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list of spelling differences between british and american english | American and British English spelling differences - Wikipedia
Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as "American '' today were once commonly used in Britain and some spellings seen as "British '' were once commonly used in the United States. A "British standard '' began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language, and an "American standard '' started following the work of Noah Webster and in particular his An American Dictionary of the English Language, first published in 1828.
Webster 's efforts at spelling reform were somewhat effective in his native country, resulting in certain well - known patterns of spelling differences between the American and British varieties of English. However, English - language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and so modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country.
In the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries. Today 's British English spellings mostly follow Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while many American English spellings follow Webster 's An American Dictionary of the English Language ("ADEL '', "Webster 's Dictionary '', 1828).
Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In A Companion to the American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather (...) he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology ''. William Shakespeare 's first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre and colour. Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo - French) spellings of words proved to be decisive. Later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on today 's American spellings and vice versa.
For the most part, the spelling systems of most Commonwealth countries and Ireland closely resemble the British system. In Canada, the spelling system can be said to follow both British and American forms, and Canadians are somewhat more tolerant of foreign spellings when compared with other English - speaking nationalities. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard. New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord (instead of fjord). There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori and an unambiguous preference for - ise endings (see below).
Most words ending in an unstressed - our in British English (e.g., colour, flavour, behaviour, harbour, honour, humour, labour, neighbour, rumour, splendour) end in - or in American English (color, flavor, behavior, harbor, honor, humor, labor, neighbor, rumor, splendor). Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e.g., contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is consistent everywhere.
Most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled - or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, and the ending was spelled - or or - ur. After the Norman conquest of England, the ending became - our to match the Old French spelling. The - our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, but was also applied to the earlier borrowings that had used - or. However, - or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeare 's plays used both spellings before they were standardised to - our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original - or ending and many words once ending in - our (for example, chancellour and governour) went back to - or. Many words of the - our / or group do not have a Latin counterpart; for example, armo (u) r, behavio (u) r, harbo (u) r, neighbo (u) r; also arbo (u) r, meaning "shelter '', though senses "tree '' and "tool '' are always arbor, a false cognate of the other word. Some 16th - and early 17th - century British scholars indeed insisted that - or be used for words from Latin (e.g., color) and - our for French loans; but in many cases the etymology was not clear, and therefore some scholars advocated - or only and others - our only.
Webster 's 1828 dictionary had only - or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. By contrast, Johnson 's 1755 (pre-U.S. independence and establishment) dictionary used - our for all words still so spelled in Britain (like colour), but also for words where the u has since been dropped: ambassadour, emperour, governour, perturbatour, inferiour, superiour; errour, horrour, mirrour, tenour, terrour, tremour. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform, but chose the spelling best derived, as he saw it, from among the variations in his sources. He preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, "the French generally supplied us ''. English speakers who moved to America took these preferences with them, and H.L. Mencken notes that "honor appears in the 1776 Declaration of Independence, but it seems to have got there rather by accident than by design. In Jefferson 's original draft it is spelled "honour ''. In Britain, examples of color, flavor, behavior, harbor, and neighbor rarely appear in Old Bailey court records from the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas there are thousands of examples of their - our counterparts. One notable exception is honor. Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century; honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a person 's name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London.
In derivatives and inflected forms of the - our / or words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used. The u is kept before English suffixes that are freely attachable to English words (for example in neighbourhood, humourless, and savoury) and suffixes of Greek or Latin origin that have been adopted into English (for example in favourite, honourable, and behaviourism). However, before Latin suffixes that are not freely attachable to English words, the u:
In American usage, derivatives and inflected forms are built by simply adding the suffix in all cases (for example, favorite, savory etc.) since the u is absent to begin with.
American usage, in most cases, keeps the u in the word glamour, which comes from Scots, not Latin or French. Glamor is sometimes used in imitation of the spelling reform of other - our words to - or. Nevertheless, the adjective glamorous often drops the first "u ''. Saviour is a somewhat common variant of savior in the US. The British spelling is very common for honour (and favour) in the formal language of wedding invitations in the US. The name of the Space Shuttle Endeavour has a u in it as the spacecraft was named after Captain James Cook 's ship, HMS Endeavour. The special car on Amtrak 's Coast Starlight train is known as the Pacific Parlour car, not Pacific Parlor. Proper names such as Pearl Harbor or Sydney Harbour are usually spelled according to their native - variety spelling vocabulary.
