. Formerly Shaba province, the area had almost 40 % of global reserves, reported the British Geological Survey in 2009. By 2015, DRC supplied 60 % of world production, 32,000 tons at $20,000 to $26,000 per ton.
Artisanal mining supplied 10 % to 25 % of the DRC production. Some 100,000 cobalt miners in Congo DRC use hand tools to dig hundreds of feet, with little planning and fewer safety measures, say workers and government and NGO officials, as well as Washington Post reporters ' observations on visits to isolated mines. The lack of safety precautions frequently causes injuries or death. Mining pollutes the vicinity and exposes local wildlife and indigenous communities to toxic metals thought to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties, according to health officials.
Human rights activists have alleged, and investigative journalism reported confirmation, that child labor is used in part of the worldwide supply of cobalt sourced from African artisanal mines. This revelation prompted cell phone maker Apple Inc., on March 3, 2017, to stop buying ore from suppliers such as Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt who source from artisanal mines in the DRC, and begin using only suppliers that are verified to meet its workplace standards.
The political and ethnic dynamics of the region have in the past caused horrific outbreaks of violence and years of armed conflict and displaced populations. This instability affected the price of cobalt and also created perverse incentives for the combattants in the First and Second Congo Wars to prolong the fighting, since access to diamond mines and other valuable resources helped to finance their military goals -- which frequently amounteed to genocide -- and also enriched the fighters themselves. While DR Congo has in the 2010s not recently been invaded by neighboring military forces, some of the richest mineral deposits adjoin areas where Tutsis and Hutus still frequently clash, unrest continues although on a smaller scale and refugees still flee outbreaks of violence.
Cobalt extracted from small Congolese artisanal mining endeavors in 2007 supplied a single Chinese company, Congo DongFang International Mining. A subsidiary of Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, one of the world 's largest cobalt producers, Congo DongFang supplied cobalt to some of the world 's largest battery manufacturers, who produced batteries for ubiquitous products like the Apple iPhones. Corporate pieties about an ethical supply chain were thus met with some incredulity. A number of observers called for tech corporations and other manufacturers to avoid sourcing conflict metals in Central Africa at all rather than risk enabling the financial exploitation, human rights abuses like kidnappings for unfree labor, environmental devastation and the human toll of violence, poverty and toxic conditions.
The Mukondo Mountain project, operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company (CAMEC) in Katanga, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated one third of the total global coval production in 2008. In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long - term agreement to deliver its entire annual production of cobalt concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.
In 2017, some exploration companies were planning to survey old silver and cobalt mines in the area of Cobalt, Ontario where significant deposits are believed to lie. The mayor of Cobalt stated that the people of Cobalt welcomed new mining endeavours and pointed out that the local work force is peaceful and English - speaking, and good infrastructure would allow much easier sourcing of spare parts for the equipment or other supplies than were to be found in conflict - zones.
Cobalt has been used in production of high performance alloys. It can also be used to make rechargeable batteries, and the advent of electric vehicles and their success with consumers probably has a great deal to do with the DRC 's soaring production. Other important factors were the 2002 Mining Code, which encouraged investment by foreign and transnational corporations such as Glencore, and the end of the First and Second Congo Wars, although outbr
Cobalt - based superalloys have historically consume most of the cobalt produced. The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and jet aircraft engines, although nickel - based single crystal alloys surpass them in performance. Cobalt - based alloys are also corrosion and wear - resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that do n't wear down over time. The development of wear - resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear - resistant. Special cobalt - chromium - molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements). Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic. Some high speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear - resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium - cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets. It is also alloyed with 95 % platinum for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting which is also slightly magnetic.
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO) is widely used in lithium ion battery cathodes. The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers with the lithium intercalated. During discharge, the lithium is released as lithium ions. Nickel - cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries also include cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery. Transparency Market Research estimated the global lithium - ion battery market at $30 billion in 2015, and predicted an increase to over US $75 billion by 2024.
Although in 2018 most cobalt in batteries was used in a mobile device, a more recent application for cobalt is rechargeable batteries for electric cars. This industry has increased five-fold in its demand for cobalt, which makes it urgent to find new raw materials in more stable areas of the world. Demand is expected to continue or increase as the prevalence of electric vehicles increases. Exploration in 2016 -- 2017 included the area around Cobalt, Ontario, an area where many silver mines ceased operation decades ago.
Since child and slave labor have been repeatedly reported in coltan mining, primarily in the artisanal mines of DR Congo, tech companies seeking an ethical supply chain have faced shortages of this raw material and the price of cobalt metal reached a nine - year high in October 2017, more than US $30 a pound, versus US $10 in late 2015.
Several cobalt compounds are oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used to convert xylene to terephthalic acid, the precursor of the bulk polymer polyethylene terephthalate. Typical catalysts are the cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents '' through the oxidation of drying oils. The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel - belted radial tires.
Cobalt - based catalysts are used in reactions involving carbon monoxide. Steam reforming, useful in hydrogen production, uses cobalt oxide - based catalysts. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the Fischer -- Tropsch process for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels. Hydroformylation of alkenes often uses cobalt octacarbonyl as a catalyst, although it is often replaced by more efficient iridium - and rhodium - based catalysts, e.g. the Cativa process.
The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.
Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make smalt, a blue - colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely ground after the production. Smalt was widely used to colorn of glass and as pigment for paintings. In 1780, Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green, and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt blue. Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate), cerulean blue (cobalt (II) stannate), various hues of cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide), and cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate) are used as artist 's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability. Aureolin (cobalt yellow) is now largely replaced by more lightfast yellow pigments.
Cobalt - 60 (Co-60 or Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because they can be produced in predictable quantity and high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV.
Cobalt is used in external beam radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization), industrial radiography (e.g. weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, when a discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt - 60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.
Cobalt - 60 has a radioactive half - life of 5.27 years. Loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators in modern radiation therapy.
Cobalt - 57 (Co-57 or Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt - 57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence devices.
Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate Co, some of which would be activated in a nuclear explosion to produce Co. The Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, is sometimes called a cobalt bomb.
Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as vitamin B, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element. Bacteria in the stomachs of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg / kg a day is recommended because they have no other source of vitamin B.
In the early 20th century during the development of farming on the North Island Volcanic Plateau of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness ''. It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain.
The "coast disease '' of sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia in the 1930s was found to originate in nutritional deficiencies of trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets '', dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal 's rumen.
Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B features a reactive C - Co bond that participates in the reactions. In humans, B has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl. MeB promotes methyl (- CH) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl - CoA to Su - CoA, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.
Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), cobaltoproteins are known aside from B. These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2, an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B, but binds cobalt directly. Another non-corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase, an enzyme in bacteria that metabolize nitriles.
Cobalt is an essential element for life in minute amounts. The LD value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg / kg. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace as a time - weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg / m. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.05 mg / m, time - weighted average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 20 mg / m.
However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin - induced cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker 's cardiomyopathy.
After nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis.
Cobalt can be effectively absorbed by charred pigs ' bones; however, this process is inhibited by copper and zinc, which have greater affinities to bone char.
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beautiful town in central victoria west melbourne crossword | List of Melbourne suburbs - wikipedia
This is a list of Municipalities and their suburbs (neighborhoods), townships, and rural localities in the greater metropolitan area of Melbourne, in the State of Victoria, Australia. Suburbs are defined here as localities within the legislated Urban Growth Boundary, all of which have some urban development. This line is the effective boundary of suburban Melbourne; outside it lie rural areas, and some townships of varying size.
Each suburb is followed by its postcode. Some suburbs share the same postcode.
Indented entries are recognised by the Geographic Names Board as unbounded neighbourhoods except when italicised. Those italicised usually have, or have had, Post Offices open under that name.
Information about exact suburb boundaries can be obtained from the Department of Sustainability and Environment.
In Australia, a suburb is a named and bounded locality of a city, with an urban nature, regardless of its location within that city. The term "inner suburbs '' refers to the older, denser, urban areas closer to the original colonial centre of the cities and "outer suburbs '' refers to the urban areas more remote from the centre of the metropolitan area. Sometimes the term "middle ring suburb '' is used to refer to areas that were urbanised early in a city 's expansion after the inner suburbs had become established. This differs from British and North American usage, in which the term "suburb '' is usually not applied to urban areas (neighborhoods) that are close to a major city centre or inside the central city 's local government boundary.
See Melbourne city centre for precincts in the CBD.
Sassafras, 3787
Kilsyth, 3137
Park Orchards, 3114
Vermont, 3133
Wonga Park, 3115
Toolangi (part), 3777
Emerald (part), 4720
Wonga park (part), 3115
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who plays the waitress on it's always sunny in philadelphia | Mary Elizabeth Ellis - wikipedia
Mary Elizabeth Ellis (born May 11, 1979) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as The Waitress on the FX sitcom It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia. She has also starred in the NBC sitcom Perfect Couples and the Fox sitcom The Grinder. She also starred as Nick 's ex-girlfriend in the series New Girl. Mary plans to open her next business venture, "Finger Fantasy '' an all inclusive nail salon, on the outskirts of Philadelphia late 2019.
Ellis was born in Laurel, Mississippi. She graduated from Southern Methodist University in 2002.
Ellis has appeared in a number of television series, including The Grinder, Cold Case, Without a Trace, House, Happy Endings, New Girl, Reno 911!, and the Netflix original series "Santa Clarita Diet ''. She is best known for her role as The Waitress on the FX comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia.
In 2008, she co-wrote and starred in the independent film A Quiet Little Marriage. Ellis and Artemis Pebdani wrote and starred together in the stage show Mother May I Dance with Mary Jane 's Fist?: A Lifetime Original Play at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in Los Angeles, California. In addition, Ellis and Pebdani are members of the Los Angeles - based performance group Discount Cruise to Hell.
Ellis was a series regular on the NBC romantic comedy series Perfect Couples, which ran for one season in 2011. Ellis also stars in The Lonely Island 's music video for the song "Diaper Money ''.
In 2015 Ellis got her first main role as Debbie Sanderson, across Fred Savage and Rob Lowe in The Grinder (TV series).
Ellis married her It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia co-star Charlie Day on March 4, 2006. Their first child, a son named Russell Wallace Day, was born on December 15, 2011.
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who wrote the last book of the new testament | Book of Revelation - wikipedia
The Book of Revelation, often called the Revelation to John, the Apocalypse of John, The Revelation, or simply Revelation or Apocalypse (and often misquoted as Revelations), is a book of the New Testament that occupies a central place in Christian eschatology. Its title is derived from the first word of the text, written in Koine Greek: apokalypsis, meaning "unveiling '' or "revelation '' (before title pages and titles, books were commonly known by their first words, as is also the case of the Hebrew Five Books of Moses (Torah)). The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon (although there are short apocalyptic passages in various places in the Gospels and the Epistles).
The author names himself in the text as "John '', but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second - century Christian writers such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Melito the bishop of Sardis, and Clement of Alexandria and the author of the Muratorian fragment identify John the Apostle as the "John '' of Revelation. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, and many consider that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet. Some modern scholars characterise Revelation 's author as a putative figure whom they call "John of Patmos ''. The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the emperor Domitian (AD 81 -- 96), and the evidence tends to confirm this.
The book spans three literary genres: the epistolary, the apocalyptic, and the prophetic. It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean, addressing a letter to the "Seven Churches of Asia ''. He then describes a series of prophetic visions, including figures such as the The Seven Headed Dragon, The Serpent and the Beast, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus.
The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations: historicist interpretations see in Revelation a broad view of history; preterist interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the apostolic era (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the Roman Empire; futurists believe that Revelation describes future events; and idealist or symbolic interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.
The title is taken from the first word of the book in Koine Greek: ἀποκάλυψις apokalypsis, which means "unveiling '' or "revelation ''. The author names himself as "John '', but it is currently considered unlikely that the author of Revelation was also the author of the Gospel of John. Some of the evidence for this was set out as early as the second half of the 3rd century by Pope Dionysius of Alexandria, who noted that the gospel and the epistles attributed to John, unlike Revelation, do not name their author, and that the Greek of the gospel is correct and elegant while that of Revelation is neither; some later scholars believe that the two books also have radical differences in theological perspective.
Tradition links him to John the Apostle, but it is unlikely that the apostle could have lived into the most likely time for the book 's composition, the reign of Domitian, and the author never states that he knew Jesus. All that is known is that this John was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted as such by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter. His precise identity remains unknown, and modern scholarship commonly refers to him as John of Patmos (Rev. 1: 9 -- "I was put on the Island of Patmos '').
Early Church tradition dates the book to end of the emperor Domitian (reigned AD 81 -- 96), and most modern scholars agree, although the author may have written a first version after Nero 's Great Fire in Rome (AD 64) under Vespasian (AD 69 -- 79) and updated it under Domitian. The beast with seven heads and the number 666 seem to allude directly to the emperor Nero (reigned AD 54 -- 68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that Nero would return.
In her volume in the original Anchor Bible, J. Massyngberde Ford argues that the core of Revelation, chapters 4 -- 11, was written by John the Baptist and later surrounded with a Christian beginning and ending, although this view is not held by the large majority of scholars. 70 AD is the likely date of writing according to Martha Himmelfarb in the recently published Blackwell series.
Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia. "Apocalypse '' means the revealing of divine mysteries; John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the letter -- the letters to the seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms twenty - one times, more than any other New Testament book.
The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, and Isaiah, with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was clearly often influenced by the Greek. He very frequently combines multiple references, and again the allusional style makes it impossible to be certain to what extent he did so consciously.
According to several studies including a review by Dr James Tabor and Dr J. Massyngberde Ford, the Book of Revelation contains ancient pre-Christian texts of Jewish origin dating back to the time of John the Baptist and the communities of Qumran as well as antique Jewish texts. In several verses one can identify the ancient texts and that attributed to John, the latter having just added in the original text the words "Jesus Christ '' (Rev 1: 1), "testimony of Jesus Christ '' (Rev. 1: 2) or even "Jesus '' (Rev 1: 9), and similar words in dozens of other verses.
Conventional understanding until recently was that Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of a megalomaniacal Roman emperor, but much of this has now been jettisoned: Domitian is no longer viewed as a despot imposing an imperial cult, and it is no longer believed that there was any systematic empire - wide persecution of Christians in his time.
The current view is that Revelation was composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Revelation chastises those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire. This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering, for withdrawal from, and defiance against, the wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope: in the words of professor Adela Yarbro Collins, "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality. ''
Revelation was the last book accepted into the Christian biblical canon, and to the present day some churches that derive from the Church of the East reject it. Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by Montanists and other groups considered to be heretical. This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in the East through the 15th century.
Dionysius (248 AD), bishop of Alexandria, disciple of Origen wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle (Eusebius, Church History VII. 25).
Eusebius, in his Church History (c. 330 AD) mentioned that the Apocalypse of John was accepted as a Canonical book and rejected at the same time:
The Apocalypse of John, also called Revelation, is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized '') and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen. Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings.
Cyril of Jerusalem (348 AD) does not name it among the canonical books (Catechesis IV. 33 -- 36).
Athanasius (367 AD) in his Letter 39, Augustine of Hippo (c. 397 AD) in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II, Chapter 8), Tyrannius Rufinus (c. 400 AD) in his Commentary on the Apostles ' Creed, Pope Innocent I (405 AD) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse and John of Damascus (about 730 AD) in his work An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Book IV: 7) listed "the Revelation of John the Evangelist '' as a canonical book.
The Council of Laodicea (363) omits it as a canonical book.
The Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the Council of Rome (382 AD). This list mentions it as a part of the New Testament canon.
The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), classified it as a canonical book.
The Apostolic Canons, approved by the Eastern Orthodox Council in Trullo in 692, omit it.
Doubts resurfaced during the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther called it "neither apostolic nor prophetic '' in the 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament (he revised his position with a much more favorable assessment in 1530), and it was the only New Testament book on which John Calvin did not write a commentary. As of 2015 it remains the only New Testament work not read in the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church, though Catholic and Protestant liturgies include it.
There are approximately 300 Greek manuscripts of Revelation. While the Codex Vaticanus does not include it, the other major manuscripts that do are the Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (5th century). In addition, there are numerous papyri, especially that of p (3rd century); the minuscules (8th to 10th century), plus fragmentary quotations in the Church fathers of the 2nd to 5th centuries and the 6th century Greek commentary on Revelation by Andreas.
Divisions in the book seem to be marked by the repetition of key phrases, by the arrangement of subject matter into blocks, and around its Christological passages, and much use is made of significant numbers, especially the number seven, which represented perfection according to ancient numerology. Nevertheless, there is a "complete lack of consensus '' among scholars about the structure of Revelation. The following is therefore an outline of the book 's contents rather than of its structure.
Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple message that we should have faith that God will prevail ("symbolic interpretation ''), to complex end time scenarios ("futurist interpretation ''), to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all.
Most Christian interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories:
` Abdu'l - Bahá has given some interpretations about the 11th and 12th chapters of Revelation in Some Answered Questions. The 1,260 days spoken of in the forms: one thousand two hundred and sixty days, forty - two months, refers to the 1,260 years in the Islamic Calendar (AH 1260 or 1844 CE). The "two witnesses '' spoken of are Muhammad and Ali. Also, the Bible reads, "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads ''. The seven heads of the dragon are symbolic of the seven provinces dominated by the Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxania. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al - Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III and the like, which were not counted for this interpretation.
Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present - day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here! '' prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night ''), but they will come at the time of God 's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals. This view is also held by many Catholics, although there is a diversity of opinion about the nature of the Apocalypse within Catholicism.
Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Byzantine Rite Churches although in the Western Rite Orthodox Parishes, which are under the same bishops as the Byzantine Rite, it is read.
Christian Gnostics, however, are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the keynote of their doctrine and their practice. ''
James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra. He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy. '' Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. But Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world - view does not usually totally undermine that view. ''
The Book of Mormon affirms that John the Apostle is the author of Revelation and that he was foreordained by God to write it.
Latter - day revelation through the Prophet Joseph Smith contained in the Doctrine and Covenants, section 77, postulates answers to specific questions regarding the symbolism contained in the Book of Revelation. Topics include: the sea of glass, the four beasts and their appearance, the 24 elders, the book with seven seals, certain angels, the sealing of the 144,000, the little book eaten by John, and the two witnesses in Chapter 11.
Latter - day Saints believe that the warning contained in Revelation 22: 18 -- 19 does not refer to the biblical canon as a whole. Rather, an open and ongoing dialogue between God and the modern - day Prophet and Apostles of the LDS faith constitute an open canon of scripture.
In the Coptic Orthodox Church the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night or Good Friday.
This interpretation, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation 's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd, an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn 's The Lamb 's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple 's destruction (AD 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek - speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.
They believe the Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980). According to Pope Benedict XVI some of the images of Revelation should be understood in the context of the dramatic suffering and persecution of the churches of Asia in the 1st century.
Accordingly, the Book of Revelation should not be read as an enigmatic warning, but as an encouraging vision of Christ 's definitive victory over evil.
The radical discipleship interpretation asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i. e., how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this interpretation the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that seek to oppose the ways of God and God 's Kingdom. The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values -- imperialism, nationalism, and civil religion being the most dangerous and insidious.
This perspective (closely related to liberation theology) draws on the approach of Bible scholars such as Ched Myers, William Stringfellow, Richard Horsley, Daniel Berrigan, Wes Howard - Brook, and Joerg Rieger. Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast.
Adventists maintain a historicist interpretation of the Bible 's predictions of the apocalypse.
Seventh - day Adventists believe the Book of Revelation is especially relevant to believers in the days preceding the second coming of Jesus Christ. "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. '' "Here is the patience of the saints; here are those who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. '' As participatory agents in the work of salvation for all humankind, "This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent. ''
Many literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of theories about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish Midrash. Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama. In recent years, theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and which are less interested in what the original author intended.
Charles Cutler Torrey taught Semitic languages at Yale University. His lasting contribution has been to show how much more meaningful prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are when treated as poets first and foremost. He thought this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose. Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic.
This was why the surviving Greek translation was written in such a strange idiom. It was a literal translation that had to comply with the warning at Revelation 22: 18 that the text must not be corrupted in any way. According to Torrey, the story is that "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic. '' Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until AD 80, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues, the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing. '' Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6 -- 8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda. Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6: 16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way.
Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God. Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience. Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows. Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John 's visions belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring... -- who can bear it? '' She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John 's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy. '' Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren '' so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved. ''
Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a Just World from the viewpoint of rhetoric. Accordingly, Revelation 's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic.
Professor Schüssler Fiorenza believes that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John 's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world - destruction. Her view that Revelation 's message is not gender - based has caused dissent. She says we are to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. In contrast, Tina Pippin states that John writes "horror literature '' and "the misogyny which underlies the narrative is extreme. ''
D.H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse. He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a ' death - product '. Instead, he wanted to champion a public - spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill - defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect '' which he saw in a technology - based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity '' and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation. ''
His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb '' were "ridiculous. '' He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal in "great Chaldean sky - spaces '', which he quite liked. After that, Lawrence thought, the book became preoccupied with the birth of the baby messiah and "flamboyant hate and simple lust... for the end of the world. '' Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers '' to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering in hell.
Modern biblical scholarship attempts to understand Revelation in its 1st - century historical context within the genre of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature. This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this interpretation, assertions that "the time is near '' are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently, the work is viewed as a warning to not conform to contemporary Greco - Roman society which John "unveils '' as beastly, demonic, and subject to divine judgment. There is further information on these topics in the entries on higher criticism and apocalyptic literature.
Although the acceptance of Revelation into the canon has from the beginning been controversial, it has been essentially similar to the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, and what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John 's central message. Thus, his letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature (its purpose is offering hope to the downtrodden), and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary, and social context. Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st century to make sense of what the author may have intended.
Scholar Barbara Whitlock pointed out a similarity between the consistent destruction of thirds depicted in the Book of Revelation (a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone, a third of the trees and green grass, a third of the sea creatures and a third of the ships at sea, etc.) and the Iranian mythology evil character Zahhak or Dahāg, depicted in the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism. Dahāg is mentioned as wreaking much evil in the world until at last chained up and imprisoned on the mythical Mt. Damāvand. The Middle Persian sources prophesy that at the end of the world, Dahāg will at last burst his bonds and ravage the world, consuming one in three humans and livestock, until the ancient hero Kirsāsp returns to life to kill Dahāg. Whitlock wrote: "Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Roman Empire 's main rival, was part of the intellectual millieu in which Christianity came into being, just as were Judaism, the Greek - Roman religion, and the worship of Isis and Mithras. A Zoroastrian influence is completely plausible ''.
Much of Revelation employs ancient sources, primarily but not exclusively the Old Testament. For example, Howard - Brook and Gwyther regard the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch) as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch 's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures. '' Revelation, in one section, forms an inverted parallel (chiasmus) with the book of Enoch in which 1 En 100: 1 -- 3 has a river of blood deep enough to submerge a chariot and in Rev 14: 20 has a river of blood up to the horse 's bridle. There is an angel ascending in both accounts (1 En 100: 4; Rev 14: 14 -- 19) and both accounts have three messages (1 En 100: 7 -- 9; Rev 14: 6 -- 12).
Academics showed little interest in this topic until recently. This was not, however, the case with popular writers from non-conforming backgrounds, who interspersed the text of Revelation with the prophecy they thought was being promised. For example, an anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871 prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4: 5 ("Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord '') within Revelation 11 and writes Revelation 12: 7 side - by - side with the role of "the Satan '' in the Book of Job. The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time.
Steve Moyise uses the index of the United Bible Societies ' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation. '' Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, Psalms, and Ezekiel, while neglecting, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch that are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers. Methodological objections have been made to this course as each allusion may not have an equal significance. To counter this, G.K. Beale sought to develop a system that distinguished ' clear ', ' probable ', and ' possible ' allusions. A clear allusion is one with almost the same wording as its source, the same general meaning, and which could not reasonably have been drawn from elsewhere. A probable allusion contains an idea which is uniquely traceable to its source. Possible allusions are described as mere echoes of their putative sources.
Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental. The author seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, he borrows the ' new temple ' imagery of Ezekiel 40 -- 48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs a temple because it is God 's dwelling. Ian Boxall writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John 's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative. '' In trying to identify this "something new '', Boxall argues that Ezekiel provides the ' backbone ' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence and linking most of them to the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.
Some commentators argue that it is these purposes -- and not the structure -- that really matter. G.K. Beale believes that, however much John makes use of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfillment of Daniel 7. Richard Bauckham has argued that John presents an early view of the Trinty through his descriptions of the visions and his identifying Jesus and the Holy Spirit with YHWH. Brandon Smith has expanded on both of their proposals while proposing a "trinitarian reading '' of Revelation, arguing that John uses Old Testament language and allusions from various sources to describe a multiplicity of persons in YHWH without sacrificing monotheism, which would later be codified in the trinitarian doctrine of Nicene Christianity.
One theory, Revelation Draft Hypothesis, sees the book of Revelation constructed by forming parallels with several texts in the Old Testament such as Ezekiel, Isaiah, Zechariah, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Exodus, and Daniel. For example, Ezekiel 's encounter with God is in reverse order as John 's encounter with God (Ezek 1: 5 -- 28; Rev 4: 2 -- 7; note both accounts have beings with faces of a lion, ox or calf, man, and eagle (Ezek 1: 10; Rev 4: 7), both accounts have an expanse before the throne (Ezek 1: 22; Rev 4: 6). The chariot 's horses in Zechariah 's are the same colors as the four horses in Revelation (Zech 6: 1 -- 8; Rev 6: 1 -- 8). The nesting of the seven marches around Jericho by Joshua is reenacted by Jesus nesting the seven trumpets within the seventh seal (Josh 6: 8 -- 10; Rev 6: 1 -- 17; 8: 1 -- 9: 21; 11: 15 -- 19). The description of the beast in Revelation is taken directly out of Daniel (see Dan 7: 2 -- 8; Rev 13: 1 -- 7). The method that John used allowed him to use the Hebrew Scriptures as the source and also use basic techniques of parallel formation, thereby alluding to the Hebrew Scriptures.
In order of appearance:
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study the features of the great bath of mohenjo daro and write a report on it | Great Bath, Mohenjo - daro - wikipedia
at Mohenjo - daro in Sindh, Pakistan. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Great Bath was built in the 3rd millennium BC, soon after the raising of the "citadel '' mound on which it is located.
The Great Bath of Mohenjo - daro is called the "earliest public water tank of the ancient world ''. It measures 11.88 × 7.01 metres, and has a maximum depth of 2.43 metres. Two wide staircases, one from the north and one from the south, served as the entry to the structure. A 1 metre wide and 40 centimetres high mound is present at the ends of these stairs. A hole was also found at one end of the Bath which might have been used to drain the water into it.
The floor of the tank was watertight due to finely fitted bricks and mud laid on edge with a kind of plaster and the side walls were constructed in a similar manner. To make the tank even more watertight, a thick layer of bitumen (waterproof tar) was laid along the sides of the pool and presumably also on the floor. Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern and southern edges. The preserved columns had stepped edges that may have held wooden screens or window frames. Two large doors lead into the complex from the south and other access was from the north and east. A series of rooms were located along the eastern edge of the building and in one room was a well that may have supplied some of the water needed to fill the tank. Rainwater also may have been collected for the purpose, but no inlet drains have been found. It had a long bathing pool built with waterproof bricks.
Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions where water was used to purify and renew the well being of the bathers.
Across the street of Great Bath, there was a large building with several rooms and three verandas, and two staircases leading to roof and upper floor. Considering the size and proximity to Great Bath, this building is tentatively termed as house of priests and labelled as "college of priests ''.
It was found in 1926 during archaeological excavations.
The site of Mohenjo - daro is depicted in the Pakistani rupee 20 Rs note.
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when should the pledge of allegiance be recited | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the Flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools. The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words "under God '' were added.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Captain George T. Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later became auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to encourage children to raise flags above their schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. They involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, historian Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God '' violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
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what was the first ag doll ever made | List of American Girl characters - wikipedia
American Girl is an American line of 18 - inch (46 cm) dolls released in 1986 by Pleasant Company. The dolls portray eight - to eleven - year - old girls of a variety of ethnicities. They are sold with accompanying books told from the viewpoint of the girls. Originally the stories focused on various periods of American history, but were expanded in 1995 to include contemporary characters and stories, the latest addition being WellieWishers, a line of 14.5 - inch (37 cm) dolls aimed for younger children.
Provided below is a list of characters from the Historical series (BeForever), Contemporary characters, the Girl of the Year line, and WellieWishers.
The BeForever characters (originally known as "The American Girls Collection '' or, colloquially, "Historical Characters '') were initially the main focus of Pleasant Company. This product line aims to teach aspects of American history through a six book series from the perspective of a nine - year - old girl living in that time period. Although the books are written for the eight - to - thirteen - year - old target market, they endeavor to cover topics such as child labor, child abuse, poverty, racism, slavery, alcoholism, animal abuse, and war in manners appropriate for the understanding and sensibilities of the company 's target market.
The first dolls in the American Girl / Historical line (Samantha, Kirsten and Molly) shared the same face mold but had different hair and eye colors. The first dolls were created with white muslin bodies, but these cloth bodies were changed in 1991 from a white muslin to a matching flesh tone. This accommodated the low necklines of Late Colonial / Revolutionary period gowns produced for the Felicity Merriman character (also introduced in 1991). Additional face molds were later developed for other dolls, and the line to date includes ten characters covering the period 1764 to 1974.
The "Best Friends '' line was introduced in 2004; supplemental characters from the core book series were created in doll form and marketed as "best friends '' for some of the Historical Characters. These Best Friend dolls share the collections of the main characters, but each has her own book, and additional products were marketed under their names. However, in May 2014, American Girl announced that Ruthie, along with Ivy, Cécile and Marie - Grace, will be retired from their historical roster, citing business reasons as they decided "to move away from the character - friend strategy within the line ''.
A reboot of the Historical Characters line dubbed as BeForever was launched in August 2014, complete with redesigned outfits, a two - volume compilation of previously - released books, and a "Journey Book '' for each character, with players taking the role of a present - day girl who found her way to the past and met up with one of the Historical girls. The line also coincided with the relaunch of Samantha Parkington, whose collection was previously discontinued in 2008.
Kaya is a young girl from the Nimiipuu or Nez Perce tribe living in the pre-contact Northwest. Themes in her core series focus on leadership, compassion, courage, and attachment. Chronologically, Kaya 's adventures are the earliest of the historical characters. Kaya is depicted as brave and outgoing, but careless and thoughtless, and wants to be a leader of her people. Her role model is a female warrior named Swan Circling. Created in collaboration with a consultation team that included representatives from the Nez Perce tribe, Kaya is the only Native American doll made by American Girl to date. Kaya is the only doll in the series not to show teeth, per tribal custom. Kaya is also the first doll in the series to not follow the book naming customs established by previously - released characters -- the second book in the series is titled Kaya 's Escape instead of Kaya Learns a Lesson.
Felicity Merriman is an auburn haired, horse - loving girl living in Williamsburg, Virginia, who is caught between Patriot and Loyalist family and friends at the onset of the American Revolution. Themes in her core books include loyalty and staying true to one 's ideals.
Felicity is depicted as spunky, brave, and free - spirited, and is often fed up with the customs that young women are expected to observe at the time, much to her mother 's disappointment. She can be a little brash, impatient and foolish sometimes, and sets her heart on things often. She is also quite outspoken, but will stand up to bullies, as she did with Jiggy Nye. Felicity also is not afraid to tease Annabelle, Elizabeth 's older sister, coming up with the name "Bananabelle ''. She eventually learns to be more ladylike throughout the series; however, she is still quite active.
Many items from Felicity 's collection were retired in the early 2000s, but when Felicity 's core books were dramatized for Felicity: An American Girl Adventure on November 29, 2005, new products were introduced in her collection. On August 27, 2010, American Girl announced on its website that the Felicity and Elizabeth collection would be archived. On March 28, 2011, Felicity, Elizabeth and their respective collections were officially archived. In February 2017 Felicity was re-introduced as part of BeForever.
Elizabeth Cole is Felicity 's best friend, despite her Loyalist family leanings during the American Revolution. In spite of being quiet and shy, she is known to poke fun at her older sister Annabelle with Felicity -- this stems from being teased at by Annabelle, who gave her younger sister the nickname "Bitsy ''. Elizabeth is also shown to be somewhat wealthier, as evidenced by having a larger home, and a larger garden.
The Elizabeth doll was introduced in August 2005 as the second Best Friend doll with a book written by author Valerie Tripp, and the character was prominently featured in Felicity: An American Girl Adventure. In the original Felicity book illustrations, Elizabeth had brown hair and eyes but the character 's appearance was revised to have blue eyes and blonde hair with the release of the Felicity DVD and Elizabeth doll. Later editions of the Felicity books were re-illustrated to reflect these changes and edit Elizabeth 's physical description. On August 27, 2010, American Girl announced that Elizabeth and her collection would be archived with Felicity, which took place in March 2011.
Caroline Abbott is a girl from Sackets Harbor, New York. The only daughter of a shipbuilder who owned a shipyard near Lake Ontario, Caroline enjoys outdoor activities, like sailing and ice - skating, and dreams of one day having her own ship like her father. One day, when her father is captured, Caroline embarks on a journey to save him and unite her family. Themes include bravery, family, and making wise decisions. Caroline was archived along with her collection in 2015.
Josefina Montoya is a young Mexican girl living in New Mexico with her extended family. She and her family (including her oldest sister, Ana who is married to Tomas and has two sons, and her two other sisters, vain and headstrong Francisca and practical and sensible Clara) must adapt following the death of their mother and the introduction of their mother 's sister, Tía Dolores (who later marries Josefina 's widowed father), to the family circle. Josefina dreams of becoming a healer like her grandmother and is taught in this by her aunt, Magdalena, her father 's sister. Josefina has a pet goat named Sombrita. Themes include adjustment to loss, day - to - day life of the Mexican people, and the cultural and societal changes and influences that occurred once Mexico opened trade routes with the US. Josefina 's family speaks Spanish and there are Spanish words and phrases in her books which are defined in the glossary.
Marie - Grace Gardner is a girl from New Orleans. Similar to Josefina, her mother died before the events of the series. She makes a friend with Cécile Rey in her first days in New Orleans, although the latter was not interested at first. However, changes are in the air. Soon, Marie - Grace 's singing teacher is found sick with yellow fever. Her father, who is a doctor, saves not only the teacher, but others in his aid. She also rescues a baby and forms a close bond with other children. Themes include the loss of family and caring for others in need. Both Marie - Grace and Cécile were archived in summer 2014. Though Marie - Grace and Cécile Rey were best friends, they shared the same level of importance and a few items in their collection as well as a book, unlike other Best Friend characters.
Cécile Rey is from a bilingual rich French - African - American family that originated from France. She loves listening to her grandfather 's tales about the sea. She meets Marie - Grace during one of her singing lessons. At first, she is not fond of her because she is white, but eventually warms up to her and becomes her best friend. When Yellow Fever strikes her brother, she decides to use her gifts to help him and others. Themes include the loss of family and caring for others in need, and volunteering. Cecile speaks French and her French words are described in the glossary in the back of her book. Though Cécile Rey and Marie - Grace were best friends, they shared the same level of importance and a few items in their collection as well as a book, unlike other Best Friend characters. Cecile was also the second African - American character made by American Girl.
Kirsten Larson is a Swedish immigrant who settles in the Minnesota Territory with her extended family. She faces the hardships, challenges, and adaptations necessary to adjust to life in America such as learning to speak English. More changes include making a new friend outside of her own "world '' and the arrival of a new baby. Kirsten was one of the first three dolls produced by American Girl in 1986. Unlike many of the dolls, Kirsten 's books have maintained their original illustrations (with the exception of the covers). Kirsten was officially archived on the American Girl website on January 1, 2010.
Addy Walker was the fifth doll added to the Historical line and the company 's first African - American character. Her character is a fugitive slave who escapes with her mother from a plantation in North Carolina to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the American Civil War. Addy 's stories explore themes of freedom, familial love, prejudice and racism. The six - book series was written by Connie Porter and originally illustrated by Melodye Rosales and Bradford Brown, but were later redrawn by Dahl Taylor. A stage adaptation of Porter 's Addy book series was commissioned and produced by the Seattle Children 's Theater in 2007. Addy: An American Girl Story was subsequently taken on limited national tour from January through May 2008 through Kids Entertainment, Inc.
Samantha is an only child growing up during the Edwardian period (although American Girl designated her as Victorian). Orphaned at age five and raised by her wealthy Victorian - era grandmother, Mary Edwards, whom she called Grandmary, in fictional Mount Bedford, New York, Samantha befriends a poor servant girl named Nellie O'Malley. Eventually Samantha, Nellie and Nellie 's young sisters are adopted by Samantha 's uncle Gardner Edwards and aunt Cornelia. The themes of Samantha 's books include women 's suffrage, child labor, and classism. Red Om Productions produced Samantha: An American Girl Holiday, in cooperation with American Girl. The show premiered on WB Television Network in November 2004 and was released to DVD soon thereafter. American Girl introduced the concept of "archiving '' in October 2008 when it announced plans to cease production of Samantha and her collection (including Nellie). Samantha was then officially archived on May 31, 2009, but was later re-introduced in August 2014 as part of the BeForever reboot.
Nellie O'Malley, Samantha 's best friend, is an Irish immigrant who works for Samantha 's neighbors and is befriended by Samantha. She personifies the working - class immigrant experience of the time and teaches Samantha about the conditions faced by children who are part of the work force. Nellie and her sisters, Bridget and Jenny, are orphaned and later adopted by Samantha 's relatives, Gardner and Cornelia Edwards. In 2004, American Girl introduced a new line of Best Friend dolls with Nellie O'Malley debuting as Samantha 's Best Friend in conjunction with the Samantha DVD release. Nellie was marketed with a small collection of clothing and a book written by Valerie Tripp, Nellie 's Promise, which chronicles the character 's growth and adjustment to her recent adoption. As Nellie was part of Samantha 's collection, she was archived at the same time as Samantha, and with the release of the BeForever reboot and American Girl 's decision to move away from the Best Friends line, at present it is unlikely for Nellie to be re-released.
Rebecca Rubin, American Girl 's tenth historical character, debuted on May 31, 2009. She is a ten - year - old Jewish girl of Russian descent whose maternal grandparents and parents immigrated to the Lower East Side of New York City. Rebecca is fascinated by both various new American customs and the then - budding film industry, and aspires to become an actress despite her family 's disapproval, though she still treasures and celebrates her family 's Jewish traditions. Her six book series was written by Jacqueline Dembar Greene and focuses on issues related to assimilation of immigrants while maintaining familial, religious, and cultural traditions. Rebecca is the first Jewish Historical Character, however she is the second Jewish character made by American Girl.
Kit Kittredge faces the hard times of the early - to - mid years of the Great Depression in Cincinnati, Ohio, as her family struggles to adjust to the realities of the economy after her father 's job loss.
Kit was named after her mother and her Aunt Millie. Unlike her best friend Ruthie, Kit is a tomboy who cares less about dresses, chores and things that she considers as "flouncy '', and is more inclined toward baseball, especially Ernie Lombardi of the Cincinnati Reds, the great outdoors, such as country life, and typing up her own news reports. Kit hates change, and dislikes being dependent on charities, instead preferring to learn how to catch the big fish herself, which spurs her fascination with Amelia Earhart. She dreams of becoming a reporter one day. The books also depict her as being stubborn and somewhat fussy, as she finds chores around the house to be rather boring and tedious, but eventually regrets it after realizing her family 's misfortunes, and learns to be more supportive and helpful.
Kit 's core series of books was written by Valerie Tripp and illustrated by Walter Rane. A feature film Kit Kittredge: An American Girl was released to theaters on July 2, 2008, starring Abigail Breslin in the title role. Many new items were added to Kit 's collection as product tie - ins to the movie. Two video games based on her stories were also developed and published, namely Kit Mystery Challenge for the Nintendo DS, and the point - and - click adventure game A Tree House of My Own for Microsoft Windows platforms.
Ruthie Smithens is Kit Kittredge 's best friend. The only daughter of a banker, Ruthie (and her family) is not financially affected by the Depression. Although they did at times offer help to the Kittredges, it was mostly in ways that would not hurt their pride. She is depicted to have an affinity for princesses and fairy tales, most especially Andrew Lang 's Fairy Books and Grimms ' Fairy Tales, in contrast to Kit 's more tomboyish personality. Despite their major differences, Ruthie is a loyal and courageous friend who will go to great lengths to help Kit.
Ruthie, along with Ivy, Cécile and Marie - Grace, was retired in August 2014 following the company 's decision to discontinue the Best Friends line.
Nanea Mitchell is the sixteenth historical character and the 3rd BeForever exclusive. She is from the Hawaiian island of O'ahu growing up in the early 1940 's representing the bombings at Pearl Harbor that ushered the U.S. out of The Great Depression and into World War II. She may be the youngest in her Ohana (family), but she still wants to "dip her paddle in '' and be useful. But before she can prove that she is ready for more responsibility, Japan attacks the military base in Pearl Harbor where her father works. Will her life ever be the same again with America now involved with the war?
Molly McIntire is a young girl living in a fictional city named Jefferson, Illinois during the later years of World War II. Her father is stationed in England as a doctor caring for wounded soldiers, and her mother works at the Red Cross. She, her 15 - year - old sister, Jill, her 13 - year - old brother, Ricky and her 6 - year - old brother, Brad, are all cared for by their housekeeper, Mrs. Gilford, and she must cope with the many changes that the war has brought. Molly also realizes that she, too, has a part of helping soldiers. Despite those changes, Molly has some leisure activities as well, such as skating, tap - dancing, movies and summer camp. Molly 's series focuses on patriotism and the changes that come with wartime. Molly was one of the original three dolls offered by Pleasant Company and is the only doll to be sold with eyeglasses. In early July 2013, American Girl announced plans to archive Molly and Emily. Both were archived on December 31, 2013.
Emily Bennett is a British girl who is sent to America by her family to protect her from the intensity of the English battlefront during World War II. Originally a minor character temporarily residing with the McIntires in the book Happy Birthday, Molly!, Emily 's character was expanded in a book by Valerie Tripp called Brave Emily for her debut as the third doll in the Best Friends collection on September 5, 2006. Emily 's debut coincided with the premiere of the Molly made - for - TV movie. Since Emily is a minor character and not Molly 's best friend, she was marketed instead as "Molly 's English friend ''. As Emily is a part of Molly 's collection, she was archived along with Molly.
Maryellen Larkin is the fourteenth Historical Character by American Girl, representing the 1950s. She was released on August 27, 2015, and is the first exclusive BeForever character, and was made to replace Caroline Abbott. Hailing from Daytona Beach, Florida, Maryellen is an enthusiastic and imaginative girl, longing to stand out but often feels lost in the shuffle of her big, busy family. Her favorite TV shows include Davy Crockett and The Lone Ranger, and she dreams up episodes where she gets to be the hero. Maryellen has strawberry - blonde hair with bangs up in a ponytail and green eyes. All three of her books, written by Valerie Tripp, were released on August 27, 2015.
A short film based on her stories, with newcomer Harlie Galloway playing the title character, was uploaded on the video sharing site YouTube in November 2015 as part of American Girl 's venture into digital content and independent film production. In addition to the short, a direct - to - video special entitled An American Girl Story - Maryellen 1955: Extraordinary Christmas, starring Alyvia Alyn Lind as Maryellen Larkin and was released by Amazon to Prime subscribers on November 25, 2016.
Melody Ellison is a nine - year - old African - American girl living with her family in Detroit, Michigan, during the civil rights movement in the early 1960s. Her parents are Will, who works in an auto assembly line, and Frances. Frances ' parents (Melody 's grandparents) are Frank Porter, a florist; and "Big Momma '' Porter, who teaches piano and voice. Melody 's older brother, Dwayne, wants to be a Motown singer; her oldest sister, Yvonne, is a student at Tuskegee University; her sister, Lila, is in middle school and lives at home.
In her character 's first book, No Ordinary Sound, Melody 's cousins move to Detroit from Alabama; this is when Melody learns more of racial prejudice. When the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing occurs, Melody becomes fearful of going into her church, because the four little girls were in their church when they died. In time, Melody overcomes her fear.
The first book was released in January 2016, although the doll was n't released until summer 2016; a preview of the Melody doll was aired in CBS News in February 2016. The book 's advisory board included: JoAnn Watson, NAACP executive committee member; Gloria House, professor of African American Studies at the University of Michigan, Dearborn; Thomas Sugrue, professor of history at New York University; and the late Julian Bond, former NAACP chairman.
A live - action web special based on her stories entitled Melody, 1963: Love Has to Win, an American Girl Story was released by Amazon Studios, starring Marsai Martin as the title character.
Jolie Ledford
Julie Albright is a young girl growing up in San Francisco, California in 1974 - 75. Her six book series, written by Megan McDonald and illustrated by Robert Hunt, focuses on various changes and societal upheavals in American society during that time period: divorce, feminism, gender equality in school sports, environmentalism, and the disability rights movement. The America 's Bicentennial celebration is also emphasized later in the series. Julie was released September 10, 2007 and is the first character portrayed from a divorced family by American Girl. In 2008, Elaine Goldsmith - Thomas reported that she was outlining a movie proposal based on Julie 's story In December 2009, Julie: An American Girl Musical was officially announced as a planned theatrical release; as of 2015, little, if any, development has been made over the musical. In lieu of this, a short independent film was uploaded on American Girl 's YouTube account, starring Jolie Ledford in the title role.
Grace Liu
Ivy Ling, Julie 's best friend, is a Chinese American girl living in San Francisco. Good Luck, Ivy by Lisa Yee focuses on Ivy 's conflict with her love of gymnastics and family traditions and responsibilities, and its "Looking Back '' section discusses Chinese - American history. The Ivy doll debuted with Julie and was the first Best Friend doll to be released at the same time as the main character. Ivy was and still is the only Asian American Historical character.
Introduced in 2017, the Contemporary Characters line features characters and stories set in the present day, but unlike the limited edition Girl of the Year dolls, they are available for at least a few years before being discontinued. The line also marks the introduction of an 18 - inch boy doll in the American Girl series, although the Bitty Baby and Bitty Twin lines have had boy dolls in their respective collections.
Hailing from Nashville, Tennessee, Tenney Grant is an aspiring young songwriter who dreams to express herself through music. The eponymous first book in the series by Kellen Hertz focuses on her efforts at songwriting and the opportunity to perform at the famed Bluebird Cafe. Unlike dolls from the Girl of the Year line, Tenney, along with Logan Everett, are marketed as regular characters to be sold for an extended period of time than as limited edition dolls sold only for a year before being discontinued.
Tenney 's sidekick and bandmate, Logan Everett is, in a break from series tradition, the first 18 - inch boy doll from American Girl. Released alongside the main character, he is depicted as a drummer for Tenney 's band, and as with Tenney, the Logan doll also comes with a modified hand to hold musical instruments.
Starting in 2001, American Girl began producing a "Girl of the Year '' doll that was exclusive to that year. Lindsey was on sale from 2001 to mid-2002 but a 2002 doll was not produced due to lack of sales. Then Kailey was on sale from 2003 - mid-2004. After that they were exclusively produced and on sale only during the year of their origination. The Girl of the Year is available until December 31, or until supplies last. Lindsey Bergman and Kailey Hopkins were Girl of the Year for two years -- the rest, starting from 2005 by Marisol Luna, were each Girl of the Year for only one year. Starting in 2009, the Girl of the Year dolls were accompanied by films to tie in with their release. Since Kanani in 2011, every character has an additional mobile app.
Described as a girl "who is eager to help '', Lindsey 's self - titled book details the difficulties her impulsive attempts at helping with causes. The character is Jewish and the book references her brother 's Bar Mitzvah experience and party plans. A small collection consisting of a scooter set and laptop accompanied her release. She is the first girl of the year released in 2001 and retired in 2002, and replaced by Kailey Hopkins.
Lindsey has short hair, dark brown curls and blue eyes.
Her face mold is the Classic mold.
Kailey Hopkins lives near tide pools in California and is an avid swimmer and surfer. When development threatens to destroy the tide pools she loves and surfs in, she and her best friend engineer a protest to make a difference. Kailey 's collection included various beach outfits and accessories. She was the second girl of the year, released in 2003, retired in 2004, and replaced by Marisol Luna.
Kailey has light skin, blonde hair and brown eyes.
Her face mold is the Classic face mold.
Marisol Luna is a Latina girl who aspires to be a dancer. She moves from Chicago 's Pilsen neighborhood to a suburb that does not have a dance studio where she can practice her favorite ballet folklórico dances. Introduced on January 1, 2005, Marisol had an extensive collection of dance outfits and accessories.
Marisol has medium skin, brown eyes, and medium brown hair.
Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya mold.
Jess McConnell accompanies her archaeologist parents on a several months - long expedition to Belize, where she learns new lessons about responsibility and preservation of history along learning new things about herself. To illustrate her mixed Japanese - American and Irish - Scottish heritage, the Jess doll debuted with a new face mold. Jess is also the first Girl of the Year by American Girl to be explicitly biracial.
Nicki Fleming is an animal lover living on her family 's Colorado ranch who volunteers to train a service dog named Sprocket when her mother can not fulfill this responsibility due to a pregnancy. Nicki also faces friendship difficulties which test her loyalties. Nicki was the first Girl of the Year to have two books: Nicki and Thanks to Nicki, both by Ann Howard Creel.
Mia was previewed on the November 21, 2007 episode of Oprah. The doll was subsequently released on January 1, 2008 with an extensive collection and two books: Mia and Bravo Mia, both written by Laurence Yep. Mia 's stories chronicle her passion for competitive figure skating, which is at odds with her hockey - playing family. Mia is featured in a computer game (Mia Goes For Great!).
The Mia doll has light skin, hazel eyes and light red hair. She comes in a light grey skirt, a magenta long sleeved sweater with a snowflake printed on the right side, and blue high - top sneakers.
Her face mold is the Classic mold.
Chrissa Marie Maxwell and her collection were released on January 1, 2009. An accompanying direct - to - DVD film entitled Chrissa Stands Strong based on her story premiered January 5 and became available for purchase the next day. Chrissa 's books and DVD focus on peer bullying issues. Chrissa is portrayed by actress Sammi Hanratty. Both books are written by Mary Casanova. In a break with tradition for this product line, Chrissa 's collection included two additional "best friend '' dolls: Gwen Thompson and Sonali Matthews, neither of which had a separate collection. In the books, Gwen Thompson is disappointed in Chrissa when she believes Chrissa has revealed one of her secrets to school bullies. At first, Sonali is one of the bullies, but then learns to stand up for others. The character of Sonali debuted a new face mold to represent her Indian heritage.
The Chrissa doll has light skin, blue eyes and dark brown / near black hair. She comes in a pink wrap - around long sleeved dress with a floral print.
Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya mold.
Lanie was released in January 2010 along with her collection. Lanie is a ten - year - old girl living in Cambridge, Massachusetts, depicted as having an affinity for science and biology and considers herself a scientist.
The Lanie doll has light skin, hazel eyes, and curly blonde hair with side bangs. She comes in a blue and green striped polo dress.
Her face mold is the Classic mold.
Kanani is the ninth Girl of the Year character; she and her collection were released in 2011. Kanani is the second multiracial character, following Jess McConnell. Her father is of Japanese and Hawaiian descent, and her mother is French and German. Hailing from Kaua'i, she helps her family run a shave ice shop and is passionate about helping people by sharing the aloha spirit and protecting Hawaiian wildlife.