The name of the herb savory is thus spelled everywhere, although the related adjective savo (u) ry, like savo (u) r, has a u in the UK. Honor (the name) and arbor (the tool) have - or in Britain, as mentioned above. As a general noun, rigour / ˈrɪɡər / has a u in the UK; the medical term rigor (sometimes / ˈraɪɡər /) does not, such as in rigor mortis, which is Latin. Derivations of rigour / rigor such as rigorous, however, are typically spelled without a u even in the UK. Words with the ending - irior, - erior or similar are spelled thus everywhere.
The word armour was once somewhat common in American usage but has disappeared except in some brand names such as Under Armour.
Commonwealth countries normally follow British usage. Canadian English most commonly uses the - our ending and - our - in derivatives and inflected forms. However, owing to the close historic, economic, and cultural relationship with the United States, - or endings are also sometimes used. Throughout the late 19th and early to mid-20th century, most Canadian newspapers chose to use the American usage of - or endings, originally to save time and money in the era of manual movable type. However, in the 1990s, the majority of Canadian newspapers officially updated their spelling policies to the British usage of - our. This coincided with a renewed interest in Canadian English, and the release of the updated Gage Canadian Dictionary in 1997 and the first Oxford Canadian Dictionary in 1998. Historically, most libraries and educational institutions in Canada have supported the use of the Oxford English Dictionary rather than the American Webster 's Dictionary. Today, the use of a distinctive set of Canadian English spellings is viewed by many Canadians as one of the cultural uniquenesses of Canada (especially when compared to the United States).
In Australia, - or endings enjoyed some use throughout the 19th century and in the early 20th century. Like in Canada though, most major Australian newspapers have switched from "- or '' endings to "- our '' endings. The "- our '' spelling is taught in schools nationwide as part of the Australian curriculum. The most notable countrywide use of the - or ending is for the Australian Labor Party, which was originally called "the Australian Labour Party '' (name adopted in 1908), but was frequently referred to as both "Labour '' and "Labor ''. The "Labor '' was adopted from 1912 onward due to the influence of the American labor movement and King O'Malley. Aside from that, - our is now almost universal in Australia. New Zealand English, while sharing some words and syntax with Australian English, follows British usage.
In British English, some words from French, Latin or Greek end with a consonant followed by an unstressed - re (pronounced (non-rhotic accent) / ə (ɹ) / or (rhotic accent) / ɚ /). In American English, most of these words have the ending - er. The difference is most common for words ending - bre or - tre: British spellings calibre, centre, fibre, goitre, litre, lustre, manoeuvre, meagre, metre, mitre, nitre, ochre, reconnoitre, sabre, saltpetre, sepulchre, sombre, spectre, theatre (see exceptions) and titre all have - er in American spelling.
In Britain, both - re and - er spellings were common before Johnson 's dictionary was published. In Shakespeare 's first folios, - er spellings are used the most. Most English words that today use - er were spelled - re at one time. In American English, almost all of these have become - er, but in British English only some of them have. Words that were once spelled - re include chapter, December, disaster, enter, filter, letter, member, minister, monster, November, number, October, oyster, powder, proper, September, sober and tender. Words using the "- meter '' suffix (from ancient Greek - μέτρον via post-Classical Latin meter) have normally had the - er spelling from earliest use in English. Examples include thermometer and barometer.
The e preceding the r is kept in American inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, fibers, reconnoitered, centering, which are fibres, reconnoitred, and centring respectively in British English. Centring is an interesting example, since, according to the OED, it is a "word... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation) '' (i.e., / ˈsɛntəɹɪŋ /), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (/ ə /). The three - syllable version is listed as only the American pronunciation of centering on the Oxford Dictionaries Online website. The e is dropped for other derivations, for example, central, fibrous, spectral. However, the existence of related words without e before the r is not proof for the existence of an - re British spelling: for example, entry and entrance come from enter, which has not been spelled entre for centuries.
The difference relates only to root words; - er rather than - re is universal as a suffix for agentive (reader, winner, user) and comparative (louder, nicer) forms. One outcome is the British distinction of meter for a measuring instrument from metre for the unit of length. However, while "poetic metre '' is often - re, pentameter, hexameter etc. are always - er.
Many other words have - er in British English. These include Germanic words; such as anger, mother, timber and water and Romance words danger, quarter and river.
The ending - cre, as in acre, lucre, massacre, and mediocre, is used in both British and American English to show that the c is pronounced / k / rather than / s /. The spellings ogre and euchre are also the same in both British and American English.