The Kanani doll has medium skin, hazel eyes, and long thigh - length light brown hair. She comes with a kukui nut necklace, a pink flower in her hair, and a light - blue floral print dress.
Her face mold is the Jess McConnell mold.
McKenna and her collection debuted in January 2012, revolving around a gymnastics theme. She is a ten - year - old girl from Seattle, Washington who is a budding gymnast but suffers from problems with school work. McKenna is the oldest of three children, with younger twin sisters named Maisey and Mara Brooks. She is described as strong - willed and determined, and is determined to be an Olympic gold medalist for gymnastics.
A television film entitled An American Girl: McKenna Shoots for the Stars was released on July 3, 2012. The film is also the second in the series to feature a Girl of the Year character. McKenna is portrayed by actress Jade Pettyjohn.
The McKenna doll has light skin, blue eyes, and long caramel colored hair. She comes in a teal and gray lap - length dress with flutter sleeves and with a ponytail at the top of her head.
Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya face mold.
Saige Copeland is the eleventh Girl of the Year released by American Girl in 2013, and the fourth Girl of the Year to represent an only child. A resident of Albuquerque, New Mexico, she has a passion for visual arts (most especially painting), and is very skilled in horseback riding.
When Saige comes back to school, she learns that there will not be a new art class. Saige gets upset and tries to keep up her spirits and earn a new class for the school.
A film based on her stories, Saige Paints the Sky, was released on July 2, 2013 as a made - for - television film. It aired on NBC on July 13, 2013. Saige was portrayed by actress Sidney Fullmer. An iOS app entitled Paint Ponies was also released to coincide with the doll 's debut.
The Saige doll has light skin, freckles across the bridge of her nose, blue eyes and loose auburn hair that comes in a braid. She comes in an indigo dress with a knitted / sewn geometric print belt and tan boots with belting.
Her face mold is the Classic mold.
Isabelle Palmer is the twelfth Girl of the Year released in 2014, making her debut on an episode of Good Morning America. Isabelle is an inspired dancer who lives in Washington, D.C. She is excited to attend Anna Hart School of the Arts where her older sister, Jade, has been studying ballet. Her hobbies include dancing and fashion design. She designs leotards and other clothing.
She is the first Girl of the Year to have three books -- Isabelle, Designs by Isabelle, and To the Stars, Isabelle, all written by Laurence Yep. A mobile app for iOS platforms entitled Isabelle 's Dance Studio was also released in line with her debut. A port of the game to Android was also released in July 2014.
She also is the fourth Girl of the Year to have a movie about her. Erin Pitt portrays Isabelle in the movie Isabelle Dances Into the Spotlight.
The Isabelle doll has light skin, hazel eyes, and long blonde hair with detachable pink - tipped highlights. She comes in a pink shirt with a girl in a ballet position with sequins, grey capri pants, and sparkly gold shoes.
Her face mold is the Classic face mold.
Grace Thomas is the thirteenth Girl Of The Year, released in 2015. An avid baker from the fictional town of Bentwick, Massachusetts, her story centers around her dreams of being an aspiring entrepreneur, with her trip to Paris as a key plot point. Grace made her debut on Good Morning America on January 1, 2015.
The Grace doll has light skin with freckles across the bridge of her nose, light blue eyes, and medium brown hair with side bangs. She comes with a white print T - shirt with "Paris, Je T'aime '' written in cursive script, a pink skirt with a black bow, and dark gray boots with bows. Her face mold is the Josefina mold. Some of her unique features are highlights, side bangs and permanent lip gloss. Tying in with the Grace doll is a television film based on her stories entitled Grace Stirs Up Success starring Olivia Rodrigo as the title character, and the mobile app Grace 's Sweet Shop for iOS and Android.
Lea Clark is the fourteenth Girl Of The Year, released in 2016. Debuting in an episode of Good Morning America, Lea is a budding photographer from St. Louis, Missouri, and is described by American Girl as an animal lover who "discovers a world of possibilities '' upon visiting Brazil, culminating in a visit to her brother in the Amazon rainforest.
Coinciding with her release is a film based on her stories, along with coordinating items such as books penned by Lisa Yee entitled Lea Dives In, Lea Leads the Way and Lea and Camila, and a mobile game for iOS. American Girl has also launched an advocacy campaign with the World Wildlife Fund called "Wild at Art '', urging young girls to contribute to the fund through their artistic abilities.
Gabriela McBride is the fifteenth Girl of the Year, released in 2017. She made her debut on Good Morning America, Gabriela is an aspiring poet from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to express her feelings to help her overcome stuttering. Gabriela loves to dance at the community center after school. She is the first African - American Girl of the Year. Gabriela uses the Sonali face mold.
The WellieWishers are a group of young elementary age girls who meet and play together at Aunt Miranda 's backyard garden. As the name implies, dolls from the line wear Wellington boots, and have a body design distinct from the classic, Götz - derived American Girl dolls. The line was released on June 23, 2016.
Coinciding with the characters ' launch is a mobile game for iOS consisting a series of minigames centering on the WellieWishers girls and their adventures, and an animated web series scheduled to be released in Fall 2016.
Ashlyn is the group 's party planner, and the most socially - active among the girls. She is described as throwing the best parties and loves to make her friends happy -- and has a "princess '' / very feminine side to her, wearing a predominantly pink outfit with a tiara, blouse, a tulle skirt and pink boots with gold and lace designs.
A caring young girl and a good listener, Camille also has an affinity for the ocean and aquatic interests, including pretending she 's a mermaid. She is depicted as a Caucasian girl with shoulder length blonde hair similar to Kit Kittredge, blue eyes, and light skin, and a mole or freckle under her left eye.
Her interests are reflected in an outfit consisting of a blue T - shirt with a ruched ribbon, a multi-colored tulle skirt, and fish - themed boots with fins on the sides.
Emerson is the theatrically - inclined member of the group, enjoying the stage and performing in front of her friends through her poems and songs to which she writes herself. She is depicted as an East Asian girl with black hair worn in two twisted buns, light skin and dark brown eyes.
Her outfit reflects this with a wrap ballet style top, star - spangled tulle skirt, and ballet shoe styled wellies. She also wears two pink tulle - trimmed ponytail holders in her hair.
Kendall serves as the group 's artist and designer, having a gift for arts, crafts and recycling old or discarded things. She appears as a black girl with dark skin, textured black hair worn in two high ponytail puffs and brown eyes. She also shows her diplomatic side at times, settling arguments and disputes when the need arises.
A tree - climber and nature lover, Willa has an interest in the outdoors, making friends with animals and being fluent in "rabbit language ''.
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what is the garth brooks song the dance about | The Dance (song) - wikipedia
"The Dance '' is a song written and composed by Tony Arata, and recorded by American country music singer Garth Brooks as the tenth and final track from his self - titled debut album, from which it was also released as the album 's fourth and final single in April 1990. It is considered by many to be Brooks ' signature song. In a 2015 interview with Patrick Kielty of BBC Radio 2, Brooks credits the back to back success of both "The Dance '' and its follow up "Friends in Low Places '' for his phenomenal success.
At the opening of the music video, Brooks explains that the song is written with a double meaning - both as a love song about the end of a passionate relationship, and a story of someone dying because of something he believes in, after a moment of glory.
The song 's music video, directed by John Lloyd Miller, shows several American icons and examples of people who died for a dream. These include archive footage of the following:
It was awarded Video of the Year at the 1990 ACM Music Awards.
On the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, The Dance reached number one and remained there for three consecutive weeks until it was knocked off by "Good Times '' by Dan Seals
Released near the beginning of his career, "The Dance '' was a hit single around the world, including the United States, Europe, and Ireland, charting inside the British pop top 40. In 1990, it was named both Song of the Year and Video of the Year by the Academy of Country Music. It was awarded the number 14 position in the CMT 100 Greatest Songs of Country Music broadcast in 2003 and also the number 5 position on the network 's The Greatest: 100 Greatest Music Videos special in 2004.
In a 1994 Playboy interview, Brooks said, "unless I am totally surprised, The Dance will be the greatest success as a song we will ever do. I 'll go to my grave with The Dance. It 'll probably always be my favorite song. ''
In 2001, after the death of Dale Earnhardt, Brooks was invited to the NASCAR awards ceremony that was honoring Earnhardt to play the song as a tribute. The song has been used as several country stations ' last song before changing formats. It was also the second song to be played on UK station Country 1035, the first being another Brooks number.
On February 6, 2014, "The Dance '' was performed by Brooks on the final episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on NBC.
US 7 - inch promotional single Capitol Nashville NR - 44629, 1990
US 7 '' Jukebox single Liberty S7 - 17441 - A, 1990
UK CD single Capitol CDCLS - 735, 1993 Disc 1
Disc 2
"The Dance '' is the fifth single in the overall discography of American freestyle recording artist Rockell, and a cover version of the chart single performed by Garth Brooks. (See above.) It is the first single she released from her second album, Instant Pleasure. There was no video made for this single.
US CD single
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who won the war between north korea and south korea | Korean War - Wikipedia
Military stalemate
United Nations:
Total: 178,405 dead and 32,925 missing Total wounded: 566,434
Total: 398,000 -- 750,000 + dead and 145,000 + missing Total wounded: 686,500 -- 789,000
The Korean War (in South Korean Hangul: 한국 전쟁; Hanja: 韓國 戰爭; RR: Hanguk Jeonjaeng, "Korean War ''; in North Korean Chosŏn'gŭl: 조국 해방 전쟁; Hancha: 祖國 解放 戰爭; MR: Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng, "Fatherland Liberation War ''; 25 June 1950 -- 27 July 1953) was a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the principal support of the United States). The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following a series of clashes along the border. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union also gave some assistance to the North.
Korea was ruled by Imperial Japan from 1910 until the closing days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Imperial Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, and liberated Korea north of the 38th parallel. U.S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments. Both claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces -- supported by the Soviet Union and China -- moved into the south on 25 June 1950. On 27 June, the United Nations Security Council authorized the formation and dispatch of UN forces to Korea to repel what was recognized as a North Korean invasion. Twenty - one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88 % of the UN 's military personnel.
After the first two months of war, South Korean and U.S. forces rapidly dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat, forced back to a small area in the south known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Incheon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces rapidly approached the Yalu River -- the border with China -- but in October 1950, mass Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. The surprise Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951.
After these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air - to - air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.
The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and according to some sources the two Koreas are technically still at war.
As a war undeclared by all participants, the conflict helped bring the term "police action '' into common use. It also led to the permanent alteration of the balance of power within the United Nations, where Resolution 377 -- passed in 1950 to allow a bypassing of the Security Council if that body could not reach an agreement -- led to the General Assembly displacing the Security Council as the primary organ of the UN.
In the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action '' as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been referred to in the English - speaking world as "The Forgotten War '' or "The Unknown War '' because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, and in relation to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it.
In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as "625 '' or the "6 -- 2 -- 5 Upheaval '' (6.25 동란 (動亂), yook - i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the "Fatherland Liberation War '' (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the "Chosǒn (Korean) War '' (조선 전쟁, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).
In China, the war is officially called the "War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea '' (simplified Chinese: 抗美援朝 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗美援朝 戰爭; pinyin: Kàngměiyuáncháo zhànzhēng), although the term "Chaoxian (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜 战争; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮 戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn zhànzhēng) is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term "Han (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 韩 战; traditional Chinese: 韓 戰; pinyin: Hán Zhàn) more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.
Imperial Japan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino - Japanese War (1894 -- 95), ushering in the short - lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo - Japanese War (1904 -- 05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan -- Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.
Many Korean nationalists fled the country. A Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its U.S. - based founding President, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.
In China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People 's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist - backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom - Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 -- August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il - sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.
At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States all decided that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent ''.
At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, three days after the USA dropped the bomb on Hiroshima. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean peninsula.
On the night of 10 August in Washington, U.S. colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were tasked with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel. This was incorporated into the U.S. General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U.S. forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops ''. He noted that he was "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area ''. As Rusk 's comments indicate, the U.S. doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.
On 8 September 1945, U.S. Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945 -- 48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests he quickly reversed this decision. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.
In December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S. - Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five - year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People 's Committees on 12 December 1945. The right - wing Representative Democratic Council, led by Syngman Rhee, who had arrived with the U.S. military, opposed the trusteeship, arguing that Korea had already suffered from foreign occupation far too long. Following further large - scale civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law.
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.
The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as President on 20 July 1948. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a communist government led by Kim Il - sung.
The Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949.
With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Communists and Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.
The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea. The Chinese support created a deep division between the Korean Communists, and Kim Il - sung 's authority within the Communist party was challenged by the Chinese faction led by Pak Il - yu, who was later purged by Kim.
After the formation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China 's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century, U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States ' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China 's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China 's periphery.
By 1949, South Korean forces had reduced the active number of communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il - sung believed that the guerrillas weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin 's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him.
Serious border clashes between South and North occurred on August 4, 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th infantry regiments of ROKA repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa - bong (above the 38th parallel) and Ch'ungmu, and at the end of the clashes ROKA troops were "completely routed ''.
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. Chinese Communist forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while U.S. forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: Mao 's Communist forces had secured final victory in China, U.S. forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the U.S. atomic monopoly. As the U.S. had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the U.S. to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance.
In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the United States. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned the U.S. would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao 's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated.
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a counterattack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the South Korean army. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants, capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.
On 7 June 1950, Kim Il - sung called for a Korea - wide election on 5 -- 8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15 -- 17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture that Rhee rejected outright. On 21 June, Kim Il - Sung revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents learned about the plans and South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG 's commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK Army and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice ''. For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when U.S. diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.
Although some South Korean and U.S. intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions were made before and nothing happened. The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the Korean People 's Army (KPA), but assessed this as a "defensive measure '' and concluded an invasion was "unlikely ''. On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.
Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) were released to North Korea. The combat veterans from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea 's military superiority over the South, armed by the US military with mostly small arms and given no heavy weaponry such as tanks.
According to the first official census in 1949 the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T - 34 - 85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T - 34 - 85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea - borne artillery for their armies.
In contrast, the Republic of Korea population totaled 20,188,641, and its army was unprepared and ill - equipped. As of 25 June 1950 the ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22 - piece air force comprising 12 liaison - type and 10 AT6 advanced - trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200 - 300 American troops were in Korea.
At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the Korean People 's Army crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee ''. Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that they captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans fired first.
Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, North Korean forces attacked all along the 38th parallel. The North Koreans had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The South Koreans had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery, to stop such an attack. In addition, South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed in a few days.
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the South Korean Army blew up the highway Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the North Korean army. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many South Korean military units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty - eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.
On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country.
In five days, the South Korean forces, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the South Korean forces were placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.
The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Truman himself was at his home in Independence, Missouri. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved.
One facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, U.S. experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman 's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan. ''
Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the U.S. intervened. The Truman administration was fretful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, "(t) here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from (the conflict) ''. Yugoslavia -- a possible Soviet target because of the Tito - Stalin Split -- was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council 's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots ''. Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the United Nations and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the U.S. immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.
The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto - wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Taiwanese "Republic of China '' and not the mainland "People 's Republic of China '' held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help the South Korean regime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter 's scope, because the initial north - south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the six permanent members including the Soviet Union.
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers -- of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime -- were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.
As soon as word of the attack was received, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler 's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the U.S. goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC - 68) (declassified in 1975):
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.
In August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea.
Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying a U.S. military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.
Acting on State Secretary Acheson 's recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral U.S. bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied ROC 's request for combat, lest it provoke a communist Chinese retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize '' the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory ''.
The Battle of Osan, the first significant U.S. engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540 - soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans ' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the U.S. force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division 's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including the Division 's Commander, Major General William F. Dean.
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK Army and the Eighth United States Army southwards. The impact of the Truman administration 's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as U.S. troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, they were driven down the Korean peninsula. During their advance, the KPA purged the Republic of Korea 's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il - sung he was responsible for the KPA 's atrocities. By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan. This 140 - mile perimeter enclosed about 10 % of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.
Although Kim 's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou 's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur 's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei 's findings, and issued orders to Chinese army commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for U.S. naval activity in the Korea Strait.
In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August -- September 1950), the U.S. Army withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang - dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council 's attention to China 's complaint about the incident. The U.S. proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the U.S. should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the U.S. proposal.
Meanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle - ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
Against the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN Command, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul and well over 160 km (100 mi) behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, Commander, 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division 's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12 -- 14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.
Soon after the war began, General MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK Army force. The X Corps, led by General Edward Almond, Commander, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK Army soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.
After the Incheon landing, the 1st Cavalry Division began its northward advance from the Pusan Perimeter. "Task Force Lynch '' (after Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch), 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence -- Reconnaissance Platoon) effected the "Pusan Perimeter Breakout '' through 171.2 km (106.4 mi) of enemy territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan. The X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea. On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H.M. Zakharov to Korea to advise Kim Il - sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the enemy forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by South Korean forces. U.S. air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 North Korean soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.
On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81 / 1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily ''. On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes - only message to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel. '' During October, the ROK police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951.
On 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai - shek 's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not utilize these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, the KPA 's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.
By 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK Army crossed after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA 's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea), already captured by ROK forces. The Eighth U.S. Army and the ROK Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang city, the North Korean capital, on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The missions of the 187th were to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue U.S. prisoners of war. At month 's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino - Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 50 -- 100 miles of mountainous terrain.
Taking advantage of the UN Command 's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino - Korean border.
On 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that "Korea is China 's neighbor... The Chinese people can not but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question ''. Thus, through neutral - country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as "a bald attempt to blackmail the UN '', and dismissed it.
On 1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th parallel, the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il - sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.
In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2 to 5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao 's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao 's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. On 4 August 1950, with a planned invasion of Taiwan aborted due to the heavy U.S. naval presence, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People 's Liberation Army 's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army (PVA).
To enlist Stalin 's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation arrived in Moscow on 10 October, at which point they flew to Stalin 's home at the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgi Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Union 's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.
Immediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand Chinese troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 25 October. UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched "dark - to - dark '' (19: 00 -- 03: 00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05: 30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three - division army to march the 460 km (286 mi) from An - tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night - marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 29 km (18 mi) daily for 18 days.
Meanwhile, on 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island in the mid-Pacific Ocean. This meeting was much publicized because of the General 's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC 's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000 -- 125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter '' without air force protection.
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino - Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after Chinese troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950; deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three - prong assaults -- from the north, northwest, and west -- and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the Chinese unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.
The UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese openly intervened because of the sudden Chinese withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home - by - Christmas Offensive was launched with the U.S. Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while the US X Corps attacked along the Korean east coast. But the Chinese were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive.
After consulting with Stalin, on 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou Enlai the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. On 25 November at the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces ' right flank. The UN Command retreated; the U.S. Eighth Army 's retreat (the longest in US Army history) was made possible because of the Turkish Brigade 's successful, but very costly, rear - guard delaying action near Kunuri that slowed the PVA attack for two days (27 -- 29 November). On 27 November at the Korean eastern front, a U.S. 7th Infantry Division Regimental Combat Team (3,000 soldiers) and the U.S. 1st Marine Division (12,000 -- 15,000 marines) were unprepared for the PVA 9th Army Group 's three - pronged encirclement tactics at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, but escaped under Air Force and X Corps support fire -- albeit with some 15,000 collective casualties.
By 30 November, the PVA 13th Army Group managed to expel the U.S. Eighth Army from northwest Korea. Retreating from the north faster than they had counter-invaded, the Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel border in mid December. UN morale hit rock bottom when commanding General Walton Walker of the U.S. Eighth Army was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident. In northeast Korea by 11 December, the U.S. X Corps managed to cripple the PVA 9th Army Group while establishing a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam. The X Corps were forced to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted U.S. Eighth Army to the south.
During the Hungnam evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN Command forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN Command forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities; and on 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day (17 December 1950) Kim Il - sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China. After that, the leading part of the war became the Chinese army.
China justified its entry into the war as a response to "American aggression in the guise of the UN ''. Later, the Chinese claimed that U.S. bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened.
With Lieutenant - General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the U.S. Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the "Chinese New Year 's Offensive '') on New Year 's Eve of 1950. Utilizing night attacks in which UN Command fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The Chinese New Year 's Offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to conquer Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.
These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.
UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance - in - force, which became Operation Roundup (5 February 1951). A full - scale X Corps advance proceeded, which fully exploited the UN Command 's air superiority, concluding with the UN reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.
In early February, the South Korean 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong - Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by the IX Corps positions at Chipyong - ni in the center. The U.S. 2nd Infantry "Warrior '' Division 's 23rd Regimental Combat Team and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack 's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburg of the Korean War ''. 5,600 South Korean, U.S., and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 Chinese. United Nations forces had previously retreated in the face of large Communist forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought, and won.
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full - scale, battlefront - length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city 's fourth conquest in a year 's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.
On 1 March 1951, Mao sent a cable to Stalin, in which he emphasized the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA 's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient. At the same time, large - scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the Chinese Air Force began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.
On 11 April 1951, Commander - in - Chief Truman relieved the controversial General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether to use nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the President 's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the President and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.
MacArthur was relieved primarily from his determination to expand the war into China, which other officials believed would needlessly escalate a limited war and consume too many already overstretched resources. Despite MacArthur 's claims that he was restricted to fighting a limited war when China was fighting all - out, congressional testimony revealed China was using restraint as much as the U.S. was, as they were not using air power against front - line troops, communication lines, ports, naval air forces, or staging bases in Japan, which had been crucial to the survival of UN forces in Korea. Simply fighting on the peninsula had already tied down significant portions of U.S. airpower; as Air Force chief of staff Hoyt Vandenberg said, 80 -- 85 % the tactical capacity, one - fourth of the strategic portion, and 20 % of air defense forces of the United States were engaged in a single country. There was also fear that crossing into China would provoke the Soviet Union into entering the war; General Omar Bradley testified that there were 35 Russian divisions totaling some 500,000 troops in the Far East, which if sent into action with the approximately 85 Russian submarines in the vicinity of Korea, they could overwhelm U.S. forces and cut supply lines, as well as potentially assist China in taking over territory in Southeast Asia.
General Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander, Korea; he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the U.S. Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23 -- 28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap Chinese forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to "Line Kansas '', north of the 38th parallel. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team 's ("Rakkasans '') second of two combat jumps was on Easter Sunday, 1951, at Munsan - ni, South Korea, codenamed Operation Tomahawk. The mission was to get behind Chinese forces and block their movement north. The 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance provided the medical cover for the operations, dropping an ADS and a surgical team and treating over 400 battle casualties apart from the civilian casualties that formed the core of their objective as the unit was on a humanitarian mission.
The Chinese counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, also known as the Chinese Spring Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The offensive 's first thrust fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22 -- 25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22 -- 25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the "No - name Line '' north of Seoul. On 15 May 1951, the Chinese commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK Army and the U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May. At month 's end, the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained "Line Kansas '', just north of the 38th parallel. The UN 's "Line Kansas '' halt and subsequent offensive action stand - down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.
For the remainder of the Korean War the UN Command and the PVA fought, but exchanged little territory; the stalemate held. Large - scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began 10 July 1951 at Kaesong. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the UN Command forces ' goal was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command 's resolve to continue the war.
The principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August -- 15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August - 21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September -- 15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June -- 4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6 -- 15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October -- 25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March -- 21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10 -- 18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28 -- 29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March -- 16 July 1953), and the Battle of Kumsong (13 -- 27 July 1953).
Chinese troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, on November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA 's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.
In the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA 's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Ca n't you overcome some of your difficulties? '' The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.
The on - again, off - again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighboring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K.S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.
In 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president - elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations ' acceptance of India 's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands.
The Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel; to the south, it travels west. The old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The United Nations Command, supported by the United States, the North Korean People 's Army, and the Chinese People 's Volunteers, signed the Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953 to end the fighting. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.
After the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner - of - war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War / Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and the DPRK transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the U.S., and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, the DPRK recovered 220 remains near the Sino - Korean border.
The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
In April 1975, South Vietnam 's capital was captured by the North Vietnamese army. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il - sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang 's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea.
Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that it invalidated the 1953 armistice. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North - South declaration on non-aggression ''. On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a "state of war '' with South Korea and declared that "The long - standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over ''. Speaking on 4 April 2013, the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang "formally informed '' the Pentagon that it "ratified '' the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated the United States would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea.
In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to North Korea 's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty. Any possibility of talks ended on 6 January when North Korea conducted their fourth nuclear test.
According to the data from the U.S. Department of Defense, the United States suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. South Korea reported some 373,599 civilian and 137,899 military deaths. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.
Data from official Chinese sources, on the other hand, reported that the Chinese PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, 7,600 missing and during the war. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China. Chinese sources also reported that North Korea had suffered 290,000 casualties, 90,000 captured and a large number of civilian deaths.
CNN reported, citing Enciclopedia Britannica that North Korean civilian casualties were 600,000, while South Korean civilian casualties reached one million.
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated '' from the battlefield.
Recent scholarship puts the full battle death toll on all sides at just over 1.2 million.
In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man... (T) hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament. ''
By 1950, U.S. Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman 's defense economization plans, and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill - equipped and inadequately trained U.S. military forces in the war 's early stages.
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper '', since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks from World War II Pacific battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea. Army Ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army 's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion. Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter - bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F - 51 (P - 51) propeller - driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons, and rushed them into front - line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.
Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground - support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5 - inch (89 mm) Super Bazooka. Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn out, ' red - lined ' M - 1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair. Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under - strength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).
Due to public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson 's resignation. On September 19, 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General of the Army George C. Marshall.
The initial assault by North Korean KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T - 34 - 85 tanks. A North Korean tank corps equipped with about 120 T - 34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against a ROK Army with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the Soviet T - 34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The North Korean tanks had a good deal of early successes against South Korean infantry, elements of the 24th Infantry Division, and the United States built M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing Korean armor. The tide turned in favour of the United Nations forces in August 1950 when the North Koreans suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by U.S. M26 heavy tanks, along with British Centurion, Churchill, and Cromwell tanks.
The U.S. landings at Inchon on 15 September cut off the North Korean supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result, the North Koreans had to retreat, and many of the T - 34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the North Koreans withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T - 34s and 74 SU - 76s were lost. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered.
Following the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large - scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the Eastern Central Zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.
Further information: List of U.S. Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean conflict
Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the Korean War featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser USS Juneau, the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Jamaica, and the frigate HMS Black Swan fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship PC - 703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC - 703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to United States and UN navy ships was from magnetic mine s. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage.
The Korean War was the first war in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once - formidable fighters such as the P - 51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury -- all piston - engined, propeller - driven, and designed during World War II -- relinquished their air - superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet - powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P - 80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated North Korea 's prop - driven air force of Soviet Yakovlev Yak - 9 and Lavochkin La - 9s.
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the Korean People 's Air Force (KPAF) of North Korea with the MiG - 15, one of the world 's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first - generation UN jets and so could reach and destroy U.S. B - 29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B - 29 losses, the Air Force was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to a safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets.
The USAF countered the MiG - 15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F - 86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling -- 15,000 m (50,000 ft) and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. The F - 86 had a ceiling of 13,000 m (42,000 ft) and were armed with six. 50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept - wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around 1,100 km / h (660 mph). The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.
In summer and autumn 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF 's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing -- only 44 at one point -- continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng 's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter - Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year - and - a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.
Unlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent "advisers '', in the Korean aerial war Soviet forces participated via the 64th Airborne Corps. Fearful of confronting the United States directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war for the Korean peninsula expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare. 1,106 enemy airplanes were officially downed by the Soviet pilots, 52 of whom got ace status. The Soviet system of confirming air kills erred on the conservative side; the pilot 's words had to be corroborated and enemy aircraft falling into the sea were not counted, the number might exceed 1,106.
After the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F - 86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10: 1, with 792 MiG - 15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air - to - air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China 's People 's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG - 15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war 's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F - 86s, respectively. However, one source claims that the U.S. Air Force has more recently cited 224 losses (c. 100 to air combat) out of 674 F - 86s deployed to Korea.
The Korean War marked a major milestone not only for fixed - wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large - scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944 -- 1945, during the Second World War, the YR - 4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H - 19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter 's potential in the role, leading to development of the AH - 1 Cobra and other helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965 -- 75).
The first major U.S. strategic bombing campaign against North Korea, begun in late July 1950, was conceived as similar to the major offensives of World War II. On 12 August 1950, the U.S. Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons. Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, General MacArthur ordered increased bombing campaign on North Korea which included incendiary attacks against their arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end '' of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea 's war infrastructure and shatter their morale. After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea. The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II.
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result. The war 's highest - ranking U.S. POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow - covered wasteland. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent. '' In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig underground tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. U.S. Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented, "we went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too. '' Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign 's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon, and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, "eighteen of twenty - two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated. '' By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea.
As well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the U.S. military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will '', to use them in combat.
On 5 November 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs "to the Air Force 's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons... (and) signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets '', which he never transmitted.
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear - capable (but not nuclear - armed) B - 29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948 -- 1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman 's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B - 29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As United Nations forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.
As Chinese forces pushed back the United States forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always (under) active consideration '', with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat... The PRC 's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The "Aid Korea to resist America '' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman 's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities. ''
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The United States ' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China to escalate '' the Korean War, but because UN allies -- notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France -- were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the United States fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the United States would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster ''.
On 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN Command armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer, and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby, and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino - Korean frontier, pit crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores ''. In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B - 29 bombers practised individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east - central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming ''. The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare. ''
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B - 29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B - 29s returned to the United States in June.
Despite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war 's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of Chinese and North Korean forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea 's behalf if the U.S. used theirs first, factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the "threshold '' for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not employing them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange.
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.
There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean war committed by both the North and South Koreans. Many started on the first days of the war. South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre on 28 June, beginning numerous killings of more than 100,000 suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right - wing groups. During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens.
In occupied areas, North Korean Army political officers purged South Korean society of its intelligentsia by executing every educated person -- academic, governmental, religious -- who might lead resistance against the North; the purges continued during the NPA retreat. When the North Koreans retreated north in September 1950, they abducted tens of thousands of South Korean men. The reasons are not clear, but the intention might have been to acquire skilled professionals to the North.
In addition to conventional military operations, North Korean soldiers fought the UN forces by infiltrating guerrillas among refugees. These soldiers disguised as refugees would approach UN forces asking for food and help, then open fire and attack. U.S. troops acted under a "shoot - first - ask - questions - later '' policy against any civilian refugee approaching U.S. battlefield positions, a policy that led U.S. soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26 -- 29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be North Korean soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a "military necessity ''.
Beginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, U.S. military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War.
The Commission verified over 14,000 civilians were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948 -- 49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas. Although most of the fighting subsided by 1949, it continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86 % of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened.
At Geoje prison camp on Geoje Island, Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the U.S. and Taiwan in No. 71, 72 and 86 camps. But Pro-Communist POW experienced torture, cutting out limbs, or executed in public. Being forced to write confession letters and tattoo of Anti-Communism slogan, and Flag of the Republic of China are also commonly seen, in case any want to go back to mainland China.
Pro-Communist POW who could not endure the torture also formed an underground group to fight the Pro-Nationalist POW secretly by assassination which led to the Geoje Uprising in the end. The rebellion captured Francis Dodd, and was cracked down by the 187th Infantry Regiment.
In the end, 14,235 Chinese POW went to Nationalist China (Taiwan) and less than 6,000 POW went back to Mainland China. Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men '' but experienced brainwash again and sent to the army or arrested; while the survivor who went back to Mainland China were also welcomed as "hero '' first, but experienced anti-brainwash, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoo were found out. After 1988, Taiwanese government allowed POW to go back to Mainland China, and helped to clean anti-communist tattoo; while Chinese Government started to accept old POW return to Mainland China from Taiwan.
During the first days of the war North Korean soldiers committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre.
The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.
The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, and Daejeon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two - thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes ''.
Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese - run POW camps during the winter of 1950 -- 51. About 43 percent of U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino - Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to Chinese reports, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. According to Hastings, wounded U.S. POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins '' with only 1 / 3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided. ''
The unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy ''.
North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists ' claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the Communists reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the Communists were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.
The Communist side denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the Communist rosters.
North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea.
The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony.
In 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.
In December 1950, National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens. In the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the Chinese offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.
In 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the USO which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for U.S. servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 USO volunteers from the U.S. were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers.
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States concluded a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung - hee 's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services earned 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to Vietnam and received $235,560,000 allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world 's fastest - growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).
Following extensive USAF bombing, North Korea "had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society. '' After the armistice, Kim Il - Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all... outstanding debts '', and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, (and) medical supplies. '' China canceled North Korea 's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.
Postwar, about 100,000 North Koreans were executed in purges. According to Rummel, forced labor and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1945 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18 - year - old males were 13 centimetres (5 in) shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition.
South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of U.S. military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for the authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country 's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46 % favorable in 2003 to 74 % favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries in the world.
In addition, a large number of mixed - race "G.I. babies '' (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country 's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-blacks and non-whites as U.S. citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest - growing Asian groups in the United States.
Mao Zedong 's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after the United States entered the Korean War, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao 's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China 's entrance into the Korean War. Inside Mainland China, the war improved the long - term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.
The Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China 's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under - equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China 's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the People 's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long - term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai - shek 's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large - scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.
The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea.
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what was the boards name in ed edd and eddy | List of Ed, Edd n Eddy characters - wikipedia
The Ed, Edd n Eddy animated television series, consists of 135 stories, features an extensive cast of characters created by Danny Antonucci. The series takes place in the fictional town of Peach Creek. The number of characters in Ed, Edd n Eddy is fixed at twelve (thirteen if Plank, a board of wood who acts as one character 's imaginary friend, is included).
The show revolves around three best friends (Ed, Edd, and Eddy), usually referred to as "the Eds ''. There is a secondary group of characters (Kevin, Rolf, Nazz, Jimmy, Sarah and Jonny), and three teenage girls known as "the Kanker Sisters ''. Most of the children live in the cul - de-sac, while the Kanker Sisters live in the nearby "Park ' n ' Flush '' trailer park. Eddy 's brother is a character mentioned throughout the series, mostly by Eddy, but is never seen until the movie Ed, Edd n Eddy 's Big Picture Show; He is the only fully seen adult in the series.
The series ' characters have received awards and nominations at the 2002 Fancy Anvil Awards, a fictional award show broadcast on Cartoon Network. Antonucci stated the personalities of the Eds are based on personal traits of himself, and the activities of his two sons, and that the other characters are based on children he grew up with.
According to cartoonist and Ed, Edd n Eddy creator Danny Antonucci, he based the characters on real people in his life; the personalities of Ed, Edd, and Eddy are based on his own traits, and the activities of his two sons while the cul - de-sac children and the Kanker sisters were all based on children he grew up with. Rolf is based on himself and his cousins, since he was part of an immigrant family, and grew up in a first generation foreign household with different customs and ways of living, compared to those born in Canada. Jimmy is based on one of his cousins, who spent most of his time playing with girls than boys and was rather feminine. Jonny and Plank are inspired by one of Antonucci 's childhood friends, a loner who spent most of his time outside with his blanket. He stated that he believed it was important to add Plank, a board of wood, to the show, and that he "thought it would be really cool to do the show with Plank taking on a character of his own '' and to cause Jonny to do things he would usually never do. Some wanted Plank to be able to talk, smile and blink as if he was alive, but Antonucci insisted that it should be treated as a piece of wood, brought to life by Jonny 's imagination.
All the children have multicolored tongues; Antonucci said that the idea came after he saw his son and his friends with different - colored tongues because of eating different candy while he was working on a storyboard. The characters went through a number of "walking cycles '', a process used to determine how each character should walk or run, turn around, blink, etc. before the crew came up with the final product.
Eddy (Tony Sampson) is the self - appointed leader of the Eds. He is selfish, loud - mouthed, immature, greedy, and hot - tempered. He loves money, jawbreakers (which he likes to spend his ill - earned money on), dirty magazines (as hinted in "Luck of the Ed ''), his room, and Chunky Puffs. Eddy ordinarily comes up with the plans for scamming people, but they usually fail, much to his frustration. Eddy will often, especially in the early seasons, slack off by suntanning or drinking a soda while his fellow Eds do all the work. His prized possessions include his magazines, king - sized bed, and disco ball. He also has a Barry White album and is a fan of Tom Jones. Eddy is the shortest of the Eds and takes this very seriously, hating the thought of people calling him short, suggesting he may have a Napoleon complex. Eddy sometimes boasts about his older brother and uses this to his advantage to gain respect. Like Kevin, Eddy can be cruel and acerbic, with a tendency to tease his peers, but deep down, Eddy only wants to be liked by everyone.
Edd (Samuel Vincent) is the smartest of the Eds and the most polite, mature, and considerate of the three. As a result, he is more socially accepted by the rest of the kids than Ed and Eddy, usually acting as a peacemaker or offering the rest of the kids advice. To differentiate his homophonic name from Ed and Eddy, he is referred to as Double - D. Edd has a high IQ and is top of the class in most subjects at school, though he is the physically weakest of the Eds and despises P.E. and other sporting activities. As the most creative of the trio, he is able to construct things like planes, rocket cars, and roller coasters with junk he comes across and enjoys doing so. He also is able to play pedal steel guitar, but does not like to do so often. He often speaks using complex words and struggles to speak normally in high anxiety situations. His clothing usually consists of an red / orange shirt, purple shorts, red socks, cyan shoes, and a black ski hat with two white lines on it. He sleeps in a footed onesie, and in the later seasons and the movie, he wears a tie when going to school. Double D never willingly removes his hat (except while bathing), so it is unknown what lies under it; Ed and Eddy see him twice without it. Whatever his hat hides, Edd is self conscious about it. He is also self - conscious about a gap in his front teeth thanks to Eddy poking fun at it. He is the only one of the trio to be an only child, and his parents leave sticky notes around his house as a means of communicating with him.
Like the other two Eds, Edd 's personality is largely based upon series creator Danny Antonucci, who has said "there 's my Edd side, neurotic, analytical, must be organized. Also if Eddy and Ed (single D) were not around, Edd would be happy with his own company, something that works for me too. '' Antonucci has also explained that the habit of Double Dee 's parents to communicate with him through sticky notes was based on a habit of his own parents.
Ed (Matt Hill) is the strong, airheaded, and usually quite random dogsbody of the group who has very short hair. He wears a red - and - white striped shirt, a green jacket with two white stripes on each sleeve and purple - blue jeans. His skin is yellow, unlike the other characters, and he is known to laugh a lot and is happy most of the time. Ed has amazing physical strength, which is humorously worked into many of the show 's plots. He has no chin and a unibrow, which is noted often by Eddy. His mind is a subculture grab - bag full of comics and monster movies, which he often confuses with reality, and which leads him to speak in non sequiturs almost all the time. Ed (to the misfortune of many people) is utterly at the mercy of his tyrannical younger sister Sarah and is an easy target of her manipulations, with Sarah threatening to tell their mother if she does not get her way.
Ed is kindhearted, good - natured, and has a positive attitude towards almost everything and everyone, even to those who are not accommodating to him. He cares about the welfare of the other two Eds. He often sacrifices himself for his two best friends, the other cul - de-sac children, and even Sarah, for whom he cares deeply, though she treats him badly. He is absentminded and naive, making him the perfect candidate to help Eddy with his scams, as Ed hardly ever questions them. Even so, Ed never feels abused by Eddy.
Ed enjoys buttered toast, gravy, cereal (namely Chunky Puffs), pudding skin, chickens, comics and monster movies. Much to the dismay of mysophobic Edd, he has poor personal hygiene, even to the point of being terrified of soap and liking the smell of sweaty boots. Though the Eds were outcasts throughout the series, in the series ' TV movie finale Ed, Edd n Eddy 's Big Picture Show, the three become friends with all the cul - de-sac children; even Sarah starts treating Ed nicely.
Creator Danny Antonucci explained Ed 's inspiration saying, "Ed is... me, following his own path and slightly dysfunctional, a daydreamer who while people are doing one thing, will be busy thinking of another. '' He also described Ed as "slow, living in his own world and he really does n't fit in with the rest of the crowd, '' and explained that it was hard to decide who would voice him. Ed ended up being voiced by Matt Hill.
Jonny, also known as Jonny 2x4 (David Paul Grove), is a loner and considered by his peers to be a nuisance. Jonny is often made fun of for his big head (Eddy usually refers to him as "Melonhead '') and has a tendency of getting his head caught in branches when climbing trees. He talks a lot, and frequently gets on the other kids ' nerves. He is rarely seen without his imaginary friend, a 2x4 wooden board with drawn - on eyes and a mouth, aptly named Plank. Jonny seems innocent and gullible, and often forgives people no matter what they do. He does not seem to mind the antics of the Eds, and is often the most friendly out of all the cul - de-sac kids towards them. He is very protective of Plank, and will burst into acts of bravery or extreme aggression if Plank is stolen or harmed in some way. He does not seem to acknowledge that Plank is just an inanimate, silent, 2x4 piece of wood, and when asked for help with an imaginary friend, he claimed to have no clue what the Eds are talking about. He and Plank both have superhero alter egos (Captain Melonhead and Splinter the Wonderwood, respectively), which they assumed twice throughout the series; first in "Robbin ' Ed '' to thwart Eddy 's "Thingamajig '' scam and to fight Eddy 's own one - time only alter ego, Professor Scam, and then in "Ed, Edd n Eddy 's Big Picture Show '' to hunt down and get revenge on the Eds. After "Big Picture Show, '' he and Plank become The Gourd and Timber the Dark Shard in order to take revenge on the entire cul - de-sac.
Jimmy (Keenan Christenson) is an insecure child, with a propensity to cry, and Sarah 's best friend whom he is most often seen spending his time with. Jimmy is highly accident - prone, often seen sporting bandages, casts, and braces (particularly headgear), and is considered the weakest kid in the cul - de-sac. Though Jimmy has a cowardly, delicate, and effeminate personality, he truly wishes to be strong and muscular and many episodes demonstrate his desire for stardom. He can be crafty when motivated, and had twice made scams that were very successful. Jimmy has shown how deeply attached he is to Sarah when someone tries to take her away from him. For most of the series he wore a retainer to correct his teeth, due to a bowling pin accident during one of Eddy 's scams.
Sarah (Janyse Jaud) is Ed 's grouchy, spoiled, short - tempered younger sister who acts cute and kind to the Eds only when it suits her. She is commonly depicted with a disgruntled facial expression and treats her intimidated, trembling brother, frightened by his sister 's constant threats of tattling on him, with complete disdain. Imposing, Sarah frequently orders people (sometimes even those of higher rightful authority than her) around, and her desires often have to be met or else she will fling herself into a violent temper tantrum or threaten the person in question. Throughout the course of the series, Sarah has been shown to possess an infatuation with Edd, but still occasionally subjects him to abuse due to guilt by association with the other Eds.
Kevin (Kathleen Barr) is a stereotypical jock. He is cynical, sarcastic and can be cruel at times. Kevin has a garage full of jawbreakers, due to the fact that his father works at a jawbreaker factory. He loves customizing his bike, skateboards, and snowboards. When not riding his trusty bike, he usually hangs out with Rolf and Nazz in the Lane. He hates the Eds to the point of paranoia, but his animosity towards them is mostly geared towards Eddy. The two are mortal enemies and often go entirely out of their way to humiliate or physically harm each other at the first opportunity (with Eddy referring to Kevin as "Shovel Chin ''). He tends to call the Eds "dorks '' and has a habit of coming up with words merged with "dork '' to suit the situation. Like Edd, Kevin normally wears a hat and rarely takes it off; in the episode Boys Will be Eds, Kevin takes off his hat for the first time and is shown to be bald, though a flashback episode reveals that he used to have long hair. In some episodes, he is shown to have a great fear of Eddy 's brother; Eddy knows this and frequently uses his brother as leverage against Kevin.
Rolf (Peter Kelamis) is a quirky, odd, and usually happy immigrant of an undetermined origin and culture with odd customs (which he displays frequently, and it often involves a wide variety of meat) and has a thick accent to match. He works on his parents ' small farm within the cul - de-sac, and leads a scouting group called the "Urban Rangers, '' which includes Jimmy, Plank, and Jonny. Rolf usually refers to himself in third person, as well as being the son of a shepherd, in which he takes pride. His faithful farm animals are three pigs (one named Wilfred), a goat named Victor, at least six chickens (two named Bridget and Gertrude), a cow named Beatrice, and five sheep. He appears to be friendly with the Eds (whom he calls the "Ed boys '') unless they make a fool out of him or offend him in some way, after which he is not afraid to use brute force. He seems to be very muscular, but this is usually only shown when he is angry. Rolf confuses the rest of the kids to no end with his unusual customs and food - making.
Nazz Van Bartonschmeer (Tabitha St. Germain; Jenn Forgie; Erin Fitzgerald) is a good - natured, sweet, mature yet somewhat ditzy, fashionable local girl who normally treats her peers (including the Eds) respectfully; however, when antagonized she will react violently to the cause of her agitation or partake in harming the Eds as discipline for an alleged misdeed that they have committed. A majority of the male characters featured in the series are smitten with her, and an entire episode once chronicled their many failed attempts at wooing her. She also possesses a number of humorous eccentricities, such as the ability to yodel, substandard skills at playing a rather large tuba and is often depicted with poor table etiquette. Edd seems to be the Ed that Nazz is closest to, as he was the first character she 'd kissed in the series in "The Day the Ed Stood Still '', took him trick - or - treating in the Halloween special, and got him to dance with her at the school dance in "May I Have this Ed? ''. She appears to have a crush on Kevin, though he is mostly oblivious to this; he favors his bike more. Although the most mature of the neighborhood kids, she occasionally displays traits of the stereotypical "dumb blonde ''.
Lee (Janyse Jaud), Marie (Kathleen Barr), and May (Erin Fitzgerald; Jenn Forgie) are three half - sisters who serve as the main antagonists towards the cul - de-sac and its inhabitants. Lee is the leader with curly red hair that covers her eyes, Marie has blue hair, and May is the buck - toothed blonde. They live in the nearby trailer park called Park ' n ' Flush. The mere presence of the Kankers is enough to terrify the cul - de-sac residents, and they have been shown to have volatile and destructive tempers. While all the Kankers supposedly like the Eds, it has been shown that May prefers Ed, Marie prefers Edd, and Lee prefers Eddy. Throughout the series, each of the Kankers repeatedly get the Eds and privately force themselves onto them with romantic intention, much to their horror.
Eddy 's Brother (Terry Klassen) is mentioned frequently throughout the series, mostly by Eddy, though his name is never revealed. Eddy mentions how his brother taught him much about how to scam, and to be a con artist, and throughout the series many of the children are shown to have a great fear and respect for him. He was previously an unseen character, but he finally makes an appearance in the movie Ed, Edd n Eddy 's Big Picture Show. Eddy 's brother at first seems to be everything the other kids imagined, but it turns out that all of the folklore surrounding him was made up by Eddy to impress the other kids, and in reality he is a sadistic individual who refers to Eddy as a "pipsqueak '' and bullies him mercilessly, which ultimately caused Eddy to become who he is. He works at the "Mondo a-Go Go '' amusement park, but his specific job is unknown.
In 2004, the Eds also appeared in a short series of basketball commercials with NBA All - Star Steve Francis. All three Eds have been the main roles in four Ed, Edd n Eddy - based video games, including Ed, Edd n Eddy: Jawbreakers! (2002), Ed, Edd n Eddy: Giant Jawbreakers (2004), Ed, Edd n Eddy: The Mis - Edventures (2005), and Ed, Edd n Eddy: Scam of the Century (2007), as well as appearing as playable characters in a number of Cartoon Network - based video games, including 2003 's Cartoon Network: Block Party and Cartoon Network Speedway. All three Eds appear as Non-playable characters in the MMOG Cartoon Network Universe: FusionFall. They also appear as Nanos (items that help the user or his / her party). The Eds and Sarah have also been free toys in children 's meals for Subway. The three have also appeared on a number of Ed, Edd n Eddy T - shirts available for purchase on the Cartoon Network Shop. A series of Ed, Edd n Eddy DVDs have been released. The three have made a cameo appearance in a Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends episode, along with Dexter of Dexter 's Laboratory, and in a crossover of The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy and Codename: Kids Next Door entitled "The Grim Adventures of the Kids Next Door. '' Ed appeared in the "Cartoon Network Elections 2004 '' with Grim from The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy as a team, and they ended up winning, due to the highest number of votes by viewers.
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who is the best soccer player in fifa | FIFA world player of the year - wikipedia
The FIFA World Player of the Year was an association football award presented annually by the sport 's governing body, FIFA, between 1991 and 2015. Originally an honour awarded to world 's best men 's player from 1991 -- 2000, it was awarded to both men and women from 2001 -- 2009. After 2010, it has been presented exclusively to the best women 's player. Coaches and captains of international teams and media representatives selected the player they deem to have performed the best in the previous calendar year.
During the men 's era, Brazilian players won 8 out of 19 years, compared to three wins -- the second most -- for French players. In terms of individual players, Brazil again led with five, followed by Italy and Portugal with two each. The youngest winner was Ronaldo, who won at 20 years old in 1996, and the oldest winner was Fabio Cannavaro, who won aged 33 in 2006. Ronaldo and Zinedine Zidane each won the award three times, while Ronaldo and Ronaldinho were the only players to win in successive years. From 2010 to 2015, the equivalent men 's award was the FIFA Ballon d'Or.
Eight women 's footballers -- three Germans, three Americans, one Brazilian, and one Japanese -- have won the award. Marta, the youngest recipient at age 20 in 2006, has won five successive awards, the most of any player. Birgit Prinz won three times in a row and Mia Hamm won twice in a row. The oldest winner is Nadine Angerer, who was 35 when she won in 2013; she is also the only goalkeeper of either sex to win.
The winners are chosen by the coaches and captains of national teams as well as by international media representatives invited by FIFA. In a voting system based on positional voting, each voter is allotted three votes, worth five points, three points and one point, and the three finalists are ordered based on total number of points. Following criticism from some sections of the media over nominations in previous years, FIFA has since 2004 provided shortlists from which its voters can select their choices.
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From 2010 to 2015, the world 's best player was awarded the FIFA Ballon d'Or. In 2016, FIFA created The Best FIFA Men 's Player to honour the best player around the world.
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In 2016, FIFA created The Best FIFA Women 's Player award instead.
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what are the mouthparts of a grasshopper specialized for | Insect mouthparts - wikipedia
Insects exhibit a range of mouthparts, adapted to particular modes of feeding. The earliest insects had chewing mouthparts. Specialization has mostly been for piercing and sucking, although a range of specializations exist, as these modes of feeding have evolved a number of times (for example, mosquitoes (which are flies) and aphids (which are true bugs) both pierce and suck, however female mosquitoes feed on animal blood whereas aphids feed on plant fluids). In this page, the individual mouthparts are introduced for chewing insects. Specializations are generally described thereafter.
Like most external features of arthropods, the mouthparts of hexapoda are highly derived. Insect mouthparts show a multitude of different functional mechanisms across the wide diversity of species considered insects. Certainly it is common for significant homology to be conserved, with matching structures formed from matching primordia, and having the same evolutionary origin. On the other hand, even structures that physically are almost identical, and share almost identical functionality as well, may not be homologous; their analogous functions and appearance might be the product of convergent evolution.