Theater is the prevailing American spelling used to refer to both the dramatic arts and buildings where stage performances and screenings of films take place (i.e., "movie theaters ''); for example, a national newspaper such as The New York Times would use theater in its entertainment section. However, the spelling theatre appears in the names of many New York City theaters on Broadway (cf. Broadway theatre) and elsewhere in the United States. In 2003, the American National Theatre was referred to by The New York Times as the "American National Theater '', but the organization uses "re '' in the spelling of its name. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. has the more common American spelling theater in its references to The Eisenhower Theater, part of the Kennedy Center. Some cinemas outside New York also use the theatre spelling. (Note also that the word "theater '' in American English is a place where stage performances and screenings of films take place, but in British English a "theatre '' is where stage performances take place but not film screenings -- these take place in a cinema.)
Furthermore, the spelling theatre is sometimes used in the United States when referring to the art form of theatre, while the building itself, as noted above, generally is spelled theater. For example, the University of Wisconsin - Madison has a "Department of Theatre and Drama '', which offers courses that lead to the "Bachelor of Arts in Theatre '', and whose professed aim is "to prepare our graduate students for successful 21st Century careers in the theatre both as practitioners and scholars ''.
Some placenames in the United States use Centre in their names. Examples include the Stonebriar Centre mall, the cities of Rockville Centre and Centreville, Centre County and Centre College. Sometimes, these places were named before spelling changes but more often the spelling merely serves as an affectation.
For British accoutre, the American practice varies: the Merriam - Webster Dictionary prefers the - re spelling, but The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language prefers the - er spelling.
More recent French loanwords keep the - re spelling in American English. These are not exceptions when a French - style pronunciation is used (/ ɹə / rather than / ə (ɹ) / or / ɚ /), as with double entendre, genre and oeuvre. However, the unstressed / ə (ɹ) / and / ɚ / pronunciation of an - er ending is used more (or less) often with some words, including cadre, macabre, maître d ', Notre Dame, piastre, and timbre.
The - re endings are mostly standard throughout the Commonwealth. The - er spellings are recognized as minor variants in Canada, partly due to American influence, and are sometimes used in proper names (such as Toronto 's controversially named Centerpoint Mall).
For advice / advise and device / devise, American English and British English both keep the noun -- verb distinction both graphically and phonetically (where the pronunciation is - (s) for the noun and - (z) for the verb). For licence / license or practice / practise, British English also keeps the noun -- verb distinction graphically (although phonetically the two words in each pair are homophones with - (s) pronunciation). On the other hand, American English uses license and practice for both nouns and verbs (with - (s) pronunciation in both cases too).
American English has kept the Anglo - French spelling for defense and offense, which are defence and offence in British English. Likewise, there are the American pretense and British pretence; but derivatives such as defensive, offensive, and pretension are always thus spelled in both systems.
Australian and Canadian usage generally follows British.
The spelling connexion is now rare in everyday British usage, its use lessening as knowledge of Latin lessens, and it is not used at all in the US: the more common connection has become the standard worldwide. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the older spelling is more etymologically conservative, since the original Latin word had - xio -. The American usage comes from Webster, who abandoned - xion in favour of - ction by analogy with verbs like connect. Connexion was still the house style of The Times of London until the 1980s and was still used by the British Post Office for its telephone services in the 1970s, but had by then been overtaken by connection in regular usage (for example, in more popular newspapers).
Complexion (which comes from complex) is standard worldwide and complection is rare. However, the adjective complected (as in "dark - complected ''), although sometimes objected to, is standard in the US as an alternative to complexioned, but is not used in this way in the UK, although there is a rare usage to mean complicated.
In some cases, words with "old - fashioned '' spellings are retained widely in the US for historical reasons (cf. connexionalism).
The - ize spelling is often incorrectly seen as an Americanism in Britain. However, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) recommends - ize and notes that the - ise spelling is from French: "The suffix... whatever the element to which it is added, is in its origin the Greek - ιζειν, Latin - izāre; and, as the pronunciation is also with z, there is no reason why in English the special French spelling should be followed, in opposition to that which is at once etymological and phonetic. '' The OED lists the - ise form as an alternative.
Publications by Oxford University Press (OUP) -- such as Henry Watson Fowler 's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Hart 's Rules, and The Oxford Guide to English Usage -- also recommend - ize. However, Robert Allan 's Pocket Fowler 's Modern English Usage considers either spelling to be acceptable anywhere but the US. Also, Oxford University itself does not agree with the OUP, but advocates - ise instead of - ize in its staff style guide.