Examples of chewing insects include dragonflies, grasshoppers and beetles. Some insects do not have chewing mouthparts as adults but do chew solid food when they feed while they still are larvae. The moths and butterflies are major examples of such adaptations.
A chewing insect has a pair of mandibles, one on each side of the head. The mandibles are caudal to the labrum and anterior to the maxillae. Typically the mandibles are the largest and most robust mouthparts of a chewing insect, and it uses them to masticate (cut, tear, crush, chew) food items. Two sets of muscles move the mandibles in the coronal plane: abductor muscles move insects ' mandibles apart (laterally); adductor muscles bring them together (medially). This they do mainly in opening and closing their jaws in feeding, but also in using the mandibles as tools, or possibly in fighting; note however, that this refers to the coronal plane of the mouth, not necessarily of the insect 's body, because insects ' heads differ greatly in their orientation.
In carnivorous chewing insects, the mandibles commonly are particularly serrated and knife - like, and often with piercing points. In herbivorous chewing insects mandibles tend to be broader and flatter on their opposing faces, as for example in caterpillars.
In males of some species, such as of Lucanidae and some Cerambycidae, the mandibles are modified to such an extent that they do not serve any feeding function, but are instead used to defend mating sites from other males. In some ants and termites, the mandibles also serve a defensive function (particularly in soldier castes). In bull ants, the mandibles are elongate and toothed, used both as hunting (and defensive) appendages. In bees, that feed primarily by use of a proboscis, the primary use of the mandibles is to manipulate and shape wax, and many paper wasps have mandibles adapted to scraping and ingesting wood fibres.
Situated beneath (caudal to) the mandibles, paired maxillae manipulate and, in chewing insects, partly masticate, food. Each maxilla consists of two parts, the proximal cardo (plural cardines), and distal stipes (plural stipites). At the apex of each stipes are two lobes, the inner lacinia and outer galea (plurals laciniae and galeae). At the outer margin, the typical galea is a cupped or scoop - like structure, located over the outer edge of the labium. In non-chewing insects, such as adult Lepidoptera, the maxillae may be drastically adapted to other functions.
Unlike the mandibles, but like the labium, the maxillae bear lateral palps on their stipites. These palps serve as organs of touch and taste in feeding, and in inspection of potential foods.
In chewing insects, adductor and abductor muscles extend from inside the cranium to within the bases of the stipites and cardines much as happens with the mandibles in feeding, and also in using the maxillae as tools. To some extent the maxillae are more mobile than the mandibles, and the galeae, laciniae, and palps also can move up and down somewhat, in the sagittal plane, both in feeding and in working, for example in nest building by mud - dauber wasps.
Maxillae in most insects function partly like mandibles in feeding, but they are more mobile and less heavily sclerotised than mandibles, so they are more important in manipulating soft, liquid, or particulate food rather than cutting or crushing food such as material that requires the mandibles to cut or crush.
Like the mandibles, maxillae are innervated by the sub-esopharyngeal ganglia.
The labium typically is a roughly quadrilateral structure, formed by paired, fused secondary maxillae. It is the major component of the floor of the mouth. Typically, together with the maxillae, the labrum assists manipulation of food during mastication.
The role of the labium in some insects however, is adapted to special functions; perhaps the most dramatic example is in the jaws of the nymphs of the Odonata, the dragonflies and damselflies. In these insects, the labium folds neatly beneath the head and thorax, but the insect can flick it out to snatch prey, inject venom to kill and partly digest the prey, and to bear it back to the head, where the chewing mouthparts can demolish it and swallow the particles.
The labium is attached at the rear end of the structure called cibarium, and its broad basal portion is divided into regions called the submentum, which is the proximal part, the mentum in the middle, and the prementum, which is the distal section, and furthest anterior.
The prementum bears a structure called the ligula; this consists of an inner pair of lobes called glossae and a lateral pair called paraglossae. These structures are homologous to the lacinia and galea of maxillae. The labial palps borne on the sides of labium are the counterparts of maxillary palps. Like the maxillary palps, the labial palps aid sensory function in eating. In many species the musculature of the labium is much more complex than that of the other jaws, because in most, the ligula, palps and prementum all can be moved independently.
The labium is innervated by the sub-esophageal ganglia.
In the honey bee, the labium is elongated to form a tube and tongue, and these insects are classified as having both chewing and lapping mouthparts.
The hypopharynx is a somewhat globular structure, located medially to the mandibles and the maxillae. In many species it is membranous and associated with salivary glands. It assists in swallowing the food. The hypopharynx divides the oral cavity into two parts: the cibarium or dorsal food pouch and ventral salivarium into which the salivary duct opens.
This section deals only with insects that feed by sucking fluids, as a rule without piercing their food first, and without sponging or licking. Typical examples are adult moths and butterflies. As is usually the case with insects, there are variations: some moths, such as species of Serrodes and Achaea do pierce fruit to the extent that they are regarded as serious orchard pests. Some moths do not feed after emerging from the pupa, and have greatly reduced, vestigial mouthparts or none at all. All but a few adult Lepidoptera lack mandibles (the superfamily known as the mandibulate moths have fully developed mandibles as adults), but also have the remaining mouthparts in the form of an elongated sucking tube, the proboscis.
The proboscis, as seen in adult Lepidoptera, is one of the defining characteristics of the morphology of the order; it is a long tube formed by the paired galeae of the maxillae. Unlike sucking organs in other orders of insects, the Lepidopteran proboscis can coil up so completely that it can fit under the head when not in use. During feeding, however, it extends to reach the nectar of flowers or other fluids. In certain specialist pollinators, the proboscis may be several times the body length of the moth.
A number of insect orders (or more precisely families within them) have mouthparts that pierce food items to enable sucking of internal fluids. Some are herbivorous, like aphids and leafhoppers, while others are insectivorous, like assassin bugs and mosquitoes (females only).
The defining feature of the order Hemiptera is the possession of mouthparts where the mandibles and maxillae are modified into a proboscis, sheathed within a modified labium, which is capable of piercing tissues and sucking out the liquids. For example, true bugs, such as shield bugs, feed on the fluids of plants. Predatory bugs such as assassin bugs have the same mouthparts, but they are used to pierce the cuticles of captured prey.
In female mosquitoes, all mouthparts are elongated. The labium encloses all other mouthparts like a sheath. The labrum forms the main feeding tube, through which blood is sucked. Paired mandibles and maxillae are present, together forming the stylet, which is used to pierce an animal 's skin. During piercing, the labium remains outside the food item 's skin, folding away from the stylet. Saliva containing anticoagulants, is injected into the food item and blood sucked out, each through different tubes.
The housefly is the typical sponging insect. The labium gives the description, being articulate and possessing at its end a sponge - like labellum. Paired mandibles and maxillae are present, but much reduced and non-functional. The labellum 's surface is covered by minute food channels, formed by the interlocking elongate hypopharynx and epipharynx, forming a proboscis used to channel liquid food to the oesophagus. The food channel draws liquid and liquified food to the oesophagus by capillary action. The housefly is able to eat solid food by secreting saliva and dabbing it over the food item. As the saliva dissolves the food, the solution is then drawn up into the mouth as a liquid.
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how many episodes in each season of arrow | List of Arrow episodes - Wikipedia
Arrow is an American television series, developed by Greg Berlanti, Marc Guggenheim and Andrew Kreisberg, based on the DC Comics character Green Arrow. The series premiered in the United States on October 10, 2012 for The CW television network. The first five seasons have been released on DVD to Regions 1, 2 and 4 and on Blu - ray to Regions A and B.
Arrow follows billionaire playboy Oliver Queen (Stephen Amell), who, after five years of being stranded on a hostile island, returns home to his mother, Moira Queen (Susanna Thompson) and sister, Thea Queen (Willa Holland) and becomes a bow and arrow - wielding vigilante. He is initially aided by his friends, John Diggle (David Ramsey) and Felicity Smoak (Emily Bett Rickards), and later aspiring vigilantes Roy Harper (Colton Haynes), Ray Palmer (Brandon Routh), Curtis Holt (Echo Kellum), Rene Ramirez (Rick Gonzalez), Evelyn Sharp (Madison McLaughlin), Rory Regan (Joe Dinicol), and Dinah Drake (Juliana Harkavy) join them. In addition, Queen 's team receives help from the Lance family; Laurel (Katie Cassidy), Sara (Caity Lotz), and Quentin (Paul Blackthorne), sharing the goal of bringing justice to Starling City (later Star City). The series also featured flashbacks in most episodes in the first five seasons to the time Queen was missing, and how his experiences there shaped him into the man who returned home to fight crime.
As of May 17, 2018, 138 episodes of Arrow have aired, concluding the sixth season. On April 2, 2018, the CW renewed the series for a seventh season.
Flashbacks to Hong Kong show Oliver learning how to torture suspects effectively to get information. In the present, Oliver and Roy track down the home of Digger Harkness, the boomerang - wielding murderer, but they only find A.R.G.U.S. operatives looking for the same man. Caitlin and Cisco arrive in Starling City to help Felicity investigate Sara 's death. Digger attempts to kill Lyla; Roy, Oliver and Barry arrive and stop him. Later, Lyla reveals Digger was part of the Suicide Squad. Oliver 's extreme interrogation methods lead Barry to question how emotionally stable Oliver is. Digger traces Oliver 's hideout, where he wounds Lyla before escaping. In order to leave town, Digger plants 5 bombs around the city. While Oliver captures Digger, Barry uses both his and Oliver 's teams to defuse the bombs at the same time. Digger is incarcerated in the island with Slade. Lyla accepts Diggle 's marriage proposal. Before Barry and his team 's departure, he and Oliver decide to have a friendly duel.
Malcolm orchestrates a meeting between Savage, Barry, and Oliver. Savage demands they turn over Kendra and Carter or he will destroy both Central City and Star City with the Staff of Horus. They devise a plan to deliver the pair as a ruse to get close enough to destroy the staff. The plan fails; Kendra and Carter are killed and Savage uses the staff to destroy everyone else in the city. Barry escapes and runs fast enough to go back in time to the point of the original negotiation. Barry informs Oliver of his time travel and the mistakes that led to their defeat. They change their approach to the plan and Barry is able to steal the staff. He and Oliver use it on Savage, burning his body. Afterward, Kendra and Carter decide to use their powers to help others in another city. Cisco gives her a tracking device. Meanwhile, Oliver learns about his son, William, and accepts Samantha 's condition not to tell William or anyone else about the paternity in order to be able to see William. Malcolm collects Savage 's ashes, repeating the words Savage said the first time he killed the pair.
Oliver finds himself back at Queen Manor; both his parents are alive, he is about to be married to Laurel Lance, and Diggle is the Hood. However, it is revealed that he, Diggle, Thea, Sara, and Ray are all being held unconscious inside pods aboard the Dominator mothership. Meanwhile, Felicity, Curtis, and Cisco Ramon try to hack into the Dominators ' mainframe using a piece of their technology. The team recovers a necessary device with the help of the Flash and Supergirl and manages to locate the others. Oliver begins seeing flashes of his former life, as do Sara and Ray. All five captives soon realize that they are inside a shared hallucination of simulated reality. Their escape attempt is blocked by manifestations of Malcolm Merlyn, Deathstroke, Damien Darhk, and their mercenaries. The group defeats all of them, then leaves the dream and awakens inside the ship. Escaping in a shuttle, they are rescued by the Waverider. Ray deduces that the Dominators were gathering information from their minds to help them complete a special "weapon '', using the hallucination as a distraction. The team learns that the Dominator mothership is headed toward Earth.
In S.T.A.R. Labs, a captured interdimensional villain from Earth - X, Prometheus - X, is revealed to be a parallel universe doppelgänger of Tommy Merlyn. After he cruelly taunts Oliver over his attachment to Tommy, Prometheus - X commits suicide out of loyalty to Earth - X 's Nazi regime. Prometheus - X 's partners, Dark Arrow (Oliver 's doppelgänger), Overgirl (Kara Danvers ' doppelgänger), and Eobard Thawne steal a sublight generator, the Prism, from research company Dayton Optical Systems; Oliver, Barry, Kara, and the others believe that Dark Arrow seeks to build a neutron bomb with it to aid his conquest on Earth - 1. After a series of battles, most of the heroes including Team Arrow are in captivity at S.T.A.R. Labs after the Nazi forces infiltrate it, and Oliver, Barry and his allies are transported to Earth - X 's concentration camp, but Kara is moved to S.T.A.R. Labs. Oliver is determined to kill Dark Arrow after his capture. The villains reveal that Overgirl is dying and Dark Arrow plans to use the Prism, charged by S.T.A.R. Labs ' particle accelerator, to produce artificial red sunlight that would weaken both Kara and Overgirl 's respective invulnerability, allowing a heart transplant for Overgirl but killing Kara in the process.
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given the egyptian temple below identify area 2 | Egyptian temple - Wikipedia
Egyptian temples were built for the official worship of the gods and in commemoration of the pharaohs in ancient Egypt and regions under Egyptian control. Temples were seen as houses for the gods or kings to whom they were dedicated. Within them, the Egyptians performed a variety of rituals, the central functions of Egyptian religion: giving offerings to the gods, reenacting their mythological interactions through festivals, and warding off the forces of chaos. These rituals were seen as necessary for the gods to continue to uphold maat, the divine order of the universe. Housing and caring for the gods were the obligations of pharaohs, who therefore dedicated prodigious resources to temple construction and maintenance. Out of necessity, pharaohs delegated most of their ritual duties to a host of priests, but most of the populace was excluded from direct participation in ceremonies and forbidden to enter a temple 's most sacred areas. Nevertheless, a temple was an important religious site for all classes of Egyptians, who went there to pray, give offerings, and seek oracular guidance from the god dwelling within.
The most important part of the temple was the sanctuary, which typically contained a cult image, a statue of its god. The rooms outside the sanctuary grew larger and more elaborate over time, so that temples evolved from small shrines in the late Predynastic Period (late fourth millennium BC) to large stone edifices in the New Kingdom (c. 1550 -- 1070 BC) and later. These edifices are among the largest and most enduring examples of Egyptian architecture, with their elements arranged and decorated according to complex patterns of religious symbolism. Their typical design consisted of a series of enclosed halls, open courts, and entrance pylons aligned along the path used for festival processions. Beyond the temple proper was an outer wall enclosing a wide variety of secondary buildings.
A large temple also owned sizable tracts of land and employed thousands of laymen to supply its needs. Temples were therefore key economic as well as religious centers. The priests who managed these powerful institutions wielded considerable influence, and despite their ostensible subordination to the king they may have posed significant challenges to his authority.
Temple - building in Egypt continued despite the nation 's decline and ultimate loss of independence to the Roman Empire in 30 BC. With the coming of Christianity, traditional Egyptian religion faced increasing persecution, and temple cults died out during the fourth through sixth centuries CE. For centuries, the ancient buildings suffered destruction and neglect. At the start of the nineteenth century, a wave of interest in ancient Egypt swept Europe, giving rise to the discipline of Egyptology and drawing increasing numbers of visitors to the civilization 's remains. Dozens of temples survive today, and some have become world - famous tourist attractions that contribute significantly to the modern Egyptian economy. Egyptologists continue to study the surviving temples and the remains of destroyed ones as invaluable sources of information about ancient Egyptian society.
Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the gods to reside on earth. Indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt - nṯr, means "mansion (or enclosure) of a god ''. A god 's presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and allowed humans to interact with the god through ritual. These rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, the ideal order of nature and of human society in Egyptian belief. Maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and it was the purpose of a temple as well.
Because he was credited with divine power himself, the pharaoh, as a sacred king, was regarded as Egypt 's representative to the gods and its most important upholder of maat. Thus, it was theoretically his duty to perform the temple rites. While it is uncertain how often he participated in ceremonies, the existence of temples across Egypt made it impossible for him to do so in all cases, and most of the time these duties were delegated to priests. The pharaoh was nevertheless obligated to maintain, provide for, and expand the temples throughout his realm.
Although the pharaoh delegated his authority, the performance of temple rituals was still an official duty, restricted to high - ranking priests. The participation of the general populace in most ceremonies was prohibited. Much of the lay religious activity in Egypt instead took place in private and community shrines, separate from the official temples. As the primary link between the human and divine realms, temples attracted considerable veneration from ordinary Egyptians.
Each temple had a principal deity, and most were dedicated to other gods as well. Not all deities had temples dedicated to them. Many demons and household gods were involved primarily in magical or private religious practice, with little or no presence in temple ceremonies. There were also other gods who had significant roles in the cosmos but, for uncertain reasons, were not honored with temples of their own. Of those gods who did have temples of their own, many were venerated mainly in certain areas of Egypt, though many gods with a strong local tie were also important across the nation. Even deities whose worship spanned the country were strongly associated with the cities where their chief temples were located. In Egyptian creation myths, the first temple originated as a shelter for a god -- which god it was varied according to the city -- that stood on the mound of land where the process of creation began. Each temple in Egypt, therefore, was equated with this original temple and with the site of creation itself. As the primordial home of the god and the mythological location of the city 's founding, the temple was seen as the hub of the region, from which the city 's patron god ruled over it.
Pharaohs also built temples where offerings were made to sustain their spirits in the afterlife, often linked with or located near their tombs. These temples are traditionally called "mortuary temples '' and regarded as essentially different from divine temples. In recent years some Egyptologists, such as Gerhard Haeny, have argued that there is no clear division between the two. The Egyptians did not refer to mortuary temples by any distinct name. Nor were rituals for the dead and rituals for the gods mutually exclusive; the symbolism surrounding death was present in all Egyptian temples. The worship of gods was present to some degree in mortuary temples, and the Egyptologist Stephen Quirke has said that "at all periods royal cult involves the gods, but equally... all cult of the gods involves the king ''. Even so, certain temples were clearly used to commemorate deceased kings and to give offerings to their spirits. Their exact purpose is not fully understood; they may have been meant to unite the king with the gods, elevating him to a divine status greater than that of ordinary kingship. In any case, the difficulty of separating divine and mortuary temples reflects the close intertwining of divinity and kingship in Egyptian belief.
Temples were also key centers of economic activity. The largest of them required prodigious resources and employed tens of thousands of priests, craftsmen, and laborers. The temple 's economic workings were analogous to those of a large Egyptian household, with servants dedicated to serving the temple god as they might serve the master of an estate. This similarity is reflected in the Egyptian term for the temple lands and their administration, pr, meaning "house '' or "estate ''.
Some of the temple 's supplies came from direct donations by the king. In the New Kingdom, when Egypt was an imperial power, these donations often came out of the spoils of the king 's military campaigns or the tribute given by his client states. The king might also levy various taxes that went directly to support a temple. Other revenue came from private individuals, who offered land, slaves, or goods to temples in exchange for a supply of offerings and priestly services to sustain their spirits in the afterlife.
Much of a temple 's economic support came from its own resources. These included large tracts of land beyond the temple enclosure, sometimes in a completely different region than the temple itself. The most important type of property was farmland, producing grain, fruit, or wine, or supporting herds of livestock. The temple either managed these lands directly, rented them out to farmers for a share of the produce, or managed them jointly with the royal administration. Temples also launched expeditions into the desert to collect resources such as salt, honey, or wild game, or to mine precious minerals. Some owned fleets of ships with which to conduct their own trade across the country or even beyond Egypt 's borders. Thus, as Richard H. Wilkinson says, the temple estate "often represented no less than a slice of Egypt itself ''. As a major economic center and the employer of a large part of the local population, the temple enclosure was a key part of the town in which it stood. Conversely, when a temple was founded on empty land, a new town was built to support it.
All this economic power was ultimately under the pharaoh 's control, and temple products and property were often taxed. Their employees, even the priests, were subject to the state corvée system, which conscripted labor for royal projects. They could also be ordered to provide supplies for some specific purposes. Harkhuf 's trading expedition in the Old Kingdom was allowed to procure supplies from any temple it wished, and the mortuary temples of the Theban Necropolis in the New Kingdom oversaw the provision of the royally employed tomb workers at Deir el - Medina. Kings could also exempt temples or classes of personnel from taxation and conscription.
The royal administration could also order one temple to divert its resources to another temple whose influence it wished to expand. Thus, a king might increase the income of the temples of a god he favored, and mortuary temples of recent rulers tended to siphon off resources from temples to pharaohs long dead. The most drastic means of controlling the temple estates was to completely revise the distribution of their property nationwide, which might extend to closing down certain temples. Such changes could significantly alter Egypt 's economic landscape. The temples were thus important instruments with which the king managed the nation 's resources and its people. As the direct overseers of their own economic sphere, the administrations of large temples wielded considerable influence and may have posed a challenge to the authority of a weak pharaoh, although it is unclear how independent they were.
Once Egypt became a Roman province, Roman officials sought to limit temples ' power and independence. Temples were made to either pay rent to the government for the land they owned or surrender that land to the state in exchange for a government stipend. Their cults became tightly regulated, less self - supporting, and dependent on government donations and various small sources of revenue.
The earliest known shrines appeared in Egypt in the late Predynastic Period, in the late fourth millennium BC, at sites such as Sais and Buto in Lower Egypt and Nekhen and Coptos in Upper Egypt. Most of these shrines were made of perishable materials such as wood, reed matting, and mudbrick. Despite the impermanence of these early buildings, later Egyptian art continually reused and adapted elements from them, evoking the ancient shrines to suggest the eternal nature of the gods and their dwelling places.
In the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100 -- 2686 BC), the first pharaohs built funerary complexes in the religious center of Abydos following a single general pattern, with a rectangular mudbrick enclosure. In the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 -- 2181 BC) that followed the Early Dynastic Period, royal funerary monuments greatly expanded, while most divine temples remained comparatively small, suggesting that official religion in this period emphasized the cult of the divine king more than the direct worship of deities. Deities closely connected with the king, such as the sun god Ra, received more royal contributions than other deities. Ra 's temple at Heliopolis was one of the great religious centers of the age, and several Old Kingdom pharaohs built large sun temples in his honor near their pyramids. Meanwhile, the small provincial temples retained a variety of local styles from Predynastic times, unaffected by the royal cult sites.
The expansion of funerary monuments began in the reign of Djoser, who built his complex entirely of stone and placed in the enclosure a step pyramid under which he was buried: the Pyramid of Djoser. For the rest of the Old Kingdom, tomb and temple were joined in elaborate stone pyramid complexes. Near each pyramid complex was a town that supplied its needs, as towns would support temples throughout Egyptian history. Other changes came in the reign of Sneferu who, beginning with his first pyramid at Meidum, built pyramid complexes symmetrically along an east -- west axis, with a valley temple on the banks of the Nile linked to a pyramid temple at the foot of the pyramid. Sneferu 's immediate successors followed this pattern, but beginning in the late Old Kingdom, pyramid complexes combined different elements from the axial plan and from the rectangular plan of Djoser. To supply the pyramid complexes, kings founded new towns and farming estates on undeveloped lands across Egypt. The flow of goods from these lands to the central government and its temples helped unify the kingdom.
The rulers of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055 -- 1650 BC) continued building pyramids and their associated complexes. The rare remains from Middle Kingdom temples, like the one at Medinet Madi, show that temple plans grew more symmetrical during that period, and divine temples made increasing use of stone. The pattern of a sanctuary lying behind a pillared hall frequently appears in Middle Kingdom temples, and sometimes these two elements are fronted by open courts, foreshadowing the standard temple layout used in later times.
With greater power and wealth during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 -- 1070 BC), Egypt devoted still more resources to its temples, which grew larger and more elaborate. Higher - ranking priestly roles became permanent rather than rotating positions, and they controlled a large portion of Egypt 's wealth. Anthony Spalinger suggests that, as the influence of temples expanded, religious celebrations that had once been fully public were absorbed into the temples ' increasingly important festival rituals. The most important god of the time was Amun, whose main cult center, the Precinct of Amun - Re at Karnak in Thebes, eventually became the largest of all temples, and whose high priests may have wielded considerable political influence.
Many temples were now built entirely of stone, and their general plan became fixed, with the sanctuary, halls, courtyards, and pylon gateways oriented along the path used for festival processions. New Kingdom pharaohs ceased using pyramids as funerary monuments and placed their tombs a great distance from their mortuary temples. Without pyramids to build around, mortuary temples began using the same plan as those dedicated to the gods.
In the middle of the New Kingdom, Pharaoh Akhenaten promoted the god Aten over all others and eventually abolished the official worship of most other gods. Traditional temples were neglected while new Aten temples, differing sharply in design and construction, were erected. But Akhenaten 's revolution was reversed soon after his death, with the traditional cults reinstated and the new temples dismantled. Subsequent pharaohs dedicated still more resources to the temples, particularly Ramesses II, the most prolific monument - builder in Egyptian history. As the wealth of the priesthoods continued to grow, so did their religious influence: temple oracles, controlled by the priests, were an increasingly popular method of making decisions. Pharaonic power waned, and in the eleventh century BC a military leader, Herihor, made himself High Priest of Amun and the de facto ruler of Upper Egypt, beginning the political fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070 -- 664 BC).
As the New Kingdom crumbled, the building of mortuary temples ceased and was never revived. Some rulers of the Third Intermediate Period, such as those at Tanis, were buried within the enclosures of divine temples, thus continuing the close link between temple and tomb.
In the Third Intermediate Period and the following Late Period (664 -- 323 BC), the weakened Egyptian state fell to a series of outside powers, experiencing only occasional periods of independence. Many of these foreign rulers funded and expanded temples to strengthen their claim to the kingship of Egypt. One such group, the Kushite pharaohs of the eighth and seventh centuries BC, adopted Egyptian - style temple architecture for use in their native land of Nubia, beginning a long tradition of sophisticated Nubian temple building. Amid this turmoil, the fortunes of various temples and clergies shifted and the independence of Amun 's priesthood was broken, but the power of the priesthood in general remained.
Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian temple style continued to evolve without absorbing much foreign influence. Whereas earlier temple building mostly focused on male gods, goddesses and child deities grew increasingly prominent. Temples focused more on popular religious activities such as oracles, animal cults, and prayer. New architectural forms continued to develop, such as covered kiosks in front of gateways, more elaborate column styles, and the mammisi, a building celebrating the mythical birth of a god. Though the characteristics of the late temple style had developed by the last period of native rule, most of the examples date from the era of the Ptolemies, Greek kings who ruled as pharaohs for nearly 300 years.
After Rome conquered the Ptolemaic kingdom in 30 BC, Roman emperors took on the role of ruler and temple patron, reducing the temples ' wealth and political power. Many temples in Roman Egypt continued to be built in Egyptian style. Others, including some that were dedicated to Egyptian gods -- such as the temple to Isis at Ras el - Soda -- were built in a style derived from Roman architecture.
Temple - building continued into the third century AD, but as the empire weakened, imperial donations to the temple cults dried up. Cult activities continued, relying increasingly on financial support and volunteer labor from surrounding communities. In the following centuries, Christian emperors issued decrees that were increasingly hostile to pagan cults and temples. Some Christians attacked and destroyed temples, as in the plundering of the Serapeum and other temples in Alexandria in AD 391 or 392. Through some combination of Christian coercion and loss of funds, temples ceased to function at various times. The last temple cults died out in the fourth through sixth centuries AD, although locals may have venerated some sites long after the regular ceremonies there had ceased.
Temples were built throughout Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as at Egyptian - controlled oases in the Libyan Desert as far west as Siwa, and at outposts in the Sinai Peninsula such as Timna. In periods when Egypt dominated Nubia, Egyptian rulers also built temples there, as far south as Jebel Barkal. Most Egyptian towns had a temple, but in some cases, as with mortuary temples or the temples in Nubia, the temple was a new foundation on previously empty land. The exact site of a temple was often chosen for religious reasons; it might, for example, be the mythical birthplace or burial place of a god. The temple axis might also be designed to align with locations of religious significance, such as the site of a neighboring temple or the rising place of the sun or particular stars. The Great Temple of Abu Simbel, for instance, is aligned so that twice a year the rising sun illuminates the statues of the gods in its innermost room. Most temples were aligned toward the Nile with an axis running roughly east -- west.
An elaborate series of foundation rituals preceded construction. A further set of rituals followed the temple 's completion, dedicating it to its patron god. These rites were conducted, at least in theory, by the king as part of his religious duties; indeed, in Egyptian belief all temple construction was symbolically his work. In reality, it was the work of hundreds of his subjects, conscripted in the corvée system. The construction process for a new temple, or a major addition to an existing one, could last years or decades.
The use of stone in Egyptian temples emphasized their purpose as eternal houses for the gods and set them apart from buildings for the use of mortals, which were built of mudbrick. Early temples were built of brick and other perishable materials, and most of the outlying buildings in temple enclosures remained brick - built throughout Egyptian history. The main stones used in temple construction were limestone and sandstone, which are common in Egypt; stones that are harder and more difficult to carve, such as granite, were used in smaller amounts for individual elements like obelisks. The stone to build a temple might be quarried nearby or shipped on the Nile from quarries elsewhere.
Temple structures were built on foundations of stone slabs set into sand - filled trenches. Walls and other structures were built with large blocks of varying shapes. The blocks were laid in courses, usually without mortar. Each stone was dressed to fit with its neighbors, producing cuboid blocks whose uneven shapes interlocked. The interiors of walls were often built with less care, using rougher, poorer - quality stones. To build structures above ground level, the workers used construction ramps. When cutting chambers in living rock, workers excavated from the top down, carving a crawlspace near the ceiling and cutting down to the floor. Once the temple structure was complete, the rough faces of the stones were dressed to create a smooth surface. In decorating these surfaces, reliefs were carved into the stone or, if the stone was of too poor quality to carve, a layer of plaster that covered the stone surface. Reliefs were then decorated with gilding, inlay, or paint. The paints were usually mixtures of mineral pigments with some kind of adhesive, possibly natural gum.
Temple construction did not end once the original plan was complete; pharaohs often rebuilt or replaced decayed temple structures or made additions to those still standing. In the course of these additions, they frequently dismantled old temple buildings to use as fill for the interiors of new structures. On rare occasions this may have been because the old structures or their builders had become anathema, as with Akhenaten 's temples, but in most cases the reason seems to have been convenience. Such expansion and dismantling could considerably distort the original temple plan, as happened at the enormous Precinct of Amun - Re at Karnak, which developed two intersecting axes and several satellite temples.
Like all ancient Egyptian architecture, Egyptian temple designs emphasized order, symmetry, and monumentality and combined geometric shapes with stylized organic motifs. Elements of temple design also alluded to the form of the earliest Egyptian buildings. Cavetto cornices at the tops of walls, for instance, were made to imitate rows of palm fronds placed atop archaic walls, and the batter of exterior walls, while partly meant to ensure stability, was also a holdover from archaic building methods. Temple ground plans usually centered on an axis running on a slight incline from the sanctuary down to the temple entrance. In the fully developed pattern used in the New Kingdom and later, the path used for festival processions -- a broad avenue punctuated with large doors -- served as this central axis. The path was intended primarily for the god 's use when it traveled outside the sanctuary; on most occasions people used smaller side doors. The typical parts of a temple, such as column - filled hypostyle halls, open peristyle courts, and towering entrance pylons, were arranged along this path in a traditional but flexible order. Beyond the temple building proper, the outer walls enclosed numerous satellite buildings. The entire area enclosed by these walls is sometimes called the temenos, the sacred precinct dedicated to the god.
The temple pattern could vary considerably, apart from the distorting effect of additional construction. Many temples, known as hypogea, were cut entirely into living rock, as at Abu Simbel, or had rock - cut inner chambers with masonry courtyards and pylons, as at Wadi es - Sebua. They used much the same layout as free - standing temples but used excavated chambers rather than buildings as their inner rooms. In some temples, like the mortuary temples at Deir el - Bahari, the processional path ran up a series of terraces rather than sitting on a single level. The Ptolemaic Temple of Kom Ombo was built with two main sanctuaries, producing two parallel axes that run the length of the building. The most idiosyncratic temple style was that of the Aten temples built by Akhenaten at el - Amarna, in which the axis passed through a series of entirely open courts filled with altars.
The traditional design was a highly symbolic variety of sacred architecture. It was a greatly elaborated variant on the design of an Egyptian house, reflecting its role as the god 's home. Moreover, the temple represented a piece of the divine realm on earth. The elevated, enclosed sanctuary was equated with the sacred hill where the world was created in Egyptian myth and with the burial chamber of a tomb, where the god 's ba, or spirit, came to inhabit its cult image just as a human ba came to inhabit its mummy. This crucial place, the Egyptians believed, had to be insulated from the impure outside world. Therefore, as one moved toward the sanctuary the amount of outside light decreased, and restrictions on who could enter increased. Yet the temple could also represent the world itself. The processional way could therefore stand for the path of the sun traveling across the sky, and the sanctuary for the Duat where it was believed to set and to be reborn at night. The space outside the building was thus equated with the waters of chaos that lay outside the world, while the temple represented the order of the cosmos and the place where that order was continually renewed.
The temple 's inner chambers centered on the sanctuary of the temple 's primary god, which typically lay along the axis near the back of the temple building, and in pyramid temples directly against the pyramid base. The sanctuary was the focus of temple ritual, the place where the divine presence manifested most strongly. The form in which it manifested itself varied. In Aten temples and traditional solar shrines, the object of ritual was the sun itself or a benben stone representing the sun, worshipped in a court open to the sky. In many mortuary temples, the inner areas contained statues of the deceased pharaoh, or a false door where his ba was believed to appear to receive offerings.
In most temples, the focus was the cult image: a statue of the temple god which that god 's ba was believed to inhabit while interacting with humans. The sanctuary in these temples contained either a naos, a cabinet - like shrine that housed the divine image, or a model barque containing the image within its cabin, which was used to carry the image during festival processions. In some cases the sanctuary may have housed several cult statues. To emphasize the sanctuary 's sacred nature, it was kept in total darkness. Whereas in earlier times the sanctuary lay at the very back of the building, in the Late and Ptolemaic periods it became a freestanding building inside the temple, further insulated from the outside world by the surrounding corridors and rooms.
Subsidiary chapels, dedicated to deities associated with the primary god, lay to the sides of the main one. When the main temple god was male, the secondary chapels were often dedicated to that god 's mythological consort and child. The secondary chapels in mortuary temples were devoted to gods associated with kingship.
Several other rooms neighbored the sanctuary. Many of these rooms were used to store ceremonial equipment, ritual texts, or temple valuables; others had specific ritual functions. The room where offerings were given to the deity was often separate from the sanctuary itself, and in temples without a barque in the sanctuary, there was a separate shrine to store the barque. In late temples the ritual areas could extend to chapels on the roof and crypts below the floor. Finally, in the exterior wall at the back of the temple, there were often niches for laymen to pray to the temple god, as close as they could come to its dwelling place.
Hypostyle halls, covered rooms filled with columns, appear in temples throughout Egyptian history. By the New Kingdom they typically lay directly in front of the sanctuary area. These halls were less restricted than the inner rooms, being open to laymen at least in some cases. They were often less dark as well: New Kingdom halls rose into tall central passages over the processional path, allowing a clerestory to provide dim light. The epitome of this style is the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, whose largest columns are 69 feet (21 m) tall. In later periods, the Egyptians favored a different style of hall, where a low screen wall at the front let in the light. The shadowy halls, whose columns were often shaped to imitate plants such as lotus or papyrus, were symbolic of the mythological marsh that surrounded the primeval mound at the time of creation. The columns could also be equated with the pillars that held up the sky in Egyptian cosmology.
Beyond the hypostyle hall were one or more peristyle courts open to the sky. These open courts, which had been a part of Egyptian temple design since the Old Kingdom, became transitional areas in the standard plan of the New Kingdom, lying between the public space outside the temple and the more restricted areas within. Here the public met with the priests and assembled during festivals. At the front of each court was usually a pylon, a pair of broad, flat towers flanking the main gateway. The pylon is known from only scattered examples in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but in the New it quickly became the distinctive and imposing façade common to most Egyptian temples. The pylon served symbolically as a guard tower against the forces of disorder and may also have been meant to resemble the hieroglyph for "horizon '', underscoring the temple 's solar symbolism.
The front of every pylon held niches for pairs of flagpoles to stand. Unlike pylons, such flags had stood at temple entrances since the earliest Predynastic shrines. They were so closely associated with the presence of a deity that the hieroglyph for them came to stand for the Egyptian word for "god ''.
Outside the temple building proper was the temple enclosure, surrounded by a rectangular brick wall that symbolically protected the sacred space from outside disorder. On occasion this function was more than symbolic, especially during the last native dynasties in the fourth century BC, when the walls were fully fortified in case of Persian invasion. In late temples these walls frequently had alternating concave and convex courses of bricks, so that the top of the wall undulated vertically. This pattern may have been meant to evoke the mythological waters of chaos.
The walls enclosed many buildings related to the temple 's function. Some enclosures contain satellite chapels dedicated to deities associated with the temple god, including mammisis celebrating the birth of the god 's mythological child. The sacred lakes found in many temple enclosures served as reservoirs for the water used in rituals, as places for the priests to ritually cleanse themselves, and as representations of the water from which the world emerged. Mortuary temples sometimes contain a palace for the spirit of the king to whom the temple was dedicated, built against the temple building proper. The temple of Seti I at Abydos incorporates an unusual underground structure, the Osireion, which may have served as a symbolic tomb for the king. Sanatoria in some temples provided a place for the sick to await healing dreams sent by the god. Other temple buildings included kitchens, workshops, and storehouses to supply the temple 's needs. Especially important was the pr - ˁnḫ or "house of life '', where the temple edited, copied, and stored its religious texts, including those used for temple rituals. The house of life also functioned as a general center of learning, containing works on non-religious subjects such as history, geography, astronomy, and medicine. Although these outlying buildings were devoted to more mundane purposes than the temple itself, they still had religious significance; even granaries might be used for specific ceremonies.
Through the enclosure ran the processional path, which led from the temple entrance through the main gate in the enclosure wall. The path was frequently decorated with sphinx statues and punctuated by barque stations, where the priests carrying the festival barque could set it down to rest during the procession. The processional path usually ended in a quay on the Nile, which served as the entrance point for river - borne visitors and the exit point for the festival procession when it travelled by water. In Old Kingdom pyramid temples, the quay adjoined an entire temple (the valley temple), which was linked to the pyramid temple by the processional causeway.
The temple building was elaborately decorated with reliefs and free - standing sculpture, all with religious significance. As with the cult statue, the gods were believed to be present in these images, suffusing the temple with sacred power. Symbols of places in Egypt or parts of the cosmos enhanced the mythical geography already present in the temple 's architecture. Images of rituals served to reinforce the rituals ' magical effect and to perpetuate that effect even if the rituals ceased to be performed. Because of their religious nature, these decorations showed an idealized version of reality, emblematic of the temple 's purpose rather than real events. For instance, the king was shown performing most rituals, while priests, if depicted, were secondary. It was unimportant that he was rarely present for these ceremonies; it was his broader role as intermediary with the gods that mattered.
The most important form of decoration is relief. Relief became more extensive over time, and in late temples, walls, ceilings, columns, and beams were all decorated, as were free - standing stelae erected within the enclosure. Egyptian artists used both bas relief and sunken relief. Bas relief allowed more subtle artistry but involved more carving than sunken relief. Sunken relief was therefore used on harder, more difficult stone and when the builders wanted to finish quickly. It was also appropriate for exterior surfaces, where the shadows it created made the figures stand out in bright sunlight. Finished reliefs were painted using the basic colors black, white, red, yellow, green, and blue, although the artists often mixed pigments to create other colors. In some cases, gilding or inlaid pieces of colored glass or faience substituted for paint.
Temple decoration is among the most important sources of information on Ancient Egypt. It includes calendars of festivals, accounts of myths, depictions of rituals, and the texts of hymns. Pharaohs recorded their temple - building activities and their campaigns against the enemies of Egypt. The Ptolemaic temples go further to include information of all kinds taken from temple libraries. The decoration in a given room either depicts the actions performed there or has some symbolic tie to the room 's purpose, providing a great deal of information on temple activities. Interior walls were divided into several registers. The lowest registers were decorated with plants representing the primeval marsh, while the ceilings and tops of walls were decorated with stars and flying birds to represent the sky. Illustrations of rituals, surrounded by text related to the rituals, often filled the middle and upper registers. Courts and exterior walls often recorded the king 's military exploits. The pylon showed the "smiting scene '', a motif in which the king strikes down his enemies, symbolizing the defeat of the forces of chaos.
The text on the walls was the formal hieroglyphic script. Some texts were written in a "cryptographic '' form, using symbols in a different way than the normal conventions of hieroglyphic writing. Cryptographic text became more widespread and more complex in Ptolemaic times. Temple walls also frequently bear written or drawn graffiti, both in modern languages and in ancient ones such as Greek, Latin, and Demotic, the form of Egyptian that was commonly used in Greco - Roman times. Although not part of the temple 's formal decoration, graffiti can be an important source of information about its history, both when its cults were functioning and after its abandonment. Ancient graffiti, for instance, often mention the names and titles of priests who worked in the temple, and modern travelers often inscribed their names in temples that they visited. Graffiti left by priests and pilgrims at Philae include the last ancient hieroglyphic text, inscribed in AD 394, and the last one in Demotic script, from AD 452.
Large, free - standing sculpture included obelisks, tall, pointed pillars that symbolized the sun. The largest of them, the Lateran Obelisk, was more than 118 feet (36 m) high. They were often placed in pairs in front of pylons or elsewhere along the temple axis. Statues of the king, which were similarly placed, also reached colossal size; the Colossi of Memnon at the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III and the statue of Ramesses II at the Ramesseum are the largest free - standing statues made in ancient Egypt. There were also figures of gods, often in sphinx form, that served as symbolic guardians of the temple. The most numerous statues were votive figures donated to the temple by kings, private individuals, or even towns to gain divine favor. They could depict the god to whom they were dedicated, the people who donated the statue, or both. The most essential temple statues were the cult images, which were usually made of or decorated with precious materials such as gold and lapis lazuli.
A temple needed many people to perform its rituals and support duties. Priests performed the temple 's essential ritual functions, but in Egyptian religious ideology they were far less important than the king. As temple decoration illustrates, all ceremonies were, in theory, acts by the king, and priests merely stood in his place. The priests were therefore subject to the king 's authority, and he had the right to appoint anyone he wished to the priesthood. In fact, in the Old and Middle Kingdoms most priests were government officials who left their secular duties for part of the year to serve the temple in shifts. Once the priesthood became more professional, the king seems to have used his power over appointments mainly for the highest - ranking positions, usually to reward a favorite official with a job or to intervene for political reasons in the affairs of an important cult. Lesser appointments he delegated to his vizier or to the priests themselves. In the latter case, the holder of an office named his own son as his successor, or the temple clergy conferred to decide who should fill an empty post. Priestly offices were extremely lucrative and tended to be held by the wealthiest and most influential members of Egyptian society, until Roman economic reforms reduced the temples ' resources.
The requirements for the priesthood differed over time and among the cults of different gods. Although detailed theological knowledge was involved in priestly offices, little is known about what knowledge or training may have been required of the officeholders. Priests were required to observe strict standards of ritual purity in the sacred space. They shaved their heads and bodies, washed several times a day, and wore only clean linen clothing. They were not required to be celibate, but sexual intercourse rendered them unclean until they underwent further purification. The cults of specific gods might impose further restrictions related to that god 's mythology, such as rules against eating the meat of an animal that represented the god. The acceptance of women into the priesthood was variable. In the Old Kingdom many women served as priests, but their presence in clergies declined drastically in the Middle Kingdom before increasing in the Third Intermediate Period. Lesser positions, such as that of musician in ceremonies, remained open to women in even the most restrictive periods, as did the special role of ceremonial consort of the god. This latter role was highly influential, and the most important of these consorts, the God 's Wife of Amun, even supplanted the High Priest of Amun during the Late Period.
At the head of the temple hierarchy was the high priest, who oversaw all the temple 's religious and economic functions and in the largest cults was an important political figure. Beneath him might be as many as three grades of subordinate priests who could substitute for him in ceremonies. While these higher ranks were full - time positions from the New Kingdom onward, the lower grades of priesthood still worked in shifts over the course of the year. Whereas many priests did a variety of menial tasks, the clergy also contained several ritual specialists. Prominent among these specialized roles was that of the lector priest who recited hymns and spells during temple rituals, and who hired out his magical services to laymen. Besides its priests, a large temple employed singers, musicians, and dancers to perform during rituals, plus the farmers, bakers, artisans, builders, and administrators who supplied and managed its practical needs. In the Ptolemaic era, temples could also house people who had sought asylum within the precinct, or recluses who voluntarily dedicated themselves to serving the god and living in its household. A major cult, therefore, could have well over 150 full or part - time priests, with tens of thousands of non-priestly employees working on its lands across the country. These numbers contrast with mid-sized temples, which may have had 10 to 25 priests, and with the smallest provincial temples, which might have only one.
Some priests ' duties took them beyond the temple precinct. They formed part of the entourage in festivals that traveled from one temple to another, and clergies from around the country sent representatives to the national sed festival that reinforced the king 's divine power. Some temples, such as those in the neighboring cities of Memphis and Letopolis, were overseen by the same high priest.
At certain times there was an administrative office that presided over all temples and clergies. In the Old Kingdom, pharaohs gave this authority first to their relatives and then to their viziers. In the reign of Thutmose III the office passed from the viziers to the High Priests of Amun, who held it for much of the New Kingdom. The Romans established a similar office, that of the high priest for all Egypt, which oversaw the temple cults until their extinction.
The daily rituals in most temples included two sequences of offering rites: one to clean and dress the god for the day, and one to present it with a meal. The exact order of events in these rituals is uncertain and may have varied somewhat each time they were performed.In addition, the two sequences probably overlapped with each other. At sunrise, the officiating priest entered the sanctuary, carrying a candle to light the room. He opened the doors of the shrine and prostrated himself before the god 's image, reciting hymns in its praise. He removed the god from the shrine, clothed it (replacing the clothes of the previous day), and anointed it with oil and paint. At some point the priest presented the god 's meal, including a variety of meats, fruits, vegetables, and bread. The god was believed to consume only the spiritual essence of this meal. This belief allowed the food to be distributed to others, an act that the Egyptians called the "reversion of offerings ''. The food passed first to the other statues throughout the temple, then to local funerary chapels for the sustenance of the dead, and finally to the priests who ate it. Temple artwork often shows the king presenting an image of the goddess Maat to the temple deity, an act that represented the purpose of all other offerings.
Other offering rituals took place at noon and at sunset, though the sanctuary was not reopened. Some ceremonies other than offerings also took place daily, including rituals specific to a particular god. In the cult of the sun god Ra, for instance, hymns were sung day and night for every hour of the god 's journey across the sky. Many of the ceremonies acted out in ritual the battle against of the forces of chaos. They might, for instance, involve the destruction of models of inimical gods like Apep or Set, acts that were believed to have a real effect through the principle of heka.
In fact, the Egyptians believed that all ritual actions achieved their effect through heka. Heka, usually translated as "magic '' was a fundamental force that rituals were meant to manipulate. Using magic, people, objects, and actions were equated with counterparts in the divine realm and thus were believed to affect events among the gods. In the daily offering, for instance, the cult statue, regardless of which deity it represented, was associated with Osiris, god of the dead. The priest performing the ritual was identified with Horus, the living son of Osiris, who in mythology sustained his father after death through offerings. By magically equating himself with a god in a myth, the priest was able to interact with the temple deity.
Some temples kept sacred animals, which were believed to be manifestations of the temple god 's ba in the same way that cult images were. Each of these sacred animals was kept in the temple and worshipped for a certain length of time, ranging from a year to the lifetime of the animal. At the end of that time, it was replaced with a new animal of the same species, which was selected by a divine oracle or based on specific markings that were supposed to indicate its sacred nature. Among the most prominent of these animals were the Apis bull, worshipped at Memphis as a manifestation of the Memphite god Ptah, and the falcon at Edfu who represented the falcon god Horus.
During the Late Period, a different form of worship involving animals developed. In this case, laymen paid the priests to kill, mummify, and bury an animal of a particular species as an offering to a god. These animals were not regarded as especially sacred, but as a species they were associated with the god because it was depicted in the form of that animal. The god Thoth, for instance, could be depicted as an ibis and as a baboon, and both ibises and baboons were given to him. Although this practice was distinct from the worship of single divine representatives, some temples kept stocks of animals that could be selected for either purpose. These practices produced large cemeteries of mummified animals, such as the catacombs around the Serapeum of Saqqara where the Apis bulls were buried along with millions of animal offerings.
On days of particular religious significance, the daily rituals were replaced with festival observances. Different festivals occurred at different intervals, though most were annual. Their timing was based on the Egyptian civil calendar, which most of the time was far out of step with the astronomical year. Thus, while many festivals had a seasonal origin, their timing lost its connection with the seasons. Most festivals took place at a single temple, but others could involve two or more temples or an entire region of Egypt; a few were celebrated throughout the country. In the New Kingdom and later, the festival calendar at a single temple could include dozens of events, so it is likely that most of these events were observed only by the priests. In those festivals that involved a procession outside the temple, the local population also gathered to watch and to celebrate. These were the most elaborate temple ceremonies, accompanied by the recitation of hymns and the performance of musicians.
Festival ceremonies entailed reenactment of mythological events or the performance of other symbolic acts, like the cutting of a sheaf of wheat during the harvest - related festival dedicated to the god Min. Many of these ceremonies took place only within the temple building, such as the "union with the sun disk '' festival practiced in the Late Period and afterwards, when cult statues were carried to the temple roof at the start of the New Year to be enlivened by the rays of the sun. In festivals that involved a procession, priests carried the divine image out from the sanctuary, usually in its model barque, to visit another site. The barque might travel entirely on land or be loaded onto a real boat to travel on the river.
The purpose of the god 's visit varied. Some were tied to the ideology of kingship. In the Opet Festival, an extremely important ceremony during the New Kingdom, the image of Amun from Karnak visited the form of Amun worshipped at Luxor Temple, and both acted to reaffirm the king 's divine rule. Still other celebrations had a funerary character, as in the Beautiful Feast of the Valley, when Amun of Karnak visited the mortuary temples of the Theban Necropolis to visit the kings commemorated there, while ordinary people visited the funerary chapels of their own deceased relatives. Some may have centered on ritual marriages between deities, or between deities and their human consorts, although the evidence that ritual marriage was their purpose is ambiguous. A prominent example is a festival in which an image of Hathor from Dendera Temple was brought annually to visit the Edfu, the temple of her mythological consort Horus. These varied ceremonies were united by the broad purpose of renewing life among the gods and in the cosmos.
The gods involved in a festival also received various offerings in much larger quantities than in daily ceremonies. The enormous amounts of food listed in festival texts are unlikely to have been divided among the priests alone, so it is likely that the celebrating commoners also participated in the reversion of these offerings.
By the beginning of the New Kingdom, and quite possibly earlier, the festival procession had become an opportunity for people to seek oracles from the god. Their questions dealt with subjects ranging from the location of a lost object to the best choice for a government appointment. The motions of the barque as it was carried on the bearers ' shoulders -- making simple gestures to indicate "yes '' or "no '', tipping toward tablets on which possible answers were written, or moving toward a particular person in the crowd -- were taken to indicate the god 's reply. In the Greco - Roman period, and possibly much earlier, oracles were used outside the festival, allowing people to consult them frequently. Priests interpreted the movements of sacred animals or, being asked questions directly, wrote out or spoke answers that they had supposedly received from the god in question. The priests ' claim to speak for the gods or interpret their messages gave them great political influence and provided the means for the High Priests of Amun to dominate Upper Egypt during the Third Intermediate Period.
Although they were excluded from the formal rituals of the temple, laymen still sought to interact with the gods. There is little evidence of the religious practices of individual people from early Egyptian history, so Egyptologists ' understanding of the subject derives mostly from the New Kingdom or later periods. The evidence from those times indicates that while ordinary Egyptians used many venues to interact with the divine, such as household shrines or community chapels, the official temples with their sequestered gods were a major focus for popular veneration.
Unable to address the cult image directly, laymen still attempted to convey their prayers to it. At times they related messages to priests to deliver to the temple deity; at other times they expressed their piety in the parts of the temple that they could access. Courts, doorways, and hypostyle halls might have spaces designated for public prayer. Sometimes people directed their appeals to the royal colossi, which were believed to act as divine intermediaries. More private areas for devotion were located at the building 's outer wall, where large niches served as "chapels of the hearing ear '' for individuals to speak to the god.
The Egyptians also interacted with deities through the donation of offerings, ranging from simple bits of jewelry to large and finely carved statues and stelae. Among their contributions were statues that sat in temple courts, serving as memorials to the donors after their deaths and receiving portions of the temple offerings to sustain the donors ' spirits. Other statues served as gifts to the temple god, and inscribed stelae conveyed to the resident deity the donors ' prayers and messages of thanks. Over the centuries, so many of these statues accumulated within a temple building that priests sometimes moved them out of the way by burying them in caches beneath the floor. Commoners offered simple wooden or clay models as votives. The form of these models may indicate the reason for their donation. Figurines of women are among the most common types of votive figures, and some are inscribed with a prayer for a woman to bear a child.
Festival processions offered a chance for laymen to approach and perhaps even glimpse the cult image in its barque, and for them to receive portions of the god 's food. Because the key rituals of any festival still took place within the temple, out of public sight, Egyptologist Anthony Spalinger has questioned whether the processions inspired genuine "religious feelings '' or were simply seen as occasions for revelry. In any case, the oracular events during festivals provided an opportunity for people to receive responses from the normally isolated deities, as did the other varieties of oracle that developed late in Egyptian history. Temples eventually became a venue for yet another type of divine contact: dreams. The Egyptians saw dreaming as a means of communion with the divine realm, and by the Ptolemaic period many temples provided buildings for ritual incubation. People slept in these buildings in hopes of contacting the temple god. The petitioners often sought a magical solution to sickness or infertility, but at other times they simply sought an answer to a question, receiving the answer through a dream rather than an oracle.
After their original religious activities ceased, Egyptian temples suffered slow decay. Many were defaced by Christians trying to erase the remnants of ancient Egyptian religion. Some temple buildings, such as the mammisi at Dendera or the hypostyle hall at Philae, were adapted into churches or other types of buildings. Most commonly the sites were left disused, as at the Temple of Khnum at Elephantine, while locals carried off their stones to serve as material for new buildings. The dismantling of temples for stone continued well into modern times. Limestone was especially useful as a source of lime, so temples built of limestone were almost all dismantled. Sandstone temples, found mostly in Upper Egypt, were more likely to survive. What humans left intact was still subject to natural weathering. Temples in desert areas could be partly covered by drifts of sand, while those near the Nile, particularly in Lower Egypt, were often buried under layers of river - borne silt. Thus, some major temple sites like Memphis were reduced to ruin, while many temples far from the Nile and centers of population remained mostly intact. With understanding of the hieroglyphic script lost, the information about Egyptian culture that was preserved in the surviving temples lay incomprehensible to the world.
The situation changed dramatically with the French military expedition to Egypt in 1798, which brought with it a corps of scholars to examine the surviving ancient monuments. The results of their study inspired a fascination with ancient Egypt throughout Europe. In the early nineteenth century, growing numbers of Europeans traveled to Egypt, both to see the ancient monuments and to collect Egyptian antiquities. Many temple artifacts, from small objects to enormous obelisks, were removed by outside governments and private collectors. This wave of Egyptomania resulted in the rediscovery of temple sites such as Abu Simbel, but artifacts and even whole temples were often treated with great carelessness. The discoveries of the period made possible the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs and the beginnings of Egyptology as a scholarly discipline.
Nineteenth - century Egyptologists studied the temples intensively, but their emphasis was on collection of artifacts to send to their own countries, and their slipshod excavation methods often did further harm. Slowly the antique - hunting attitude toward Egyptian monuments gave way to careful study and preservation efforts. The government also took greater control of archaeological activity as Egypt 's independence from foreign powers increased. Yet even in recent times the ancient remains have faced threats. The most severe was the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s, which threatened to submerge the temples in what had been Lower Nubia beneath the newly formed Lake Nasser. A major effort by the United Nations disassembled some of the threatened monuments and rebuilt them on higher ground, and the Egyptian government gave several of the others, such as Dendur, Taffeh, and Debod, as gifts to nations that had contributed to the preservation effort. Nevertheless, several other temples vanished beneath the lake.
Today there are dozens of sites with substantial temple remains, although many more once existed, and none of the major temples in Lower or Middle Egypt are well preserved. Those that are well preserved, such as Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel, draw tourists from around the world and are therefore a key attraction for the Egyptian tourist industry, which is a major sector of the Egyptian economy. Three temple sites -- Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis, Memphis and its Necropolis, and the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae -- have been designated by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. The Egyptian government is working to balance the demands of tourism against the need to protect ancient monuments from the harmful effects of tourist activity. Archaeological work continues as well, as many temple remains still lie buried and many extant temples are not yet fully studied. Some damaged or destroyed structures, like the temples of Akhenaten, are even being reconstructed. These efforts are improving modern understanding of Egyptian temples, which in turn allow better understanding of ancient Egyptian society as a whole.
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who played lily on how i met your mother | Alyson Hannigan - wikipedia
Alyson Lee Hannigan (born March 24, 1974) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Willow Rosenberg on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997 -- 2003), Lily Aldrin on the sitcom How I Met Your Mother (2005 -- 2014), and Michelle Flaherty in the American Pie film series (1999 -- 2012).
Hannigan was born in Washington, DC, the only child of Emilie (Posner) Haas, a real estate agent, and Alan Hannigan, a Teamsters trucker. Her father is of Irish ancestry and her mother is Jewish. Her parents divorced when she was two, and she was raised mostly by her mother in Atlanta, Georgia.
At age four, Hannigan began appearing in commercials. She moved to Hollywood at age 11. Living with her mother and attending North Hollywood High School, she successfully auditioned for agents while visiting her father in Santa Barbara. After attending North Hollywood High School, she attended California State University, Northridge, where she was a member of the Alpha Chi Omega sorority and earned a degree in psychology.
Hannigan 's first major film role was in My Stepmother Is an Alien, a science - fiction comedy released in 1988; one of her co-stars in the film was actor Seth Green, who later joined her in the regular cast of Buffy as her on - screen boyfriend. Then in 1989, her first regular role on a TV series came when she was cast in the short - lived ABC sitcom Free Spirit. As a teenager, Hannigan babysat for the children of her future How I Met Your Mother costar, Bob Saget.
In 1997, Hannigan was cast to play Willow Rosenberg, Buffy Summers ' best friend, on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The show became a success, and Hannigan gained recognition, subsequently appearing in several films aimed at teenaged audiences, including American Pie (1999), Boys and Girls (2000), American Pie 2 (2001), and American Wedding (2003). She also had a guest spot on the Buffy spin - off, Angel, reprising her role of Willow in a few episodes (including most notably "Orpheus '', during the fourth season of Angel and the seventh season of Buffy), but none after Buffy finished production.
In early 2004, Hannigan made her West End debut, starring in a stage adaptation of When Harry Met Sally... at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, opposite Luke Perry.
In 2005, Hannigan returned to starring in a regular television series, taking the main role of Lily Aldrin in the hit comedy How I Met Your Mother, and also playing a recurring guest role on Veronica Mars as Trina Echolls. In February 2006, Hannigan starred as Julia Jones in Date Movie, a parody of romantic comedies. She was also a guest star on the ABC animated sitcom The Goode Family in 2009.
Hannigan joined forces with Emily Deschanel, Jaime King, Minka Kelly, and Katharine McPhee in a "video slumber party '' featured on FunnyorDie.com to promote regular breast cancer screenings for the organization Stand Up 2 Cancer.
In 2012, Hannigan reprised the role of Michelle in American Reunion.
Since 2016, Hannigan has hosted the television series Penn & Teller: Fool Us.
Hannigan married her Buffy the Vampire Slayer recurring co-star Alexis Denisof at Two Bunch Palms Resort in Desert Hot Springs, California, on October 11, 2003. The couple have two daughters, Satyana Marie Denisof, born on March 24, 2009 (which is also Alyson Hannigan 's birthday) and Keeva Jane Denisof, born May 23, 2012. Alyson and Alexis live with their two daughters in Encino.
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who won the all ireland hurling final 2016 | 2016 All - Ireland senior hurling championship final - wikipedia
The 2016 All - Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Final was the 129th event of its kind and the culmination of the 2016 All - Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. It was played at Croke Park in Dublin on 4 September 2016.
This was the 18th All - Ireland season that ended with a Kilkenny -- Tipperary final. Of the previous 17, Tipperary won 10 and Kilkenny 7. It was also the fifth final between Tipperary and Kilkenny since 2009, with Kilkenny leading the series 3 - 1. Kilkenny were chasing three in a row with Tipperary looking for a first All - Ireland since 2010.
The final was shown live in Ireland on RTÉ One as part of The Sunday Game live programme, presented by Michael Lyster from Croke Park, with studio analysis from Liam Sheedy, Henry Shefflin and Ger Loughnane. Match commentary was provided by Ger Canning with analysis by Michael Duignan. The game was also shown live on Sky Sports, presented by Rachel Wyse and Brian Carney.
Tipperary clinched their 27th All - Ireland title winning on a 2 - 29 to 2 - 20 scoreline. Their victory also marked the first time since the 1960s that Tipperary had won multiple All - Ireland titles in a single decade, having only won one title each in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.
This was the seventh time in eight years that the counties have played each other in the championship, with Kilkenny winning 5 times. Kilkenny went into the final having won 36 All Ireland titles, 11 titles in the last 15 years (2000, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2015), with Tipperary on 26 titles, 2 titles over the same period (2001 and 2010).
The teams had played each other 26 times in the championship, the first time being in 1887, with Kilkenny winning 12 times and Tipperary winning on 13 occasions with one draw in 2014. Since the 2010 All - Ireland Final, Kilkenny have 10 wins and a draw in 13 league and championship games against Tipperary.
Kilkenny had played in 65 All - Ireland finals, winning 36, losing 25 and drawing 4, with Tipperary having appeared in 40 All - Ireland finals, winning 26, losing 12 and drawing 2.
The final was Kilkenny manager Brian Cody 's 84th championship match as manager since taking over at the start of 1999 season. Kilkenny had won 68, drawn six and lost nine of the previous matches, the defeats being against Galway in 2001, 2005 and 2012, Cork in 1999, 2004 and 2013, Wexford in 2004, Tipperary in 2010 and Dublin in 2013. Tipperary were bidding to become the first Munster champions to win the All - Ireland title since Cork in 2005.
Dublin v Kilkenny
Kilkenny v Galway
Kilkenny v Waterford
Kilkenny v Waterford
Tipperary v Cork
Tipperary v Limerick
Waterford v Tipperary
Tipperary v Galway
The Tipperary team that won the 1991 All - Ireland Final was presented to the crowd before the match to mark 25 years. Tipperary manager Michael Ryan who played on that team was represented by his mother for the presentation.
With a stadium capacity of 82,300, the 32 individual county boards will receive 60,000 tickets. Schools and third level colleges will get 2,500 tickets, while season ticket holders will be entitled to 5,500 tickets. 1,000 tickets will be given to overseas clubs. The Camogie, Ladies ' Football, Handball and Rounders Associations are each allocated about 200 tickets, as are the jubilee teams and mini-7s which play at half - time. The match was a sell - out.
The 2016 All - Ireland Minor Hurling Final was played between Tipperary and Limerick as a curtain - raiser to the senior final. Tipperary went on to win the final on a 1 - 21 to 0 - 17 scoreline. The Tipperary minor team were captained by Brian McGrath, brother of Noel and John McGrath who went to win the senior final with Tipperary.
On 22 August 2016 the officials were chosen for the final by the GAA, with Brian Gavin being named as the referee. Barry Kelly was the standby referee with Colm Lyons of Cork the other linesman and John Keane of Galway the sideline official. The umpires were Michael Gavin, David Gavin, William Flynn, all from Clara and PJ Lawlor from Ferbane / Belmont. The match was his fourth All - Ireland final having being the referee in 2011, 2013, and the replay in 2014.
It was confirmed on 15 August that Kilkenny 's Michael Fennelly would miss the final after he ruptured his achilles tendon in the semi-final replay victory over Waterford. Kilkenny named their starting fifteen on Friday 2 September and it showed two changes to the one which defeated Waterford in the semi-final replay with Kevin Kelly included at corner - forward. The other change saw Kieran Joyce replacing Michael Fennelly. Michael Ryan made one change to the Tipperary team for the final with John O'Dwyer coming in at top of the right instead of Nial O Meara with John McGrath moving to top of the left. There were five All - Ireland Final debutants in Tipperary 's starting line - up.
Seamus Callanan opened the scoring after two minutes with a point from out on the left which he hit over his left shoulder. Kevin Kelly equalized for Kilkenny in the fifth minute before TJ Reid scored from a free to put Kilkenny into a one - point lead. After ten minutes, Seamus Kennedy scored his first ever championship point to make it four points all, after fifteen minutes it was six all. John O'Dwyer scored a point after twenty five minutes to level the scores at nine all. The half - time score was Tipperary 0 - 14 Kilkenny 0 - 12 with every single Tipperary forward scoring from play. The sides were level 10 times in the first half.
Seamus Callinan had five points in the first half and scored the first point of the second half from a free to open the lead to three points. After forty - one minutes, Kevin Kelly scored a goal for Kilkenny when he scoped and flicked the ball into the empty net in front of the hill 16 end. Seamus Callinan got the next score from a free to put one point between them. Jason Forde who had come on as a substitute a minute earlier for Michael Breen scored a point to level the game in the forty fifth minute. Two minutes later John O'Dwyer picked up the ball and cut in from the left and hit a low shot from distance that flew into the back of the net to put Tipperary into a four - point lead. Pauric Maher scored a point from out on the left touchline in the fifty - first minute to increase the lead to five. Tipperary were six ahead in the fifty - sixth minute after another Seamus Callinan point. With ten minutes left John McGrath scored a second goal for Tipperary when he cut in from the right and hit a high shot to the left after a pass from Noel McGrath, this put Tipperary nine points clear. Two minutes later Richie Hogan scored with a ground shot to the net to reduce the lead to six. Tipperary then scored a further four points to go into stoppage time with a nine - point lead which they held to the end to claim the title.
Kilkenny v Tipperary
Man of the Match: Séamus Callanan
Linesmen: Barry Kelly (Westmeath) Colm Lyons (Cork)
Sideline Official John Keane (Galway)
Umpires Michael Gavin David Gavin William Flynn PJ Lawlor
Tipperary captain Brendan Maher accepted the Liam MacCarthy Cup from GAA president Aogan O ' Fearghail in the Hogan Stand. The Tipperary team then did a victory lap around Croke Park with the trophy.
Tipperary manager Michel Ryan speaking after the match said "This is a fantastic day for Tipperary hurling. I think we might have awoken other giants that may have been sleeping though, in that every other county is going to take huge encouragement from what we 've achieved this year, because we 're all in the pot; every one of us hurling counties are chasing Kilkenny and those are the facts. And for one of us to come through and break that mould for once... do n't get me wrong, that 's not a foregone conclusion that that will ever happen again, such is the quality of Kilkenny, but I think we 're after sending home a lot of teams that I think will set 2017 alight. ''
Kilkenny manager Brian Cody speaking after the match said "The better team won, the better team always wins as far as I 'm concerned but it was comprehensive, We went in after the first half two points down, well in the game. We got a good start to the second half, got the goal but you know they did n't blink, they came back at us and they got some terrific scores, We were out - played through the second half and there 's no argument that the better team won the match. ''
Noel McGrath said it was the stuff of dreams to come back from cancer and win the All - Ireland title saying "Fifteen months ago I never thought I 'd be playing in Croke Park, let alone going up the steps at Croke Park, or watching Brendan (Maher) lift up the cup. It was tough for me for a few months in 2015, but look I 'm just delighted to be back playing and delighted to be on the pitch and doing what I can for Tipperary and I 'm just absolutely thrilled to be part of an All - Ireland - winning team. I was just delighted to be able to get back playing to whatever level I could get back to - I was n't sure what that would be. ''
Former Tipperary hurler and manager Nicky English writing in the Irish Times taught that Tipperary out - Kilkennyed Kilkenny this time to emerge as very deserving and worthy winners of this All - Ireland final saying "This was a huge win for Tipperary -- there 's no other way to put it. Huge! Tipperary 's strength in the first tackle, their aerial ability throughout, their skill in the forwards and their intensity was reminiscent of Kilkenny at their level best, which should be taken as a serious compliment. From Mick Ryan and his management team 's perspective, they could n't have asked for any more from the players. In terms of power, aggression, skill and intelligent hurling, Tipperary were fantastic. ''
Highlights of the final were shown on The Sunday Game programme which aired at 9: 30pm that night on RTÉ Two and was presented by Des Cahill with match analysis from Brendan Cummins, Eddie Brennan, and Cyril Farrell. On the man of the match award shortlist were John O'Dwyer, Ronan Maher, and Seamus Callanan, with Seamus Callanan winning the award which was presented by GAA president Aogan O ' Fearghail at the Double tree by Hilton hotel in Dublin where the post match Tipperary function was being held. Tipperary manager Michael Ryan opened the envelope that contained the winning players name.
The Tipperary team returned home on the 5 September were the homecoming event was held at Semple Stadium in Thurles. The gates of the Stadium were opened at 4.00 pm with the Tipperary senior team were introduced to the crowd at 8.00 pm, preceded by the minor squad, who helped the county to their first minor - senior double since 1949.
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when does season 3 of you me her come out on netflix | You Me her - wikipedia
You Me Her is an American - Canadian television show that revolves around a suburban married couple who is entering a three - way romantic relationship, otherwise known as a polyamorous relationship. The series is set in Portland, Oregon and was created by John Scott Shepherd. The series is also promoted as TV 's "first polyromantic comedy ''. On June 9, 2016, Audience Network renewed the series for a second and third season. The third season premiered on March 20, 2018.
The series revolves around married, vanilla thirty - somethings Jack and Emma Trakarsky, from Portland, Oregon, whose desires to conceive have been hampered by their lack of sex drive. One day, Jack 's efforts to solve the problem leads both him and Emma to Izzy Silva, a 25 - year - old college student and part - time escort. After initially intending to see her as clients, the two jointly start to fall in love with Izzy, who in turn starts to feel the same way. Consequently, they decide to terminate the arrangement and bring Izzy into the marriage as a lover. This opens up a world of new challenges as they find themselves having to navigate their way through a minefield of prying, nosy neighbours with very narrow social norms and prejudices, whilst at the same time struggling to confront their own feelings and insecurities, and adjust to the unfamiliar dynamic of a polyamorous relationship.
Seasons one and two are available on Netflix exclusively outside of the United States and Canada.
Filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia.
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who plays dave coaches in gavin and stacey | Steffan Rhodri - wikipedia
Steffan Rhodri (born 1 March 1967) is a Welsh film actor, best known for portraying Dave Coaches on Gavin & Stacey and as Reg Cattermole in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows part I.
Steffan is a Swansea City supporter.
He has also guest - starred in a number of Doctor Who spin - off audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions. These include Dreamtime, The Bone of Contention and as the British Prime Minister in UNIT: The Longest Night and UNIT: The Wasting.
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where does the absorption of food take place | Small intestine - wikipedia
The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger - like protrusions called villi.
The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft). The average length in a living person is 3m - 5m. The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured. Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.
It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age, and 2.5 -- 3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3cm. On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated. The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.
The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.
The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.
The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery. Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.
The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube. By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.
Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:
Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair ''). The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
The small intestine supports the body 's immune system. The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system. Peyer 's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.
The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu
In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.
The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.
There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.
In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
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what is all purpose flour called in uk | International english food terms - wikipedia
The following list of international English food terms points out differences in food terminology between some different dialects of English:
These two items are fairly different, but are used similarly (e.g. to make crumb crusts for a cheesecake). Graham crackers are sweeter, and are available in different flavors (e.g. cinnamon, chocolate). Digestive biscuits are richer, and while slightly sweet, are used with cheese by a small minority. They are also available coated on one side with milk chocolate or dark chocolate. Digestive biscuits are common in the Northeast United States, served with tea. Peek Frean is a common brand in the United States, however the original producer McVities still produces the biscuit in the UK.
In Ireland and the UK, deep fried potato sticks or "french fries '' are called "fries '', while "chips '' are thicker potato sticks which can be deep fried or oven baked.
In America, fermented apple juice is called "hard cider ''. "Apple cider '' refers to unfiltered (un-fermented) apple juice, typically pasteurized to make it shelf - stable. In New England and parts of Canada, "fresh cider '' or sweet cider refers to fresh pressed apple juice; this is unlike any commercial product, and can be found at farm stands and orchards.
American cider (both fresh and hard) is sometimes also made from pears. This is referred to as "pear cider, '' and is equivalent to perry.
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all time top goal scorers in premier league in one season | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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when is closing ceremonies of winter olympics 2018 | 2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony - wikipedia
The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics took place at Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium in Pyeongchang County, South Korea, on 25 February 2018 at 20: 00 KST (UTC + 9).
The flag bearers of 92 National Olympic Committees arrived into the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium. The flag bearers from each participating country entered the stadium informally in single file, ordered by ganada order of the Korean alphabet, and behind them marched all the athletes, without any distinction or grouping by nationality. Marching alongside the athletes were Soohorang, the Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic mascot, and Hodori, mascot of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.
First, the Greek flag was raised while its anthem played. The Olympic flag was then lowered and passed, by the mayor of Pyeongchang County, Shim Jae - kook, to IOC President, Thomas Bach, who then handed it over to the mayor of Beijing, Chen Jining. This was then followed by the raising of the flag of China, and the playing of its anthem. The flag will be raised again in Tokyo, Japan, for the opening ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 24 July 2020.
Beijing, the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, presented a special performance See you in Beijing in 2022 directed by Chinese film director Zhang Yimou, who also presented the 2008 Summer Olympics opening and closing ceremonies. The presentation featured two pandas skating and people forming red lines that became a dragon, as pandas and dragons are national icons for China. The skaters also trail lines to form the emblem of the games. China 's Paramount leader Xi Jinping made a cameo appearance by video expressing the welcome message on behalf of the Chinese people.
IOC President Thomas Bach formally closed the games, calling them ' The Games of New Horizons. ' Soon after, the cauldron was extinguished.
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who won the little league world series game between canada and puerto rico | 2018 Little League World Series results - wikipedia
The results of the 2018 Little League World Series were determined between August 16 and August 26, 2018 in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. 16 teams were divided into two groups, one with eight teams from the United States and another with eight international teams, with both groups playing a modified double - elimination tournament. In each group, the last remaining undefeated team faced the last remaining team with one loss, with the winners of those games advancing to play for the Little League World Series championship.
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who entered the us in the vietnam war | Role of the United States in the Vietnam war - Wikipedia
The role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1975.
Feb 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins
In 1961 the new administration of President John F. Kennedy remained essentially committed to the bi-partisan, anti-communist foreign policies inherited from the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. During 1961, his first year in office, Kennedy found himself faced with a three - part crisis: The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; the construction of the Berlin Wall by the Soviets; and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the U.S. to stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies, Kennedy realized, "Now we have a problem in making our power credible... and Vietnam looks like the place. '' The commitment to defend South Vietnam was reaffirmed by Kennedy on May 11 in National Security Action Memorandum 52, which became known as "The Presidential Program for Vietnam ''. Its opening statement reads:
U.S. objectives and concept of operations (are) to prevent communist domination of South Vietnam; to create in that country a viable and increasingly democratic society, and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological, and covert character designed to achieve this objective.
Kennedy was intrigued by the idea of utilizing United States Army Special Forces for counterinsurgency conflicts in Third World countries threatened by the new "wars of national liberation ''. Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by Special Forces would be effective in the "brush fire '' war in South Vietnam. He saw British success in using such forces during the Malayan Emergency as a strategic template. Thus in May 1961 Kennedy sent detachments of Green Berets to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers in guerrilla warfare.
The Diệm regime had been initially able to cope with the insurgency of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or derogatively, Viet Cong) in South Vietnam with the aid of U.S. matériel and advisers, and, by 1962, seemed to be gaining the upper hand. Senior U.S. military leaders received positive reports from the U.S. commander, General Paul D. Harkins of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, or MACV. By the following year, however, cracks began to appear in the façade of success. In January a possible victory that was turned into a stunning defeat for government forces at the Battle of Ap Bac caused consternation among both the military advisers in the field and among politicians in Washington, D.C. JFK also indicated to Walter Cronkite that the war may be unwinnable, and that it was ultimately a Vietnamese war, not an American war.
Diệm was already growing unpopular with many of his countrymen because of his administration 's nepotism, corruption, and its apparent bias in favor of the Catholic minority -- of which Diệm was a part -- at the expense of the Buddhist majority. This contributed to the impression of Diệm 's rule as an extension of the French Colonial regime. Promised land reforms were not instituted, and Diệm 's strategic hamlet program for village self - defense (and government control) was a disaster. The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diệm. In 1963, a crackdown by Diệm 's forces was launched against Buddhist monks protesting discriminatory practices and demanding a political voice. Diệm 's repression of the protests sparked the so - called Buddhist Revolt, during which several monks committed self - immolation, which was covered in the world press. The communists took full advantage of the situation and fueled anti-Diệm sentiment to create further instability.
On July 27, 1964, 5,000 additional U.S. military advisers were ordered to the Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam), bringing the total American troop level to 21,000. Shortly thereafter an incident occurred off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) that was destined to escalate the conflict to new levels and lead to the full scale Americanization of the war.
On the evening of August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was conducting an electronic intelligence collection mission in international waters (even as claimed by North Vietnam) in the Gulf of Tonkin when it was attacked by three P - 4 torpedo boats of the North Vietnamese Navy. Reports later reached the Johnson administration saying that the Maddox was under attack. Two nights later, after being joined by the destroyer C. Turner Joy, the Maddox again reported that both vessels were under attack (this event, which took place under adverse weather conditions, in fact never occurred). Regardless, President Johnson addressed Congress asking for more political power to utilize American military forces in South Vietnam, using the attack on the Maddox as cause to get what he wanted.
There was rampant confusion in Washington, but the incident was seen by the administration as the perfect opportunity to present Congress with "a pre-dated declaration of war '' in order to strengthen weakening morale in South Vietnam through reprisal attacks by the U.S. on the North. Even before confirmation of the phantom attack had been received in Washington, President Johnson had decided that an attack could not go unanswered.
Just before midnight he appeared on television and announced that retaliatory air strikes were underway against North Vietnamese naval and port facilities. Neither Congress nor the American people learned the whole story about the events in the Gulf of Tonkin until the publication of the Pentagon Papers in 1969. It was on the basis of the administration 's assertions that the attacks were "unprovoked aggression '' on the part of North Vietnam, that the United States Congress approved the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) on August 7. The law gave the President broad powers to conduct military operations without an actual declaration of war. The resolution passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and was opposed in the Senate by only two members.
National Security Council members, including United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, and General Maxwell Taylor, agreed on November 28 to recommend that Johnson adopt a plan for a two - stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam.
In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku, in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam.
Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was inaugurated on March 2, 1965. Its original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and to serve as a signaling device to Hanoi. U.S. airpower would act as a method of "strategic persuasion '', deterring the North Vietnamese politically by the fear of continued or increased bombardment. Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity, with aircraft striking only carefully selected targets. When that did not work, its goals were altered to destroying North Vietnam 's will to fight by destroying the nation 's industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were flown and three - quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped, Rolling Thunder was ended on November 11, 1968.
Other aerial campaigns (Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Steel Tiger, Operation Tiger Hound, and Operation Commando Hunt) were directed to counter the flow of men and material down the PAVN logistical system that flowed from North Vietnam through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
President Johnson had already appointed General William C. Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of MACV in June 1964. Under Westmoreland, the expansion of American troop strength in South Vietnam took place. American forces rose from 16,000 during 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969. With the U.S. decision to escalate its involvement, ANZUS Pact allies Australia and New Zealand agreed to contribute troops and matériel to the conflict. They were quickly joined by the Republic of Korea (second only to the Americans in troop strength), Thailand, and the Philippines. The U.S. paid for (through aid dollars) and logistically supplied all of the allied forces.
Meanwhile, political affairs in Saigon were finally settling down -- at least as far as the Americans were concerned. On February 14 the most recent military junta, the National Leadership Committee, installed Air Vice-Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as prime minister. In 1966, the junta selected General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu to run for president with Ky on the ballot as the vice-presidential candidate in the 1967 election. Thieu and Ky were elected and remained in office for the duration of the war. In the presidential election of 1971, Thieu ran for the presidency unopposed. With the installation of the Thieu and Ky government (the Second Republic), the U.S. had a pliable, stable, and semi-legitimate government in Saigon with which to deal.
With the advent of Rolling Thunder, American airbases and facilities needed to be constructed and manned for the aerial effort. The defense of those bases would not be entrusted to the South Vietnamese. So, on March 8, 1965, 3,500 United States Marines came ashore at Da Nang as the first wave of U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 U.S. military advisers already in place. On May 5 the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade became the first U.S. Army ground unit committed to the conflict in South Vietnam. On August 18, Operation Starlite began as the first major U.S. ground operation, destroying an NLF stronghold in Quảng Ngãi Province. The NLF learned from their defeat and subsequently tried to avoid fighting an American - style ground war by reverting to small - unit guerrilla operations.
The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation Silver Bayonet, better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, who had taken horrendous casualties, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above. The Americans learned that PAVN (which was basically a light infantry force) was not a rag - tag band of guerrillas, but was instead a highly disciplined, proficient, and well motivated force.
On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if the major operations needed to neutralize North Vietnamese and NLF forces were to succeed, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February 1966, Westmoreland argued that the U.S. presence had succeeded in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese government but that more troops would be necessary if systematic offensive operations were to be conducted. The issue then became in what manner American forces would be used.
The nature of the American military 's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period would color the conduct and nature of the conflict for the duration of the American commitment. Classical military logic demanded that the U.S. attack the locus of PAVN / NLF in the North. If that country could not be invaded, then the enemy 's logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield. However, political considerations limited U.S. military actions, mainly because of the memory of communist reactions during the Korean War. Ever present in the minds of diplomats, military officers, and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange. Therefore, there would be no invasion of North Vietnam, the "neutrality '' of Laos and Cambodia would be respected, and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War.
These limitations were not foisted upon the military as an afterthought. Before the first U.S. soldiers came ashore at Da Nang, the Pentagon was cognizant of all of the parameters that would be imposed by their civilian leaders, yet they still agreed that the mission could be accomplished within them. Westmoreland believed that he had found a strategy that would either defeat North Vietnam or force it into serious negotiations. Attrition was to be the key. The general held that larger offensive operations would grind down the communists and eventually lead to a "crossover point '' in PAVN / NLF casualties after which a decisive (or at least political) victory would be possible.
It is widely held that the average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old, as evidenced by the casual reference in a pop song ("19 '' by Paul Hardcastle); the figure is cited by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman ret. of the Killology Research Group in his 1995 book On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (p. 265). However, it is disputed by the Vietnam Helicopter Flight Crew Network Website, which claims the average age of MOS 11B personnel was 22. This compares with 26 years of age for those who participated in World War II. Soldiers served a one - year tour of duty. The average age of the U.S. military men who died in Vietnam was 22.8 years old.
The one - year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer put it, "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times. '' As a result, training programs were shortened. Some NCOs were referred to as "Shake ' N ' Bake '' to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in World War II and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation. One unidentified soldier said to United Press International that there was nothing to do in Vietnam and therefore many of the men smoked marijuana. He said, "One of the biggest reasons that a lot of GIs do get high over here is there is nothing to do. This place is really a drag; it 's a bore over here. Like right now sitting around here, we are getting loaded. Whereas, it does n't really get you messed up; that 's I guess the main reason why we smoke it. ''
American forces would conduct operations against PAVN forces, pushing them further back into the countryside away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands. In the backcountry the U.S. could fully utilize its superiority in firepower and mobility to bleed the enemy in set - piece battles. The cleaning - out of the NLF and the pacification of the villages would be the responsibility of the South Vietnamese military. The adoption of this strategy, however, brought Westmoreland into direct conflict with his Marine Corps commander, General Lewis W. Walt, who had already recognized the security of the villages as the key to success. Walt had immediately commenced pacification efforts in his area of responsibility, but Westmoreland was unhappy, believing that the Marines were being underutilized and fighting the wrong enemy. In the end, MACV won out and Westmoreland 's search and destroy concept, predicated on the attrition of enemy forces, won the day.
Both sides chose similar strategies. PAVN, which had been operating a more conventional, large - unit war, switched back to small - unit operations in the face of U.S. military capabilities. The struggle moved to the villages, where the "hearts and minds '' of the South Vietnamese peasants, whose cooperation was absolutely necessary to military success, would be won or lost. The U.S. had given responsibility for this struggle to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), whose troops and commanders were notoriously unfit for the task.
For the American soldier, whose doctrine was one of absolute commitment to total victory, this strategy led to a frustrating small - unit war. Most of the combat was conducted by units smaller than battalion - size (the majority at the platoon level). Since the goal of the operations was to kill the enemy, terrain was not taken and held as in previous wars. Savage fighting and the retreat of the communists was immediately followed by the abandonment of the terrain just seized. Combined with this was the anger and frustration engendered among American troops by the effective tactics of the NLF, who conducted a war of sniping, booby traps, mines, and terror against the Americans.
As a result of the conference held in Honolulu, President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to 429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating in these operations (Operation Masher / White Wing, Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather conditions that were alternately hot and dry, or cold and wet. It was the PAVN / NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and / or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields.
During the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as "Air Mobile '', was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam was the first time the helicopter was used on a major scale, and in such important roles. Search and destroy missions, for example, would have been nearly impossible without it. Helicopters allowed American commanders to move large numbers of troops to virtually anywhere, regardless of the terrain or roads. Troops could also be easily resupplied in remote areas. The helicopter also provided another new and vital capability: medical evacuation. It could fly wounded soldiers to aid stations very quickly, usually within the critical first hour. This gave wounded soldiers a higher chance of survival in Vietnam than in any previous war. The helicopter was also adapted for many other roles in Vietnam, including ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Without the helicopter, the war would have been fought very differently.
By mid-1967, Westmoreland said that it was conceivable that U.S. forces could be phased out of the war within two years, turning over progressively more of the fighting to the ARVN. That fall, however, savage fighting broke out in the northern provinces. Beginning below the DMZ at Con Tien and then spreading west to the Laotian border near Dak To, large PAVN forces began to stand their ground and fight. This willingness of the communists to remain fixed in place inspired MACV to send reinforcements from other sectors of South Vietnam. The Border Battles had begun.
Most of the PAVN / NLF operational capability was possible only because of the unhindered movement of men along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To threaten this flow of supplies, the Marine Corps established a combat base on the South Vietnamese side of the Laotian frontier, near the village of Khe Sanh. The U.S. used the base as a border surveillance position overlooking Route 9, the only east - west road that crossed the border in the province. Westmoreland also hoped to use the base as a jump - off point for any future incursion against the Trail system in Laos. During the spring of 1967, a series of small - unit actions near Khe Sanh prompted MACV to increase its forces. These small unit actions and increasing intelligence information indicated that the PAVN was building up significant forces just across the border.
Indeed, PAVN was doing just that. Two regular divisions (and later elements of a third) were moving toward Khe Sanh, eventually surrounding the base and cutting off its only road access. Westmoreland, contrary to the advice of his Marine commanders, reinforced the outpost. As far as he was concerned, if the communists were willing to mass their forces for destruction by American air power, so much the better. He described the ideal outcome as a "Dien Bien Phu in reverse ''. MACV then launched the largest concentrated aerial bombardment effort of the conflict (Operation Niagara) to defend Khe Sanh. Another massive aerial effort was undertaken to keep the beleaguered Marines supplied. There were many comparisons (by the media, Americans military and political officials, and the North Vietnamese) to the possibility of PAVN staging a repeat of its victory at Dien Bien Phu, but the differences outweighed the similarities in any comparison.
MACV used this opportunity to field its latest technology against the North Vietnamese. A sensor - driven, anti-infiltration system known as Operation Igloo White was in the process of being field tested in Laos as the siege of Khe Sanh began. Westmoreland ordered that it be employed to detect PAVN troop movements near the Marine base and the system worked well. By March, the long - awaited ground assault against the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV 's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence?
General Westmoreland 's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel '' was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN and NLF forces broke the truce that accompanied the Tết holiday and mounted their largest offensive thus far, in hopes of sparking a general uprising among the South Vietnamese. These forces, ranging in size from small groups to entire regiments, attacked nearly every city and major military installation in South Vietnam. The Americans and South Vietnamese, initially surprised by the scope and scale of the offensive, quickly responded and inflicted severe casualties on their enemies. The NLF was essentially eliminated as a fighting force and the places of the dead within its ranks were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese.
The PAVN / NLF attacks were speedily and bloodily repulsed in virtually all areas except Saigon, where the fighting lasted for three days, and in the old imperial capital of Huế, where it continued for a month. During the occupation of the historic city, 2,800 South Vietnamese were murdered by the NLF in the single worst massacre of the conflict. The hoped - for uprising never took place; indeed, the offensive drove some previously apathetic South Vietnamese to fight for the government. Another surprise for the communists was that the ARVN did not collapse under the onslaught, instead turning in a performance that pleased even its American patrons.
After the Tet Offensive, influential news magazines and newspapers, including the Wall Street Journal, Time and The New York Times, increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities and to reexamine their position in Southeast Asia. The days of an open - ended commitment to the conflict were over.
The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that "I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President '' and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam. Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place "to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end ''. A few days later, much to Johnson 's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began.
On March 16, 1968, three companies of Task Force Barker, part of the Americal Division, took part in a search and destroy operation near the village of My Lai, in Quảng Nam Province. One of those three companies, Charlie Company, under the command of Lieutenant William Calley, entered the hamlet of Son My and proceeded to round up, rape, torture and murder as many of the inhabitants as could be found. (Citation needed.) Although not all of the members of the company participated, a significant number of them, led by Calley, did. He personally ordered the executions of hundreds of villagers in large groups. The killings ended only when an American helicopter crew, headed by Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., discovered Calley 's unit in the act and threatened to attack them with his aircraft 's weapons unless they stopped. One of the soldiers on the scene was Ron Haeberle, a photographer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes, who took unobtrusive official black - and - white photos of the operation through the lens of his military - issued camera and color shots of the massacre with his personal camera. Although the operation appeared suspicious to Calley 's superiors, it was forgotten.
In 1969, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the My Lai massacre in print, and the Haeberle photos were released to the world media. The Pentagon launched an investigation headed by General William R. Peers to look into the allegations. After a flurry of activity, the Peers Commission issued its report. It declared that "an atmosphere of atrocity '' surrounded the event, concluding that a massacre had taken place and the crime had been covered up by the commander of the Americal Division and his executive officer. Perhaps 400 Vietnamese civilians, mostly old men, women, and children had been killed by Charlie company. Several men were charged in the killings, but only Calley was convicted. He was given a life sentence by a court - martial in 1970, but after numerous appeals he was finally set free; he had served just over three years of house arrest.
Although My Lai generated a lot of civilian recriminations and bad publicity for the military, it was not the only massacre. The Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files made public in 1994 by the "Freedom of Information Act '' reveal seven, albeit much smaller, massacres previously unacknowledged by the Pentagon, in which at least 137 civilians had died. (1) Cover - ups may have occurred in other cases, as detailed in the Pulitzer Prize - winning series of articles concerning the Tiger Force of the 101st Airborne Division by the Toledo Blade in 2003.
Richard Nixon had campaigned in the 1968 presidential election under the slogan that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor ''. However, there was no plan to do this, and the American commitment continued for another five years. The goal of the American military effort was to buy time, gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and re-equipping it with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so - called Nixon Doctrine. As applied to Vietnam, it was labeled Vietnamization.
Nixon 's papers show that in 1968, as a presidential candidate, he ordered Anna Chennault, his liaison to the South Vietnam government, to persuade them to refuse a cease - fire being brokered by President Lyndon Johnson. This action violated the Logan Act, banning private citizens from intruding into official government negotiations with a foreign nation, and has been said to constitute treason.
Soon after Tet, General Westmoreland was promoted to Army Chief of Staff and he was replaced by his deputy, General Creighton W. Abrams. Because of the change in American strategy posed by Vietnamization, Abrams pursued a very different approach. The U.S. was gradually withdrawing from the conflict, and Abrams favored smaller - scale operations aimed at PAVN / NLF logistics, more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of American firepower, elimination of the body count as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful cooperation with South Vietnamese forces.
Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that U.S. troops fight long enough for the ARVN to improve enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969 -- 1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased "fraggings '' of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops.
One of Nixon 's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a breakthrough in U.S. relations with the People 's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused of being "soft on communism ''. The result of his overtures was an era of détente that led to nuclear arms reductions by the U.S. and Soviet Union and the beginning of a dialogue with China. In this context, Nixon viewed Vietnam as simply another limited conflict forming part of the larger tapestry of superpower relations; however, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnam until such time as he could not be blamed for what he saw as its inevitable collapse (or a "decent interval '', as it was known). To this end he and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to successfully defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and secured movement at the negotiations that had begun in Paris.
China and the Soviet Union had been the principal backers of North Vietnam 's effort through large - scale military and financial aid. The two communist superpowers had competed with one another to prove their "fraternal socialist links '' with the regime in Hanoi. The North Vietnamese had become adept at playing the two nations off against one another. Even with Nixon 's rapprochement, their support of North Vietnam increased significantly in the years leading up to the U.S. departure in 1973, enabling the North Vietnamese to mount full - scale conventional offensives against the South, complete with tanks, heavy artillery, and the most modern surface - to - air missiles.
The credibility of the U.S. government again suffered in 1971 when The New York Times, The Washington Post and other newspapers serially published The Pentagon Papers (actually U.S. - Vietnam Relations, 1945 -- 1967). This top - secret historical study of the American commitment in Vietnam, from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until 1967, had been contracted to the RAND Corporation by Secretary of Defense McNamara. The documents were leaked to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former State Department official who had worked on the study.
The Pentagon Papers laid out the missteps taken by four administrations in their Vietnam policies. For example, they revealed the Johnson administration 's obfuscations to Congress concerning the Gulf of Tonkin incidents that had led to direct U.S. intervention; they exposed the clandestine bombing of Laos that had begun in 1964; and they detailed the American government 's complicity in the death of Ngô Đình Diệm. The study presented a continuously pessimistic view of the likelihood of victory and generated fierce criticism of U.S. policies.
The importance of the actual content of the papers to U.S. policy - making was disputed, but the window that they provided into the flawed decision - making process at the highest levels of the U.S. government opened the issue for other questions. Their publication was a news event and the government 's legal (Nixon lost to the Supreme Court) and extra-legal efforts (the "Plumbers '' break - in at the office of Ellsberg 's psychiatrist committed to gain material to discredit him, was one of the first steps on the road to Watergate) carried out to prevent their publication -- mainly on national security grounds -- then went on to generate yet more criticism and suspicion of the government by the American public.
By 1969 the policy of non-alignment and neutrality had worn thin for Prince Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia. Pressures from the right in Cambodia caused the prince to begin a shift away from the pro-left position he had assumed in 1965 -- 1966. He began to make overtures for normalized relations with the U.S. and created a Government of National Salvation with the assistance of the pro-American General Lon Nol. Seeing a shift in the prince 's position, President Nixon ordered the launching of a top - secret bombing campaign, targeted at the PAVN / NLF Base Areas and sanctuaries along Cambodia 's eastern border.
On March 18, 1970, Sihanouk, who was out of the country on a state visit, was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by General Lon Nol. Cambodia 's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that PAVN / NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. On March 29, 1970, the Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh allowing their allies, the Chinese - supported Khmer Rouge to extend their power. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in order to both destroy PAVN / NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia.
The incursion also sparked large - scale demonstrations on and closures of American college campuses. The expansion of the conflict into Cambodia was seen as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country, nullifying Nixon 's promises of de-escalating the war. During the ensuing protests, four students were killed and a score were wounded by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas.
Following the coup, Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, throwing his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.
In 1971 the U.S. authorized the ARVN to carry out an offensive operation aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern Laos. Besides attacking the PAVN logistical system (which would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would be a significant test of Vietnamization. Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along Route 9, utilizing the abandoned Marine outpost of Khe Sanh as a jumping - off point. At first, the incursion went well, but unlike the Cambodian operation of 1970, the PAVN decided to stand and fight, finally mustering around 60,000 men on the battlefield.
The North Vietnamese first struck the flanks of the ARVN column, smashed its outposts, and then moved in on the main ARVN force. Unlike previous encounters during the conflict, the PAVN fielded armored formations, heavy artillery, and large amounts of the latest anti-aircraft artillery. After two months of savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization was seen as a failure.
On August 18, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from the conflict. The total number of U.S. forces in South Vietnam dropped to 196,700 on October 29, 1971, the lowest level since January 1966. On November 12, 1971, Nixon set a February 1, 1972 deadline for the removal of another 45,000 troops.
Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972 when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30, the Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyễn Huệ Offensive to the North Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, including the provincial capital of Quảng Trị City. PAVN forces then drove south toward Huế.
Early in April, PAVN opened two additional operations. The first, a three - division thrust supported by tanks and heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The North Vietnamese seized the town of Loc Ninh and advanced toward the provincial capital of An Lộc in Bình Long Province. The second new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam in two.
The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker, the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Huế, An Lộc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a counteroffensive in May to retake the lost northern provinces. On September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the ruins of the Citadel of Quảng Trị City, but the ARVN offensive then ran out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest attack since Tet, but it was very evident that it was totally dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, was continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW 's were freed.
At the beginning of the North Vietnamese invasion, the media, including conservative commentator William F. Buckley, predicted the downfall of the Republic of Vietnam; Buckley even called for the firing of General Creighton Abrams as an incompetent military leader. But the ARVN succeeded in defeating General Giap and his huge invading army. His forces were shattered at the Battle of An Lộc, where he threw several divisions at the entrenched South Vietnamese forces, ultimately losing over half of his army as casualties. General Giap 's loss and subsequent retreat was viewed as so great a failure by the North Vietnamese Communist Party that Giap was relieved of his command. Although ARVN troops withstood and repelled the massive PAVN attack at An Lộc, American air power seems to have been a key to the ARVN success, just as it had been a key factor in supporting U.S. ground forces when they operated in South Vietnam prior to 1972. Thus, the 1973 withdrawal of U.S. military support and passage of Congressional resolutions cutting off U.S. funding for combat activities in Indochina (H.R. 9055 and H.J. Res. 636) opened the way for the 1975 defeat of the Republic of Vietnam.
During the run - up to the 1972 presidential election, the war was once again a major issue. An antiwar Democrat, George McGovern, ran against President Nixon. The president ended Operation Linebacker on October 22 after the negotiating deadlock was broken and a tentative agreement had been hammered out by U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives at the peace negotiations in Paris. The head of the U.S. negotiating team, Henry Kissinger, declared that "peace is at hand '' shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern 's already doomed campaign. Kissinger had not, however, counted on the intransigence of South Vietnamese President Thieu, who refused to accept the agreement and demanded some 90 changes in its text. These the North Vietnamese refused to accept, and Nixon was not inclined to put too much pressure on Thieu just before the election, even though his victory was all but assured. The mood between the U.S. and North further turned sour when Hanoi went public with the details of the agreement. The Nixon Administration claimed that North Vietnamese negotiators had used the pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the President and to weaken the United States. White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler told the press on November 30 that there would be no more public announcements concerning U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam since force levels were down to 27,000.
Because of Thieu 's unhappiness with the agreement, primarily the stipulation that North Vietnamese troops could remain "in place '' on South Vietnamese soil, the negotiations in Paris stalled as Hanoi refused to accept Thieu 's changes and retaliated with amendments of its own. To reassure Thieu of American resolve, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam utilizing B - 52s and tactical aircraft in Operation Linebacker II, which began on December 18 with large raids against both Hanoi and the port of Haiphong. Nixon justified his actions by blaming the impasse in negotiations on the North Vietnamese, causing one commentator to describe his actions as "War by tantrum ''. Although this heavy bombing campaign caused protests, both domestically and internationally, and despite significant aircraft losses over North Vietnam, Nixon continued the operation until December 29. He also exerted pressure on Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement reached in October.
On January 15, 1973, citing progress in peace negotiations, Nixon announced the suspension of all offensive actions against North Vietnam, to be followed by a unilateral withdrawal of all U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam '' were signed on January 27, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
The agreement called for the withdrawal of all U.S. personnel and an exchange of prisoners of war. Within South Vietnam, a cease - fire was declared (to be overseen by a multi-national, 1,160 - man International Control Commission force) and both ARVN and PAVN / NLF forces would remain in control of the areas they then occupied, effectively partitioning South Vietnam. Both sides pledged to work toward a compromise political solution, possibly resulting in a coalition government. To maximize the area under their control, both sides in South Vietnam almost immediately engaged in land - grabbing military operations, which turned into flashpoints. The signing of the Accords was the main motivation for the awarding of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and to leading North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho. A separate cease - fire had been installed in Laos in February. Five days before the signing of the agreement in Paris, President Lyndon Johnson, whose presidency had been tainted with the Vietnam issue, died.
The first U.S. prisoners of war were released by North Vietnam on February 11, and all U.S. military personnel were ordered to leave South Vietnam by March 29. As an inducement for Thieu 's government to sign the agreement, Nixon had promised that the U.S. would provide financial and limited military support (in the form of air strikes) so that the South would not be overrun. But Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing Watergate scandal and facing an increasingly hostile Congress that withheld funding. The President was able to exert little influence on a hostile public long sick of the Vietnam War.
Thus, Nixon (or his successor Gerald Ford) was unable to fulfill his promises to Thieu. At the same time, aid to North Vietnam from the Soviet Union increased. With the U.S. no longer heavily involved, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union no longer saw the war as significant to their relations. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam 's favor, and the North subsequently launched a major military offensive, the Ho Chi Minh Campaign, against the South that culminated in the surrender of the Republic of Vietnam to PAVN forces on April 30, 1975.
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shipbuilding was done in what area of the colonies | Colonial shipbuilding - wikipedia
Between America 's vast natural resources, excellent location in relation to the world market, capital flow and plentiful skilled labor; the American colonies had a comparative advantage in shipbuilding. The American colonies also had other incentives to improve their shipbuilding process and produce more ships than any other country. World trade was increasingly being conducted by way of the sea and British trade restrictions on other goods from the colonies decreased trade flows. This caused the colonies to turn to shipbuilding and many American colonists found they could make a viable living within the shipbuilding industry.
Timber was critical for the development of the shipbuilding industry. It has been stated, "For every ton of shipping a vessel held, at least one and half loads of timber were required, with a load of timber being approximately equivalent to one tree 's worth of wood. '' More specifically, British war vessels required two thousand trees for construction. The abundance of timber and lumber made shipbuilding highly economical in the colonies. Woods like Pine, oak, maple, beech, birch, hickory, ash and cypress trees were plentiful in Colonial America.