American spelling avoids - ise endings in words like organize, realize and recognize.
British spelling mostly uses - ise, while - ize is also used (organise / organize, realise / realize, recognise / recognize): the ratio between - ise and - ize stood at 3: 2 in the British National Corpus up to 2002. The spelling - ise is more commonly used in UK mass media and newspapers, including The Times (which switched conventions in 1992), The Daily Telegraph and The Economist. Meanwhile, - ize is used in some British - based academic publications, such as Nature, the Biochemical Journal and The Times Literary Supplement. The dominant British English usage of - ise is preferred by Cambridge University Press. The minority British English usage of - ize is known as Oxford spelling and is used in publications of the Oxford University Press, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary. It can be identified using the IETF language tag en - GB - oxendict (or, historically, by en - GB - oed).
In Canada, the - ize ending is more common, whereas in Ireland, India, Australia and New Zealand - ise spellings strongly prevail: the - ise form is preferred in Australian English at a ratio of about 3: 1 according to the Macquarie Dictionary.
The same applies to derivatives and inflections such as colonisation / colonization, or modernisation / modernization
Worldwide, - ize endings prevail in scientific writing and are commonly used by many international organizations, such as the United Nations Organizations (such as the World Health Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization) and the International Organization for Standardization (but not by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). The European Union 's style guides require the usage of - ise. Proofreaders at the EU 's Publications Office ensure consistent spelling in official publications such as the Official Journal (where legislation and other official documents are published), but the - ize spelling may be found in other documents.
Some verbs ending in - ize or - ise do not come from Greek - ιζειν, and their endings are therefore not interchangeable:
Some words spelled with - ize in American English are not used in British English, etc., e.g., the verb burglarize, regularly formed on the noun burglar, where the equivalent in British, and other versions of, English is the back - formation burgle and not burglarise.
The ending - yse is British and - yze is American. Thus, in British English analyse, catalyse, hydrolyse and paralyse, but in American English analyze, catalyze, hydrolyze and paralyze.
Analyse seems to have been the more common spelling in 17th - and 18th - century English, but many of the great dictionaries of that time -- John Kersey 's of 1702, Nathan Bailey 's of 1721 and Samuel Johnson 's of 1755 -- prefer analyze. In Canada, - yze prevails, just as in the US. In South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, - yse stands alone.
English verbs ending in - lyse or - lyze are not similar to the Greek verb, which is λύω lúō ("I release ''). Instead they come from the noun form λύσις lysis with the - ise or - ize suffix. For example, analyse comes from French analyser, formed by haplology from the French analysiser, which would be spelled analysise or analysize in English.
Hart 's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford states: "In verbs such as analyse, catalyse, paralyse, - lys - is part of the Greek stem (corresponding to the element - lusis) and not a suffix like - ize. The spelling - yze is therefore etymologically incorrect, and must not be used, unless American printing style is being followed. ''
British and other Commonwealth English uses the ending - logue and - gogue while American English commonly uses the ending - log and - gog for words like analog (ue), catalog (ue), dialog (ue), monolog (ue), homolog (ue), etc. The - gue spelling, as in catalogue, is used in the US, but catalog is more common. Additionally, in American English, dialogue is an extremely common spelling compared to dialog, although both are treated as acceptable ways to spell the word. (thus the inflected forms, cataloged and cataloging vs. catalogued and cataloguing). Synagogue is seldom used without - ue.
In Australia, analog is standard for the adjective, but both analogue and analog are current for the noun; in all other cases the - gue endings strongly prevail, for example monologue, except for such expressions as dialog box in computing, which are also used in the UK. In Australia, analog is used in its technical and electronic sense, as in analog electronics. In Canada and New Zealand, analogue is used, but analog has some currency as a technical term (e.g., in electronics, as in "analog electronics '' as opposed to "digital electronics '' and some video - game consoles might have an analog stick). The - ue is absent worldwide in related words like analogy, analogous, and analogist.
Both British and American English use the spelling - gue with a silent - ue for certain words that are not part of the - ogue set, such as tongue (cf. tong), plague, vague, and league. In addition, when the - ue is not silent, as in the words argue, ague and segue, all varieties of English use - gue.
Many words, especially medical words, that are written with ae / æ or oe / œ in British English are written with just an e in American English. The sounds in question are / iː / or / ɛ / (or, unstressed, / i / or / ɪ /). Examples (with non-American letter in bold): aeon, anaemia, anaesthesia, caecum, caesium, coeliac, diarrhoea, encyclopaedia, faeces, foetal, gynaecology, haemoglobin, haemophilia, leukaemia, oesophagus, oestrogen, orthopaedic (Although in the U.S., the majority of college, university, and residency programs, and even the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, still use the spelling with the digraph ae, though hospitals usually use the shortened form.), palaeontology, paediatric, paedophile. Oenology is acceptable in American English but is deemed a minor variant of enology, whereas although archeology and ameba exist in American English, the British versions archaeology and amoeba are more common. The chemical haem (named as a shortening of haemoglobin) is spelled heme in American English, to avoid confusion with hem.
Words that can be spelled either way in American English include aesthetics and archaeology (which usually prevail over esthetics and archeology), as well as palaestra, for which the simplified form palestra is described by Merriam - Webster as "chiefly Brit (ish). ''
Words that can be spelled either way in British English include encyclopaedia, homoeopathy, chamaeleon, mediaeval (a minor variant in both AmE and BrE), foetid and foetus. The spellings foetus and foetal are Britishisms based on a mistaken etymology. The etymologically correct original spelling fetus reflects the Latin original and is the standard spelling in medical journals worldwide, the Oxford English Dictionary notes that "In Latin manuscripts both fētus and foetus are used ''.
The Ancient Greek diphthongs < αι > and < οι > were transliterated into Latin as < ae > and < oe >. The ligatures æ and œ were introduced when the sounds became monophthongs, and later applied to words not of Greek origin, in both Latin (for example, cœli) and French (for example, œuvre). In English, which has adopted words from all three languages, it is now usual to replace Æ / æ with Ae / ae and Œ / œ with Oe / oe. In many words, the digraph has been reduced to a lone e in all varieties of English: for example, oeconomics, praemium, and aenigma. In others, it is kept in all varieties: for example, phoenix, and usually subpoena, but Phenix in Virginia. This is especially true of names: Caesar, Oedipus, Phoebe, etc. There is no reduction of Latin - ae plurals (e.g., larvae); nor where the digraph < ae > / < oe > does not result from the Greek - style ligature: for example, maelstrom, toe. The British form aeroplane is an instance (compare other aero - words such as aerosol). The now chiefly North American airplane is not a respelling but a recoining, modelled after airship and aircraft. The word airplane dates from 1907, at which time the prefix aero - was trisyllabic, often written aëro -.
In Canada, e is usually preferred over oe and often over ae, but oe and ae are sometimes found in the academic and scientific writing as well as government publications (for example the fee schedule of the Ontario Health Insurance Plan). In Australia, encyclopedia and medieval are spelled with e rather than ae, as with American usage, and the Macquarie Dictionary also notes a growing tendency towards replacing ae and oe with e worldwide. Elsewhere, the British usage prevails, but the spellings with just e are increasingly used. Manoeuvre is the only spelling in Australia, and the most common one in Canada, where maneuver and manoeuver are also sometimes found.
The final consonant of an English word is sometimes doubled in both American and British spelling when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, for example strip / stripped, which prevents confusion with stripe / striped and shows the difference in pronunciation (see digraph). Generally, this happens only when the word 's final syllable is stressed and when it also ends with a lone vowel followed by a lone consonant. In British English, however, a final - l is often doubled even when the final syllable is unstressed. This exception is no longer usual in American English, seemingly because of Noah Webster. The - ll - spellings are nevertheless still deemed acceptable variants by both Merriam - Webster Collegiate and American Heritage dictionaries.
Among consonants other than l, practice varies for some words, such as where the final syllable has secondary stress or an unreduced vowel. In the United States, the spellings kidnaped and worshiped, which were introduced by the Chicago Tribune in the 1920s, are common, but kidnapped and worshipped prevail. Kidnapped and worshipped are the only standard British spellings. However, focused is the predominant spelling in both British and American English, focussed being just a minor variant in British English.
Miscellaneous:
Conversely, there are words where British writers prefer a single l and Americans a double l. In American usage, the spelling of words is usually not changed when they form the main part (not prefix or suffix) of other words, especially in newly formed words and in words whose main part is in common use. Words with this spelling difference include wil (l) ful, skil (l) ful, thral (l) dom, appal (l), fulfil (l), fulfil (l) ment, enrol (l) ment, instal (l) ment. These words have monosyllabic cognates always written with - ll: will, skill, thrall, pall, fill, roll, stall. Cases where a single l nevertheless occurs in both American and British English include null → annul, annulment; till → until (although some prefer til to reflect the single l in until, sometimes using an apostrophe (' til); this should be considered a hypercorrection as till predates the use of until); and others where the connection is not clear or the monosyllabic cognate is not in common use in American English (e.g., null is used mainly as a technical term in law, mathematics, and computer science).