The rapid growth in commercial agriculture increased the demand for slaves. As a result of the demand, there was increased pressure for supply. The source of slave labor was the African continent. Trans - Atlantic trade became an important part of the American colonies because of the rise in demand for raw materials in industrialized Europe. The Atlantic slave trade relied on slaves, raw materials and industrial goods from Europe. As a result of increased demand for raw materials in Europe the American colonial shipbuilding industry boomed. In 1710 there was a boom in the shipbuilding business. At first, it was out of necessity of fishing and traveling, but as more families became experts in shipbuilding craftsmanship, they began building new ships each winter. As the demand for fishing and traveling increased, so did the need of boats. By 1845, the Essex company was only building boats to supply to fishing companies. By the 1850s it was manufacturing up to 50 boats a year. Colonial ships began to play a large part in the Transatlantic trade, by the end of the century about a fifth of the plantation trade was carried in colonial ships. Because of the growth of manufacturing in America due to an abundance of materials and low labor costs, many British authorities supported the growth of the colonial shipbuilding industry. The Navigation Acts gave colonial built ships the same status and protection as those made in England. This allowed the shipbuilding industry to prosper even more.
In the colonial period European powers were the economic powerhouses of the world. They heavily influenced commerce and trade in both North and South America. In particular, the British and the Spanish exerted their influence over the colonial economies. This influence helped determine the direction of economic advancement on the American continents. In Europe, there was an influx in the demand for products that required tropical climates. For example, tobacco and sugarcane were major items of trading. The climate in the two American continents was conducive to the growth of these products, hence the increased European interest in that part of the world in the period. The increased demand resulted in increased efforts of production and consequently an influx in investment.
Some areas in the colonies were not conducive to the development of agriculture. This was the case in the New England colonies which consisted of the present day New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, Maine and Massachusetts. These areas have poorly developed soils and are susceptible to poor climatic conditions. Nevertheless, New England did have prime access to the Atlantic Ocean. New England was able to create a thriving fishing industry to increase their shipbuilding market. New England 's ideal placement and the demand that existed for water transport implied that they were involved in the shipping industry as a function of their agricultural impotence, their locations and the development of a fishing industry.
The Transatlantic Triangular Trade involved three journeys each with the promise of a large profit and a full cargo. In reality, the journey was more complicated with ships traveling from all over Europe carrying manufactured goods to different ports along the African coast to trade for slaves. The ships from Africa then sailed across the Atlantic to the Caribbean and Americas to trade the slaves for raw materials. Finally the ships from America returned to Europe with raw materials such as sugar, tobacco, rice and cotton. The system of Triangular Trade allowed for goods to be traded for other goods, rather than being bought or sold.
Ships from England would go to Africa carrying iron products, cloth, trinkets and beads, guns and ammunition. The ships traded these goods for slaves, gold and spices (pepper). Ships from Africa would go to the American Colonies via the route known as the ' Middle Passage '. The slaves were exchanged for goods from the Americas, destined for the slave plantations. Ships from the Americas would then take raw materials back to England. The British would use the raw materials to make ' finished goods '.
While the demand for these ships was high, there were new ways needed to meet the demand with supply. There were many shipyards being built, and more and more materials were needed. In the beginning of the colonial period, people built their own boats for fishing and transportation. By the end of the 18th century though, there were many shipyards, and many of these had been passed down in families. Many of the ships were used for fishing and transporting small goods, but they were eventually used for trading of more goods, and also for passengers and transport.
One of the sources of labor to build these ships was slaves. A lot of the work was specialty work and required skilled labor. This was considered good work during this time. While shipbuilders did not become wealthy, they did earn good livings; in 1815 one New York shipbuilder earned $30,000. American shipbuilders earned a reputation for producing the world 's best ships in this period. Many different types of work and jobs related to the shipbuilding industry included carpenters, joiners, sail makers, barrel makers, painters, caulkers and blacksmiths.
Shipbuilding began as an industry because of fishing in the colonies which provided coastal commerce between the colonies themselves. With plenty of forests and skilled labor around the local towns the colonies thrived. The towns themselves were an important part of the shipbuilding process because they provided a local economy of skilled labor. Towns became formed by labor groups to build ships. These labor groups included carpenters, joiners, borers, coppers, caulkers, dubbers and an assortment of young boys charged with menial tasks. Shipbuilding knowledge was passed down between generations of the town and handing down knowledge continually made the shipbuilding process more efficient.
A town of workers made the process more efficient because a 150 - ton ship required 200 workers, and the shipbuilding process could take 60 -- 100 days. Local governments supported the shipbuilding industry because it provided wealth for the local economy. Relative to other laborers, shipwrights earned a higher standard of living with their acquired skills. During the colonial period shipbuilding became the major source of employment; even slaves helped to build ships.
The east coast of the United States provided a specifically dense area for raw materials especially around Massachusetts. There was an abundance of oak forests that provided wood for the ships. In the late 1680s "there were more than 2 dozen sawmills around the Maine and Massachusetts areas These sawmills, along with a dense supply of wood, helped to increase the business of colonial shipbuilding. The wood was usually white oak, but "cedars, chestnuts, and black oaks were perfect for the underwater portion of the ships. '' Demand was high for wood, colonial Americans needed faster ways of producing more wood. This led to inventions of different types of sawmills. One of the first types of sawmills was the water sawmill. This process allowed for faster, more efficient wood to be made for shipbuilding. "Early sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process. ''
The shipbuilding process began with the frame and then heating the hull of the ship. This was done using steamers and wood as fuel. Planks were heated to be able to bend with the curve of the ship. Once all the framing and planking was completed, caulking waterproofed the ship. Ships made of wood required a flexible material, insoluble in water, to seal the spaces between planks. Pine pitch was often mixed with fibers like hemp to caulk spaces which might otherwise leak. Crude gum or oleoresin could be collected from the wounds of living pine trees.
Tools used included the mallets and iron s. Mallets were usually 16 inches from end to end with the handle bar usually being about 16 inches. The material that was hammered in between each of the planks was typically oakum, a kind of hemp fiber. There were oftentimes 2 - 3 layers of this oakum fiber placed in between the planks. Putty would be put on afterwards to finish off the waterproofing. Tar, which also came from the thousands of trees available, was oftentimes spread over the top of these planks and they were covered with copper plating. Copper was used because without it the ship 's hull would often get infected with worms. The copper was fastened to the ship with bronze nails. The ships were oftentimes painted yellow, to help make the ship appear faster and newer.
The early wooden vessels worked for business angling and remote exchange likewise offered ascend to an assortment of subordinate exchanges and commercial enterprises in the zone, including sail making, chandleries, rope strolls and marine railroads. Shipyards in Essex and Suffolk regions are credited with the development of the conventional American dory and constructed those that included the prestigious Gloucester, Massachusetts angling armada, freed the settlements from British guideline, reinforced the vendor and maritime armadas that made the United States a force to be reckoned with and assumed essential parts in World War I and World War II. Numerous vessels incorporated into this schedule were either developed in Massachusetts or are illustrative of the sorts of vessels manufactured and repaired in Massachusetts shipyards.
In the American colonies shipbuilding had an immense impact on the economy. The colonies had a comparative advantage in shipbuilding with their vast natural resources, skilled craftsmen and capital infused from the British empire. The colonies ' ability to build ships with their large timber stock flooded the economy with capital from Britain it had not previously seen. Boston, Massachusetts became the central point for the boom of shipbuilding because it was the main distribution point for most of the shipping tonnage. The shipbuilding industry needed plenty of skilled labor to support it and with America 's large forest industry many craftsmen already had skills working with wood. These skills transitioned to the shipbuilding industry.
The introduction of British credit and complicated account balancing during King William 's War, in the 1690s, changed how Boston merchants financed the shipbuilding industry. As British credit flowed into the community, Boston merchants began creating long - term credit arrangements with waterfront tradesmen and other skilled laborers. Local labor and exchanges of goods could be sustained across scores of people linked with myriad small amounts of credit and debit without cash. But the shipbuilding industry generated the labor and capital necessary for merchants to create far larger and more intricate financial networks that solidified their position of power within both the local and the Atlantic economy. The extension of credit to a large portion of society helped spur the shipbuilding boom period from 1700 - 1717.
In 1717, Boston learned that disaster had struck in the West Indies. The Spanish attacked and destroyed the British settlement at Trist in the Bay of Campeche, where Boston merchants had long extracted log wood for sale in England and Europe. Boston 's economy was sent into a tailspin. Ship orders decreased and confidence in long - term credit arrangements plummeted triggering an unprecedented amount of lawsuits. Boston 's economic catastrophe in 1717 led to the creation of new currency and credit laws that directly affected how merchants and tradesmen in the shipbuilding industry conducted business. This meant more stringent lending practices to trustworthy tradesmen and a stronger, more transparent industry that continued to dominate the Atlantic economy.
Much of the skills required of shipwrights or shipbuilders were obtained through on - the - job - training. Many of the earliest shipyards and boat shops operated as family businesses passed down from generation to generation. The town of Essex, Massachusetts became the center for skilled craftsmen and produced the best boats. In 1794, Tenche Coxe described America 's shipbuilding experiences as an art for which the United States is peculiarly qualified by their skill in construction and vast natural resources. Skilled shipbuilding craftsmen were always in demand during the colonial period because shipbuilding pertained to many areas of the economy. The uses of ships in trade, fishing and travel meant there was a continual supply and demand for shipbuilding skills.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, forests were the basis of sea power in all its military and commercial aspects, and each nation strove to maintain its independence by protecting timber supply routes that often extended over great distances. This drove the British to encourage shipbuilding in the American colonies. Over 1,000 vessels were launched out of the American colonies during the seventeenth century. Boston, Massachusetts was the distribution hub of natural resources that included cedar, maple, white pine, spruce and oak timber cut in New England. By the mid seventeenth century shipwrights were beginning to take advantage of oak, mulberry, cedar and laurel in Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. During the seventeenth century iron became increasingly used by shipwrights for bracing, bolts, anchors and ordinance. The American colonies were able to meet their demand for iron by utilizing their expansive charcoal reserves. These vast natural resources made American colonial ships cost 25 Mexican dollars per ton versus English ships ' 60 Mexican dollars per ton according to a 1794 account by Tenche Coxe.
The shipbuilding industry was extremely important, especially to the New England Colonies in Colonial Times. The first ships were built for fishing, but trade was also conducted by water, which eventually led to the real demand in shipbuilding. Shipyards rose up all along the coast of New England. The abundance of timber and lumber made shipbuilding cheap in the colonies. Many different types of work were related to the shipbuilding industry including carpenters, joiners, sail makers, barrel makers, painters, caulkers and blacksmiths. There were 125 colonial shipyards by the year 1750.
Shipbuilding was a particularly successful and profitable industry in Massachusetts, with its miles of coastline featuring protected harbors and bays. Mass quantities of lumber and other raw materials were found in abundance. The early wooden vessels built for commercial fishing and foreign trade also gave rise to a variety of supporting industries in the area, including sail making, chancelleries, rope walks and marine railways. Due to the booming shipbuilding industry some colonies such as Maryland experienced deforestation and in turn a depleted stock of available timber.
Beginning in roughly 1760, it became necessary for Maryland to import timber from other colonies. However, in New England the shipbuilding industry continued to boom. In fact, in New England the abundance of good timber enabled colonists to produce ships thirty percent cheaper than the English, making it the most profitable manufactured export during the colonial period.
Even with the forests closest to New York and Boston depleted, the country still had vast timber reserves, making the cost of construction much lower. '' An American vessel made of more expensive live oak and cedar would cost thirty - six dollars to thirty - eight dollars per ton, while a similar vessel made of oak in England, France, or Holland would cost fifty - five dollars to sixty dollars per ton.
One of the main drivers of demand Naval architecture changed gradually in the eighteenth century. Of five classes of seventeenth - century vessels, only ship continued to be built after the early 1700s. The others were replaced by four new types: sloop, schooner, brigantine, and snow. Given the constant emigration of shipwrights from England and the limited advances in technology, it is not surprising that eighteenth - century Americans were usually familiar with trends abroad. Sloop and schooner were more manageable and could operate with fewer men. Smaller sails meant lighter masts and rigging, which in turn reduced expenses for the owners.
In addition, availability alone fails to explain the general popularity of New England - built tonnage in other colonies. Cost may have been the decisive factor. After all, among the American colonies, New England shipyards produced the most tonnage and often had the lowest building rates. Convenience must have been an important attraction also. Surplus goods and ships could be exchange for mutual benefit
The sale of colonial ships built on the British market enabled English merchants to secure cheap tonnage and gave American merchants an important source of income to pay for their imports. All the colonies exported shipping, but once again, New England was the chief contributor.
New England supplied about half of the tonnage in Great Britain at the end of the colonial period. Within New England, Massachusetts and New Hampshire were the leading producers; Pennsylvania; followed by Virginia and Maryland, launched most of the remaining tonnage. British demand for American natural resources provided a foreign market for colonial shipbuilding.
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is it mandatory to go to school in canada | Education in Canada - Wikipedia
Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Within the provinces under the ministry of education, there are district school boards administering the educational programs.
Education is compulsory up to the age of 16 in every province in Canada, except for Manitoba, Ontario, and New Brunswick, where the compulsory age is 18, or as soon as a high school diploma has been achieved. In some provinces early leaving exemptions can be granted under certain circumstances at 14. Canada generally has 190 (180 in Quebec) school days in the year, officially starting from September (after Labour Day) to the end of June (usually the last Friday of the month, except in Quebec when it is just before June 24 -- the provincial holiday). In British Columbia secondary schools, there are 172 school days during a school year. (2013 - 2014). In Alberta, high school students get an additional four weeks off to accommodate for exam break; two weeks in January, and two in June. Classes typically end on the 15th of those two months.
Elementary, intermediate, secondary, and post-secondary education in Canada is a provincial responsibility and there are many variations between the provinces. The federal government 's responsibilities in education are limited to the Royal Military College of Canada, and funding the education of indigenous peoples.
About one out of ten Canadians does not have a high school diploma -- one in seven has a university degree -- the adult population that is without a high school diploma is a combination of both immigrant and Canadian - born. In many places, publicly funded high school courses are offered to the adult population. The ratio of high school graduates versus non diploma - holders is changing rapidly, partly due to changes in the labour market that require people to have a high school diploma and, in many cases, a university degree. Nonetheless, more than 51 % of Canadians have a college degree, the highest rate in the world by far. The majority of schools, at 67 %, are co-educational.
Canada spends about 5.4 % of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than 20 000 USD per student). Recent reports suggest that from 2006 the tuition fees of Canadian universities have increased by 40 percent. Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982, education in both English and French has been available in most places across Canada (if the population of children speaking the minority language justifies it), although French Second Language education / French Immersion is available to anglophone students across Canada.
According to an announcement of Canadian Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, Canada is introducing a new, fast - track system to let foreign students and graduates with Canadian work experience become permanent eligible residents in Canada.
Most schools have introduced one or more initiatives such as programs in Native studies, antiracism, Aboriginal cultures and crafts; visits by elders and other community members; and content in areas like indigenous languages, Aboriginal spirituality, indigenous knowledge of nature, and tours to indigenous heritage sites. Although these classes are offered, most appear to be limited by the area or region in which students reside. "The curriculum is designed to elicit development and quality of people 's cognition through the guiding of accommodations of individuals to their natural environment and their changing social order ''
Subjects that typically get assessed (i.e., language arts, mathematics, and science) assume greater importance than non-assessed subjects (i.e., music, visual arts, and physical education) or facets of the curriculum (i.e., reading and writing versus speaking and listening).
Some scholars view academics as a form of "soft power '' helping to educate and to create positive attitudes, although there is criticism that educators are merely telling students what to think, instead of how to think for themselves, and using up a large proportion of classroom time in the process. Efforts to keep students happy and socially correct often come at the expense of academic achievement. Social promotion policies, grade inflation, lack of corrective feedback for students, teaching methods that slow the development of basic skills compared to past decades, reform mathematics, and the failure to objectively track student progress have also forced high schools and colleges to lower their academic standards.
The Constitution of Canada provides constitutional protections for some types of publicly funded religious - based and language - based school systems.
The Constitution Act, 1867 contains a guarantee for publicly funded religious - based separate schools, provided the separate schools were established by law prior to the province joining Confederation. Court cases have established that this provision did not apply to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, since those provinces did not provide a legal guarantee for separate schools prior to Confederation. The provision did originally apply to Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Newfoundland and Labrador, since these provinces did have pre-existing separate schools. This constitutional provision was repealed in Quebec by a constitutional amendment in 1997, and for Newfoundland and Labrador in 1998. The constitutional provision continues to apply to Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta. There is a similar federal statutory provision which applies to the Northwest Territories.
Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right of citizens who were educated in the minority language in a particular province to have their children educated in the minority language in publicly funded schools. In practice, this guarantee means that there are publicly funded English schools in Quebec, and publicly funded French schools in the other provinces and the territories.
Quebec students must attend a French school up until the end of high school unless one of their parents qualifies as a rights - holder under s. 23 of the Charter. In Ontario, French language schools automatically admit students recognized under section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and may admit non-francophone students through the board 's admissions committee consisting of the school principal, a school superintendent and a teacher.
Most education programs in Canada begin in kindergarten (age five) or grade one (age six) and go to grade twelve (age 17 or 18), except in Quebec, where students finish a year earlier. After completion of a secondary school diploma, students may go on to post-secondary studies.
Normally, for each type of publicly funded school (such as Public English or Public French), the province is divided into districts (or divisions). For each district, board members (trustees) are elected only by its supporters within the district (voters receive a ballot for just one of the boards in their area). Normally, all publicly funded schools are under the authority of their local district school board. These school boards would follow a common curriculum set up by the province the board resides in. Only Alberta allows public charter schools, which are independent of any district board. Instead, they each have their own board, which reports directly to the province.
Primary education, Intermediate education, and secondary education combined are sometimes referred to as K - 12 (Kindergarten through Grade 12). Secondary schooling, known as high school, collegiate institute, école secondaire or secondary school, consists of different grades depending on the province in which one resides. Furthermore, grade structure may vary within a province or even within a school division and may or may not include middle school or junior high school.
Kindergarten (or its equivalent) is available for children in all provinces in the year they turn five (except Ontario and Quebec, where it begins a year earlier), but the names of these programs, provincial funding, and the number of hours provided varies widely. For example, the Department of Education in Nova Scotia refers to Kindergarten as Grade Primary.
Ontario offers two years of optional kindergarten (junior kindergarten for four - year - olds and senior kindergarten for five - year - olds). At French schools in Ontario, these programs are called Maternelle and Jardin. In 2010, Ontario increased both years to full - day programs, while BC 's single year of kindergarten became full - day in 2012. Quebec offers heavily subsidized preschool programs and introduced an early kindergarten program for children from low - income families in 2013. Students in the Prairie provinces are not required by statute to attend kindergarten. As a result, kindergarten often is not available in smaller towns.
Dependent on the province the age of mandatory entry to the education system is at 4 -- 7 years. Starting at grade one, at age six or seven, there is universal publicly funded access up to grade twelve (age seventeen to eighteen), except in Quebec, where secondary school ends one year earlier. Children are required to attend school until the age of sixteen (eighteen in Manitoba, Ontario, and New Brunswick). In Quebec, the typical high school term ends after Secondary V / Grade eleven (age sixteen to seventeen); following this, students who wish to pursue their studies to the university level have to attend college (see Education in Quebec). Quebec is currently the only province where Grade 12 is part of postsecondary, though Grade 11 was also the end of secondary education in Newfoundland and Labrador prior to the introduction of grade 12 in 1983.
Ontario had a "Grade 13 '' known as Ontario Academic Credit (OAC) year, but this was abolished in 2003 by the provincial government to cut costs. As a result, the curriculum has been compacted, and the more difficult subjects, such as mathematics, are comparatively harder than before. However, the system is now approximately equivalent to what has been the case outside of Quebec and Ontario for many years.
Students may continue to attend high school until the ages of 19 to 21 (the cut - off age for high school varies between provinces). Those 19 and over may attend adult school. Students of high school age who have received long - term suspensions or have been expelled, or are otherwise unable or unwilling to attend conventional schools may be offered alternative learning options to complete their secondary education, such as drop - in programs, night school, or distance / online classes.
An increasing number of international students are attending pre-university courses at Canadian high schools.
Post-secondary education in Canada is also the responsibility of the individual provinces and territories. Those governments provide the majority of funding to their public post-secondary institutions, with the remainder of funding coming from tuition fees, the federal government, and research grants. Compared to other countries in the past, Canada has had the highest tertiary school enrollment as a percentage of their graduating population.
Nearly all post-secondary institutions in Canada have the authority to grant academic credentials (i.e., diplomas or degrees). Generally speaking, universities grant degrees (e.g., bachelor 's, master 's or doctorate degrees) while colleges, which typically offer vocationally oriented programs, grant diplomas and certificates. However, some colleges offer applied arts degrees that lead to or are equivalent to degrees from a university. Private career colleges are overseen by legislative acts for each province. For example, in British Columbia training providers will be registered and accredited with the (PCTIA) Private Career Training Institutions Agency regulated under the Private Career Training Institutions Act (SBC 2003) Each province with their own correlating agency. Unlike the United States, there is no "accreditation body '' that oversees the universities in Canada. Universities in Canada have degree - granting authority via an Act or Ministerial Consent from the Ministry of Education of the particular province.
Post-secondary education in Quebec begins with college following graduation from Grade 11 (or Secondary V). Students complete a two - or three - year general program leading to admission to a university, or a professional program leading directly into the labour force. In most cases, bachelor 's degree programs in Quebec are three years instead of the usual four; however, in many cases, students attending a university in Quebec that did not graduate from college must complete an additional year of coursework. When Ontario had five years of high school, a three - year bachelor 's degree was common, but these degrees are being phased out in favour of the four - year degree.
The main variation between the provinces, with respect to the universities, is the amount of funding they receive and the amount of tuition and other fees they charge.
The Royal Military College of Canada (RMC), is the military academy of the Canadian Forces and is a full degree - granting university. RMC is the only federal institution with degree - granting powers.
About 5.6 % of students are in private schools. A minority of these are elite private schools, which are attended by only a small fraction of students, but do have a great deal of prestige and prominence. A far larger portion of private schools are religious based institutions. Private schools are also used to study outside the country. For example, Canadian College Italy has an Ontario curriculum, but the school is located in Italy.
Private schools have historically been less common on the Canadian Prairies and were often forbidden under municipal and provincial statutes enacted to provide equality of education to students regardless of family income. This is especially true in Alberta, where successive Social Credit (or populist conservative) governments denounced the concept of private education as the main cause of denial of opportunity to the children of the working poor.
In the past, private universities in Canada maintained a religious history or foundation. However, since 1999, the Province of New Brunswick passed the Degree Granting Act allowing private universities to operate in the Province. The University of Fredericton is the newest university to receive designation in New Brunswick.
Trinity Western University, in Langley British Columbia, was founded in 1962 as a junior college and received full accreditation in 1985. In 2002, British Columbia 's Quest University became the first privately funded liberal arts university without a denominational affiliation (although it is not the first private liberal arts university). Many provinces, including Ontario and Alberta, have passed legislation allowing private degree - granting institutions (not necessarily universities) to operate there.
Many Canadians remain polarized on the issue of permitting private universities into the Canadian market. On the one hand, Canada 's top universities find it difficult to compete with the private American powerhouses because of funding, but on the other hand, the fact that the price of private universities tends to exclude those who can not pay that much for their education could prevent a significant portion of Canada 's population from being able to attend these schools.
In addition to the issue of access, some Canadians find issue with protections instituted within the Charter of Rights and Freedoms as ruled by the Supreme Court of Canada in 2001 and consistent with federal and provincial law that (private) faith - based universities in Canada based on the long established principles of freedom of conscience and religion can exempt itself from more recent human rights legislation when they insist in their "community covenant '' code signed by staff, faculty and students that they act in accordance with the faith of the school. The covenant may require restraint from those acts considered in contradiction with the tenets of their faith such as homosexual relationships, sex outside marriage or more broadly abstain from consuming alcohol on campus or viewing pornography. However, private - Christian based schools do not preclude homosexual or lesbian students from attending. Some faith - based universities have been known to fire staff and faculty which refused to adhere or whose actions were in opposition with the tenets of the faith, although in some provinces, their dismissals have been successfully challenged in court based on the circumstances.
Each province deals differently with private religious schools. In Ontario the Catholic system continues to be fully publicly funded while other faiths are not. Ontario has several private Jewish, Islamic, and Christian schools all funded through tuition fees. Since the Catholic schools system is entrenched in the constitution, the Supreme Court has ruled that this system is constitutional. However, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has ruled that Ontario 's system is discriminatory, suggesting that Ontario either fund no faith - based schools, or all of them. In 2002 the government of Mike Harris introduced a controversial program to partially fund all private schools, but this was criticized for undermining the public education system and the program was eliminated after the Liberals won the 2003 provincial election.
In other provinces privately operated religious schools are funded. In British Columbia the government pays independent schools that meet rigorous provincial standards up to 50 % of the per - student operating cost of public schools. The province has a number of Sikh, Hindu, Christian, and Islamic schools. Alberta also has a network of charter schools, which are fully funded schools offering distinct approaches to education within the public school system. Alberta charter schools are not private and the province does not grant charters to religious schools. These schools have to follow the provincial curriculum and meet all standards, but are given considerable freedom in other areas. In all other provinces private religious schools receive some funding, but not as much as the public system.
An example of how schools can be divided by religion, Toronto has two English boards; Toronto Catholic District School Board and Toronto District School Board, and two French boards; Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre - Sud and Conseil scolaire Viamonde.
As the education system in Canada is managed by the varying provincial governments in Canada, the way the educational stages are grouped and named may differ from each region, or even between districts and individual schools. The ages are the age of the students when they end the school year in June.
English schools in Quebec have the same grade system as French schools, but with English names. For example, "elementary school '' is not called "école primaire '' in an English school, but has the same grading system.
The following table shows how grades are organized in various provinces. Often, there will be exceptions within each province, both with terminology for groups, and which grades apply to each group.
Notes:
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what is the current inflation rate in zimbabwe | Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe - wikipedia
Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe was a period of currency instability that began in the late 1990s shortly after the confiscation of private farms from landowners, towards the end of Zimbabwean involvement in the Second Congo War. During the height of inflation from 2008 to 2009, it was difficult to measure Zimbabwe 's hyperinflation because the government of Zimbabwe stopped filing official inflation statistics. However, Zimbabwe 's peak month of inflation is estimated at 79.6 billion percent in mid-November 2008.
In 2009, Zimbabwe stopped printing its currency, with currencies from other countries being used. In mid-2015, Zimbabwe announced plans to have completely switched to the United States dollar by the end of 2015.
On 18 April 1980, the Republic of Zimbabwe was born from the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia. The Rhodesian Dollar was replaced by the Zimbabwean dollar at par value. When Zimbabwe gained independence, the Zimbabwean dollar was more valuable than the US dollar at the official exchange rates, but its black market value was lower. In its early years, Zimbabwe experienced strong growth and development. Wheat production for non-drought years was proportionally higher than in the past. The tobacco industry was thriving as well. Economic indicators for the country were strong.
From 1991 to 1996, the Zimbabwean Zanu - PF government of president Robert Mugabe embarked on an Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) that had serious negative effects on Zimbabwe 's economy. In the late 1990s, the government instituted land reforms intended to evict white landowners and place their holdings in the hands of black farmers. However, many of these "farmers '' had no experience or training in farming. From 1999 to 2009, the country experienced a sharp drop in food production and in all other sectors. The banking sector also collapsed, with farmers unable to obtain loans for capital development. Food output capacity fell 45 %, manufacturing output 29 % in 2005, 26 % in 2006 and 28 % in 2007, and unemployment rose to 80 %. Life expectancy dropped.
The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe blamed the hyperinflation on economic sanctions imposed by the United States of America, the IMF and the European Union. These sanctions affect the government of Zimbabwe, and asset freezes and visa denials targeted at 200 specific Zimbabweans closely tied to the Mugabe regime. There are also restrictions placed on trade with Zimbabwe, by both individual businesses and the US Treasury Department 's Office of Foreign Asset Control.
A monetarist view is that a general increase in the prices of things is less a commentary on the worth of those things than on the worth of the money. This has objective and subjective components:
Crucial to both components is discipline over the creation of additional money. However, the Mugabe government was printing money to finance involvement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and, in 2000, in the Second Congo War, including higher salaries for army and government officials. Zimbabwe was under - reporting its war spending to the International Monetary Fund by perhaps $23 million a month.
Another motive for excessive money creation has been self - dealing. Transparency International ranks Zimbabwe 's government 157th of 177 in terms of institutionalised corruption. The resulting lack of confidence in government undermines confidence in the future and faith in the currency.
Economic mis - steps by government can create shortages and occupy people with workarounds rather than productivity. Though this harms the economy, it does not necessarily undermine the value of the currency, but may harm confidence in the future. Widespread poverty and violence, including government violence to stifle political opposition, also undermines confidence in the future. Land reform lowered agricultural output, especially in tobacco, which accounted for one - third of Zimbabwe 's foreign - exchange earnings. Manufacturing and mining also declined. An objective reason was, again, that farms were put in the hands of inexperienced people; and subjectively, that the move undermined the security of property.
Government instability and civic unrest were evident in other areas. Zimbabwean troops, trained by North Korean soldiers, conducted a massacre in the 1980s in the southern provinces of Matabeleland and Midlands, though Mugabe 's government cites guerrilla attacks on civilian and state targets. Conflicts between the Ndebele ethnic minority and Mugabe 's majority Shona people have led to many clashes, and there is also unrest between blacks and whites, in which the land reform was a factor. An aspect of this reform that seeks to bar whites from business ownership induced many to leave the country.
Lack of confidence in government to practiсe fiscal restraint feeds on itself. In Zimbabwe, neither the issuance of banknotes of higher denominations nor proclamation of new currency regimes led holders of the currency to expect that the new money would be more stable than the old. Remedies announced by the government never included a believable basis for monetary stability. Thus, one reason the currency continued to lose value, causing hyperinflation, is that so many people expected it to.
Over the course of the five - year span of hyperinflation, the inflation rate fluctuated greatly. At one point, the US Ambassador to Zimbabwe predicted that it would reach 1.5 million percent. In June 2008 the annual rate of price growth was 11.2 million percent. The worst of the inflation occurred in 2008, leading to the abandonment of the currency. The peak month of hyperinflation occurred in mid-November 2008 with a rate estimated at 79,600,000,000 % per month. This resulted in US $1 becoming equivalent to the staggering sum of Z $2,621,984,228.
As hyperinflation accelerated, the value of the Zimbabwe dollar declined fast against other currencies, yet official exchange rates published by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe were infrequently updated; this made it impossible to tell from an official source how much the Zimbabwe dollar was really worth against other currencies on a particular day, which in turn disrupted international business transactions involving Zimbabwe dollars. Staff from WM / Reuters devised an indirect means of measurement that was termed the Old Mutual Implied Rate (OMIR). This took the daily price of shares in the insurance company Old Mutual that traded in the London and Harare stock markets and derived from it a notional daily exchange rate between the Zimbabwe dollar and the pound. Shares had much less strict capital controls than through the Zimbabwe banking system, so the shares were used as a vehicle for moving capital between currencies by buying stock in either London or Harare and then selling in the other location.
The Old Mutual Implied rate was widely adopted benchmark rate for unofficial currency exchange until intervention by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe in May 2008 to prohibit the transfer of shares in Old Mutual, ABC and Kingdom Meikles Africa out of the country, therefore stopping their fungibility.
In 2007, the government declared inflation illegal. Anyone who raised the prices for goods and services was subject to arrest. This amounted to a price freeze, which is usually ineffective in halting inflation. Officials arrested numerous corporate executives for changing their prices.
In December 2008, the Central Bank of Zimbabwe licensed around 1,000 shops to deal in foreign currency. Citizens had increasingly been using foreign currency in daily exchanges, as local shops stated fewer prices in Zimbabwe dollars because they needed foreign currency to import foreign goods. Many businesses and street vendors continued to do so without getting the license.
In January 2009, acting Finance Minister Patrick Chinamasa lifted the restriction to use only Zimbabwean dollars. This too acknowledged what many were already doing. Citizens were allowed to use the US dollar, the euro, and the South African rand. However, teachers and civil servants were still being paid in Zimbabwean dollars. Even though their salaries were in the trillions per month, this amounted to around US $1, or half the daily bus fare. The government also used a restriction on bank withdrawals to try to limit the amount of money that was in circulation. It limited cash withdrawals to $ Z500, 000 which was around US $0.25.
Prices in shops and restaurants were still quoted in Zimbabwean dollars, but were adjusted several times a day. Any Zimbabwean dollars acquired needed to be exchanged for foreign currency on the parallel market immediately, or the holder would suffer a significant loss of value. For example, a mini-bus driver charged riders in Zimbabwean dollars, but different rates throughout the day: The evening commute was highest - priced. He sometimes exchanged money three times a day, not in banks but in back office rooms and parking lots.
Such business venues constituted a black market, an arena explicitly outside the law. Transactors could evade the price freezes and the mandate to use Zimbabwean dollars.
The black market served the demand for daily goods such as soap and bread, as grocery stores operating within the law no longer sold items whose prices were strictly controlled, or charged customers more if they were paying in Zimbabwean dollars. At one point, a loaf of bread was Z $550 million in the regular market, when bread was even available; apart from a trip to another country, the black market was the only option for almost all goods, and bread might cost Z $10 billion.
At independence in 1980, the Zimbabwe dollar became the common currency. Originally, the paper notes were Z $20, 10, 5, and 2, and the coins were Z $1, and 50, 20, 10, 5, and 1 cents. As larger bills were needed to pay for menial amounts, the Central Bank of Zimbabwe planned to print and circulate denominations of up to Z $10, 20, 50, and 100 trillion. Announcements of new denominations were increasingly frequent; the Z $200,000,000 bill was announced just days after the printing of the Z $100,000,000 bills.
The government did not attempt to fight inflation with fiscal and monetary policy. In 2006, before hyperinflation reached its peak, the bank announced it would print larger bills to buy foreign currencies. The Reserve Bank printed a Z $21 trillion bill to pay off debts owed to the International Monetary Fund.
On three occasions, the Central Bank of Zimbabwe redenominated the currency. First, in August 2006, the Central Bank recalled notes in exchange for new notes with three zeros slashed from the currency. In July 2008, the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, Gideon Gono, announced a new Zimbabwean dollar, this time with 10 zeros removed. The Z $10 billion would be redenominated to be Z $1. This move was not just to slow inflation but also to make computations more manageable.
A third redenomination, producing the "fourth Zimbabwe dollar, '' occurred in February 2009, and dropped 12 more zeros from the currency. It was thus worth 10 trillion trillion original dollars, as the three redenominations together reduced the value of an original dollar by 10 × 10 × 10 = 10. Computers could not handle the amount of zeros such that other forms of money had to be used to act as normal money (bearer 's cheques). Banks had to input a lesser amount on the deposit or withdrawal slip then would put a covering statement, such as "multiply by 1000 000 or add 10 zeros to your amount to get the real value ''. The same was true for businesses as well and all traders.
A solution effectively adopted by Zimbabwe is to adopt some foreign currency as official. To facilitate commerce, it is less important which currency is adopted than that the government standardise on a single currency. The US dollar, the euro, and the South African rand were candidates; the US dollar had the most credibility and was the most widely traded within Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe could have joined the nearby nations of Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland, which constitute the Common Monetary Area, or "Rand Zone '' by formally deciding to use the rand to promote trade and stability.
In 2009, the government abandoned printing Zimbabwean dollars at all. This implicitly solved the chronic problem of lack of confidence in the Zimbabwean dollar, and compelled people to use the foreign currency of their choice. Since then Zimbabwe has used a combination of foreign currencies, mostly US dollars.
In 2014, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe unveiled "convertible '' coins in denominations of US $0.01 through US $0.50. The Bank said that 80 % of Zimbabweans use the U.S. dollar, and said the local lack of coins induces retailers to round prices up to the next higher dollar. The coins extend the use of the dollar as a de facto currency, and indeed the National Bank has repeatedly assured that it does not intend to bring back a national currency. As of May 2016 the liquidity of the USD had rapidly decreased and John Mangudya, the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, said Zimbabwe would print new bond note which he was said would be at par with the American dollar. This was to be done within the following two months. Some citizens disputed this, saying the 2008 error was now returning and they would not accept the bond notes.
In June 2015, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe said it would begin a process to "demonetise '' (i.e., to officially value a fiat currency at zero). The plan was to have completed the switch to the US dollar by the end of September 2015. In December 2015 Patrick Chinamasa the Zimbabwe Minister of Finance said they would make the Chinese yuan their main reserve currency and legal tender after China cancelled $40 million debts. However this was denied by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe in January 2016. In June 2016, nine currencies were legal tender in Zimbabwe but it was estimated 90 % of transactions were in US dollars and 5 % in Rand.
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who has held the office of chief minister for longest period | Pawan Kumar Chamling - wikipedia
4 Sons 4 Daughters
Pawan Kumar Chamling (born 22 September 1950) is the fifth and incumbent Chief minister of the Indian state of Sikkim. Chamling is the founder president of the Sikkim Democratic Front, which has governed the state for five successive terms since 1994.
Chamling is the longest standing current Chief minister of any state in India and the second longest serving Chief minister after India 's independence, behind Jyoti Basu. Prior to establishing the Sikkim Democratic Front, Chamling served as Minister for Industries, Information and Public Relations from 1989 to 1992 in the Nar Bahadur Bhandari cabinet.
Chamling was born in Yangang, East Sikkim to Ashbahadur Chamling and Asharani Chamling. Chamling is also a Nepali language writer and recipient of the Bhanu Puraskar (2010) awarded by Sikkim Sahitya Parishad. He writes under the pen name Pawan Chamling Kiran. Mr. Chamling has 8 children, 4 sons and 4 daughters.
Chamling was elected as the president of Yangang Gram Panchayat in 1982. In 1985, he was elected to the Sikkim Legislative Assembly for the first time. After being elected for the second time from Damthang, he became the Minister for Industries, Information and Public Relations from 1989 to 1992 in the Nar Bahadur Bhandari cabinet. After a series of major political upheavals in Sikkim, Chamling formed the Sikkim Democratic Front on 4 March 1993.
Chamling is the second chief minister in India after Jyoti Basu, of West Bengal to govern a state five terms in a row, with his party Sikkim Democratic Front winning the 1994, 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly elections. His party first came to power in Sikkim after winning the 1994 assembly elections. His popularity kept soaring in Sikkim due to his developmental work and for maintaining peace. In 2009, his party Sikkim Democratic Front won all 32 assembly seats in Sikkim Legislative Assembly.
Following win in 2014 assembly election, he was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Sikkim for the fifth consecutive time on May 21, 2014 by Shriniwas Dadasaheb Patil, the Governor of Sikkim. He became the chief minister for a fifth time, a record previously held by Jyoti Basu who ruled West Bengal from 1977 to 2000.
His party SDF won 22 out of 32 assembly seats in the 2014 legislative assembly election. 18 months after the 2014 elections, on November 30, 2015, 7 out of 10 opposition MLAs joined the SDF party under the leadership of Pawan Chamling. Now the ruling front has 28 out of 32 assembly seats in the state.
On 18 January 2016 Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi made a two - day visit to the state to declare Sikkim as the first and the only "organic state '' in the country, as it has fully implemented organic farming statewide.
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structural feature that is responsible for absorbing visible light | Chromophore - wikipedia
A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible for its color. The color that is seen by our eyes is the one not absorbed within a certain wavelength spectrum of visible light. The chromophore is a region in the molecule where the energy difference between two separate molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum. Visible light that hits the chromophore can thus be absorbed by exciting an electron from its ground state into an excited state.
In biological molecules that serve to capture or detect light energy, the chromophore is the moiety that causes a conformational change of the molecule when hit by light.
In the conjugated chromophores, the electrons jump between energy levels that are extended pi orbitals, created by a series of alternating single and double bonds, often in aromatic systems. Common examples include retinal (used in the eye to detect light), various food colorings, fabric dyes (azo compounds), pH indicators, lycopene, β - carotene, and anthocyanins. Various factors in a chromophore 's structure go into determining at what wavelength region in a spectrum the chromophore will absorb. Lengthening or extending a conjugated system with more unsaturated (multiple) bonds in a molecule will tend to shift absorption to longer wavelengths. Woodward - Fieser rules can be used to approximate ultraviolet - visible maximum absorption wavelength in organic compounds with conjugated pi - bond systems.
Some of these are metal complex chromophores, which contain a metal in a coordination complex with ligands. Examples are chlorophyll, which is used by plants for photosynthesis and hemoglobin, the oxygen transporter in the blood of vertebrate animals. In these two examples, a metal is complexed at the center of a tetrapyrrole macrocycle ring: the metal being iron in the heme group (iron in a porphyrin ring) of hemoglobin, or magnesium complexed in a chlorin - type ring in the case of chlorophyll. The highly conjugated pi - bonding system of the macrocycle ring absorbs visible light. The nature of the central metal can also influence the absorption spectrum of the metal - macrocycle complex or properties such as excited state lifetime. The tetrapyrrole moiety in organic compounds which is not macrocyclic but still has a conjugated pi - bond system still acts as a chromophore. Examples of such compounds include bilirubin and urobilin, which exhibit a yellow color.
An auxochrome is a functional group of atoms attached to the chromophore which modifies the ability of the chromophore to absorb light, altering the wavelength or intensity of the absorption.
Halochromism occurs when a substance changes color as the pH changes. This is a property of pH indicators, whose molecular structure changes upon certain changes in the surrounding pH. This change in structure affects a chromophore in the pH indicator molecule. For example, phenolphthalein is a pH indicator whose structure changes as pH changes as shown in the following table:
In a pH range of about 0 - 8, the molecule has three aromatic rings all bonded to a tetrahedral sp hybridized carbon atom in the middle which does not make the π - bonding in the aromatic rings conjugate. Because of their limited extent, the aromatic rings only absorb light in the ultraviolet region, and so the compound appears colorless in the 0 - 8 pH range. However, as the pH increases beyond 8.2, that central carbon becomes part of a double bond becoming sp hybridized and leaving ap orbital to overlap with the π - bonding in the rings. This makes the three rings conjugate together to form an extended chromophore absorbing longer wavelength visible light to show a fuchsia color. At pH ranges outside 0 - 12, other molecular structure changes result in other color changes; see Phenolphthalein for details.
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who has made the most make a wish | Make - A-Wish Foundation - wikipedia
The Make - A-Wish Foundation is a 501 (c) (3) non-profit organization founded in the United States that arranges experiences described as "wishes '' to children with life - threatening medical conditions. In order to qualify for a wish, the child must be between the ages of 3 and 17 years at the time of referral. It is the child 's physician that ultimately decides if a child is eligible.
The national headquarters and founding chapter of the Make - A-Wish Foundation are in Phoenix. The organization grants wishes through its 62 chapters located throughout the United States. Make - A-Wish also operates in 45 other countries around the world through 38 affiliate offices.
In the spring of 1980, 7 - year - old Christopher James Greicius (August 13, 1972 -- May 3, 1980) was being treated for leukemia. He aspired to be a police officer. U.S. Customs Officer Tommy Austin befriended Chris and worked with officers at the Arizona Department of Public Safety to plan an experience to lift Greicius ' spirits. Chris spent the day as a police officer, rode in a police helicopter, received a custom - tailored police uniform, and was sworn in as the first honorary Public Safety patrolman in state history. Greicius died soon after, but his wish became inspiration for the Make - A-Wish wish - granting organization.
Professional wrestler John Cena holds the title for the most wishes granted by a single individual, with over 500 wishes. Singer Justin Bieber has volunteered in over 250 wishes. National women 's collegiate sorority Chi Omega has raised over $14 million for Make - A-Wish since 2001.
Children who may be eligible to receive a wish can be referred by one of the following three sources:
To refer a child, the appropriate referral source can use Make - A-Wish's online inquiry form or contact the Make - A-Wish chapter closest to them. All medical information is considered confidential and is not discussed with outside parties unless it is required for the wish and the child 's parent (s) or guardian (s) have given their consent.
A child with a life - threatening medical condition who has reached the age of 21⁄2 and is under the age of 18 at the time of referral, is potentially eligible for a wish. After a child is referred, the child 's treating physician must determine whether the child is medically eligible for a wish, based on the medical criteria established by Make - A-Wish. In addition, a child can not have received a wish from another wish - granting organization.
Each Make - A-Wish chapter follows specific policies and guidelines for granting a child 's wish. Make - A-Wish works closely with the wish child 's physician and family to determine the most appropriate time to grant the wish, keeping in mind the child 's treatment protocol or other concerns. Most wish requests fall into five categories: I wish to go, I wish to be, I wish to meet, I wish to have, or I wish to give.
The national board of directors helps chart Make - A-Wish's course. The board has a vast array of experience and skills that help maintain Make - A-Wish's status as the largest wish - granting organization in the U.S. The board determines the mission and vision, evaluates and supports the president and chief executive officer, and protects Make - A-Wish's assets. The board enhances Make - A-Wish's public standing, ensures accountability, maintains legal integrity, and assesses its own performance.
The senior leadership team is composed of Make - A-Wish's top - level management. Each member is a national office leader in disciplines that include wish - granting, fundraising, legal, brand advancement, and operational activities. The president and CEO guides the strategic plan in areas such as board development, talent development, fundraising, and corporate relations.
Make - A-Wish stopped granting wishes involving hunting - related activities, including fishing, use of firearms or other weapons that are designed to cause animal injury in 1996. This was largely due to concerns over child safety, the pressure from animal - sensitive donors, and criticisms from animal rights groups. In response, three organizations were formed: Hunt of a Lifetime, which arranges hunting trips for terminally ill children; Catch - a-Dream, which was conceived by Mississippi outdoorsman Bruce Brady and formed by his loved ones following Brady 's death from cancer to grant hunting experiences to ill children; and Life Hunts, founded by the Buckmasters American Deer Foundation.
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when do you say that the zero error is positive or negative | Vernier scale - wikipedia
A vernier scale is a visual aid to take an accurate measurement reading between two graduation markings on a linear scale by using mechanical interpolation; thereby increasing resolution and reducing measurement uncertainty by using Vernier acuity to reduce human estimation error.
The vernier is a subsidiary scale replacing a single measured - value pointer, and has for instance ten divisions equal in distance to nine divisions on the main scale. The interpolated reading is obtained by observing which of the vernier scale graduations is co-incident with a graduation on the main scale, which is easier to perceive than visual estimation between two points. Such an arrangement can go to higher resolution by using higher scale ratios, known as the vernier constant. A vernier may be used on circular or straight scales where a simple linear mechanism is adequate. Examples are calipers and micrometers to measure to fine tolerances, on sextants for navigation on theodolites in surveying, and generally on scientific instruments. The Vernier principle of interpolation is also used for electronic displacement sensors such as absolute encoders to measure linear or rotational movement, as part of an electronic measuring system.
Calipers without a vernier scale originated in ancient China as early as the Qin dynasty (AD 9). The secondary scale, which contributed extra precision, was invented in 1631 by French mathematician Pierre Vernier (1580 -- 1637). Its use was described in detail in English in Navigatio Britannica (1750) by mathematician and historian John Barrow. While calipers are the most typical use of Vernier scales today, they were originally developed for angle - measuring instruments such as astronomical quadrants.
In some languages, the Vernier scale is called a nonius, a precursor to the Vernier scale developed by Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer Pedro Nunes (1502 -- 1578), latinised as Petrus Nonius. It was known by this name in English until the end of the 18th century.
The name "vernier '' was popularised by the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande (1732 -- 1807) through his Traité d'astronomie (2 vols) (1764).
The use of the vernier scale is shown on a vernier caliper which measures the internal and the external diameters of an object.
The vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction of the fixed main scale. So for a vernier with a constant of 0.1, each mark on the vernier is spaced nine tenths of those on the main scale. If you put the two scales together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the vernier scale is one tenth short of the first main scale mark, the second two tenths short, and so on up to the ninth mark -- which is misaligned by nine tenths. Only when a full ten marks are counted is there alignment, because the tenth mark is ten tenths -- a whole main scale unit short, and therefore aligns with the ninth mark on the main scale. Now if you move the vernier by a small amount, say, one tenth of its fixed main scale, the only pair of marks that come into alignment are the first pair, since these were the only ones originally misaligned by one tenth. If we move it two tenths, the second pair aligns, since these are the only ones originally misaligned by that amount. If we move it five tenths, the fifth pair aligns -- and so on. For any movement, only one pair of marks aligns and that pair shows the value between the marks on the fixed scale.
The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of one Vernier scale division is known as least count of the Vernier. It is also known as Vernier constant. Let the measure of the smallest main scale reading, that is the distance between two consecutive graduations (also called its pitch) be S and the distance between two consecutive Vernier scale graduations be V such that the length of (n - 1) main scale divisions is equal to n Vernier scale divisions. Then,
the length of (n - 1) main scale divisions = the length of n vernier scale division
or, (n - 1) S = nV
or, nS - S = nV
or, S = nS - nV
or, S / n = (S-V)
or (Pitch) / (Number of Vernier scale divisions) = (Length of one main scale division - Length of one Vernier scale division)
S / n and (S-V) are both equal to the least count of vernier scale, and are also called the vernier constant.
Vernier scales work so well because most people are especially good at detecting which of the lines is aligned and misaligned, and that ability gets better with practice, in fact far exceeding the optical capability of the eye. This ability to detect alignment is called ' Vernier acuity '. Historically, none of the alternative technologies exploited this or any other hyperacuity, giving the Vernier scale an advantage over its competitors.
Zero error is defined as the condition where a measuring instrument registers a reading when there should not be any reading. In case of vernier calipers it occurs when a zero on main scale does not coincide with a zero on vernier scale. The zero error may be of two types i.e. when the scale is towards numbers greater than zero it is positive else negative. The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula: actual reading = main scale + vernier scale − (zero error). Zero error may arise due to knocks that cause the calibration to be thrown off at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. Perfection is not necessarily equal (or scalar) to zero error. "Knocks '' seem an excellent example of mathematical imperfection. Alignment of linear and rotational mathematics is a difficult but interesting task as previously described by Pierre Vernier and much elaborated in later ages.
Positive zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed and the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is referred to as + 0.10 mm.
Negative zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed and the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.08 mm, the zero error is referred to as + 0.08 mm. If positive, the error is subtracted from the mean reading the instrument reads. Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm and the error is + 0.05, the actual length will be 4.39 - 0.05 = 4.34 cm. If negative, the error is added to the mean reading the instrument reads. Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm and as above the error is - 0.05 cm, the actual length will be 4.39 + 0.05 = 4.44 cm. (Considering that, the quantity is called zero correction which should always be added algebraically to the observed reading to the correct value.)
Zero Error (Z.E) = + or - n * Least Count (L.C).
Direct verniers are the most common. The indicating scale is constructed so that when its zero point coincides with the start of the data scale, its graduations are at a slightly smaller spacing than those on the data scale and so none but the last graduation coincide with any graduations on the data scale. N graduations of the indicating scale cover N − 1 graduations of the data scale.
Retrograde verniers are found on some devices, including surveying instruments. A retrograde vernier is similar to the direct vernier, except its graduations are at a slightly larger spacing than on the main scale. N graduations of the indicating scale cover N + 1 graduations of the data scale. The retrograde vernier also extends backwards along the data scale.
Direct and retrograde verniers are read in the same manner.