In the UK, a single l is generally preferred in distil (l), instil (l), enrol (l), and enthral (l) ment, and enthral (l), although ll was formerly used; these are always spelled with ll in American usage. The former British spellings instal, fulness, and dulness are now quite rare. The Scottish tolbooth is cognate with tollbooth, but it has a distinct meaning.
In both American and British usages, words normally spelled - ll usually drop the second l when used as prefixes or suffixes, for example full → useful, handful; all → almighty, altogether; well → welfare, welcome; chill → chilblain.
Both the British fulfil and the American fulfill never use - ll - in the middle (i.e., * fullfill and * fullfil are incorrect).
Johnson wavered on this issue. His dictionary of 1755 lemmatizes distil and instill, downhil and uphill.
British English sometimes keeps silent "e '' when adding suffixes where American English does not. Generally speaking, British English drops it in only some cases in which it is needed to show pronunciation whereas American English only uses it where needed.
Both forms of English keep the silent "e '' in the words dyeing, singeing, and swingeing (in the sense of dye, singe, and swinge), to distinguish from dying, singing, swinging (in the sense of die, sing, and swing). In contrast, the verb bathe and the British verb bath both form bathing. Both forms of English vary for tinge and twinge; both prefer cringing, hinging, lunging, syringing.
A "c '' is generally soft when followed by an "e '', "i '', or "y ''. One word with a pronunciation that is an exception in British English, "sceptic '', is spelled "skeptic '' in American English. See Miscellaneous spelling differences below.
In the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, it is more common to end some past tense verbs with a "t '' as in learnt or dreamt rather than learned or dreamed. However, such spellings are also found in American English.
Several verbs have different past tenses or past participles in American and British English:
See also meter / metre, for which there is a British English distinction between these etymologically related forms with different meanings ("meter '' being a measuring instrument, for example an ammeter or a water meter) but the standard American spelling is "meter ''. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is "metre ''. This spelling is also the usual one for the unit of length in most English - speaking countries, but only the spelling "meter '' is used in American English, and this is officially endorsed by the United States.
In a few cases, essentially the same word has a different spelling that reflects a different pronunciation.
As well as the miscellaneous cases listed in the following table, the past tenses of some irregular verbs differ in both spelling and pronunciation, as with smelt (UK) versus smelled (US) (see American and British English differences: Verb morphology).
In the table below, the main spellings are above the accepted alternative spellings.
American English uses draft in all these cases. Canada uses both systems; in Australia, draft is used for technical drawings, is accepted for the "current of air '' meaning, and is preferred by professionals in the nautical sense. The pronunciation is always the same for all meanings within a dialect (RP / ˈdrɑːft /, General American / ˈdræft /).
The spelling draught reflects the older pronunciation, drahkht. Draft emerged in the 16th century to reflect the change in pronunciation.
In the COBOL programming language, THRU is accepted as an abbreviation of the keyword THROUGH. Since programmers like to keep their code brief, THRU is generally the preferred form of this keyword.
British English often prefers hyphenated compounds, such as anti-smoking, whereas American English discourages the use of hyphens in compounds where there is no compelling reason, so antismoking is much more common. Many dictionaries do not point out such differences. Canadian and Australian usage is mixed, although Commonwealth writers generally hyphenate compounds of the form noun plus phrase (such as editor - in - chief). Commander - in - chief prevails in all forms of English.
Compound verbs in British English are hyphenated more often than in American English.
Acronyms pronounced as words are often written in title case by Commonwealth writers, but usually as upper case by Americans: for example, Nasa / NASA or Unicef / UNICEF. This does not apply to abbreviations that are pronounced as individual letters (referred to by some as "initialisms ''), such as US, IBM, or PRC (the People 's Republic of China), which are virtually always written as upper case. However, sometimes title case is still used in the UK, such as Pc (Police Constable).