Classroom activity on the Vernier scale at Wikiversity
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who lived in the house on the rock | House on the Rock - wikipedia
The House on the Rock is a tourist attraction located between the cities of Dodgeville and Spring Green, Wisconsin. Opened in 1959, it is a complex of architecturally distinct rooms, streets, gardens, and shops designed by Alex Jordan Jr.
Both of Jordan 's biographers relate a story told by Sid Boyum, which places the inspiration for the house in a meeting between Alex Jordan Jr. and Frank Lloyd Wright, at some unspecified time between 1914 and 1923. Jordan Sr. supposedly drove with Boyum to Taliesin to show Wright the plans for a building, the Villa Maria in Madison. Jordan worshipped the famous architect and hoped for his approval. Wright looked at the plans and told Jordan: "I would n't hire you to design a cheese crate or a chicken coop. You 're not capable. '' Fuming, on the drive back on Highway 23, Jordan pointed to a spire of rock and told Boyum: "I 'm going to put up a Japanese house on one of those pinnacle rocks and advertise it. '' Balousek says Wright "apparently did n't forget the incident '', noting that Wright "complained publicly to Iowa County officials about the house the Jordans were building '' and bought a nearby piece of property, "perhaps as a way to get back at Jordan. ''
The House on the Rock 's website has posted information questioning the legitimacy of Boyum 's story for the following reasons:
The legitimacy of this story is also questioned in the biography of Alex Jordan written by Tom Kupsh. Tom Kupsh 's book lists many of the same reasons as The House on the Rock website and also states that "The first agreement (an extended lease) with the Christianson family, who owned Deer Shelter Rock, was made some 30 years later in 1953 and no sign appeared at the road entrance until The House on the Rock opened to the public in 1960. ''
The "house '' itself is atop Deer Shelter Rock, a column of rock approximately 60 feet (18 m), 70 feet (21 m) by 200 feet (61 m) on the top, which stands in a forest nearby. Additions were made to the original structure and other buildings added over the course of several decades. The complex now features "The Streets of Yesterday '', a re-creation of an early twentieth century American town; "The Heritage of the Sea '', featuring nautical exhibits and a 200 - foot model (61 m) of a fanciful sperm whale - like sea creature; "The Music of Yesterday '', a huge collection of automatic music machines; and what the management bills as "the world 's largest indoor carousel '', among other attractions. The carousel at the House on the Rock features 269 carousel animals, 182 chandeliers, over 20,000 lights, and hundreds of mannequin angels hanging from the ceiling. The carousel has no horses. During the winter, the attraction features a Christmas theme, with decorations and a large collection of Santa Claus figures. Many of the bathrooms are decorated with strange objects, including mannequins, flowers, and preserved animals.
The earlier structures, namely the House on the Rock itself, the Gate House, and the Mill House, are reminiscent of the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, though much less coherently designed than is characteristic of Wright, given its patchwork of external structures and interior spaces. According to a likely apocryphal story, the building actually began partly to spite the master architect, who ran his Taliesin communal school near Spring Green. These early structures feature exposed stone, low ceilings, dark woodwork, and antiques on display.
Jordan sold the house in 1988 to a friend who continued building on the site, adding to the collections of knick - knacks and exhibits featuring authentic pieces, reproductions, and specially - made examples of everything. The most recent addition is the "Spirit of Aviation '', a collection of large model airplanes in a themed room. Another exhibit, the "Transportation Building '', is under construction, but visitors can walk through and view the work in progress. In the same year, the Wisconsin State Journal published a four - part series on "The House on the Rock, '' which reporter Marv Balousek later expanded into a self - published book entitled House of Alex. According to Balousek, Jordan Sr. hired "drunks and bums '' from the Madison street to help blast the rock. Balousek says that according to Sid Boyum these workers were sometimes paid with whiskey and sometimes by check, but that Alex Jordan Jr. destroyed the cancelled checks later to further a myth that he had personally built the house himself.
Jane Smiley wrote this about the complex in 1993:
Though most people outside of the Midwest have never heard of it, the House on the Rock is said to draw more visitors every year than any other spot in Wisconsin. Also in the Wyoming Valley, but on top of a huge monolith, the House on the Rock reveals the spirit of its builder, Alex Jordan Jr., to be as single - minded and eccentric as Wright 's, but in substance almost absurdly opposed.
... And it is hard not to be overwhelmed by the House on the Rock. The sheer abundance of objects is impressive, and the warmth most of the objects exude, the way that the toys ask to be played with, for example, makes the displays inherently inviting. But almost from the beginning, it is too much. The house itself is dusty. Windowpanes are cracked. Books are water damaged. The collections seem disordered, not curated. In fact, there is no effort to explore the objects as cultural artifacts, or to use them to educate the passing hordes. If there were informative cards, it would be impossible to read them in the dark. Everything is simply massed together, and Alex Jordan comes to seem like the manifestation of pure American acquisitiveness, and acquisitiveness of a strangely boyish kind, as if he had finalized all his desires in childhood and never grown into any others.
Automated musical instruments, operated by inserting tokens. Some instruments play, while others are synthesized.
The Infinity Room juts out 218 feet (66 m) from the House on the Rock, without supports underneath. The room has over 3,000 windows.
The House on the Rock Carousel
The House has inspired several authors and musical groups, the most prominent being author Neil Gaiman, who used it as an important plot point his 2001 novel American Gods, along with the related 2017 television series. The 2017 film American Fable features parts of the house, including the carousel and Infinity Room, in a dream scene.
The 1997 10,000 Maniacs music video for "More Than This '' was filmed at the House.
Some of the apparent antiques in the House on the Rock are real, but many are not what they seem: depending on one 's point of view one could call them fakes, replicas, or original and imaginative creations in the style of antiques. Moe 's authorized biography suggests that the question of authenticity is not a problem, presenting it this way:
While the Regina Sublima music box is a real antique, as are many other pieces and exhibits at the House, everyone knows that other pieces are re-creations designed and built on the House property. It 's part of the fun -- guessing what 's real at the House and what is the magic of imagination and re-creation.
Much of the House 's contents were built by Jordan and his associates. Balousek quotes Jordan associate Bob Searles as saying
We were creating entertainment. We were not making a historically accurate representation. There was never any need to worry about historical accuracy. We were creating a fun place.
The "Phelps Car '' in the Streets of Yesterday, for example, was made by Jordan associate Bob Searles from an old carriage and some motorcycle parts. Balousek quotes Searles as saying "We could fabricate any antiques we wanted to -- that was the fun of it. It was just one guy 's great big sandbox, where he kept building stuff. '' Balousek says that Jordan sometimes bought bonafide antiques, but "usually preferred a good copy that cost less, '' and quotes a supplier as saying "I suspect that Jordan would pay more for a good copy than he would for an original, because he could sit in a corner and laugh about the way he fooled everyone. ''
In 1978, a disgruntled employee complained to the state Justice Department of consumer fraud, saying that these claims were tall tales. The "Tiffany '' lamps, for example, were made by the Illinois firm of Bauer and Coble. The name of the Tusk of Ranchipoor was actually a pun on the name of Richard Rahn, a Mazomanie antiques dealer, who had built many of the fakes: "Rahn is poor. '' Jordan was enjoined from making false claims, the brochure was rewritten, and misleading signs were removed from the exhibit. However, the exhibits retained their colorful names, allowing visitors to surmise what they wished.
The room - sized assemblages of what appear to be mechanical musical instruments are partly illusion. Some of the instruments actually play, but the strings and woodwinds in particular do not; their sound is actually produced by organ pipes, while the moving instruments fool visitors.
Today, the nature of the exhibits is disclosed, though perhaps not emphasized, by the management; for example, the current website notes, "All the armor featured in this elaborate collection was made for The House on the Rock ''. This was not always the case. According to Balousek, before 1978 brochures advertised authentic Tiffany lamps, said the Gladiator Calliope dated from 1895, that the Franz Josef music machine had actually belonged to the Austrian emperor, that the Tusk of Ranchipoor was genuine ivory carved by an "unknown Punjab artisan, '' and so forth.
The official 1993 brochure says that the house "boasts the largest collection of Bauer and Coble lamps in the world. The management considers them finer and expects them to be more valuable than Tiffany 's, '' and boasts that "The ' Four Seasons ' panels are thought to be the only exact replica of the original and very popular Tiffany effort. ''
Coordinates: 43 ° 06 ′ 00 '' N 90 ° 08 ′ 10 '' W / 43.1 ° N 90.136 ° W / 43.1; - 90.136
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who plays at the verizon arena in little rock | Verizon arena - wikipedia
Verizon Arena (formerly known as the Alltel Arena) is an 18,000 - seat multi-purpose arena in North Little Rock, Arkansas, directly across the Arkansas River from downtown Little Rock. The arena opened in October 1999. It is Little Rock 's main entertainment venue.
The Arkansas -- Little Rock Trojans played home games at the arena from the time when the arena opened until the team moved in 2005 to a new arena, the Jack Stephens Center, on the school 's campus in Little Rock. The Arkansas RiverBlades, a defunct ice hockey team of the ECHL, the Arkansas RimRockers, a defunct minor league basketball team of the NBA Development League, and the Arkansas Diamonds, a defunct Indoor Football League team, also played at the arena. The arena is also used for other events, including concerts, rodeos, auto racing, professional wrestling, and trade shows and conventions.
On August 1, 1995, Pulaski County, Arkansas, voters approved a one - year, one - cent sales tax for the purpose of building a multi-purpose arena, expanding the Statehouse Convention Center in Little Rock, and making renovations to the Main Street bridge between Little Rock and North Little Rock. $20 million of the sales tax proceeds went toward the Convention Center expansion, with the remainder used to build the arena.
That money, combined with a $20 million contribution from the State of Arkansas, $17 million from private sources and $7 million from Little Rock - based Alltel Corporation paid for the construction of a 377,000 - square - foot (35,000 m) arena, which cost nearly $80 million to build. When the doors opened in 1999, the facility was paid for and there was no public indebtedness.
Two sites in North Little Rock drew interest from county officials for the proposed arena. The first was a 19.5 - acre (79,000 m) commercial site west of Interstate 30, which contained a strip mall, a Kroger and an abandoned K - Mart storefront. The second site was an 11.6 - acre (47,000 m) plot at the foot of the Broadway Bridge.
The Pulaski County Multipurpose Civic Center Facilities Board selected the larger site for the arena in 1996 and paid $3.7 million for the land, some of which was acquired through eminent domain, a move protested in court by several landowners.
The second site later would be chosen for the new baseball stadium, Dickey - Stephens Park, constructed for the Arkansas Travelers. The Class AA minor - league baseball team moved from the then 73 - year - old Ray Winder Field in Little Rock to a new $28 million home in North Little Rock at the start of the 2007 season.
The arena was the home of the 2003, 2006, and 2009 Southeastern Conference women 's basketball tournament and the 2000 Sun Belt Conference men 's basketball tournament. The Arena holds the all - time attendance record for an SEC Women 's Tournament when 43,642 people attended the event in 2003.
The arena hosted portions of the first and second rounds of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament in March 2008 and the SEC Gymnastics Championships in 2007.
The arena is also used for other events: concerts (seating capacity is between 15,000 and 18,000 for end - stage concerts; the arena has an 80 - by - 40 - foot portable stage); rodeos and auto racing (seating capacity is 14,000); and trade shows and conventions (there are 28,000 square feet (2,600 m) of arena floor space plus 7,050 square feet (655 m) of meeting space and 2,580 square feet (240 m) of pre-function space). As a concert venue, its location prompted Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band to play one of its most rarely performed numbers, 1973 's "Mary Queen of Arkansas '', during a March 2000 show on their Reunion Tour.
The arena is owned by the Multi-Purpose Civic Center Facilities Board for Pulaski County. The arena was designed by the Civic Center Design Team (CCDT), Burt Taggart & Associates, Architects / Engineers, The Wilcox Group, Garver & Garver Engineering and Rosser International of Atlanta.
The arena held the 2004, 2007 and 2009 American Idols LIVE! Tour concerts on August 13, 2004, July 13, 2007 and July 25, 2009, respectively.
Because of the $28.1 billion sale of Alltel to Verizon Wireless, as of June 30, 2009, the Alltel Arena was renamed Verizon Arena.
Fleetwood Mac performed at Verizon Arena May 4, 2013 with surprise guests former President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton attending the show. Fleetwood Mac drummer Mick Fleetwood introduced the couple, who were seated in an arena suite, to the sold - out audience and dedicated the song "Do n't Stop '' to them, which was appropriately Bill Clinton 's 1992 presidential election campaign song.
Coordinates: 34 ° 45 ′ 18.40 '' N 92 ° 15 ′ 51.98 '' W / 34.7551111 ° N 92.2644389 ° W / 34.7551111; - 92.2644389
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what is the largest denomination of us currency | Large denominations of United States currency - wikipedia
Large denominations of United States currency greater than $100 were circulated by the United States Treasury until 1969. Since then, U.S. dollar banknotes have only been issued in seven denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.
Large - denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher) had been used in the United States since the late 18th century. The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780. Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780 and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781. High - denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812). During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes. During the Federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high - denomination notes included three - year Interest - bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861. In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high - denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates. The obverse of United States banknotes generally depict either historical figures, allegorical figures symbolizing significant concepts (e.g., liberty, justice), or a combination of both. The reverse designs range from abstract scroll - work with ornate denomination identifiers to reproductions of historical art works.
Series 1934 gold certificates ($100, $1,000, $10,000 and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily confiscated by order of President Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102). Thus the series 1934 notes were used only for intra-government (i.e., Federal Reserve Bank) transactions and were not issued to the public. This series was discontinued in 1940. The series 1928 gold certificate reverse was printed in black and green. See history of the United States dollar.
Although they are still technically legal tender in the United States, high - denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System, due to ' lack of use '. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.
The Federal Reserve began taking high - denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. As of May 30, 2009, only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills. Due to their rarity, collectors often pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.
For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, for the most part, the introduction of an electronic money system has made large - scale cash transactions obsolete. When combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade and money laundering, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future, despite the amount of inflation that has occurred since 1969 (a $500 bill is now worth less, in real terms, than a $100 bill was worth in 1969). According to the U.S. Department of Treasury website, "The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The purpose of the United States currency system is to serve the needs of the public and these denominations meet that goal. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today. ''
The National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian Institution contains (among other things) the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) certified proofs and the Treasury Department collection of United States currency. Using a combination of proofs and issued notes, a nearly complete type set of high - denomination currency was compiled. Notably missing are several types of Compound and Interest Bearing Notes. Printed during the early to mid-1860s on very thin paper, these high - denomination notes are virtually non-existent. Their issuance (1861 -- 65) pre-dates the BEP 's responsibility for U.S. Currency (1870s), so it is fortunate that any proofs exist in the current archives.
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when did michigan become a state in the usa | Michigan - wikipedia
Michigan (/ ˈmɪʃɪɡən / (listen)) is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States.
The state 's name, Michigan, originates from the (Ojibwe word) mishigamaa, meaning "large water '' or "large lake ''. Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area, and is the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River. Michigan has a population of about 10 million. Its capital is Lansing. Metro Detroit is among the nation 's most populous and largest metropolitan economies.
Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is often noted as shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula (often called "the U.P. '') is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, a five - mile (8 km) channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge connects the peninsulas. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, plus Lake Saint Clair. As a result, it is one of the leading U.S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds. A person in the state is never more than six miles (9.7 km) from a natural water source or more than 85 miles (137 km) from a Great Lakes shoreline.
The area was first settled by Native American tribes, whose successive cultures occupied the territory for thousands of years. Colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, it was claimed as part of New France. After France 's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762, the region came under British rule. Britain ceded this territory to the newly independent United States after Britain 's defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The area was part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Michigan Territory was formed in 1805, but some of the northern border with Canada was not agreed upon until after the War of 1812. Michigan was admitted into the Union in 1837 as the 26th state, a free one. It soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Although Michigan developed a diverse economy, it is widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry, which developed as a major economic force in the early 20th century. It is home to the country 's three major automobile companies (whose headquarters are all within the Detroit metropolitan area). While sparsely populated, the Upper Peninsula is important for tourism thanks to its abundance of natural resources, while the Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing, forestry, agriculture, services, and high - tech industry.
When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe (referred to as "Chippewa '' in the United States), Odaawaa / Odawa (Ottawa), and the Boodewaadamii / Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi). The three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest.
The Ojibwe were established in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula and northern and central Michigan, and also inhabited Ontario and southern Manitoba, Canada; and northern Wisconsin, and northern and north - central Minnesota. The Ottawa lived primarily south of the Straits of Mackinac in northern, western and southern Michigan, but also in southern Ontario, northern Ohio and eastern Wisconsin. The Potawatomi were in southern and western Michigan, in addition to northern and central Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Wisconsin, and southern Ontario. Other Algonquian tribes in Michigan, in the south and east, were the Mascouten, the Menominee, the Miami, the Sac (or Sauk), and the Fox. The Wyandot were an Iroquoian - speaking people in this area; they were historically known as the Huron by the French.
French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlé 's expedition in 1622. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions. Missionaries in 1671 -- 75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were well received by the area 's Indian populations, with few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present - day St. Joseph. In 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present - day city of Niles.
In 1701, French explorer and army officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or "Fort Pontchartrain on - the - Strait '' on the strait, known as the Detroit River, between lakes Saint Clair and Erie. Cadillac had convinced King Louis XIV 's chief minister, Louis Phélypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain, that a permanent community there would strengthen French control over the upper Great Lakes and discourage British aspirations.
The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent (about 0.85 acres (3,400 m), the equivalent of just under 200 feet (61 m) per side) and named it Fort Pontchartrain. Cadillac 's wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in what was considered the wilderness of Michigan. The town quickly became a major fur - trading and shipping post. The Église de Saint - Anne (Church of Saint Ann) was founded the same year. While the original building does not survive, the congregation remains active. Cadillac later departed to serve as the French governor of Louisiana from 1710 to 1716. French attempts to consolidate the fur trade led to the Fox Wars involving the Meskwaki (Fox) and their allies versus the French and their Native allies.
At the same time, the French strengthened Fort Michilimackinac at the Straits of Mackinac to better control their lucrative fur - trading empire. By the mid-18th century, the French also occupied forts at present - day Niles and Sault Ste. Marie, though most of the rest of the region remained unsettled by Europeans. France offered free land to attract families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765, and was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans. French settlers also established small farms south of the Detroit River opposite the fort, near a Jesuit mission and Huron village.
From 1660 until the end of French rule, Michigan was part of the Royal Province of New France. In 1760, Montreal fell to the British forces ending the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763). Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Michigan and the rest of New France east of the Mississippi River passed to Great Britain. After the Quebec Act was passed in 1774, Michigan became part of the British Province of Quebec. By 1778, Detroit 's population was up to 2,144 and it was the third - largest city in Quebec.
During the American Revolutionary War, Detroit was an important British supply center. Most of the inhabitants were French - Canadians or Native Americans, many of whom had been allied with the French because of long trading ties. Because of imprecise cartography and unclear language defining the boundaries in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British retained control of Detroit and Michigan after the American Revolution. When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County, Upper Canada. It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now Niagara - on - the - Lake).
Under terms negotiated in the 1794 Jay Treaty, Britain withdrew from Detroit and Michilimackinac in 1796. It retained control of territory east and south of the Detroit River, which are now included in Ontario, Canada. Questions remained over the boundary for many years, and the United States did not have uncontested control of the Upper Peninsula and Drummond Island until 1818 and 1847, respectively.
During the War of 1812, the United States forces at Fort Detroit surrendered Michigan Territory (effectively consisting of Detroit and the surrounding area) after a nearly bloodless siege in 1812. A US attempt to retake Detroit resulted in a severe American defeat in the River Raisin Massacre. This battle, still ranked as the bloodiest ever fought in the state, had the highest number of American casualties of any battle in the war.
Michigan was recaptured by Americans in 1813 after the Battle of Lake Erie. They used Michigan as a base to launch an invasion of Canada, which culminated in the Battle of the Thames. But the more northern areas of Michigan were held by the British until the peace treaty restored the old boundaries. A number of forts, including Fort Wayne, were built by the United States in Michigan during the 19th century out of fears of renewed fighting with Britain.
The population grew slowly until the opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal through the Mohawk Valley in New York, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and New York City. The new route attracted a large influx of settlers to the Michigan territory. They worked as farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and merchants and shipped out grain, lumber, and iron ore. By the 1830s, Michigan had 80,000 residents, more than enough to apply and qualify for statehood.
A Constitutional Convention of Assent, led by Gershom Mott Williams, was held to lead the territory to statehood. In October 1835 the people approved the Constitution of 1835, thereby forming a state government, although Congressional recognition was delayed pending resolution of a boundary dispute with Ohio known as the Toledo War. Congress awarded the "Toledo Strip '' to Ohio. Michigan received the western part of the Upper Peninsula as a concession and formally entered the Union as a free state on January 26, 1837. The Upper Peninsula proved to be a rich source of lumber, iron, and copper. Michigan led the nation in lumber production from the 1850s to the 1880s. Railroads became a major engine of growth from the 1850s onward, with Detroit the chief hub.
A second wave of French - Canadian immigrants settled in Michigan during the late 19th to early 20th century, working in lumbering areas in counties on the Lake Huron side of the Lower Peninsula, such as the Saginaw Valley, Alpena, and Cheboygan counties, as well as throughout the Upper Peninsula, with large concentrations in Escanaba and the Keweenaw Peninsula. This was also a period of development of the gypsum industry in Alabaster, Michigan, which became nationally prominent.
The first statewide meeting of the Republican Party took place July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan, where the party adopted its platform. The state was heavily Republican until the 1930s. Michigan made a significant contribution to the Union in the American Civil War and sent more than forty regiments of volunteers to the federal armies.
Modernizers and boosters set up systems for public education, including founding the University of Michigan (1817, moved to Ann Arbor in 1837) for a classical academic education; and Michigan State Normal School (1849), now Eastern Michigan University, for the training of teachers. It adopted this model from the German educational system. In 1899, Michigan State became the first normal college in the nation to offer a four - year curriculum. Michigan Agricultural College (1855), now Michigan State University in East Lansing, was founded as the pioneer land - grant college, a model for those authorized under the Morrill Act (1862). Many private colleges were founded as well, and the smaller cities established high schools late in the century.
Michigan 's economy underwent a transformation at the turn of the 20th century. Many individuals, including Ransom E. Olds, John and Horace Dodge, Henry Leland, David Dunbar Buick, Henry Joy, Charles King, and Henry Ford, provided the concentration of engineering know - how and technological enthusiasm to develop the automotive industry. Ford 's development of the moving assembly line in Highland Park marked a new era in transportation. Like the steamship and railroad, mass production of automobiles was a far - reaching development. More than the forms of public transportation, the affordable automobile transformed private life. Automobile production became the major industry of Detroit and Michigan, and permanently altered the socio - economic life of the United States and much of the world.
With the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South. By 1920, Detroit was the fourth - largest city in the US. Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with the population boom. By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals. Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit 's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends. The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups.
Grand Rapids, the second - largest city in Michigan, is also an important center of manufacturing. Since 1838, the city has been noted for its furniture industry. In the 21st century, it is home to five of the world 's leading office furniture companies. Grand Rapids is home to a number of major companies including Steelcase, Amway, and Meijer. Grand Rapids is also an important center for GE Aviation Systems.
Michigan held its first United States presidential primary election in 1910. With its rapid growth in industry, it was an important center of industry - wide union organizing, such as the rise of the United Auto Workers.
In 1920 WWJ (AM) in Detroit became the first radio station in the United States to regularly broadcast commercial programs. Throughout that decade, some of the country 's largest and most ornate skyscrapers were built in the city. Particularly noteworthy are the Fisher Building, Cadillac Place, and the Guardian Building, each of which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL).
In 1927 a school bombing took place in Clinton County. The Bath School disaster, perpetrated by an adult man, resulted in the deaths of 38 schoolchildren and constitutes the deadliest mass murder in a school in U.S. history.
Michigan converted much of its manufacturing to satisfy defense needs during World War II; it manufactured 10.9 percent of the United States military armaments produced during the war, ranking second (behind New York) among the 48 states.
Detroit continued to expand through the 1950s, at one point doubling its population in a decade. After World War II, housing was developed in suburban areas outside city cores to meet demand for residences. The federal government subsidized the construction of interstate highways, which were intended to strengthen military access, but also allowed commuters and business traffic to travel the region more easily. Since 1960, modern advances in the auto industry have led to increased automation, high - tech industry, and increased suburban growth.
Michigan is the leading auto - producing state in the US, with the industry primarily located throughout the Midwestern United States, Ontario, Canada, and the Southern United States. With almost ten million residents, Michigan is a large and influential state, ranking tenth in population among the fifty states. Detroit is the centrally located metropolitan area of the Great Lakes Megalopolis and the second - largest metropolitan area in the U.S. linking the Great Lakes system.
The Metro Detroit area in Southeast Michigan is the state 's largest metropolitan area (roughly 50 % of the population resides there) and the eleventh largest in the USA. The Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan is the state 's fastest - growing metro area, with over 1.3 million residents as of 2006. Metro Detroit receives more than 15 million visitors each year. Michigan has many popular tourist destinations, including areas such as Frankenmuth in The Thumb, and Traverse City on the Grand Traverse Bay in Northern Michigan. Tourists spend about $17 billion annually in Michigan supporting 193,000 jobs.
Michigan typically ranks third or fourth in overall Research & development (R&D) expenditures in the US. The state 's leading research institutions include the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University, which are important partners in the state 's economy and the state 's University Research Corridor. Michigan 's public universities attract more than $1.5 B in research and development grants each year. Agriculture also serves a significant role, making the state a leading grower of fruit in the US, including blueberries, cherries, apples, grapes, and peaches.
Michigan is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of Michigan and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the House of Representatives and Senate; and the judicial branch. The Michigan Constitution allows for the direct participation of the electorate by statutory initiative and referendum, recall, and constitutional initiative and referral (Article II, § 9, defined as "the power to propose laws and to enact and reject laws, called the initiative, and the power to approve or reject laws enacted by the legislature, called the referendum. The power of initiative extends only to laws which the legislature may enact under this constitution ''). Lansing is the state capital and is home to all three branches of state government.
The governor and the other state constitutional officers serve four - year terms and may be re-elected only once. The governor is Rick Snyder. Michigan has two official Governor 's Residences; one is in Lansing, and the other is at Mackinac Island. The other constitutionally elected executive officers are the lieutenant governor, who is elected on a joint ticket with the governor, the secretary of state, and the attorney general. The lieutenant governor presides over the Senate but only voting when ties occur, and is also a member of the cabinet. The secretary of state is the chief elections officer and is charged with running many licensure programs including motor vehicles, all of which are done through the branch offices of the secretary of state.
The Michigan Legislature consists of a 38 - member Senate and 110 - member House of Representatives. Members of both houses of the legislature are elected through first past the post elections by single - member electoral districts of near - equal population that often have boundaries which coincide with county and municipal lines. Senators serve four - year terms concurrent to those of the governor, while representatives serve two - year terms. The Michigan State Capitol was dedicated in 1879 and has hosted the executive and legislative branches of the state ever since.
The Michigan judiciary consists of two courts with primary jurisdiction (the Circuit Courts and the District Courts), one intermediate level appellate court (the Michigan Court of Appeals), and the Michigan Supreme Court. There are several administrative courts and specialized courts. District courts are trial courts of limited jurisdiction, handling most traffic violations, small claims, misdemeanors, and civil suits where the amount contended is below $25,000. District courts are often responsible for handling the preliminary examination and for setting bail in felony cases. District court judges are elected to terms of six years. In a few locations, municipal courts have been retained to the exclusion of the establishment of district courts. There are 57 circuit courts in the State of Michigan, which have original jurisdiction over all civil suits where the amount contended in the case exceeds $25,000 and all criminal cases involving felonies. Circuit courts are also the only trial courts in the State of Michigan which possess the power to issue equitable remedies. Circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction from district and municipal courts, as well as from decisions and decrees of state agencies. Most counties have their own circuit court, but sparsely populated counties often share them. Circuit court judges are elected to terms of six years. State appellate court judges are elected to terms of six years, but vacancies are filled by an appointment by the governor. There are four divisions of the Court of Appeals in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Marquette. Cases are heard by the Court of Appeals by panels of three judges, who examine the application of the law and not the facts of the case unless there has been grievous error pertaining to questions of fact. The Michigan Supreme Court consists of seven members who are elected on non-partisan ballots for staggered eight - year terms. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only in narrow circumstances but holds appellate jurisdiction over the entire state judicial system.
Michigan has had four constitutions, the first of which was ratified on October 5 and 6, 1835. There were also constitutions from 1850 and 1908, in addition to the current constitution from 1963. The current document has a preamble, 11 articles, and one section consisting of a schedule and temporary provisions. Michigan, like every U.S. state except Louisiana, has a common law legal system.
Voters in the state elect candidates from both major parties. Economic issues are important in Michigan elections.
The three - term Republican Governor John Engler (1991 -- 2003) preceded the former two - term Democratic Governor Jennifer Granholm (2003 -- 2011). The state has elected successive Republican attorneys general twice since 2003. The Republican Party holds a majority in both the House and Senate of the Michigan Legislature. Michigan supported the election of Republican Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and Donald Trump. The Governor Rick Snyder (2011 -- present) is a Republican.
In contrast, the state - supported Democratic candidates in each presidential election from 1992 to 2012. In 2012, Barack Obama carried the state over Mitt Romney, winning Michigan 's 16 electoral votes with 54 % of the vote. Michigan 's two U.S. Senators are both Democrats, while Republicans hold nine of the state 's fourteen US House seats. Michigan 's senior U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow, a Democrat, has served since 2001 after narrowly beating former Republican U.S. Senator Spencer Abraham in the 2000 elections. Democratic U.S. Senator Gary Peters was elected in 2014, beating former Republican Michigan Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land. Congressman Fred Upton, a Republican, serves as Chairman of the US House Committee on Energy and Commerce. Congresswoman Debbie Dingell, a Democrat, became the first person to succeed a living spouse when she replaced former Dean of the House of Representatives John Dingell in 2015.
Republican strongholds of the state include rural areas of Western and Northern Michigan, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area, and Livingston County. Areas of Democratic strength include Wayne County, home to Detroit, Washtenaw County (Ann Arbor), Ingham County (Lansing), and Genesee County (Flint). Much of suburban Detroit -- which includes parts of Oakland, Macomb, and Wayne counties -- is politically competitive between the two parties.
Historically, the first county - level meeting of the Republican Party took place in Jackson on July 6, 1854, and the party thereafter dominated Michigan until the Great Depression. In the 1912 election, Michigan was one of the six states to support progressive Republican and third - party candidate Theodore Roosevelt for president after he lost the Republican nomination to William Howard Taft.
Michigan remained fairly reliably Republican at the presidential level for much of the 20th century. It was part of Greater New England, the northern tier of states settled chiefly by migrants from New England who carried their culture with them. The state was one of only a handful to back Wendell Willkie over Franklin Roosevelt in 1940, and supported Thomas E. Dewey in his losing bid against Harry S. Truman in 1948. Michigan went to the Democrats in presidential elections during the 1960s and voted for the Republican candidate in every election from 1972 to 1988. Between 1992 and 2012 it supported the Democrats; early on in 2016, it was pegged as a swing state, and was narrowly won by the G.O.P. candidate, Donald Trump.
Michigan was the home of Gerald Ford, the 38th President of the United States. Born in Nebraska, he moved as an infant to Grand Rapids. The Gerald R. Ford Museum is in Grand Rapids, and the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library is on the campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.
In 1846 Michigan became the first state in the Union, as well as the first English - speaking government in the world, to abolish the death penalty. Historian David Chardavoyne has suggested the movement to abolish capital punishment in Michigan grew as a result of enmity toward the state 's neighbor, Canada. Under British rule, it made public executions a regular practice.
Michigan has recognized and performed same - sex marriages since June 26, 2015, following the Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges. Previously, such unions were prohibited under a 2004 state constitutional amendment.
Michigan has approved plans to expand Medicaid coverage in 2014 to adults with incomes up to 133 % of the federal poverty level (approximately $15,500 for a single adult in 2014).
State government is decentralized among three tiers -- statewide, county and township. Counties are administrative divisions of the state, and townships are administrative divisions of a county. Both of them exercise state government authority, localized to meet the particular needs of their jurisdictions, as provided by state law. There are 83 counties in Michigan.
Cities, state universities, and villages are vested with home rule powers of varying degrees. Home rule cities can generally do anything not prohibited by law. The fifteen state universities have broad power and can do anything within the parameters of their status as educational institutions that is not prohibited by the state constitution. Villages, by contrast, have limited home rule and are not completely autonomous from the county and township in which they are located.
There are two types of township in Michigan: general law township and charter. Charter township status was created by the Legislature in 1947 and grants additional powers and stream - lined administration in order to provide greater protection against annexation by a city. As of April 2001, there were 127 charter townships in Michigan. In general, charter townships have many of the same powers as a city but without the same level of obligations. For example, a charter township can have its own fire department, water and sewer department, police department, and so on -- just like a city -- but it is not required to have those things, whereas cities must provide those services. Charter townships can opt to use county - wide services instead, such as deputies from the county sheriff 's office instead of a home - based force of ordinance officers.
Michigan consists of two peninsulas that lie between 82 ° 30 ' to about 90 ° 30 ' west longitude, and are separated by the Straits of Mackinac. The 45th parallel north runs through the state -- marked by highway signs and the Polar - Equator Trail -- along a line including Mission Point Light near Traverse City, the towns of Gaylord and Alpena in the Lower Peninsula and Menominee in the Upper Peninsula. With the exception of two small areas that are drained by the Mississippi River by way of the Wisconsin River in the Upper Peninsula and by way of the Kankakee - Illinois River in the Lower Peninsula, Michigan is drained by the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence watershed and is the only state with the majority of its land thus drained.
The Great Lakes that border Michigan from east to west are Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. It has more public golf courses, registered boats and lighthouses than any other state. The state is bounded on the south by the states of Ohio and Indiana, sharing land and water boundaries with both. Michigan 's western boundaries are almost entirely water boundaries, from south to north, with Illinois and Wisconsin in Lake Michigan; then a land boundary with Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula, that is principally demarcated by the Menominee and Montreal Rivers; then water boundaries again, in Lake Superior, with Wisconsin and Minnesota to the west, capped around by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north and east.
The heavily forested Upper Peninsula is relatively mountainous in the west. The Porcupine Mountains, which are part of one of the oldest mountain chains in the world, rise to an altitude of almost 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level and form the watershed between the streams flowing into Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The surface on either side of this range is rugged. The state 's highest point, in the Huron Mountains northwest of Marquette, is Mount Arvon at 1,979 feet (603 m). The peninsula is as large as Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island combined but has fewer than 330,000 inhabitants. They are sometimes called "Yoopers '' (from "U.P.'ers ''), and their speech (the "Yooper dialect '') has been heavily influenced by the numerous Scandinavian and Canadian immigrants who settled the area during the lumbering and mining boom of the late 19th century.
The Lower Peninsula is shaped like a mitten and many residents hold up a hand to depict where they are from. It is 277 miles (446 km) long from north to south and 195 miles (314 km) from east to west and occupies nearly two - thirds of the state 's land area. The surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than a few hundred feet tall. It is divided by a low water divide running north and south. The larger portion of the state is on the west of this and gradually slopes toward Lake Michigan. The highest point in the Lower Peninsula is either Briar Hill at 1,705 feet (520 m), or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac. The lowest point is the surface of Lake Erie at 571 feet (174 m).
The geographic orientation of Michigan 's peninsulas makes for a long distance between the ends of the state. Ironwood, in the far western Upper Peninsula, lies 630 miles (1,010 kilometers) by highway from Lambertville in the Lower Peninsula 's southeastern corner. The geographic isolation of the Upper Peninsula from Michigan 's political and population centers makes the U.P. culturally and economically distinct. Occasionally U.P. residents have called for secession from Michigan and establishment as a new state to be called "Superior ''.
A feature of Michigan that gives it the distinct shape of a mitten is the Thumb. This peninsula projects out into Lake Huron and the Saginaw Bay. The geography of the Thumb is mainly flat with a few rolling hills. Other peninsulas of Michigan include the Keweenaw Peninsula, making up the Copper Country region of the state. The Leelanau Peninsula lies in the Northern Lower Michigan region. See Also Michigan Regions
Numerous lakes and marshes mark both peninsulas, and the coast is much indented. Keweenaw Bay, Whitefish Bay, and the Big and Little Bays De Noc are the principal indentations on the Upper Peninsula. The Grand and Little Traverse, Thunder, and Saginaw bays indent the Lower Peninsula. Michigan has the second longest shoreline of any state -- 3,288 miles (5,292 km), including 1,056 miles (1,699 km) of island shoreline.
The state has numerous large islands, the principal ones being the North Manitou and South Manitou, Beaver, and Fox groups in Lake Michigan; Isle Royale and Grande Isle in Lake Superior; Marquette, Bois Blanc, and Mackinac islands in Lake Huron; and Neebish, Sugar, and Drummond islands in St. Mary 's River. Michigan has about 150 lighthouses, the most of any U.S. state. The first lighthouses in Michigan were built between 1818 and 1822. They were built to project light at night and to serve as a landmark during the day to safely guide the passenger ships and freighters traveling the Great Lakes. See Lighthouses in the United States.
The state 's rivers are generally small, short and shallow, and few are navigable. The principal ones include the Detroit River, St. Marys River, and St. Clair River which connect the Great Lakes; the Au Sable, Cheboygan, and Saginaw, which flow into Lake Huron; the Ontonagon, and Tahquamenon, which flow into Lake Superior; and the St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, Manistee, and Escanaba, which flow into Lake Michigan. The state has 11,037 inland lakes -- totaling 1,305 square miles (3,380 km) of inland water -- in addition to 38,575 square miles (99,910 km) of Great Lakes waters. No point in Michigan is more than six miles (9.7 km) from an inland lake or more than 85 miles (137 km) from one of the Great Lakes.
The state is home to several areas maintained by the National Park Service including: Isle Royale National Park, in Lake Superior, about 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Other national protected areas in the state include: Keweenaw National Historical Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Huron National Forest, Manistee National Forest, Hiawatha National Forest, Ottawa National Forest and Father Marquette National Memorial. The largest section of the North Country National Scenic Trail passes through Michigan.
With 78 state parks, 19 state recreation areas, and 6 state forests, Michigan has the largest state park and state forest system of any state. These parks and forests include Holland State Park, Mackinac Island State Park, Au Sable State Forest, and Mackinaw State Forest.
Michigan has a continental climate, although there are two distinct regions. The southern and central parts of the Lower Peninsula (south of Saginaw Bay and from the Grand Rapids area southward) have a warmer climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) with hot summers and cold winters. The northern part of Lower Peninsula and the entire Upper Peninsula has a more severe climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm, but shorter summers and longer, cold to very cold winters. Some parts of the state average high temperatures below freezing from December through February, and into early March in the far northern parts. During the winter through the middle of February, the state is frequently subjected to heavy lake - effect snow. The state averages from 30 to 40 inches (76 to 102 cm) of precipitation annually; however, some areas in the northern lower peninsula and the upper peninsula average almost 160 inches (4,100 mm) of snowfall per year. Michigan 's highest recorded temperature is 112 ° F (44 ° C) at Mio on July 13, 1936, and the coldest recorded temperature is − 51 ° F (− 46 ° C) at Vanderbilt on February 9, 1934.
The state averages 30 days of thunderstorm activity per year. These can be severe, especially in the southern part of the state. The state averages 17 tornadoes per year, which are more common in the state 's extreme southern section. Portions of the southern border have been almost as vulnerable historically as states further west and in Tornado Alley. For this reason, many communities in the very southern portions of the state have tornado sirens to warn residents of approaching tornadoes. Farther north, in Central Michigan, Northern Michigan, and the Upper Peninsula, tornadoes are rare.
The geological formation of the state is greatly varied, with the Michigan Basin being the most major formation. Primary boulders are found over the entire surface of the Upper Peninsula (being principally of primitive origin), while Secondary deposits cover the entire Lower Peninsula. The Upper Peninsula exhibits Lower Silurian sandstones, limestones, copper and iron bearing rocks, corresponding to the Huronian system of Canada. The central portion of the Lower Peninsula contains coal measures and rocks of the Pennsylvanian period. Devonian and sub-Carboniferous deposits are scattered over the entire state.
Michigan rarely experiences earthquakes, thus far mostly smaller ones that do not cause significant damage. A 4.6 - magnitude earthquake struck in August 1947. More recently, a 4.2 - magnitude earthquake occurred on Saturday, May 2, 2015, shortly after noon, about 5 miles south of Galesburg, Michigan (9 miles southeast of Kalamazoo) in central Michigan, about 140 miles west of Detroit, according to the Colorado - based U.S. Geological Survey 's National Earthquake Information Center. No major damage or injuries were reported, according to Governor Rick Snyder 's office.
The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of Michigan was 9,962,311 on July 1, 2017, an increase of 0.79 % from 9,883,635 recorded at the 2010 United States Census.
The center of population of Michigan is in Shiawassee County, in the southeastern corner of the civil township of Bennington, which is northwest of the village of Morrice.
As of the 2010 American Community Survey for the U.S. Census, the state had a foreign - born population of 592,212, or 6.0 % of the total. Michigan has the largest Dutch, Finnish, and Macedonian populations in the United States.
The 2010 Census reported:
In the same year Hispanics or Latinos (of any race) made up 4.4 % of the population.
The large majority of Michigan 's population is Caucasian. Americans of European descent live throughout Michigan and most of Metro Detroit. Large European American groups include those of German, British, Irish, Polish and Belgian ancestry. People of Scandinavian descent, and those of Finnish ancestry, have a notable presence in the Upper Peninsula. Western Michigan is known for the Dutch heritage of many residents (the highest concentration of any state), especially in Holland and metropolitan Grand Rapids.
African - Americans, who came to Detroit and other northern cities in the Great Migration of the early 20th century, form a majority of the population of the city of Detroit and of other cities, including Flint and Benton Harbor.
As of 2007 about 300,000 people in Southeastern Michigan trace their descent from the Middle East. Dearborn has a sizeable Arab community, with many Assyrian / Chaldean / Syriac, and Lebanese who immigrated for jobs in the auto industry in the 1920s along with more recent Yemenis and Iraqis.
As of 2007, almost 8,000 Hmong people lived in the State of Michigan, about double their 1999 presence in the state. As of 2007 most lived in northeastern Detroit, but they had been increasingly moving to Pontiac and Warren. By 2015 the number of Hmong in the Detroit city limits had significantly declined. Lansing hosts a statewide Hmong New Year Festival. The Hmong community also had a prominent portrayal in the 2008 film Gran Torino, which was set in Detroit.
As of 2015, 80 % of Michigan 's Japanese population lived in the counties of Macomb, Oakland, Washtenaw, and Wayne in the Detroit and Ann Arbor areas. As of April 2013, the largest Japanese national population is in Novi, with 2,666 Japanese residents, and the next largest populations are respectively in Ann Arbor, West Bloomfield Township, Farmington Hills, and Battle Creek. The state has 481 Japanese employment facilities providing 35,554 local jobs. 391 of them are in Southeast Michigan, providing 20,816 jobs, and the 90 in other regions in the state provide 14,738 jobs. The Japanese Direct Investment Survey of the Consulate - General of Japan, Detroit stated over 2,208 additional Japanese residents were employed in the State of Michigan as of October 1, 2012, than in 2011. During the 1990s the Japanese population of Michigan experienced an increase, and many Japanese people with children moved to particular areas for their proximity to Japanese grocery stores and high - performing schools.
A person from Michigan is called a Michigander or Michiganian; also at times, but rarely, a "Michiganite ''. Residents of the Upper Peninsula are sometimes referred to as "Yoopers '' (a phonetic pronunciation of "U.P. ers ''), and Upper Peninsula residents sometimes refer to those from the Lower Peninsula as "trolls '' because they live below the bridge.
As of 2011, 34.3 % of Michigan 's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white.
Note: Percentages in the table can exceed 100 % as Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race.
As of 2010, 91.11 % (8,507,947) of Michigan residents age five and older spoke only English at home, while 2.93 % (273,981) spoke Spanish, 1.04 % (97,559) Arabic, 0.44 % (41,189) German, 0.36 % (33,648) Chinese (which includes Mandarin), 0.31 % (28,891) French, 0.29 % (27,019) Polish, and Syriac languages (such as Modern Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic) was spoken as a main language by 0.25 % (23,420) of the population over the age of five. In total, 8.89 % (830,281) of Michigan 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
The Roman Catholic Church has six dioceses and one archdiocese in Michigan; Gaylord, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Lansing, Marquette, Saginaw and Detroit. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination by number of adherents, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) 2010 survey, with 1,717,296 adherents. The Roman Catholic Church was the only organized religion in Michigan until the 19th century, reflecting the territory 's French colonial roots. Detroit 's Saint Anne 's parish, established in 1701 by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, is the second - oldest Roman Catholic parish in the United States. On March 8, 1833, the Holy See formally established a diocese in the Michigan territory, which included all of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas east of the Mississippi River. When Michigan became a state in 1837, the boundary of the Diocese of Detroit was redrawn to coincide with that of the State; the other dioceses were later carved out from the Diocese of Detroit but remain part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Detroit.
In 2010, the largest Protestant denominations were the United Methodist Church with 228,521 adherents; followed by the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod with 219,618, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 120,598 adherents. The Christian Reformed Church in North America had almost 100,000 members and over 230 congregations in Michigan. The Reformed Church in America had 76,000 members and 154 congregations in the state. In the same survey, Jewish adherents in the state of Michigan were estimated at 44,382, and Muslims at 120,351. The Lutheran Church was introduced by German and Scandinavian immigrants; Lutheranism is the second largest religious denomination in the state. The first Jewish synagogue in the state was Temple Beth El, founded by twelve German Jewish families in Detroit in 1850. In West Michigan, Dutch immigrants fled from the specter of religious persecution and famine in the Netherlands around 1850 and settled in and around what is now Holland, Michigan, establishing a "colony '' on American soil that fervently held onto Calvinist doctrine that established a significant presence of Reformed churches. Islam was introduced by immigrants from the Near East during the 20th century. Michigan is home to the largest mosque in North America, the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn. Battle Creek, Michigan is also the birthplace of the Seventh - day Adventist Church, which was founded on May 21, 1863.
The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated Michigan 's 2017 gross state product to be $504.967 billion, ranking 14th out of the 50 states. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of June 2018, the state 's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate is estimated at 4.5 %.
Source: Fortune
Products and services include automobiles, food products, information technology, aerospace, military equipment, furniture, and mining of copper and iron ore. Michigan is the third leading grower of Christmas trees with 60,520 acres (245 km) of land dedicated to Christmas tree farming. The beverage Vernors was invented in Michigan in 1866, sharing the title of oldest soft drink with Hires Root Beer. Faygo was founded in Detroit on November 4, 1907. Two of the top four pizza chains were founded in Michigan and are headquartered there: Domino 's Pizza by Tom Monaghan and Little Caesars Pizza by Mike Ilitch. Michigan became the 24th Right to Work state in U.S. in 2012.
Since 2009, GM, Ford and Chrysler have managed a significant reorganization of their benefit funds structure after a volatile stock market which followed the September 11 attacks and early 2000s recession impacted their respective U.S. pension and benefit funds (OPEB). General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler reached agreements with the United Auto Workers Union to transfer the liabilities for their respective health care and benefit funds to a 501 (c) (9) Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association (VEBA). Manufacturing in the state grew 6.6 % from 2001 to 2006, but the high speculative price of oil became a factor for the U.S. auto industry during the economic crisis of 2008 impacting industry revenues. In 2009, GM and Chrysler emerged from Chapter 11 restructurings with financing provided in part by the U.S. and Canadian governments. GM began its initial public offering (IPO) of stock in 2010. For 2010, the Big Three domestic automakers have reported significant profits indicating the beginning of rebound.
As of 2002, Michigan ranked fourth in the U.S. in high tech employment with 568,000 high tech workers, which includes 70,000 in the automotive industry. Michigan typically ranks third or fourth in overall Research & development (R&D) expenditures in the United States. Its research and development, which includes automotive, comprises a higher percentage of the state 's overall gross domestic product than for any other U.S. state. The state is an important source of engineering job opportunities. The domestic auto industry accounts directly and indirectly for one of every ten jobs in the U.S.
Michigan was second in the U.S. in 2004 for new corporate facilities and expansions. From 1997 to 2004, Michigan was the only state to top the 10,000 mark for the number of major new developments; however, the effects of the late 2000s recession have slowed the state 's economy. In 2008, Michigan placed third in a site selection survey among the states for luring new business which measured capital investment and new job creation per one million population. In August 2009, Michigan and Detroit 's auto industry received $1.36 B in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy for the manufacture of electric vehicle technologies which is expected to generate 6,800 immediate jobs and employ 40,000 in the state by 2020. From 2007 to 2009, Michigan ranked 3rd in the U.S. for new corporate facilities and expansions.
As leading research institutions, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University are important partners in the state 's economy and its University Research Corridor. Michigan 's public universities attract more than $1.5 B in research and development grants each year. The National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory is at Michigan State University. Michigan 's workforce is well - educated and highly skilled, making it attractive to companies. It has the third highest number of engineering graduates nationally.
Detroit Metropolitan Airport is one of the nation 's most recently expanded and modernized airports with six major runways, and large aircraft maintenance facilities capable of servicing and repairing a Boeing 747 and is a major hub for Delta Air Lines. Michigan 's schools and colleges rank among the nation 's best. The state has maintained its early commitment to public education. The state 's infrastructure gives it a competitive edge; Michigan has 38 deep water ports. In 2007, Bank of America announced that it would commit $25 billion to community development in Michigan following its acquisition of LaSalle Bank in Troy.
Michigan led the nation in job creation improvement in 2010.
Michigan 's personal income tax is set to a flat rate of 4.25 %. In addition, 22 cities impose income taxes; rates are set at 1 % for residents and 0.5 % for non-residents in all but four cities. Michigan 's state sales tax is 6 %, though items such as food and medication are exempted from sales tax. Property taxes are assessed on the local level, but every property owner 's local assessment contributes six mills (a rate of $6 per $1000 of property value) to the statutory State Education Tax. Property taxes are appealable to local boards of review and need the approval of the local electorate to exceed millage rates prescribed by state law and local charters. In 2011, the state repealed its business tax and replaced it with a 6 % corporate income tax which substantially reduced taxes on business. Article IX of the Constitution of the State of Michigan also provides limitations on how much the state can tax.
The state also levies a 6 % sales tax within the state and a Use tax on goods purchased outside the state (that are brought in and used in state). The use tax applies to internet sales / purchases from outside Michigan and is equivalent to the sales tax.
A wide variety of commodity crops, fruits, and vegetables are grown in Michigan, making it second only to California among U.S. states in the diversity of its agriculture. The state has 54,800 farms utilizing 10,000,000 acres (40,000 km) of land which sold $6.49 billion worth of products in 2010. The most valuable agricultural product is milk. Leading crops include corn, soybeans, flowers, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes. Livestock in the state included 1 million cattle, 1 million hogs, 78,000 sheep and over 3 million chickens. Livestock products accounted for 38 % of the value of agricultural products while crops accounted for the majority.
Michigan is a leading grower of fruit in the U.S., including blueberries, tart cherries, apples, grapes, and peaches. Plums, pears, and strawberries are also grown in Michigan. These fruits are mainly grown in West Michigan due to the moderating effect of Lake Michigan on the climate. There is also significant fruit production, especially cherries, but also grapes, apples, and other fruits, in Northwest Michigan along Lake Michigan. Michigan produces wines, beers and a multitude of processed food products. Kellogg 's cereal is based in Battle Creek, Michigan and processes many locally grown foods. Thornapple Valley, Ball Park Franks, Koegel Meat Company, and Hebrew National sausage companies are all based in Michigan.
Michigan is home to very fertile land in the Saginaw Valley and "Thumb '' areas. Products grown there include corn, sugar beets, navy beans, and soybeans. Sugar beet harvesting usually begins the first of October. It takes the sugar factories about five months to process the 3.7 million tons of sugarbeets into 485,000 tons of pure, white sugar. Michigan 's largest sugar refiner, Michigan Sugar Company is the largest east of the Mississippi River and the fourth largest in the nation. Michigan Sugar brand names are Pioneer Sugar and the newly incorporated Big Chief Sugar. Potatoes are grown in Northern Michigan, and corn is dominant in Central Michigan. Alfalfa, cucumbers, and asparagus are also grown.
Michigan 's tourists spend $17.2 billion per year in the state, supporting 193,000 tourism jobs. Michigan 's tourism website ranks among the busiest in the nation. Destinations draw vacationers, hunters, and nature enthusiasts from across the United States and Canada. Michigan is fifty percent forest land, much of it quite remote. The forests, lakes and thousands of miles of beaches are top attractions. Event tourism draws large numbers to occasions like the Tulip Time Festival and the National Cherry Festival. In 2006, the Michigan State Board of Education mandated all public schools in the state hold their first day of school after the Labor Day holiday, in accordance with the new Post Labor Day School law. A survey found 70 % of all tourism business comes directly from Michigan residents, and the Michigan Hotel, Motel, & Resort Association claimed the shorter summer in between school years cut into the annual tourism season in the state.
Tourism in metropolitan Detroit draws visitors to leading attractions, especially The Henry Ford, the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Zoo, and to sports in Detroit. Other museums include the Detroit Historical Museum, the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, museums in the Cranbrook Educational Community, and the Arab American National Museum. The metro area offers four major casinos, MGM Grand Detroit, Greektown, Motor City, and Caesars Windsor in Windsor, Ontario, Canada; moreover, Detroit is the largest American city and metropolitan region to offer casino resorts.
Hunting and fishing are significant industries in the state. Charter boats are based in many Great Lakes cities to fish for salmon, trout, walleye, and perch. Michigan ranks first in the nation in licensed hunters (over one million) who contribute $2 billion annually to its economy. Over three - quarters of a million hunters participate in white - tailed deer season alone. Many school districts in rural areas of Michigan cancel school on the opening day of firearm deer season, because of attendance concerns.
Michigan 's Department of Natural Resources manages the largest dedicated state forest system in the nation. The forest products industry and recreational users contribute $12 billion and 200,000 associated jobs annually to the state 's economy. Public hiking and hunting access has also been secured in extensive commercial forests. The state has the highest number of golf courses and registered snowmobiles in the nation.
The state has numerous historical markers, which can themselves become the center of a tour. The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.
With its position in relation to the Great Lakes and the countless ships that have foundered over the many years they have been used as a transport route for people and bulk cargo, Michigan is a world - class scuba diving destination. The Michigan Underwater Preserves are 11 underwater areas where wrecks are protected for the benefit of sport divers.
Michigan has nine international road crossings with Ontario, Canada:
A second international bridge between Detroit and Windsor is under consideration.
Michigan is served by four Class I railroads: the Canadian National Railway, the Canadian Pacific Railway, CSX Transportation, and the Norfolk Southern Railway. These are augmented by several dozen short line railroads. The vast majority of rail service in Michigan is devoted to freight, with Amtrak and various scenic railroads the exceptions.
Amtrak passenger rail services the state, connecting many southern and western Michigan cities to Chicago, Illinois. There are plans for commuter rail for Detroit and its suburbs (see SEMCOG Commuter Rail).
The Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, in the western suburb of Romulus, was in 2010 the 16th busiest airfield in North America measured by passenger traffic. The Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids is the next busiest airport in the state, served by eight airlines to 23 destinations. Flint Bishop International Airport is the third largest airport in the state, served by four airlines to several primary hubs. Smaller regional and local airports are located throughout the state including on several islands. Cherry Capital Airport is in Traverse City.
Other economically significant cities include:
Half of the wealthiest communities in the state are in Oakland County, just north of Detroit. Another wealthy community is just east of the city, in Grosse Pointe. Only three of these cities are outside of Metro Detroit. The city of Detroit, with a per capita income of $14,717, ranks 517th on the list of Michigan locations by per capita income. Benton Harbor is the poorest city in Michigan, with a per capita income of $8,965, while Barton Hills is the richest with a per capita income of $110,683.
Michigan 's education system provides services to 1.6 million K - 12 students in public schools. More than 124,000 students attend private schools and an uncounted number are home - schooled under certain legal requirements. The public school system has a $14.5 billion budget in 2008 -- 2009. Michigan has a number of public universities spread throughout the state and numerous private colleges as well. Michigan State University has the eighth largest campus population of any U.S. school. Seven of the state 's universities -- Central Michigan University, University of Michigan, Michigan State University, Michigan Technological University, Oakland University, Wayne State University, and Western Michigan University -- are classified as research universities by the Carnegie Foundation.
Michigan music is known for three music trends: early punk rock, Motown / soul music and techno music. Michigan musicians include Bill Haley & His Comets, The Supremes, The Marvelettes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye "The Prince of Soul '', Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, Aretha Franklin, Mary Wells, Tommy James and the Shondells,? and the Mysterians, Al Green, The Spinners, Grand Funk Railroad, The Stooges, the MC5, The Knack, Madonna "The Queen of Pop '', Bob Seger, Ray Parker Jr., Aaliyah, Eminem, Kid Rock, Jack White and Meg White (The White Stripes), Big Sean, and Alice Cooper.
Major theaters in Michigan include the Fox Theatre, Music Hall, Gem Theatre, Masonic Temple Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, Fisher Theatre, The Fillmore Detroit, Saint Andrew 's Hall, Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall.
The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated in Detroit. Detroit Symphony Orchestra
Motown Motion Picture Studios with 535,000 square feet (49,700 m) produces movies in Detroit and the surrounding area based at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus.
Michigan 's major - league sports teams include: Detroit Tigers baseball team, Detroit Lions football team, Detroit Red Wings ice hockey team, and the Detroit Pistons men 's basketball team. All of Michigan 's major league teams play in the Metro Detroit area.
The Pistons played at Detroit 's Cobo Arena until 1978 and at the Pontiac Silverdome until 1988 when they moved into The Palace of Auburn Hills. In 2017, the team moved to the newly built Little Caesars Arena in downtown Detroit. The Detroit Lions played at Tiger Stadium in Detroit until 1974, then moved to the Pontiac Silverdome where they played for 27 years between 1975 and 2002 before moving to Ford Field in Detroit in 2002. The Detroit Tigers played at Tiger Stadium (formerly known as Navin Field and Briggs Stadium) from 1912 to 1999. In 2000 they moved to Comerica Park. The Red Wings played at Olympia Stadium before moving to Joe Louis Arena in 1979. They later moved to Little Caesars Arena to join the Pistons as tenants in 2017. Professional hockey got its start in Houghton, when the Portage Lakers were formed.
The Michigan International Speedway is the site of NASCAR races and Detroit was formerly the site of a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix race. From 1959 to 1961, Detroit Dragway hosted the NHRA 's U.S. Nationals. Michigan is home to one of the major canoeing marathons: the 120 - mile (190 km) Au Sable River Canoe Marathon. The Port Huron to Mackinac Boat Race is also a favorite.
Twenty - time Grand Slam champion Serena Williams was born in Saginaw. The 2011 World Champion for Women 's Artistic Gymnastics, Jordyn Wieber is from DeWitt. Wieber was also a member of the gold medal winning team at the London Olympics in 2012.
Collegiate sports in Michigan are popular in addition to professional sports. The state 's two largest athletic programs are the Michigan Wolverines and Michigan State Spartans, which play in the NCAA Big Ten Conference. Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, home to the Michigan Wolverines football team, is the largest stadium in the Western Hemisphere and the second - largest stadium worldwide behind Rungrado May Day Stadium in Pyongyang, North Korea.
The Michigan High School Athletic Association features around 300,000 participants.
Michigan is, by tradition, known as "The Wolverine State, '' and the University of Michigan takes the wolverine as its mascot. The association is well and long established: for example, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during the American Civil War and George Armstrong Custer, who led the Michigan Brigade, called them the "Wolverines ''. The origins of this association are obscure; it may derive from a busy trade in wolverine furs in Sault Ste. Marie in the 18th century or may recall a disparagement intended to compare early settlers in Michigan with the vicious mammal. Wolverines are, however, extremely rare in Michigan. A sighting in February 2004 near Ubly was the first confirmed sighting in Michigan in 200 years. The animal was found dead in 2010.
Coordinates: 44 ° N 85 ° W / 44 ° N 85 ° W / 44; - 85
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when do chapters of my hero academia come out | List of My Hero Academia chapters - wikipedia
My Hero Academia is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Kōhei Horikoshi. It began its serialization in the manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on July 7, 2014. Its individual chapters have been collected into eighteen tankōbon volumes, the first released on November 4, 2014. The story is set in a world where most of the world population has a superhuman ability known as a "Quirk ''. The main character Izuku Midoriya is a teenage boy who does not have a Quirk, despite his longtime dream to be a superhero, until he is approached by All Might, the world 's most famous hero and his childhood idol, who chooses him to inherit his Quirk "One For All ''.
The series is licensed for English language release in North America by Viz Media, who published the first volume on August 4, 2015. As the series is published in Japan, it is also released simultaneously in English digitally by Viz Media 's Weekly Shounen Jump.
A spin - off series, My Hero Academia: Vigilantes, began being published biweekly on the ShonenJump+ website and app in 2017. The series is licensed for the English language release in North America by Viz Media, who will publish the first volume on July 3, 2018.
These chapters have yet to be published in a tankōbon volume. They were originally serialized in Japanese in issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump from January 2018 to June 2018.
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where did the children's blizzard take place | Schoolhouse Blizzard - wikipedia
This article is about the blizzard in the Great Plains of the United States. For the blizzard during the same year in the Eastern United States and Canada, see Great Blizzard of 1888.
The Schoolhouse Blizzard, also known as the Schoolchildren 's Blizzard, School Children 's Blizzard, or Children 's Blizzard, hit the U.S. plains states on January 12, 1888. The blizzard came unexpectedly on a relatively warm day, and many people were caught unaware, including children in one - room schoolhouses.
The blizzard was preceded by a snowstorm on January 5 and 6, which dropped powdery snow on the northern and central plains, and was followed by an outbreak of brutally cold temperatures from January 7 to 11.
The weather prediction for the day was issued by the Weather Bureau, which at the time was managed by Adolphus Greely; it said: "A cold wave is indicated for Dakota and Nebraska tonight and tomorrow; the snow will drift heavily today and tomorrow in Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota and Wisconsin. ''
On January 11, a strengthening surface low dropped south - southeastward out of Alberta, Canada into central Montana and then into northeastern Colorado by the morning of January 12. The temperatures in advance of the low increased some 20 -- 40 degrees in the central plains (for example, Omaha, Nebraska recorded a temperature of − 6 ° F (− 21 ° C) at 7 a.m. on January 11, while the temperature had increased to 28 ° F (− 2 ° C) by 7 a.m. on January 12). The strong surface low rapidly moved into southeastern Nebraska by 3 p.m. on January 12 and finally into southwestern Wisconsin by 11 p.m. that same day.
The blizzard was precipitated by the collision of an immense Arctic cold front with warm moisture - laden air from the Gulf of Mexico. Within a few hours, the advancing cold front caused a temperature drop from a few degrees above freezing to − 20 degrees Fahrenheit / - 29 degrees Celsius (− 40 ° F / − 40 ° C in some places). This wave of cold was accompanied by high winds and heavy snow. The fast - moving storm first struck Montana in the early hours of January 12, swept through Dakota Territory from midmorning to early afternoon, and reached Lincoln, Nebraska at 3 p.m.
What made the storm so deadly was the timing (during work and school hours), the suddenness of the storm, and the brief spell of warmer weather that preceded it. In addition, the very strong wind fields behind the cold front and the powdery nature of the snow reduced visibilities on the open plains to zero. People ventured from the safety of their homes to do chores, go to town, attend school, or simply enjoy the relative warmth of the day. As a result, thousands of people -- including many schoolchildren -- got caught in the blizzard. The death toll was 235. Teachers generally kept children in their schoolrooms. Exceptions nearly always resulted in disaster.
Travel was severely impeded in the days following.
Two months later, another severe blizzard hit the East Coast states: This blizzard was known as the Great Blizzard of 1888.
Many of these states were just United States territories at the time:
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man's best friend movie what kind of dog | Man 's Best Friend (1993 film) - Wikipedia
Man 's Best Friend is a 1993 American horror comedy film, directed and written by John Lafia. It stars Ally Sheedy, Lance Henriksen, Robert Costanzo, Frederic Lehne, John Cassini, and J.D. Daniels. It was released by New Line Cinema on November 19, 1993. The official tagline was "Nature created him. Science perfected him. But no one can control him. '' The film 's soundtrack was composed by Joel Goldsmith and its reception was mediocre. However, it was a modest success at the box office, grossing $12.9 million behind a $6 million budget.
Judy Sanders (Robin Frates), an employee of a genetic research facility named EMAX, contacts television personality Lori Tanner (Ally Sheedy), planning to meet after work so she can show Lori the atrocities and animal cruelty that go on in EMAX 's laboratories. As she proceeds back to work, an animal assailant attacks and kills her. Dr. Jarret (Lance Henriksen), a scientist performing vivisection and genetic altering and the owner of EMAX, comes in and shoots the animal with a sedative to stop the attack. Later, Lori arrives at EMAX. When Judy does not appear, she breaks into the laboratory and films the various animals that are being experimented on. She discovers a Tibetan Mastiff named Max who does not appear to have been experimented on and lets the dog out of his cage. Dr. Jarret discovers that there is an intruder in the laboratory and chases Lori out of the building, with Max following Lori into her car as she drives away. Jarret immediately goes to the police and complains that his dog has been stolen. Later that day, when Lori goes shopping, a mugger (Thomas Rosales, Jr.) steals her purse. Max chases the thief, brutally kills him, and brings Lori 's purse back to her.
Unaware that the dog has killed the mugger, Lori develops a bond with Max, feeling protected with him around and decides to keep him. However, her boyfriend Perry (Fredric Lehne) initially refuses to allow Lori to keep the dog, despite his heroic actions. He finally agrees to let Max stay, but only if he stays in the backyard. However, Max can understand human conversations and becomes overprotective of Lori. He later finds Lori and Perry having sex in their bedroom and tries to attack Perry, understanding that Perry is n't too fond of him.
Dr. Jarret is questioned by detectives Frankie Kovacs (Robert Costanzo) and Emilio Bendetti (John Cassini) about Max. Jarret reveals that Max is a genetically altered dog, spliced with the DNA of various other animals such as big cats, snakes, chameleons, and birds of prey giving him enhanced strength, speed, and senses. Max is also prone to violent rages, and Jarrett regularly gives him a drug to keep him relaxed, but he fears that it wo n't be long before the effects of the drug wear off.
Max acts as a loyal, obedient, and lovable dog to Lori, but when her back is turned he starts wreaking havoc in the neighborhood, terrorizing some local children (though he seems all right with Lori 's young neighbor Rudy), devouring a cat, destroying the brake lines in Perry 's truck, mating with a neighbor 's collie Heidi, and murdering a mail man (Rick Barker). All of these incidents go unnoticed by Lori. Realizing Max gnawed through the brake lines of his truck in an attempt to kill him, Perry tries to kill Max by feeding him poisoned hamburger. He tries to convince Max to eat it but Max smells the poison in the meat and chases Perry out of the house. After Perry escapes in his truck, Max eats Lori 's talking pet parrot, who begins berating him. Max proceeds to dump the poison ridden hamburger in the toilet and flushes it.
Noticing Perry 's animosity towards their new dog, Lori decides to find Max a new home. She takes him to a junkyard and leaves him with the owner Ray (William Sanderson), who assures her that Max will be taken to a ranch in a few days. However, when Lori leaves, Ray chains Max to the wall and hits him over the head with a shovel, knocking him out. When Max wakes up, he pulls loose from his chain and attacks Ray. Unfortunately, Ray arms himself with a blow torch and burns Max 's face, but right as he is about to get his gun, he is soon overpowered and killed. Max, now severely scarred, leaves the junkyard and makes his way back to Lori 's house. The police, after discovering the dead mugger and having Dr. Jarret clarify that it was Max who killed him, now intend to stop Max at any cost. By the time Max returns to Lori 's, Perry has replaced him with a new puppy named Spike. Max, feeling betrayed, confronts Perry and burns his face with acidic urine, much to Lori 's horror and realization. Max attempts to attack Lori and the neighbor kid but the police arrive to apprehend Max. Max then escapes out of the house and evades the cops and an animal control unit by utilizing his genetic gifts.
As an ambulance takes Perry away, the police demand Lori 's help to catch Max and wait for him. Max arrives and kills the police watching the house, which Lori soon discovers. In an attempt to get him back, Jarret kidnaps Lori and her new dog Spike in hopes that Max will follow, which he does. Jarret drives back to the EMAX building, telling Lori that Max will turn on her as he did to Jarret. Max then chases them and attacks, jumping onto the car and causing it to crash. Lori pulls herself free from the car and grabs Spike as well. Upon realizing that Max is still alive, she runs into the building with Max chasing her into the laboratory where she first discovered him. She grabs a knife to protect herself as Max stalks her through the laboratory. In a final face to face confrontation, Lori realizes she is n't scared of Max, knowing he would n't hurt her and feels the bond they shared. Max watches as Lori puts down the knife and reaches out for him. Max relinquishes his aggressive, homicidal nature and begins to kiss her hand. Dr. Jarret, still alive, arrives with a pump - action shotgun and demands Lori move away from Max or he will kill them both. Lori refuses to move out of the way and Max breaks out of her grasp to protect her by taking the shot to the chest and pushing Dr. Jarret onto a large electrical cage. Spike begins to play and bite the electrical outlet connected to the cage, sparking it which begins electrocuting Jarret and killing him instantly. Lori rests Max 's head on her lap and pets him as he dies and proceeds to mourn for him.
Three months later, Lori is going for a walk with Spike, and runs into Rudy. Rudy tells Lori that his dog has just had puppies and invites her to see them. Most of the puppies look like their mother with the one exception being a small black puppy that resembles Max, implying that this puppy has inherited Max 's genetic altering... or at least his father 's attitude.
At least five different dogs were used in filming. Kevin Yagher built the Max puppets as well as created the make - up special effects.
Additional tag lines for the film include "Companion. Protector. Killer. '' "He 'll bite the hand that feeds him... And then he 'll eat the rest. '' "His bark is n't half as bad... as his bite! '' and "He makes Cujo look like Benji! ''
Man 's Best Friend was released in 1220 theaters on the Thanksgiving weekend of November 19, 1993. It opened at fifth place in the box office with $5 million.
Man 's Best Friend currently has a 20 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Kevin Thomas of Los Angeles Times, noted that while "cynical and shallow '', the film was "polished in all aspects ''. Despite this, Ally Sheedy was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress. Film critic Leonard Maltin gave it a moderately positive two - and - a-half - star review, calling it "derivative, but fun. ''
New Line Home Video released the film on DVD on September 6, 2005.
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where does the catalina wine mixer take place | Step Brothers (film) - wikipedia
Step Brothers is a 2008 American comedy film directed by Adam McKay, written by Will Ferrell and McKay from a story by Ferrell, McKay, and John C. Reilly and starring Ferrell and Reilly. It follows Brennan (Ferrell) and Dale (Reilly), two men who are forced to live together as brothers.
The film was released on July 25, 2008, two years after Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby. Both films share main actors, as well as the writing and producing team.
Brennan Huff and Dale Doback are men - children still living at home. Brennan lives with his divorced mother, Nancy, and Dale lives with his widowed father, Robert. The parents meet and fall in love. Robert and Nancy get married, forcing Brennan and Dale to live with each other as step brothers.
Brennan and Dale dislike each other, blaming the other for interfering with their lifestyles. Although not allowed to play Dale 's drum set, Brennan does so, in which Dale reprimands him, and a brawl on the front lawn ensues. They are grounded for a week and told they must find jobs within a month -- or they will be forced out of the house.
When Brennan 's younger and more ambitious brother Derek, a helicopter leasing agent, comes to visit with his family, he mocks their unsuccessful lives and being spoiled brats, which entices Dale to punch him in the face. Brennan is awed that Dale stood up to Derek, while Derek 's wife Alice finds Dale 's courage a turn - on, attempting to begin a sexual affair between the two. Brennan and Dale use the incident to discover their shared interests and develop a brotherly friendship.
Robert schedules several job interviews for Brennan and Dale, who offend the interviewers with their disrespectful attitudes. Robert and Nancy reveal their plans to retire and sail the world on Robert 's boat and allow Derek to sell the house, and they demand that Brennan and Dale attend therapy and find other living arrangements.
Dale and Brennan decide to start an entertainment company, "Prestige Worldwide. '' They present their first music video at Derek 's birthday party, which includes footage of them accidentally crashing Robert 's boat. Robert refuses to make an investment and spanks Brennan after a heated verbal exchange between the two. On Christmas Day, Robert announces he wants to divorce Nancy, causing Brennan and Dale to break down.
Blaming each other for their parents ' divorce, the boys fight, and they decide to go their separate ways. Brennan works for Derek 's helicopter leasing firm and Dale works for a catering company. Weeks later, Brennan and Dale are fully mature adults and are doing well at their new jobs and living independently.
Brennan manages the Catalina Wine Mixer for Derek 's company and invites Robert and Nancy. They hire the catering company Dale works for. The party is a success, until the lead singer of Uptown Girl, a 1980s Billy Joel tribute band, responds to a man in the crowd by using explicit profanity, and is removed from the event. With the stage empty, Derek fires Brennan for the singer 's mishap, and Robert ultimately encourages Brennan and Dale to be their eccentric child - at - heart selves again. Brennan and Dale take the stage and perform "Por Ti Volaré ''. Derek is so moved by the performance that he and Brennan make amends. Dale ends his relationship with Alice to her dismay.
Six months later, Robert and Nancy are reunited and move back into their old house. Brennan and his therapist Denise get married, while Brennan and Dale have turned "Prestige Worldwide '' into a successful entertainment company that runs karaoke events. Robert has his boat repaired and put on display in the backyard. In a mid-credits scene, Brennan and Dale stand up to a group of bullies from a middle school who abused Dale a year prior. In a post-credits scene, Brennan and Dale sleepwalk once more.
Step Brothers received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 55 %, based on 180 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The relentless immaturity of the humor is not a total handicap for this film, which features the consistently well - matched talents of Will Ferrell and John C. Reilly. '' At the website Metacritic, which utilizes a normalized rating system, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film 1 1 / 2 out of 4 stars and stated, "When did comedies get so mean? Step Brothers has a premise that might have produced a good time at the movies, but when I left, I felt a little unclean ''.
The film was released for home video on December 2, 2008 in a single - disc rated edition, a single - disc unrated edition and a 2 - disc unrated edition. The film generated sales of an estimated 3.87 million units in DVD and Blu - ray, totaling $63.7 million. For the home video release, Will Ferrell, John C. Reilly, and Adam McKay recorded a commentary track mostly in song, accompanied by Jon Brion; the track covers "the movie - making process (and) their characters ' offscreen lives '' in remarks that range "from the inspired to the irritatingly prolonged, but when Ferrell and Reilly really get into a good groove, they 're actually funnier than the main feature ''.
McKay announced on Twitter that production of a Step Brothers rap album featuring Ferrell and Reilly had begun, but later said that the rap album fell apart and will not be released.
Ferrell and Reilly have talked about a sequel. Reilly had the idea.
McKay was also interviewed about the possible sequel. "We 're kicking around the idea of Step Brothers 2, '' he said. "We feel like there 's way more fat to be mined there. While it is n't quite the legend that Anchorman is, it has built kind of a nice following. We think it could be a pretty fun one. '' He added that Ferrell and Reilly 's characters would be mature and have jobs. "One of them 's married and has a kid. They 're still kind of goofballs but they 've taken three or four steps. Then we have an idea for something happens that knocks him back to square one, and one of the brothers, John C. Reilly sort of instigates it, like ' we ca n't take this anymore. ' And things go really bad, their lives kind of fall apart. They have to pull it back together is sort of the basic structure. '' McKay has also said that ideas that were not used in the first film may be used in the sequel.
McKay spoke to Empire in February 2014 and appeared to rule out a sequel to Anchorman 2 or Step Brothers saying, "No, that 's the last sequel we 're gon na do. There 's nothing more fun to me than new characters and a new world. And now we 're releasing this alt version, we 're totally satisfied. No Anchorman 3. ''
However, in an interview with Collider posted on October 21, 2014, McKay indicated the door was still open for a Step Brothers sequel at some point, while making clear it was n't a short term development priority, stating:
"We have a whole story (for Step Brothers 2), an outline that we 're happy with. We were ready to go, and you know the story of (how) we got the call on Anchorman 2. We 're not gon na do it now ' cause we just did a sequel, I do n't wan na get into the sequel business too much. It was kind of a novelty to do one of them and it was certainly very interesting and I had never done anything like it. So I want to go make some original movies -- or you know, The Big Short is an adaptation but do some different stuff. But who knows? 2 -- 3 years, 3 -- 4 years. I mean the funny thing with Step Brothers is if those guys are in their 50s it still works, so we could easily return to that, but for now no sequels. ''
In February 2017, Ferrell said in an interview with Rolling Stone that there are currently no plans for a sequel to Step Brothers.
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how old was miley when she started hannah montana | Miley Cyrus - Wikipedia
Miley Ray Cyrus (born Destiny Hope Cyrus; November 23, 1992) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. After playing minor roles in the television series Doc and the film Big Fish in her childhood, she became a teen idol starring as the character Miley Stewart in the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana in 2006. Her father Billy Ray Cyrus also starred in the show. She subsequently signed a recording contract with Hollywood Records, and her debut studio album Meet Miley Cyrus (2007) was certified triple - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) having shipped over three million units. She released her second album Breakout and launched her film career as a voice actress in the animated film Bolt in 2008.
Cyrus starred in the feature film Hannah Montana: The Movie, and began cultivating a more mature image with her EP The Time of Our Lives in 2009. In 2010, she released her third album Ca n't Be Tamed, which stands as the lowest - selling record of her career, and starred in the coming - of - age film The Last Song. Cyrus focused on her acting career with several television and film appearances in 2011 and 2012. Her sexually explicit behavior generated widespread controversy while promoting her fourth album Bangerz (2013), her first under her recording contract with RCA Records. Cyrus ' independently - released fifth studio album Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz (2015) deviated from her traditional pop style for more psychedelic experimentation. The following year, she became a coach on the singing competition television series The Voice; she has since appeared on two of its thirteen seasons. Cyrus returned to a more wholesome image with her sixth studio album Younger Now (2017).
With Bangerz, Cyrus achieved her third number - one album on the U.S. Billboard 200, and fifth overall including Hannah Montana soundtrack albums. She has logged eight top 10 entries on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 with: "See You Again '', "7 Things '', "The Climb '', "Party in the U.S.A. '', "Ca n't Be Tamed '', "We Ca n't Stop '', "Malibu '' and the chart - topping "Wrecking Ball ''. Cyrus has earned numerous awards and nominations, as Billboard ranked her as the fourth best - selling female artist of 2009. She was ranked number thirteen on Forbes ' Celebrity 100 in 2010, and in 2013 was declared "Artist of the Year '' by MTV. She has been included on the Time 100 list of most influential people in 2008 and 2014.
Destiny Hope Cyrus was born November 23, 1992, in Franklin, Tennessee, to Leticia Jean "Tish '' Cyrus (née Finley) and singer Billy Ray Cyrus. Cyrus was born with supraventricular tachycardia, a condition which causes an abnormal resting heart rate. Her birth name, Destiny Hope, reflects her parents ' belief that she would accomplish great things, and she was given the nickname "Smiley '', later shortened to "Miley '', because she often smiled as an infant. She changed her name to Miley Ray Cyrus; her middle name honors her grandfather, Democratic politician Ronald Ray Cyrus.
Against the advice of her father 's record company, Cyrus 's parents secretly married on December 28, 1993, a year after her birth. They had two more children together, son Braison and daughter Noah. From previous relationships, her mother has two other children, Trace and Brandi, while her father has a son named Christopher, who grew up with his mother, Kristin Luckey, in South Carolina. Four of her siblings eventually entered the entertainment business: Trace as a vocalist and guitarist for the electronic pop band Metro Station, Noah as an actress, Braison as a fashion model, and Brandi as a journalist. Cyrus 's godmother is entertainer Dolly Parton.
Cyrus grew up on a 500 - acre (200 ha) farm in Franklin, and attended Heritage Elementary School. While working on Hannah Montana, she enrolled at Options for Youth Charter Schools and studied with a private tutor on set. Raised a Christian, she was baptized in a Southern Baptist church before moving to Hollywood in 2005. She attended church regularly while growing up and wore a purity ring. In 2001, when Cyrus was eight, she and her family moved to Toronto, Canada while her father filmed the television series Doc. After Billy Ray took her to see a 2001 Mirvish production of Mamma Mia! at the Royal Alexandra Theatre, Cyrus grabbed his arm and told him, "This is what I want to do, daddy. I want to be an actress. '' She began taking singing and acting classes at the Armstrong Acting Studio in Toronto.
In her first role, Cyrus played a girl named Kylie in the television series Doc. In 2003, Cyrus was credited under her birth name for her role as "Young Ruthie '' in Tim Burton 's Big Fish. During this period she auditioned with Taylor Lautner for the feature film The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D, and although she was one of two actresses remaining, she started doing Hannah Montana instead. Tish Cyrus became Miley 's manager, and worked to acquire a team to help her career flourish. Cyrus signed with Mitchell Gossett, director of the youth division at Cunningham Escott Slevin Doherty. Gossett is often credited with "discovering '' Cyrus, and played a key role in her auditioning for Hannah Montana. She later signed with Jason Morey of Morey Management Group to handle her music career, having been directed to him by Dolly Parton. Billy Ray 's finance manager was hired as well.
Cyrus auditioned for the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana when she was eleven years old. She auditioned for the role of the title character 's best friend, but was called to audition for the lead role instead. Despite being denied the part at first because she was too "young and small '' for the role, she was selected later as the lead because of her singing and acting abilities. The series premiered in March 2006 to the largest audience for a Disney Channel program, and quickly ranked among the highest - rated series on basic cable. The instant success of the series led to Cyrus being labeled a "teen idol ''. She toured with The Cheetah Girls as Hannah Montana in September 2006, performing songs from the show 's first season. Walt Disney Records released a soundtrack credited to Cyrus ' character in October of that year. The record was a commercial success, topping the Billboard 200 chart in the United States; it went on to sell over three million copies worldwide. With the release of the soundtrack, Cyrus became the first act within The Walt Disney Company to have deals in television, film, consumer products, and music. She had a two - year relationship with actor Tyler Posey. Cyrus has stated that she dated singer and actor Nick Jonas from June 2006 to December 2007, claiming they were "in love '' and began dating soon after they first met. Her relationship with Jonas, as well as her "spoofing '' fellow Disney alums Selena Gomez and Demi Lovato, attracted considerable media attention.
Cyrus signed a four - album recording contract with Hollywood Records to distribute her non-Hannah Montana soundtrack music. She released the two - disc album Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus in June 2007. The first disc was credited as the second soundtrack by "Hannah Montana '', while the second disc served as Cyrus ' debut studio album. The album became her second to reach the top of the Billboard 200, and has sold over three million copies since its release. Months after the release of the project, "See You Again '' (2007) was released as the lead single from the album. The song was a commercial success, and has sold over two million copies in the United States since its release. She then collaborated with her father on the single "Ready, Set, Do n't Go '' (2007). Cyrus embarked on her highly successful Best of Both Worlds Tour (2007 -- 08) to promote its release. Ticketmaster officials commented that "there (had n't) been a demand of this level or intensity since The Beatles or Elvis ''. The tour 's success led to the theatrical release of the 3D concert film Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert (2008). While initially intended to be a limited release, the film 's success led to a longer run.
Cyrus and friend Mandy Jiroux began posting videos on the popular website YouTube in February 2008, referring to the clips as "The Miley and Mandy Show ''; the videos garnered a large online following. In April 2008, several images of Cyrus in her underwear and swimsuit were leaked by a teenage hacker who accessed her Gmail account. Further controversy arose when it was reported that Cyrus, then fifteen, had posed topless during a photo shoot with Annie Leibovitz for Vanity Fair. The New York Times later clarified that although the pictures left the impression that she was bare - breasted, Cyrus was wrapped in a bed sheet and was not topless.
Cyrus went on to release her second studio album, Breakout (2008), in June of that year. The album boasted the highest first week sales of her career thus far, and became her third to top the Billboard 200. Cyrus later starred with John Travolta in the animated film Bolt (2008), her debut as a theatrical actress. The film was a critical and commercial success earning her a Golden Globe nomination.
In March 2009, Cyrus released "The Climb '' (2009) as a single from the soundtrack to the Hannah Montana feature film. It was met with a warm critical and commercial reaction, becoming a crossover hit in both pop and country music formats. The soundtrack, which features the single, went on to become Cyrus ' fourth entry to top the Billboard 200; this made her, at sixteen, the youngest performer in history to have four number one albums on the chart. She released her fourth soundtrack as "Hannah Montana '' in July 2009, which debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. Cyrus later launched her first fashion line, Miley Cyrus and Max Azria, through Walmart. It was promoted by the release of "Party in the U.S.A. '' (2009) and the EP The Time of Our Lives (2009). Cyrus said the album was "a transitioning album (...) really to introduce people to what I want my next record to sound like and with time I will be able to do that a little more ''. "Party in the U.S.A. '' went on to become one of Cyrus ' most successful singles to date, and is considered one of her signature songs. She next embarked on her first world tour, the Wonder World Tour (2009), which was a critical and commercial success. On December 7, 2009, Cyrus performed for Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the British Royal Family at the Royal Variety Performance in Blackpool, Lancashire.
Billboard ranked her as the fourth, best - selling female artist of 2009.
Hoping to foster a more mature image, Cyrus starred in the film The Last Song (2010), based on the Nicholas Sparks novel. It garnered a generally negative critical reaction, though it was a box office hit. While filming, she began a romantic relationship with her co-star, Liam Hemsworth. Cyrus further attempted to change her image with the release of her third studio album, Ca n't Be Tamed (2010). The album featured a more dance - oriented sound than her prior releases, and caused a considerable amount of controversy because of its lyrical content and Cyrus ' live performances. It sold 106,000 copies in its first week of release, and became her first studio album not to top the Billboard 200 chart in the United States. Due to the controversy surrounding the release, the album 's second, and final single, "Who Owns My Heart '' was released solely in select European territories. Cyrus released her final soundtrack as "Hannah Montana '' that October; it was a commercial failure. Cyrus ' decline in sales for these releases was attributed to her controversial image.
Cyrus was the center of more controversy when a video posted online in December 2010 showed a then eighteen Cyrus smoking salvia with a bong. 2010 ended with her ranked number thirteen on Forbes ' Celebrity 100 list.
She embarked on her worldwide Gypsy Heart Tour (2011) in April, which notably featured no North American dates. Cyrus cited her various controversial moments as the reason behind this, claiming she only wanted to travel where she felt "the most love ''. Following the release of Ca n't Be Tamed, Cyrus officially parted ways with longtime record label Hollywood Records. With Hannah Montana now officially over, Cyrus announced that she planned to take a hiatus from music to focus on her film career. She commented, "I 've not taken, like, acting lessons or anything, but it does n't mean I do n't need to because I 'm sure I do... I 'm probably going to go book an acting coach. '' She later confirmed she would not be going to college for the time being, stating that "(she is) a firm believer that you can go back at any age you want '', and that she "(had) worked hard to get to where (she is) now, and (wanted) to enjoy it while it lasts ''.
Cyrus hosted the March 5, 2011, episode of Saturday Night Live, during which she performed in a number of skits and poked fun at her recent controversies. She later made an appearance on the MTV series Punk 'd, appearing with Kelly Osbourne and Khloé Kardashian. Cyrus starred in the independent film LOL (2012) with Demi Moore. The film had a limited release, and was critically and commercially unsuccessful. She then starred in the comedy film So Undercover, appearing as an FBI agent who is required to go undercover at a college sorority. It was also reported on August 2, 2011, by Contact Music that Cyrus had signed on to star in an untitled comedy in which she plays a woman who breaks a promise to God. It was later announced that Cyrus would star in the film Family Bond, portraying a girl who tracks down her estranged spy father in an attempt to save her kidnapped mother.
Cyrus released a string of live performances known as the Backyard Sessions through YouTube during the spring and summer of 2012; the performances were of classic songs that Cyrus personally liked. Having begun working on a failed fourth album the previous year, Cyrus resumed working on a new musical project in late 2012. She collaborated with producers Rock Mafia on their song "Morning Sun '' (2012), which was made available for free download online. She had previously appeared in the music video for their debut single, "The Big Bang '' (2010). Cyrus later provided guest vocals on "Decisions '' (2012) by Borgore. Both Cyrus and Hemsworth appeared in the music video for the track. She went on to appear as Missi in two episodes of the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men. She was also confirmed as a primary voice actress in the feature film Hotel Transylvania, but dropped out of the project to coordinate her musical comeback. On May 31, it was announced that Cyrus and Hemsworth were engaged following a nearly three - year, on - again, off - again relationship. Cyrus generated considerable media attention after cutting her traditionally long, brown hair in favor of a blonde, pixie cut; she commented that she had "never felt more (herself) in (her) whole life '' and that "it really changed (her) life ''.
In 2013, Cyrus hired Larry Rudolph to be her manager; Rudolph is best known for representing Britney Spears. It was soon confirmed that Cyrus had signed a new recording contract with RCA Records to distribute her future releases. She worked with producers such as Pharrell Williams and Mike Will Made - It on her fourth studio album, resulting in a hip - hop influenced sound. She collaborated with numerous hip - hop artists ' releases and appeared on the Snoop Lion song "Ashtrays and Heartbreaks '' (2013), released as the lead single from his twelfth studio album, Reincarnated, in April 2013. She worked with will.i.am on the song "Fall Down '' (2013), released as a promotional single that same month. The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number fifty - eight, marking her first appearance on the chart since "Ca n't Be Tamed '' (2010). She provided guest vocals on the Lil Twist song "Twerk '', which also featured vocals by Justin Bieber. The song went unreleased for unknown reasons, though it was leaked online. On May 23, 2013, it was confirmed that Cyrus would be featured on the Mike Will Made It single "23 '', with Wiz Khalifa and Juicy J. The single went on to peak at number eleven on the Hot 100, and has sold over one million copies worldwide since its release.
Cyrus released her new single "We Ca n't Stop '' on June 3. Touted as her comeback single, it went on to become a worldwide commercial success, topping the charts in territories such as the United Kingdom. The song 's music video set the VEVO record for most views within twenty - four hours of release, and became the first to reach 100 million views on the site. Cyrus performed with Robin Thicke at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, a performance that resulted in widespread media attention and public scrutiny. Her simulated sex acts with a foam finger were described as "disturbing '', and the whole performance as "cringe - worthy ''. Cyrus released "Wrecking Ball '' (2013) as the second single from Bangerz on the same day as the VMAs. The song became an instant hit, and its accompanying music video showing her swinging naked on a wrecking ball was viewed over nineteen million times within its first day of release. The single became Cyrus ' first single to top the Hot 100 chart in the United States having sold over two million copies.
After months of media speculation, on September 16, 2013, a representative for Cyrus announced that she and Hemsworth had decided to call off their engagement, ending their four - year relationship. On October 2 MTV aired the documentary Miley: The Movement, which chronicled the recording of her fourth studio album Bangerz, which was released on October 4. It was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 270,000 copies. On October 5, Cyrus hosted Saturday Night Live for the second time; she received mostly positive critical reviews which called the episode "good but not great ''. On November fifth, rapper Future 's "Real and True '' was released as a single featuring Cyrus and Mr. Hudson; an accompanying music video premiered five days later on November 10, 2013. In late 2013 she was declared Artist of the Year by MTV. On January 29, 2014, she played an acoustic concert show on MTV Unplugged, performing songs from Bangerz featuring a guest appearance by Madonna. It became the highest rated MTV Unplugged in the past decade with over 1.7 million streams. Cyrus was also featured in the Marc Jacobs spring 2014 ad campaign along with Natalie Westling and Esmerelda Seay Reynolds. She launched her controversial Bangerz Tour (2014) that year, which received a generally positive reception. During the tour, Cyrus suffered an allergic reaction to the antibiotic cephalexin, prescribed to treat a sinus infection, resulting in her hospitalization in Kansas City. Though some dates had to be rescheduled, the tour resumed days later.
While collaborating with The Flaming Lips on their remake of the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Cyrus began working with Wayne Coyne on her fifth studio album. She claimed that she was taking her time to focus on the music, and that the album would not be released until she felt it was ready. Coyne compared his collaborative material with Cyrus to the catalogs of Pink Floyd and Portishead, and described their sound as being "a slightly wiser, sadder, more true version '' of Cyrus ' pop music output. During most of the time she was recording of the album, she was in a romantic relationship with actor Patrick Schwarzenegger. Cyrus also worked on the films The Night Before (2015) and A Very Murray Christmas (2015) during this period; both roles were cameos. Reports began to surface in 2015 that Cyrus was working on two albums simultaneously, one of which she hoped to release at no charge. This was confirmed by her manager who claimed she was willing to end her contract with RCA Records if they refused to let her release a free album. Cyrus was the host of the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, and gave a surprise performance of a new song "Dooo It! '' (2015) during the show 's finale. Immediately following the performance, Cyrus announced that her fifth studio album, Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz (2015), was available for free streaming on SoundCloud. The album was written and produced primarily by Cyrus, and has been called experimental and psychedelic, with elements of psychedelic pop, psychedelic rock, and alternative pop.
In 2016, following the release of her fifth studio album the previous year, Cyrus resumed working on her upcoming sixth studio album. She was a key advisor during the tenth season of the reality singing competition The Voice. After months of speculation, it was confirmed in March 2016 that Cyrus had rekindled her relationship with Liam Hemsworth. That same month, it was announced that Cyrus had signed on as a coach for the eleventh season of The Voice as a replacement for Gwen Stefani; Cyrus is the youngest judge to appear in any incarnation of the series. In September 2016, Cyrus co-starred in Crisis in Six Scenes, a television series Woody Allen created for Amazon Studios. She plays the part of a radical activist who causes chaos in a conservative 1960s household while hiding from the police. On September 17, 2016, she appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where she sang Bob Dylan 's "Baby, I 'm In the Mood for You '', a rendition that Fallon called "fantastic ''. In October 2016, Cyrus confirmed that she is engaged to Liam Hemsworth.
On May 11, 2017, Cyrus released "Malibu '' as the lead single from her sixth album. The single debuted at No. 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at No. 10 on the chart on its second week. On June 9, Cyrus released "Inspired '' after performing the song at the One Love Manchester benefit concert. It serves as a promotional single from her upcoming album. On August 8, Cyrus announced that her sixth studio album will be titled Younger Now and will be released on September 29, 2017. On August 27, Cyrus performed the track at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. On September 15, she performed "Malibu '', "Younger Now '', "See You Again '', "Party in the U.S.A. '' and a cover of Roberta Flack 's "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '' for the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge.
Cyrus is scheduled to return as a coach in the thirteenth season of The Voice after taking a one - season hiatus.
Cyrus cites Elvis Presley as her biggest inspiration. She has also cited artists such as Madonna, Dolly Parton, Timbaland, Joan Jett, Lil Kim, Shania Twain, Hanson, OneRepublic and Britney Spears as influences. Since the start of her musical career, Cyrus has been described as being predominantly a pop artist. Her Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus debut studio effort was characterized as sounding similar to her releases as "Hannah Montana '' featuring a pop - rock and bubblegum pop sound. Cyrus hoped that the release of Breakout (2008) would help distance her from this sound; the project features Cyrus experimenting with various genres. Cyrus co-wrote eight songs for the album, and was quoted as saying: "I just hope this record showcases that, more than anything, I 'm a writer. '' The songs on her early releases feature lyrics on the topics of love and relationships.
Cyrus is an alto, with a "Nashville twang '' in both her speech and singing voice. On "Party in the U.S.A. '' (2009), her vocals feature belter refrains, while those on the song "Obsessed '' (2009) are described as "husky ''. Releases such as "The Climb '' (2009) and "These Four Walls '' (2008) feature elements of country music and showcase Cyrus 's "twangy vocals ''. Cyrus experiments with an electropop sound on "Fly on the Wall '' (2008), a genre that she would explore further with the release of Ca n't Be Tamed (2010), her third studio album. It was initially intended to feature rock music elements prior to its completion, and Cyrus claimed after its release that it could be her final pop album. The album 's songs speak of Cyrus ' desire to achieve freedom in both her personal life and her career. She began working on Bangerz (2013) during a musical hiatus, and described the project as having a "dirty south feel '' prior to its release. Critics noted the use of hip hop music and synthpop in the album. The album 's songs are placed in chronological order telling the story of her failed relationship with Liam Hemsworth. Cyrus described Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz (2015) as "a little psychedelic, but still in that pop world ''.
Cyrus has become known for her controversial performances, most notably during her Bangerz Tour (2014) and Milky Milky Milk Tour (2015). Her performance of "Party In the U.S.A. '' at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards sparked a "national uproar '' because of her outfit and her perceived pole dancing. She faced similar controversy following a performance of "Ca n't Be Tamed '' (2010) on Britain 's Got Talent, where she pretended to kiss one of her female dancers on stage. Cyrus defended the performance, feeling she did nothing wrong. Cyrus was the subject of public and media scrutiny following her performance of "We Ca n't Stop '' (2013) and "Blurred Lines '' (2013) with Robin Thicke at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards. Clad in a skin colored latex two - piece, Cyrus touched Thicke 's crotch area with a giant foam finger and twerked against his crotch. Shortly thereafter, the word "twerk '' was added to the online version of the Oxford Dictionary of English. The performance resulted in a media frenzy; one reviewer likened the performance to a "bad acid trip '', while another described it as a "trainwreck in the classic sense of the word as the audience reaction seemed to be a mix of confusion, dismay and horror in a cocktail of embarrassment ''. Cyrus entered the stage of her Bangerz Tour (2014) by sliding down a slide in the shape of a tongue, gaining media attention during the tour for her costumes and racy performances.
Throughout her career, Cyrus has sung on several charity singles such as: "Just Stand Up! '', "Send It On '', "Everybody Hurts '' and "We Are the World 25 for Haiti ''. She has visited a number of sick fans in hospitals throughout the years. She is an avid supporter of the City of Hope National Medical Center in California, having attended benefit concerts in 2008, 2009 and 2012. In 2008 and 2009, during her Best of Both Worlds and Wonder World Tours, for every concert ticket sold, she donated one dollar to the organization. Cyrus celebrated her sixteenth birthday at Disneyland by delivering a $1 million donation from Disney to Youth Service America. In July 2009, Cyrus performed at the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation 's 20th annual A Time for Heroes celebrity picnic and donated several items including autographed merchandise, and a script from Hannah Montana for the Ronald McDonald House Auction. Cyrus supports charities such as: the Elton John AIDS Foundation, Entertainment Industry Foundation, Habitat for Humanity, United Service Organizations, Youth Service America and Music for Relief. In February 2010, she donated several items, including the dress she wore to the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, and two tickets to the Hollywood premiere of her movie The Last Song, to raise money for the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
In January 2011, Cyrus met an ailing fan with spina bifida with the charity Kids Wish Network. In April 2011, she appeared in a commercial for the American Red Cross asking people to pledge $10 to help those affected by the 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami. In the same year Hilary Duff presented Cyrus with the first ever Global Action Youth Leadership Award at the first Annual Global Action Awards Gala for her support of Blessings in a Backpack, an organization that works to feed hungry children in schools, and her personal Get Ur Good On campaign with the Youth Services of America. Cyrus stated: "I want (kids) to do something they love. Not something that seems like a chore because someone tells them that 's the right thing to do or what their parents want or what 's important to people around them, but what 's in their heart. '' In December 2011, she appeared in a commercial for the charity J / P Haitian Relief Organization, and teamed up with her elder brother Trace Cyrus to design a limited edition T - shirt and hoodie for charity. All proceeds from the sale of these items went to her charity, Get Ur Good On, which supports education for under - privileged children. In the same month, she performed her song "The Climb '' at the CNN Heroes: An All - Star Tribute at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles.
In 2012, Cyrus released a cover version of Bob Dylan 's "You 're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go '' featuring Johnzo West for the charity Amnesty International as a part of the album Chimes of Freedom. She also appeared in a commercial for the Rock the Vote campaign which encouraged young people to make their voices heard by voting in the 2012 federal election. For her twentieth birthday, activists at People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) adopted a pig called Nora in her name. Cyrus also supports thirty - nine well - known charities including: Make - a-Wish Foundation, Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, St. Jude 's Children 's Research Hospital, To Write Love on Her Arms, NOH8 Campaign, Love Is Louder Than the Pressure to Be Perfect and The Jed Foundation among others. In 2013, Cyrus was named the fourteenth most charitable celebrity of the year by Do Something. She also appeared with Justin Bieber and Pitbull in a television special entitled The Real Change Project: Artists for Education. On July 26, 2014, it was announced that Cyrus would appear alongside Justin Timberlake at an HIV / AIDS charity event in the White House.
At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards, Jimmy Fallon announced that Cyrus was the winner of the Video of the Year award for her song "Wrecking Ball ''. Instead of accepting the award herself, she had a twenty - two - year - old homeless man by the name of Jesse collect it for her. She had met him at My Friend 's Place, an organization that helps homeless youth find shelter, work, health care and education. His acceptance speech encouraged musicians to learn more about homeless youth in Los Angeles and what they can do to help at Cyrus 's Facebook page. Cyrus then launched a Prizeo campaign to raise funds for the charity. Those who made donations were automatically entered into a sweepstake for a chance to meet Cyrus on her Bangerz Tour in Rio de Janeiro that September.
In the early years of her career, Cyrus had a generally wholesome image as a teen idol. Her fame increased dramatically following the Vanity Fair photo scandal, and it was reported that photos of Cyrus could be shopped for $2,000 apiece. In the following years, Cyrus ' image continued to shift dramatically, differing from her previous teen idol status. Donny Osmond wrote of Cyrus ' transition into adulthood: "Miley will have to face adulthood... As she does, she 'll want to change her image, and that change will be met with adversity. '' The release of Ca n't Be Tamed (2010) saw Cyrus officially attempting to distance herself from her teenage years, releasing controversial music videos for her songs "Ca n't Be Tamed '' (2010) and "Who Owns My Heart '' (2010). Her behavior generated a considerable amount of controversy throughout 2013 and 2014, though godmother Dolly Parton stated "... the girl can write. The girl can sing. The girl is smart. And she does n't have to be so drastic. But I will respect her choices. I did it my way, so why ca n't she do it her way? '' Cyrus was placed at number seventeen on Forbes ' list of the most powerful celebrities in 2014, with the magazine noting that "The last time she made our list was when she was still rolling in Hannah Montana money. Now the pop singer is all grown up and courting controversy at every turn. '' In August 2014, it was reported that Bluewater Productions has documented her life in a comic book called Fame: Miley Cyrus, starting with her controversial 2013 MTV Video Music Awards performance to her Disney fame, and exploring her childhood in Tennessee. The comic book was written by Michael L. Frizell and drawn by Juan Luis Rincón, and is available in both print and digital formats.