Contractions where the final letter is present are often written in British English without full stops / periods (Mr, Mrs, Dr, St, Ave). Abbreviations where the final letter is not present generally do take full stops / periods (such as vol., etc., i.e., ed.); British English shares this convention with the French: Mlle, Mme, Dr, Ste, but M. for Monsieur. In American and Canadian English, abbreviations like St., Ave., Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., and Jr., usually require full stops / periods. Some initials are usually upper case in the US but lower case in the UK: liter / litre and its compounds (2 L or 25 mL vs 2 l or 25 ml); and ante meridiem and post meridiem (10 P.M. or 10 PM vs 10 p.m. or 10 pm). Both AM / PM and a.m. / p.m. are acceptable in American English, but U.S. style guides overwhelmingly favor a.m. / p.m.
The use of quotation marks, also called inverted commas or speech marks, is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds: single quotation marks (') and double quotation marks ("). British usage, at one stage in the recent past, preferred single quotation marks for ordinary use, but double quotation marks are again now increasingly common; American usage has always preferred double quotation marks, as does Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand English. It is the practice to alternate the type of quotation marks used where there is a quotation within a quotation.
The convention used to be, and in American English still is, to put full stops (periods) and commas inside the quotation marks, irrespective of the sense. British English has moved away from this style while American English has kept it. British style now prefers to punctuate according to the sense, in which punctuation marks only appear inside quotation marks if they were there in the original. Formal British English practice requires a full stop to be put inside the quotation marks if the quoted item is a full sentence that ends where the main sentence ends, but it is common to see the stop outside the ending quotation marks.
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what are the populations of each state in the united states | List of U.S. States and territories by population - wikipedia
As of April 1, 2010, the date of the 2010 United States Census, the nine most populous U.S. states contain slightly more than half of the total population. The 25 least populous states contain less than one - sixth of the total population. California, the most populous state, contains more people than the 21 least populous states combined, and Wyoming is the least populous state, with a population less than the 31 most populous U.S. cities.
The United States Census counts most persons residing in the United States including citizens, non-citizen permanent residents, and non-citizen long - term visitors. Civilian and military federal employees serving abroad and their dependents are counted in their home state.
Based on data from the decennial census, each state is allocated a proportion of the 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives, although each state is guaranteed a minimum of one seat, regardless of population. This apportionment is based on the proportion of each state 's population to that of the fifty states together (without regard to the populations of the District of Columbia, AS, GU, MP, PR, or VI). The Electoral College is the body that, every four years, elects the President and Vice President of the United States. Each state 's representation in the Electoral College is equal to that state 's total number of members in both houses of the United States Congress. The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution effectively grants the District of Columbia, which is separate from any state, three votes. More precisely, the district gets as many votes in the Electoral College as it would have if it were a state, with the caveat that the district can have no more votes than the least populous state (which is currently Wyoming). Currently, this caveat is a moot point since the District of Columbia would only be entitled to one representative if it were a state, and is more populous than only two of the seven states with a single member in the House since 2013. Since the Constitution guarantees every state at least one U.S. Representative and two U.S. Senators, it effectively guarantees every state (and, since the ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the District of Columbia) at least three electoral votes. Thus, the total representation in the Electoral College is 538 members (equal to 100 senators plus 435 representatives, plus 3 members for the District of Columbia).
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the meridian opposite of earth's prime meridian | Prime meridian - wikipedia
A prime meridian is a meridian (a line of longitude) in a geographic coordinate system at which longitude is defined to be 0 °. Together, a prime meridian and its antimeridian (the 180th meridian in a 360 ° - system) form a great circle. This great circle divides the sphere, e.g., Earth, into two hemispheres. If one uses directions of East and West from a defined prime meridian, then they can be called the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere.
A prime meridian is ultimately arbitrary, unlike an equator, which is determined by the axis of rotation -- and various conventions have been used or advocated in different regions and throughout history. The most widely used modern meridian is the IERS Reference Meridian. It is derived but deviates slightly from the Greenwich Meridian, which was selected as an international standard in 1884.
The notion of longitude was developed by the Greek Eratosthenes (c. 276 BC -- c. 195 BC) in Alexandria, and Hipparchus (c. 190 BC -- c. 120 BC) in Rhodes, and applied to a large number of cities by the geographer Strabo (64 / 63 BC -- c. 24 AD). But it was Ptolemy (c. AD 90 -- c. AD 168) who first used a consistent meridian for a world map in his Geographia.
Ptolemy used as his basis the "Fortunate Isles '', a group of islands in the Atlantic which are usually associated with the Canary Islands (13 ° to 18 ° W), although his maps correspond more closely to the Cape Verde islands (22 ° to 25 ° W). The main point is to be comfortably west of the western tip of Africa (17.5 ° W) as negative numbers were not yet in use. His prime meridian corresponds to 18 ° 40 ' west of Winchester (about 20 ° W) today. At that time the chief method of determining longitude was by using the reported times of lunar eclipses in different countries.