In September 2010, Cyrus was ranked number ten on Billboard magazine 's first ever list of Music 's Hottest Minors of 2010, and was ranked number twenty - one on the 2011, and number eighteen on the 2012 version of the list. In May 2013, Maxim ranked Cyrus first on their Hot 100 of the year. Cyrus was chosen by Time as one of their finalists for Person of the Year in November 2013. She came in third place with 16.3 % of the vote. In March 2014, Skidmore College, New York started offering a special topics sociology course entitled "The Sociology of Miley Cyrus: Race, Class, Gender and Media '' which was "using Miley as a lens through which to explore sociological thinking about identity, entertainment, media and fame ''. In 2015, Cyrus was listed as one of the nine runners - up for The Advocate 's Person of the Year.
Cyrus was raised as a Christian and identified herself as such during her childhood and early adult life. Some recent quotes such as "You are all stardust. You could n't be here if stars had n't exploded... So forget Jesus. Stars died so you can live '', and social media content have led to questions surrounding her religious beliefs. Cyrus includes references to Tibetan Buddhism in the lyrics of "Milky Milky Milk '' (2015). Cyrus came out as pansexual to her mother when she was 14, and has said: "I never want to label myself! I am ready to love anyone that loves me for who I am! I am open. '' In June 2015, Time reported that she also identifies as gender fluid. She was quoted as stating she "(does n't) relate to being boy or girl, and I do n't have to have my partner relate to boy or girl. '' Cyrus is a supporter of the LGBT community, and is often vocal about her beliefs on the topic. Her song "My Heart Beats For Love '' (2010) was written for one of Cyrus ' gay friends, while she has since claimed that London is her favorite place to perform due to its extensive gay scene. Cyrus also has an equals sign tattooed on her ring finger in support of same - sex marriage. She is the founder of the Happy Hippie Foundation, which works to "fight injustice facing homeless youth, LGBTQ youth and other vulnerable populations ''. Cyrus is open about her recreational use of cannabis. She told Rolling Stone in 2013 that it was "the best drug on earth '' and called it, along with MDMA, a "happy drug ''. While accepting the Best Video award at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards, Cyrus smoked what appeared to be a joint on stage; this was removed from the delayed broadcast of the program in the United States. In a 2014 interview with W, Cyrus stated "I love weed '' and "I just love getting stoned. ''
Miley Cyrus 's net worth is estimated at $200 million in 2017. She earned $201 million from sold - out concerts and $76 million from endorsements. Her lifetime (2001 - 2017) earnings are estimated to be in excess of $360 million.
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in classical conditioning the term neutral stimulus is used to indicate that a stimulus | Neutral stimulus - wikipedia
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. With repeated presentations of both the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit a response as well, known as a conditioned response. Once the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response, the neutral stimulus becomes known as a conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response is the same as the unconditioned response, but occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus rather than the unconditioned stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov conducted multiple experiments investigating digestion in dogs in which neutral, unconditioned, and conditioned stimuli were used. In these experiments, the neutral stimulus was the sound of a bell ringing. This sound was presented to the dogs along with food, which acted as an unconditioned stimulus. The presentation of a neutral stimulus does not result in any particular response, but the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus results in an unconditioned response, which was the dogs salivating in Pavlov 's experiments. After conditioning, the bell ringing became a conditioned stimulus. Pavlov later used the sound of a metronome as a neutral stimulus in studies on cerebral cortex activity.
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what is a daniel fast in the bible | Daniel Fast - wikipedia
The Daniel Fast is a spiritually motivated diet based on the Biblical Book of Daniel, and commonly refers to a 10 - or 21 - day abstinence from foods declared unclean by God in the Laws of Moses. The passage in Chapter 10: 2 - 3 may refer to a classical three week fast during a period of mourning; therefore, the modern Daniel Fast is most often followed for 21 days.
According to those who encourage this form of fasting, the aim is to refrain from eating what are described in Daniel as "royal foods '' including meats, leavened and sweet bread, and wine. Instead, the diet consists only of "pulses '' and water. "Pulses '' in this context is often taken as "food grown from seed '', including fruit, vegetables or lentils. "Vegetables '' is used instead of "pulses '' in some translations. However, it is not explicitly stated that the refraining from these foods by Daniel was a fast.
The Biblical narrative is set in Babylon, where Daniel, three friends, and fellow captives have been brought for education and military training. King Nebuchadnezzar II honors them by offering luxurious royal food, hoping to encourage their development. Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king 's delicacies, which used meat ritually sacrificed to Babylonian gods. Daniel refuses to eat foods forbidden by God, and instead asks for pulses and water. The guard charged with their care expresses concern for their health, so Daniel requests a short test of the diet. For 10 days, they are permitted to eat just vegetables, and at the end, the guard is surprised at their good personal appearance and physical and mental health, compared to those who had indulged in the royal foods. Therefore, Daniel and his friends are permitted to eat whole plant foods for the duration of their training.
After continuing with the diet during three years of training, they are judged by the king to be mentally superior. "And in all matters of wisdom and understanding, that the king enquired of them, he found them ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers that were in all his realm. '' Although, the issue of fast is debatable. Daniel remained a vegetarian in Persia and Babylon as the meat were not slaughtered according to Mosaic Law and that royal officials were not familiar with Jewish dietary law.
In modern versions of the Daniel Fast, food choices may be limited to whole grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, seeds and oil. The Daniel Fast prescribes the vegan diet in that it excludes the consumption of animal products. The diet also excludes processed foods, additives, preservatives, flavorings, sweeteners, caffeine, alcohol, and products made with white flours. Ellen G. White states that the example of Daniel demonstrates that "a strict compliance with the requirements of God is beneficial to the health of body and mind. ''
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who plays the dad in call me by your name | Call Me by Your Name (film) - wikipedia
Call Me by Your Name is a 2017 coming - of - age romantic drama film directed by Luca Guadagnino and written by James Ivory. It is based on the 2007 novel of the same name by André Aciman, and is the final installment in Guadagnino 's thematic "Desire '' trilogy, after I Am Love (2009) and A Bigger Splash (2015). Set in northern Italy in 1983, Call Me by Your Name chronicles a romantic relationship between 17 - year - old Elio Perlman (Timothée Chalamet) and his professor father 's 24 - year - old graduate - student assistant Oliver (Armie Hammer). The film also stars Michael Stuhlbarg, Amira Casar, Esther Garrel, and Victoire Du Bois.
The film began development in 2007 when producers Peter Spears and Howard Rosenman optioned the screen rights to Aciman 's novel. James Ivory was initially set to co-direct the film but became the screenwriter and co-producer. Guadagnino joined the project as a location consultant and eventually became director and co-producer. The film was financed by several international companies, and principal photography mainly took place in Crema, Italy, in May and June 2016. The filmmakers spent weeks before production decorating the Villa Albergoni, one of the main filming locations. Cinematographer Sayombhu Mukdeeprom shot the film on 35 - mm film.
Call Me by Your Name was chosen for distribution by Sony Pictures Classics before its world premiere at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 2017. It began a limited release in the United States on November 24, 2017, and went to general release on January 19, 2018. The film received numerous accolades and praise for its performances, screenplay, direction, and music. At the 90th Academy Awards it received four nominations, including Best Picture, and won for Best Adapted Screenplay. Ivory also won awards for his screenplay at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards, the 70th Writers Guild of America Awards, and the 71st British Academy Film Awards.
17 - year - old Elio lives with his parents in rural Northern Italy. His father, a professor of archaeology, invites a 24 - year - old graduate student, Oliver, to live with him and his family over the summer and help with his academic paperwork. Elio, an introspective bibliophile and musical prodigy, initially finds little in common with Oliver, who has a contrastingly carefree and exuberant personality. Elio resents having to give up his bedroom for Oliver for the duration of his stay. He spends much of the summer reading, playing piano, and hanging out with his girlfriend, Marzia. Oliver is meanwhile attracted to one of the local girls, much to Elio 's annoyance.
Elio and Oliver begin a seductive courtship: they swim together, go for long walks into town, and accompany Elio 's father on an archaeological trip. Elio begins a sexual relationship with Marzia and brags about it in front of Oliver to gauge his reaction, but nonetheless finds himself increasingly attracted to Oliver. He sneaks into Oliver 's room to smell his bathing suit, and thinks about him while masturbating. During a trip to the post office, Elio confesses his feelings to Oliver, who tells him he should not act on them. Later that day, Elio and Oliver kiss, but Oliver is reluctant to go any further. The two grow distant.
In response to a note from Elio, Oliver leaves a note on Elio 's desk telling Elio to meet him at midnight. Elio spends the day with Marzia but longs to see Oliver. At midnight, he approaches Oliver and they have sex. They become more physically and emotionally intimate over the next few days, having sex frequently while keeping their relationship secret. Smitten with Oliver by this point, Elio starts avoiding Marzia.
As the end of Oliver 's stay approaches, the couple find themselves overcome by uncertainty and longing. Elio 's parents, who are aware of the bond between the two, recommend they visit Bergamo together before Oliver returns to the United States. After spending three romantic days together, Elio, heartbroken, calls his mother and asks her to pick him up and take him home. Marzia, who still wants to be friends with Elio, is sympathetic; his father, seeing Elio 's sadness, tells him he was aware of their relationship, confesses to almost having had a similar relationship in his own youth, and urges Elio to learn and grow from his grief, instead of quickly moving on.
During Hanukkah, Oliver telephones Elio and his family to tell them he is engaged to be married. Oliver tells Elio he "remembers everything '' very clearly. After the call, Elio sits by the fireplace, distraught, as his parents and the house staff prepare a holiday dinner.
Credits are adapted from Fandango.
After seeing an early proof of André Aciman 's debut novel Call Me by Your Name in 2007, American producers Peter Spears and Howard Rosenman bought the screen rights to it before it was published. They invited their friend James Ivory to work as an executive producer on the film adaptation. Spears and Rosenman read the book independently and began to produce the film in 2008. The project was soon in "development hell '': the producers met with three sets of directors and writers (among them Gabriele Muccino, Ferzan Özpetek, and Sam Taylor - Johnson), but could not find anyone who would commit to the project. Scheduling around the need to film in Italy during the summer also proved difficult.
The producers contacted Luca Guadagnino, their first choice to direct, but he declined, citing a busy schedule. Living in northern Italy, he was first hired as a location consultant instead, to help "put the movie together from the Italian side ''. Guadagnino later suggested that he co-direct the film with Ivory but no contractual agreement was yet in place. Ivory accepted the offer, and spent between six and nine months in 2014 working on the screenplay. Guadagnino, who has described the novel as "a Proustian book about remembering the past and indulging in the melancholy of lost things '', wrote the adaptation with Ivory while also collaborating with Walter Fasano to refine it. Screenwriting was done at Ivory 's house, Guadagnino 's kitchen table in Crema, and sometimes in New York City. Ivory hardly met Guadagnino during the process; Guadagnino was making A Bigger Splash (2015).
The screenplay was completed in late 2015. Aciman approved it and commended the adaptation as "direct... real and persuasive ''. He added, "as the writer I found myself saying, ' Wow, they 've done better than the book ' ''. The completed screenplay was vital in securing funding for the film 's production. Among the financiers were the production companies La Cinéfacture (France); Frenesy Film Company (Italy, owned by Guadagnino); M.Y.R.A. Entertainment (United States); RT Features (Brazil), and Water 's End Productions (United States). The project was also supported by the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism. During negotiations, the production 's budget was reduced from $12 million to $3.5 million.
In 2016, Ivory stepped down from directing to avoid conflicts, leaving Guadagnino to direct the film alone. According to Ivory, financiers from Memento Films International did not want two directors to be involved with the project because they "thought it would be awkward... It might take longer, it would look terrible if we got in fights on the set, and so on ''. Guadagnino said Ivory 's version would have likely been "a much more costly (and) different film '' that could not have been made because of "market realities ''. Ivory became the sole - credited screenwriter; he later sold the rights to the screenplay to Guadagnino 's company. Call Me by Your Name was Ivory 's first produced screenplay since Le Divorce (2003) and the only narrative feature he has written and not directed. Ivory was "very much involved '' with other aspects of the production. Guadagnino dedicated the film to his friend Bill Paxton, who died in February 2017.
Call Me by Your Name is the final installment in Guadagnino 's thematic Desire trilogy, following I Am Love (2009) and A Bigger Splash (2015). The film is a departure from his previous work because he took a simple, "non-aggressive '' approach; he said this is the calmest movie he has made. Despite being a literary adaptation, many scenes are wordless. "Words are part of what 's going on, but it 's not necessarily what 's going on underneath. I think this film celebrates the underneath '', he said. Guadagnino considers the film a "homage to the fathers of my life: my own father, and my cinematic ones '', referring to filmmakers Jean Renoir, Jacques Rivette, Éric Rohmer, and Bernardo Bertolucci, who inspired him.
Guadagnino has described Call Me by Your Name as a family - oriented film for the purpose of "transmission of knowledge and hope that people of different generations come to see the film together ''. He never saw it as a "gay '' movie but rather calls it a film about the "beauty of the newborn idea of desire, unbiased and uncynical '', and reflecting his motto of living "with a sense of joie de vivre '' in which "we should always be very earnest with one 's feelings, instead of hiding them or shielding ourselves ''. The director tried to avoid the flaws he had seen in most coming - of - age films, in which growth is often portrayed as being a result of resolving preconceived dilemmas such as an enforced choice between two lovers. He also wanted the story to follow two people in the moment, rather than focus on an antagonist or a tragedy, an approach inspired by À nos amours (1983), directed by Maurice Pialat. As someone who considers sex in film a representation of the characters ' behavior and identity, Guadagnino was not interested in including explicit sex scenes in the film, to keep the tone as planned, saying, "I wanted the audience to completely rely on the emotional travel of these people and feel first love... It was important to me to create this powerful universality, because the whole idea of the movie is that the other person makes you beautiful -- enlightens you, elevates you ''.
The film differs from its source material in a number of ways. While the novel serves as a memory - piece from Elio 's perspective, the filmmakers set the movie entirely in the present timeline, a "much more efficient '' solution, to help the audience understand the characters and "reflect the essence of the book ''. The setting was changed from Bordighera to the countryside of Crema, Lombardy, where Guadagnino lives. He changed the year of the events from 1987 to 1983 -- a year in which he said, "in Italy at least, when everything that was great about the ' 70s is definitely shut down '', and one in which the characters "are in a way untouched by the corruption of the ' 80s -- in the U.S., (Ronald) Reagan, and in the UK, (Margaret) Thatcher ''. Ivory altered Mr. Perlman 's profession from a classics scholar to "an art historian / archeologist type ''.
Guadagnino was tempted to remove the scene from the novel in which Elio masturbates into a pitted peach, which he thought was a metaphor for "sexual impulses and energy '', and that it was too explicit. Timothée Chalamet was also nervous about the scene, describing it as "a metamorphosis of some of the strongest ideas in the movie '' and the key to illuminating the character 's "overabundant sexual energy ''. Despite their reservations, Guadagnino and Chalamet each tested the method by themselves and both agreed it worked so it was included in the film. A scene featuring Elio and Oliver dancing enthusiastically to The Psychedelic Furs ' song "Love My Way '' in a small bar is not drawn from the book but was inspired by Jonathan Demme 's Something Wild (1986) and Guadagnino 's experience of dancing by himself when he was young.
When he was revising Ivory 's draft of the script, Guadagnino removed the voice - over narration and a considerable amount of nudity. According to Ivory, Guadagnino was "talking about how he would do '' the scenes with nudity involved, but later dropped it. The director did not like the idea of having the main character tell the story retrospectively, stating that "it kills the surprise ''. Towards the end of the novel, the two protagonists visit Rome together; the trip lasts an entire chapter and introduces new characters in multiple locations. Because of the film 's limited budget, Ivory and the producers wrote several variations, introducing the idea of having the lead characters left alone in the house; this was changed into another trip in which they spend time alone together. In his original script 's, Ivory depicted Elio 's parents discussing about AIDS in two scenes where they "did n't do anything terribly important '', and Elio decorating a Christmas tree in his family 's home in the final scene. Ivory had to reduce the length of Mr. Perlman 's speech but was committed to keeping it in the script. He described the scene in which Elio conveys his feelings to Oliver as one of the story 's most important moments that captures the "euphoric passion and nervousness '' of their first love.
In 2015, Shia LaBeouf and Greta Scacchi were reportedly set to be cast in the film. In September 2016, Ivory confirmed they were no longer involved in the project. LaBeouf had read for the film in New York City but the production company later felt he was unsuitable because of his "various troubles ''; although Ivory thought Scacchi and LeBeouf "had good scenes together '' and could have made it into the film, the company disagreed.
After seeing Armie Hammer 's performance in The Social Network (2010), Guadagnino "fell in love '' with him and cultivated his passion for Hammer and the movies he made afterwards. The director found him to be a "sophisticated actor, with a great range '' and considered him for the role of Oliver. Hammer met with Guadagnino seven years before the film went into production, when the director was promoting I Am Love. Hammer almost turned down the role after reading the draft script because it contained nudity. He said, "I did want to pass; it scared me '' and "There 's a lot of stuff here that I 've never done on film before. But there 's no way I ca n't do this (film), mostly because it scares me so much. '' According to Guadagnino, Hammer was going to pass on the role through his agent, but then changed his mind at the end of their conversation. This is the third film in which Hammer has played a queer character, following J. Edgar (2011) and Final Portrait (2017).
Chalamet has acted since he was a child and co-starred in Showtime 's Homeland (2012). The following year, Swardstrom -- Spears ' husband and agent -- introduced the 17 - year - old Chalamet to Guadagnino, who immediately felt the actor had "the ambition, the intelligence, the sensitivity, the naivety, and the artistry '' to play Elio. Chalamet read Aciman 's novel by the time he was 17 and described it as "a window into a young person ''. Chalamet, who can speak fluent French and had played piano for years, arrived in Italy five weeks early to learn Italian, piano, and guitar. Michael Stuhlbarg plays Mr. Perlman, Elio 's father. Stuhlbarg did not start reading the book until he had already joined the production. He was moved by the "many beautiful sentiments expressed '' in the script, including Mr. Perlman 's "sense of generosity and love and understanding ''.
The director chose Amira Casar, who he had known for twenty years, for the role of Annella. He admired her "sense of the transgression '' and said that she represents "the most audacious test of European art cinema ''. Esther Garrel was contacted by Guadagnino when he was in Paris for the promotion of A Bigger Splash. Garrel was casted as Marzia without any test, and chose not to read the book before shooting. Towards the end of the film, Marzia asks Elio, "Friend for life? '' -- a line taken from J'entends plus la guitare (1991), directed by the actress 's father, Philippe Garrel. "I like the idea of talking virtually with Philippe Garrel through her, '' Guadagnino said. Victoire Du Bois appears in the supporting role of Chiara. Casting director Stella Savino met Vanda Capriolo when she was bicycling in the countryside. Capriolo, who is not an actor, was later cast for the role of the maid, Mafalda. Aciman and Spears also appear briefly in cameo roles as Mounir and Isaac, a gay couple who attend a dinner party. Aciman was asked to be in the movie after actors became unavailable. "It was a last - minute decision '', Spears recalled, "Andrė turns out to be a phenomenal actor! So comfortable, not nervous at all. His wife was sitting there and said, ' I had no idea! ' ''
Hammer and Chalamet both signed contracts that prohibited full - frontal nudity. Ivory, whose original screenplay had contained nudity, was dismayed by the decision, criticizing what he saw as an "American '' attitude and saying, "Nobody seems to care that much or be shocked about a totally naked woman. It 's the men ''. He later commented that the lack of nudity, due to the director 's "aesthetic decision '', feels "phoney ''. Guadagnino, who remained involved in the casting, chose actors based on their performances and chemistry rather than choosing to "investigate or label '' their sexuality. He said, "The idea that you have to cast only someone who has a certain set of skills, and worse, a certain gender identity in any role: that 's oppressive to me ''.
The main location set for the Perlmans ' residence was Villa Albergoni, an uninhabited 17th - century mansion in Moscazzano. Guadagnino wanted to buy the house but could not afford it, so he made a film there instead. A landscape designer was hired to construct an orchard in the mansion 's garden. A pergola was built on the patio, and apricot and peach trees were placed in the garden.
Six weeks before production, the crew -- including production designer Samuel Dehors and first - time set decorator Violante Visconti di Modrone -- gradually decorated the house with furniture, objects, and decoration inspired by the characters. Much of the furniture, including the dishes and glassware from the 1950s, belonged to Guadagnino and di Modrone 's parents. Di Modrone said, "That made it cozy and personal... I wanted to give it the sense of time passing by ''. Most of the Asia - inspired paintings, maps, and mirrors came from an antiques store in Milan. Books seen in background were published before 1982. The swimming pool used in the film was recreated from a watering trough common in the area.
The filmmakers set up faded political billboards in public places to reflect the Italian general election in 1983, and re-created a newsstand full of magazines of that time. Guadagnino did not want the film to "look like a reflection on the 80s... when it becomes period. '' His team researched extensively with help from the residents of Crema; they entered people 's houses and collected their pictures of the 1980s. Chen Li served as graphic designer; she wrote the titles of the opening credits, in which the director used photocopied images of statues and placed them with Mr. Perlman 's personal items.
Costume designer Giulia Piersanti avoided using period costumes; he wanted to provide "a sense of insouciant adolescent sensuality, summer heat and sexual awakening '' to the characters. Several costume pieces were made for the film from scratch. The costumes were influenced by the French films Pauline at the Beach (1983), A Tale of Springtime (1990), and A Summer 's Tale (1996). Piersanti took inspiration for the Perlmans ' wardrobe from her parents ' photograph albums. For Oliver 's "sexy, healthy American '' image, Piersanti referred to "some of Bruce Weber 's earliest photographs ''. His clothes change throughout the film as "he 's more able to free himself ''. Aiming to emphasize Elio 's confident style, she chose several Lacoste costumes and a distinctive, New Romantic - looking shirt in the final scene. Elio 's polo shirt and Fido Dido T - shirt came from her husband 's closet.
Principal photography on Call Me by Your Name lasted around 33 days. It began on May 9, 2016, and was completed in June 2016. The process occurred quietly, with reports only appearing after filming had been underway for two weeks. Luca Guadagnino 's first cut of the film was four hours long. Post-production with regular editor Walter Fasano in June and July took only a month; the fastest Guadagnino had edited.
The film was shot primarily in Crema and the province of Cremona. It was filmed during an unexpected, heavy rainstorm in Italy that was described by weather reports as a "once - in - century rain ''. The pre-production in Crema was fast; a search for extras began there in March and April. Scenes set in the nearby villages Pandino and Moscazzano were filmed from May 17, before moving to Crema on June 1. Additional outdoor scenes were shot on December 4, 2016. Several historical locations in the streets of Crema and Pandino, including the arch of Torrazzo at Crema Cathedral, were chosen during production. Businesses received compensation for financial losses caused by the closure, which was scheduled for May 30 and 31. Two days ' filming at the cathedral were postponed due to poor weather. Production in Crema cost € 18,000, and a promotion campaign cost € 7,500.
Filming also took place in the Lodigiano area near Crespiatica and two small towns Montodine and Ripalta near Crema. The archaeological discovery scene was filmed at the Grottoes of Catullus in Sirmione on the Brescian shores of Lake Garda. The trip to Bergamo was filmed in multiple historical buildings, including Bergamo Cathedral, the Santa Maria Maggiore, and the University of Sciences, Letters and Arts. Because of security concerns, the production team was only granted permission to film at the Cascate del Serio in Valbondione for half an hour.
Before and during filming, the actors lived in Crema and were able to experience small - town life. Guadagnino engaged with the cast and filmmakers, and often cooked and showed films in his house for them. Hammer and Chalamet, who did not have to do a screen test together, met for the first time during production in Crema. Before filming began, they spent a month together, watching Mike Tyson documentaries and going to local restaurants to build character development. "We 'd hang out with each other all the time, because we were pretty much the only Americans there, and we were able to defend one another and really get to know one another '', Chalamet said. In the first two days of production, Guadagnino read the script with the cast. Hammer and Chalamet went to the kissing scene during the first rehearsal. The actors rehearsed their scenes every night before filming and spent several days filming nude. "I 've never been so intimately involved with a director before. Luca was able to look at me and completely undress me '', Hammer said.
Guadagnino shot the film in chronological order, which allowed the filmmakers to "witness the onscreen maturity of both protagonist and actor ''. The scene in which Mr. Perlman delivers an educational speech to Elio was filmed on the penultimate day of filming. Stuhlbarg spent months preparing for the scene, which Guadagnino wanted to make "as simple as possible '' by taking fewer setups and "let the actors be ''. According to Fasano, the scene took three takes to film and Stuhlbarg was "on three different levels of getting emotional ''. During the dancing sequence, Hammer had to perform to the click track in front of 50 off - camera extras; the music was turned down so the dialogue could be recorded. In preparation for the scene, a dance coach was arranged by Guadagnino. Hammer recalled it as "the worst scene I 've ever filmed in my life ''. Choreographer Paolo Rocchi, who was contacted by the Frenesy Film Company in June 2016, described the routine as "awkward and realistic ''. Rosenman described the scene as one of the most emotional moments, he said "It embodied and encapsulated, for me, what teenage love is all about, what desire is all about. '' The filmmakers laid a long camera dolly track and filmed the scene in which Elio tells Oliver of his feelings for him in one take to provide the flexibility and the "flow of emotion '' a cut scene could not. Chalamet was listening to "Visions of Gideon '', one of the original songs written for the film, in an earpiece while filming the final sequence, in which the director asked him to perform for three variations -- one per take. The camera was set in the fireplace with nobody behind it. "It was bit of an acting experiment, '' Chalamet said.
Sayombhu Mukdeeprom, who had previously collaborated with Guadagnino on Ferdinando Cito Filomarino 's Antonia (2015), served as the director of photography. He read Aciman 's novel before receiving the script and walked around filming locations to "get a feeling for everything... to see the color, to see how the light changed during the day, and input it into my data ''. He had to use artificial lighting to capture the Northern Italian summer atmosphere for Call Me by Your Name because of heavy rains that lasted the entirety of the shoot. He also empathized with the actors during the scene; Mukdeeprom cried in a corner of the room when they finished the first take of the confrontation between Oliver and Elio. The entire film was made using 35 mm celluloid film and a single lens -- a decision influenced by the work of David Cronenberg to "solidif (y) the point of view '' and make "the tension of the performance come off the screen '' -- even if it meant increasing a production 's budget.
Guadagnino usually selects the music for his films himself. For Call Me by Your Name, he wanted to find an "emotional narrator to the film '' through music, a "less heavy, less present, and more enveloping '' way than voice and text. He was inspired by the films Barry Lyndon (1975), The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), and The Age of Innocence (1993). Guadagnino wanted the film 's music to be connected to Elio, a young pianist who likes to transcribe and adapt piano pieces to deepen his relationship with Oliver. Music is used in the film to reflect the period setting, the characters ' family life and their level of education, and "the kind of canon they would be a part of ''. Guadagnino also researched which pop songs had been frequently played on local radio stations that summer.
Guadagnino found that Sufjan Stevens ' lyrics resonated with him, and had initially asked Stevens to narrate the film from the perspective of Elio at an older age, as well as to record an original song for Call Me by Your Name. Stevens declined the voiceover role, but contributed three songs to the soundtrack: "Mystery of Love '', "Visions of Gideon '', and a re-recording of his 2010 song "Futile Devices ''. Stevens was inspired by the film 's script, its base novel, and conversations with Guadagnino about the characters. He submitted the songs a few days before filming began. Surprised by the result, Guadagnino listened to them on - set with the actors and editor Walter Fasano. The project marks the first time Stevens had written songs explicitly for a feature - film soundtrack.
A soundtrack album was released in digital formats by Madison Gate Records and Sony Classical on November 3, 2017, and in physical formats on November 17, 2017. It features songs by Stevens, The Psychedelic Furs, Franco Battiato, Loredana Bertè, Bandolero, Giorgio Moroder, Joe Esposito, and F.R. David. It also includes music composed by John Adams, Erik Satie, Ryuichi Sakamoto, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Maurice Ravel.
Call Me by Your Name had its world premiere on January 22, 2017, at the Sundance Film Festival. Prior to its premiere, Sony Pictures Classics acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film for $6 million. The deal was negotiated by WME Global and UTA Independent Film Group. International distribution rights were purchased by Memento Films International, a French company that showed the film promo reel at the American Film Market in November 2016.
The film was also screened at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 13, 2017; Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2017; and New York Film Festival on October 3, 2017. It was originally scheduled to be shown on Beijing International Film Festival in April 2018, but it was removed from the official program with no explanation; the decision was reportedly made due to the government 's "consistent stance of intolerance toward gay content ''. That year, the film was tributed at the Crema Film Festival: Aciman met with the public on June 23, and Garrel later joined in the screening at the Crema Cathedral on June 30.
Call Me by Your Name began a limited release in the United Kingdom on October 27, 2017, and United States on November 24, 2017. It expanded from four to thirty locations in the United States on 15 December 2017, and then to 114 theaters on December 22. It opened in 174 theaters in January 2018, before going into wide release in 815 theaters a few days before the Oscar nomination announcement ceremony on January 19, 2018. On the Oscars weekend, the film opened in 914 theaters, its widest release in the US.
In Italy, Warner Bros. Entertainment released the film on January 25, in less than 150 theaters, before expanding to nearly 200 theaters on February 2. Special screenings and a public meet - and - greet with Guadagnino, Hammer and Chalamet took place in Crema between January 27 and 30. A screening took part in Castiglioncello in June 2018 revealed two cut scenes to the public; Guadagnino felt that those scenes "did not come well '' and removed them from the final cut. The film opened in Brazil on January 18, and in France on February 28, 2018. In March 2018, a distributor in Tunisia reported that the Ministry of Culture has banned the film as an "attack on liberties '' because of its subject. In Ireland, it became the longest - running film shown at the Light House Cinema in early June 2018, after a 30 - week run.
Sony Pictures Classics released an official poster for Call Me by Your Name on July 27, 2017. The first theatrical trailer was released on August 1, 2017. On 11 October 2017, Sony Pictures Classics released a teaser titled "Dance Party '' to celebrate National Coming Out Day. The 42 - second clip, which consists of a single take of Hammer and Chalamet dancing to "Love My Way '' in a bar, became a meme on Twitter. Because of its use in the clip, "Love My Way '' gained popularity on music - streaming websites and rose 13 % on on - demand streams during the two months before the film 's release. In the week ending November 30, 2017, the song collected 177,000 on - demand streams, its biggest streaming week in the U.S.
Reaction to the advertisement on social media was somewhat negative, largely because of Sony Pictures ' "misleading '' use of an image of Chalamet and Garrel instead of a focus on the protagonist 's relationship. Daniel Megarry of Gay Times described it as "an attempt to ' straight - wash ' the movie 's predominant same - sex romance '', while Benjamin Lee of The Guardian called it a "disastrous attempt to push Oscar - buzzed Call Me by Your Name as a straight love story '', and said the advert "belies an industry awkwardly denying queerness ''. Sony Pictures Classics later aired several commercial spots to promote the film during its U.S. - wide expansion on January 19, 2018. In Korea, Sony Pictures released several never - before - seen photos taken on set, along with pastel promotional pictures, illustrated by Son Eunkyoung in March 2018.
A pirated copy of an awards - screener DVD of Call Me by Your Name, along with copies of Last Flag Flying and fellow Oscar nominees I, Tonya and Lady Bird, was leaked onto piracy file - sharing websites by the hacker group Hive - CM8 on December 24, 2017. The film was officially released for digital download on February 27, 2018. It was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018; bonus includes two featurettes ("In Conversation With Armie Hammer, Timothée Chalamet, Michael Stuhlbarg & Luca Guadagnino '' and "Snapshots of Italy: The Making of Call Me By Your Name ''), an audio commentary track by Chalamet and Stuhlbarg, and a music video for "Mystery of Love ''. The film made $1,336,207 in DVD sales and $1,713,563 in Blu - ray Disc sales in the United States, for a total of $3,049,770 in home media sales. In the United Kingdom, the DVD charted at number 7 and the Blu - ray at number 4 on "Top 100 '' sales for both formats.
Call Me by Your Name grossed $18.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $23.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $41.2 million against a production budget of $3.5 million. The film was Sony Pictures Classics ' third - highest - grossing release of 2017.
In the United States, Call Me by Your Name began its limited run on November 24, 2017, at The Paris Theater and Union Square Theatre in New York City, and the ArcLight Hollywood and Landmark Theater in Los Angeles. The film made $404,874 in its opening weekend -- a per - theater average of $101,219. It was the highest average of 2017 -- the biggest since that of La La Land the previous December -- and had the best per - screen opening for a gay romance film since Brokeback Mountain (2005). In its second weekend, the film grossed $281,288, with an "excellent '' per - screen average of $70,320. The film expanded to nine theaters in its third weekend, grossing $291,101 for a "solid '' $32,345 per - theater average. It earned $491,933 from 30 theaters in its fourth weekend, averaging $16,398. The film expanded to 114 theaters in its fifth week and grossed $850,736, averaging $7,463 per screen. It crossed $6 million in its seventh weekend, earning $758,726 from 115 locations. It grossed $715,559 from 174 theaters in its eighth weekend, averaging $4,185 per screen.
In its nationwide release week -- ninth weekend overall -- the film grossed $1.4 million from 815 theaters, an under - performance compared to "some of its competition with similar theater counts ''. The following weekend, after the announcement of its four Oscar nominations, the film 's revenues dropped 6 % to $1.3 million. With the total gross revenue of $9,370,359 by the week of January 23, 2018, Call Me by Your Name was the second - lowest - grossing film among Best Picture nominees. Fandango reported that the film had experienced a 56 % increase in ticket sales since its Best Picture nomination was announced. Regarding the film 's "lagging '' box - office performance, Tom Brueggemann of IndieWire commented that Sony Picture Classic "has done an able job so far, '' and said "at some point the film and the reaction to it is something no distributor can overcome. '' It grossed $919,926, averaging $1,006, from 914 theaters during the Oscar weekend, and went on to earn $304,228 from 309 theaters in its sixteenth weekend.
Call Me by Your Name opened at number 7 in Italy with £ 781,000 from fewer than 150 theaters, and obtained the best per - theater average of the week (almost £ 5,500). It had made £ 1.5 million in its first ten days of release, before exceeding £ 2 million on February 7, 2018. The film reached £ 2.8 million on March 12, 2018. As of July 6, 2018, the film has grossed $3,925,137 in Italy. In Brazil, the film debuted at number 9 at the box office with revenues of $696,000, and earned another $554,000 the following weekend. It attracted 17,152 viewers in France on its first day of screening, with an "excellent '' per - theater average of 184 entries. It went on to attract 108,500 viewers in the opening weekend, earning 1,167 viewings -- the second - best average of the week; and 238,124 viewers in its third weekend. As of April 17, 2018, the film has grossed $2,652,781 in France. In the United Kingdom, the film earned £ 231,995 ($306,000) from 112 screens in its opening weekend, including £ 4,000 from previews. After ten days, it had made £ 568,000 ($745,000), before reaching the $1 million mark (£ 767,000) in its third weekend. As of May 21, 2018, the film has grossed $2,372,382 in the United Kingdom.
At its premiere at the Sundance Film Festival, Call Me by Your Name received a standing ovation. When it was screened at Alice Tully Hall as part of the New York Film Festival, it received a ten - minute ovation, the longest recorded ovation in the festival 's history. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 95 % based on 278 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads; "Call Me by Your Name offers a melancholy, powerfully affecting portrait of first love, empathetically acted by Timothée Chalamet and Armie Hammer ''. It was the best - reviewed limited release and the second - best - reviewed romance film of 2017 on the site. On Metacritic, the film has an average weighted score of 93 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. It was the year 's fifth - best rated film on Metacritic.
Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Boyd van Hoeij described Call Me by Your Name as an "extremely sensual... intimate and piercingly honest '' adaptation of Aciman 's novel, and called Chalamet 's performance "the true breakout of the film ''. Peter Debruge of Variety said the film "advances the canon of gay cinema '' by portraying "a story of first love... that transcends the same - sex dynamic of its central couple ''. He compared Guadagnino 's "sensual '' direction with the films of Pedro Almodóvar and François Ozon, and put Call Me by Your Name "on par with the best of their work ''. David Ehrlich of IndieWire also praised Guadagnino 's directing, which he said helps the film "match the artistry and empathy '' of Carol (2015) and Moonlight (2016). Sam Adams of BBC stated that Stuhlbarg 's performance "puts a frame around the movie 's painting and opens up avenues we may not have thought to explore '', and called it "one of his finest '' to date. He extolled the film as one of "many movies that have so successfully appealed to both the intellectual and the erotic since the heydays of Patrice Chéreau and André Téchiné ''.
Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half stars, commended the director for "broadens his embrace of humanity while hitting new heights of cinematic bliss '', and wrote that the film "may be a fantasy but it 's one that 's lovely and wise ''. David Morgan of CBS praised the cinematography, production design, and costuming for "making a summer in the 1980s palpably alive again ''. He also applauded Stuhlbarg 's character as "the most forward - thinking parent in movie history ''. Richard Lawson said Guadagnino 's adaptation "was made with real love, with good intentions, with a clarity of heart and purposeful, unpretentious intellect '' and hailed it as a "modern gay classic '' in his Vanity Fair review. Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips was pleased by the "wonderfully paradoxical '' visual interests from the director and said Stevens ' songs "work like magic on your sympathies regarding Elio 's emotional awakening ''. He praised Hammer 's performance as one of "the most easy - breathing and relaxed best work of his career ''.
The Economist noted the tension "between pain and pleasure '' in the film and praised Chalamet, stating that he "evokes so many shades of humanity, portraying a path of youthful self - discovery that is more raw, unhinged, and ultimately honest than many actors could manage ''. Kate Taylor of Globe and Mail, who gave the film two and a half stars, also enjoyed Chalamet 's effort in capturing "first love and its inevitable heartbreak '' and said the "multilingual, almost - pre-AIDS idyll does not stretch credulity... but it can try the patience ''. Ken Eisner of The Georgia Straight questioned the film 's central message and said "Guadagnino 's lyrical excesses... can alternate wildly between the poetically incisive and the indulgently preposterous ''. In a negative review, Kyle Turner of Paste wrote, "The details of the film are too small for anyone, perhaps particularly a queer person, to see ''; a visual distance that "suggests that the film, in the beginning, is as terrified as Elio initially is. It never gets over that hesitation. '' Armond White of Out called the movie "craven commercialism '' and a "super-bourgeois fantasy '' that "exploit (s) the queer audience 's romantic needs by packaging them and falsifying them ''. Luke Y. Thompson of Forbes criticized its length and called it an "excruciatingly boring travelogue ''.
Call Me by Your Name was selected by the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute as one of the top 10 films of the year. At the 90th Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Picture, Best Actor (Chalamet), Best Original Song ("Mystery of Love ''), and Best Adapted Screenplay, winning the latter. Chalamet became the youngest Best Actor nominee since 1939, while Ivory became the oldest - ever winner in any competitive category. The film received four nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film and Best Direction, and won Best Adapted Screenplay for Ivory. At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, it was nominated for Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama for Chalamet, and Best Supporting Actor for Hammer. It received eight nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards; Ivory won Best Adapted Screenplay. The film led the 33rd Independent Spirit Awards with six nominations, winning Best Male Lead for Chalamet and Best Cinematography for Mukdeeprom. At the 23rd Screen Actors Guild Awards, Chalamet received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role. The National Board of Review, the Gotham Independent Film Awards, and the Hollywood Film Awards awarded Chalamet with their Breakout Actor Awards.
Guadagnino has deliberated over the idea of a sequel since the film 's premiere at Sundance, when he realized the characters "could go beyond the boundaries of the film ''. In October 2017, he said he hoped to make a sequel to the film in 2020 that might be in the style of François Truffaut 's The Adventures of Antoine Doinel series, telling the story of Oliver and Elio as they age. "If I paired the age of Elio in the film with the age of Timothée, in three years ' time, Timothée will be 25, as would Elio by the time the second story was set '', he said. In the novel, Elio and Oliver reunite 15 years later when Oliver is married. Guadagnino said that in the sequel, "I do n't think Elio is necessarily going to become a gay man. He has n't found his place yet... I believe that he would start an intense relationship with Marzia again ''. Guadagnino is interested in the politics of the 1990s, saying, "it would be the beginning of the (Silvio) Berlusconi era in Italy and it would mean dealing with the (first Gulf War) of Iraq ''. In November 2017, Guadagnino shared his intention to make a series of five films, in which the audience could "see those actors grow older, embodying those characters ''. A month later, he was reported to have begun writing a script for a sequel that would reveal more about Oliver and resemble Michael Apted 's Up series. Hammer and Chalamet have expressed interest in appearing in a sequel, while Ivory has no interest in the material, saying "that 's fine, good. But I do n't know how they 're going to get a 40 - year - old (Chalamet)! ''
In January 2018, Guadagnino revealed the sequel will be set "right after the fall of Berlin Wall and that great shift that was the end of... the USSR '', and that the first scene in the film could depict Elio watching Paul Vecchiali 's Once More (1988) -- the first French film to deal with AIDS -- in a movie theater. In March 2018, Guadagnino confirmed he will work with Aciman on the sequel, which will take place "five or six years afterwards '' with "a different tone '' than the first film. He also said that Hammer and Chalamet will reprise their roles with a different backdrop, where they "go around the world ''. Hammer said he was pitched the script by Guadagnino, saying: "it 's not a finished script, but he 's got all the ideas for it. '' In April 2018, Aciman said in an interview for The Sydney Morning Herald that he and Guadagnino were "not sure '' about the sequel, saying "(Guadagnino) has quite a few projects in line and so do I. So we are flirting with each other about the sequel but I do n't know if we are very serious. '' In July 2018, Stuhlbarg said that Guadagnino and Aciman were excited the project, and that the director was "serious '' about it. He further expressed enthusiasm for reprising his role in the sequel, "I think it would have to be some kind of unique thing from what it was, but I would absolutely be game for trying. ''
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what is the latest translation of the bible | Modern English Bible translations - wikipedia
Many attempts have been made to translate the Bible into modern English, which in this context is defined as the form of English in use after 1800 (different from the linguistic meaning of Modern English).
The New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars. In the United States, 55 % of survey respondents who read the Bible reported using the King James Version in 2014, followed by 19 % for the New International Version, with other versions used by fewer than 10 %.
The Wessex Gospels were the first translation of the four Gospels in English without accompanying Latin text. The Authorized King James Version of 1611 was sporadically altered until 1769, but was not thoroughly updated until the creation of the Revised Version in 1885; it was not until the Revised Standard Version of 1952 (New Testament in 1948) that a rival to the KJV was composed, nearly 350 years after the KJV was first published. The RSV gained widespread adoption among the mainstream Protestant Churches in America and a Catholic Edition was released in 1962. It was updated as the New Revised Standard Version in 1989.
In the late twentieth century, Bibles increasingly appeared that were much less literal in their approach to translation. In 1946, the New English Bible was initiated in the United Kingdom, intended to enable readers to better understand the King James Bible. In 1958, J.B. Phillips (1906 -- 1982) produced an edition of the New Testament letters in paraphrase, the Letters to Young Churches, so that members of his youth group could understand what the New Testament authors had written. In 1966, Good News for Modern Man, a non-literal translation of the New Testament, was released to wide acceptance. Others followed suit. The Living Bible, released in 1971, was published by its author Kenneth N. Taylor, based on the literal American Standard Version of 1901. Taylor had begun because of the trouble his children had in understanding the literal (and sometimes archaic) text of the King James Bible. His work was at first intended for children, but was later positioned for marketing to high school and college students, as well as adults wishing to better understand the Bible. Like Phillips ' version, the Living Bible was a dramatic departure from the King James version.
Despite widespread criticism due to being a paraphrase rather than a translation, the popularity of The Living Bible created a demand for a new approach to translating the Bible into contemporary English called dynamic equivalence, which attempts to preserve the meaning of the original text in a readable way. Realizing the immense benefits of a Bible that was more easily accessible to the average reader, and responding to the criticisms of the Living Bible, the American Bible Society extended the Good News for Modern Man to the Good News Bible (1976) by adding the Old Testament, in this more readable style. This translation has gone on to become one of the best selling in history. In 1996, a new revision of Taylor 's Living Bible was published. This New Living Translation is a full translation from the original languages rather than a paraphrase of the Bible.
Another project aimed to create something in between the very literal translation of the King James Bible and the more informal Good News Bible. The goal of this was to create a Bible that would be scholarly yet not overly formal. The result of this project was the New International Version (1978). This version became highly popular in Evangelical Protestant circles.
The debate between the formal equivalence and dynamic (or ' functional ') equivalence translation styles has increased with the introduction of inclusive language versions. Various terms are employed to defend or attack this development, such as feminist, gender neutral, or gender accurate. New editions of some previous translations have been updated to take this change in language into account, including the New Jerusalem Bible (1985), the New Revised Standard Version (1989), the Revised English Bible (1989), and Today 's New International Version (2005). Some translations have approached the issue more cautiously, such as the English Standard Version (2001).
A further process that has assisted in greatly increasing the number of English Bible versions is the use of the Internet in producing virtual bibles, of which a growing number are beginning to appear in print -- especially given the development of "print on demand ''.
Today, there is a range of translations ranging from the most literal, such as the Young 's Literal Translation to the most free such as The Message and The Word on the Street.
The King James Version of 1611 (in its 1769 amended Oxford edition) still has an immense following, and as such there have been a number of different attempts to update or improve upon it. The English Revised Version and its derivatives also stem from the King James Version.
The English Revised Version was the first official attempt to update the King James Version of 1769. This was adapted in the United States as the American Standard Version. The translations and versions that stem from them are shown in date order:
The popular New International Version has appeared in a number of editions.
A significant aspect in translations from the latter half of the 20th century was much greater use of the principles of dynamic equivalence.
The New English Translation (or NET Bible) is a project to publish a translation of the Bible using the Internet. It is freely available and accompanied by extensive translator 's notes. Another is The Work of God 's Children Illustrated Bible, which uses a collaborative MediaWiki website that interlinks the words of the Bible to articles and image galleries about the topic. The Open English Bible aims to create the first modern public domain English translation of the Bible, using an open - source process for corrections and modernizing verses.
Some Bible translations find popular use in, or were prepared especially for, the Messianic Judaism movement.
The initiative to create the New English Bible began in 1946, in an attempt to make an entirely new translation of the Bible in modern English.
Released in parts between 1913 -- 1935 with copious study and textual notes. The New Testament with condensed notes was released in 1936 as one volume. NT released in 1941. The OT contained material from the Challoner Revision until the entire OT was completed in 1969. This Old Testament went on to be the base for the 1970 NAB New Testament only; Gospels by James Kleist, rest by Joseph Lilly. Second Catholic Edition released 2006.
In addition to the above Catholic English Bibles, all of which have an imprimatur granted by a Catholic bishop, the authors of the Catholic Public Domain Version of 2009 and the 2013 translation from the Septuagint by Jesuit priest Nicholas King refer to them as Catholic Bibles. These versions have not been granted an imprimatur, but do include the Catholic biblical canon of 73 books.
These Sacred Name Bibles were all done with the specific aim of carrying into English the actual Name of God as they were in the originals. Most have been done by people from the Sacred Name Movement. They are distinguished by their policy of transliterating Hebrew - based forms for sacred names, such as "Yahweh '', "YHWH '', etc.
Jewish translations follow the Masoretic Text, and are usually published in bilingual editions with the Hebrew text facing the English translation. The translations often reflect traditional Jewish exegesis of the bible. As translations of the Masoretic bible, Jewish translations contain neither the apocrypha nor the Christian New Testament.
There have been a number of attempts to produce a Bible that greatly simplifies the English. (Some of these versions are also listed in other categories: for example, the NIrV is also found under the NIV section). These are translations that are not necessarily a very dynamic translation, but go beyond simply everyday English into a restricted vocabulary set, often aimed at non-native speakers of English.
Some versions have been labelled "adaptive retelling '' as they take many liberties with the form of the text.
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what proteins and enzymes are involved in the process of replication | DNA replication - wikipedia
In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance. The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential.
DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. During replication, these strands are separated. Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. Cellular proofreading and error - checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.
In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome. Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand. DNA replication occurs during the S - stage of interphase.
DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, cyclically applies such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA.
DNA usually exists as a double - stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double - helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate - deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nuclei bases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleotides (bases) are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (stronger: three hydrogen bonds).
DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3 ' (three - prime) end '' and the "5 ' (five - prime) end ''. By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5 ' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3 ' end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5 ' to 3 ', and the opposite strand 3 ' to 5 '. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3 ' end of a DNA strand.
The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is redundant. Phosphodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. This allows the strands to be separated from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.
DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. DNA polymerases in general can not initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.
DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3 ' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high - energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high - energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high - energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.
In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 10 nucleotides added. In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 10 nucleotides added.
The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage - infected E. coli. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 ° C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 10.
DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.
For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA. This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins '', which are targeted by initiator proteins. In E. coli this protein is DnaA; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex. Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT - rich '' (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand separate. Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unzips the double - stranded DNA.
DNA polymerase has 5 ' - 3 ' activity. All known DNA replication systems require a free 3 ' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3 ' to 5 ' direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction -- this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized:
The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.
The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea / eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type. The TOPRIM fold contains an α / β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann - like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD - family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.
The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA - dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A / B / Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.
Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5 ' to 3 ' exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.
In eukaryotes, the low - processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase. In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ. Primer removal is completed Pol δ while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.
As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "theta structure '' (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.
The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs '', each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.
DNA is always synthesized in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.
The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. A polymerase "reads '' the leading strand template and adds complementary nucleotides to the nascent leading strand on a continuous basis.
The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to "lag behind '' the other strand.
The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase "reads '' the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase.
As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build - up of twists in the DNA ahead. This build - up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.
Bare single - stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single - strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.
Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double - stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp - loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.
At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome. The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome:
Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single - stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication. These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems. These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks. In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.
Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory. In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors. In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other. The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process. Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein (GFP) - tagged DNA polymerases α. They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time. This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and nascent DNAs. Meister 's finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.
The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.
Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome; these are not known to be regulated in any particular way. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes, but ends at the telomere region of repetitive DNA close to the ends. This shortens the telomere of the daughter DNA strand. Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit.) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation. Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.
Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication. In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site - binding protein, or Ter protein.
Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.
Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin - dependent kinases. Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.
The G1 / S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.
Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D - loop replication.
In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci. Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP - tagged replication factors. By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.
P. Heun et al. (2001) tracked GFP - tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase. Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun 's results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts do n't have lamins, and support that replication origins self - assemble and form replication foci.
By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D.A. Jackson et al. (1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells. Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent 's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids can not separate from each other and can not divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins do n't fire in normal DNA replication.
Most bacteria do not go through a well - defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication. In E. coli, the best - characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.
Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.
ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA - ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication -- each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.
Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.
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