Ptolemy 's Geographia was first printed with maps at Bologna in 1477, and many early globes in the 16th century followed his lead. But there was still a hope that a "natural '' basis for a prime meridian existed. Christopher Columbus reported (1493) that the compass pointed due north somewhere in mid-Atlantic, and this fact was used in the important Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 which settled the territorial dispute between Spain and Portugal over newly discovered lands. The Tordesillas line was eventually settled at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. This is shown in Diogo Ribeiro 's 1529 map. São Miguel Island (25.5 ° W) in the Azores was still used for the same reason as late as 1594 by Christopher Saxton, although by then it had been shown that the zero magnetic deviation line did not follow a line of longitude.
In 1541, Mercator produced his famous 41 cm terrestrial globe and drew his prime meridian precisely through Fuerteventura (14 ° 1'W) in the Canaries. His later maps used the Azores, following the magnetic hypothesis. But by the time that Ortelius produced the first modern atlas in 1570, other islands such as Cape Verde were coming into use. In his atlas longitudes were counted from 0 ° to 360 °, not 180 ° W to 180 ° E as is usual today. This practice was followed by navigators well into the 18th century. In 1634, Cardinal Richelieu used the westernmost island of the Canaries, Ferro, 19 ° 55 ' west of Paris, as the choice of meridian. The geographer Delisle decided to round this off to 20 °, so that it simply became the meridian of Paris disguised.
In the early 18th century the battle was on to improve the determination of longitude at sea, leading to the development of the marine chronometer by John Harrison. But it was the development of accurate star charts, principally by the first British Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed between 1680 and 1719 and disseminated by his successor Edmund Halley, that enabled navigators to use the lunar method of determining longitude more accurately using the octant developed by Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley. Between 1765 and 1811, Nevil Maskelyne published 49 issues of the Nautical Almanac based on the meridian of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. "Maskelyne 's tables not only made the lunar method practicable, they also made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point. Even the French translations of the Nautical Almanac retained Maskelyne 's calculations from Greenwich -- in spite of the fact that every other table in the Connaissance des Temps considered the Paris meridian as the prime. ''
In 1884, at the International Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C., 22 countries voted to adopt the Greenwich meridian as the prime meridian of the world. The French argued for a neutral line, mentioning the Azores and the Bering Strait, but eventually abstained and continued to use the Paris meridian until 1911.
In October 1884 the Greenwich Meridian was selected by delegates (forty - one delegates representing twenty - five nations) to the International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., United States to be the common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the world. The modern prime meridian, the IERS Reference Meridian, is placed very near this meridian and is the prime meridian that currently has the widest use.
The modern prime meridian, based at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851.
The position of the Greenwich Meridian has been defined by the location of the Airy Transit Circle ever since the first observation was taken with it by Sir George Airy in 1851. Prior to that, it was defined by a succession of earlier transit instruments, the first of which was acquired by the second Astronomer Royal, Edmond Halley in 1721. It was set up in the extreme north - west corner of the Observatory between Flamsteed House and the Western Summer House. This spot, now subsumed into Flamsteed House, is roughly 43 metres to the west of the Airy Transit Circle, a distance equivalent to roughly 0.15 seconds of time. It was Airy 's transit circle that was adopted in principle (with French delegates, who pressed for adoption of the Paris meridian abstaining) as the Prime Meridian of the world at the 1884 International Meridian Conference.
All of these Greenwich meridians were located via an astronomic observation from the surface of the Earth, oriented via a plumb line along the direction of gravity at the surface. This astronomic Greenwich meridian was disseminated around the world, first via the lunar distance method, then by chronometers carried on ships, then via telegraph lines carried by submarine communications cables, then via radio time signals. One remote longitude ultimately based on the Greenwich meridian using these methods was that of the North American Datum 1927 or NAD27, an ellipsoid whose surface best matches mean sea level under the United States.
Satellites changed the reference from the surface of the Earth to its centre of mass around which all satellites orbit regardless of surface irregularities. The requirement that satellite - based geodetic reference systems be centred on the centre of mass of the earth caused the modern prime meridian to be 5.3 '' east of the astronomic Greenwich prime meridian through the Airy Transit Circle. At the latitude of Greenwich, this amounts to 102 metres. This was officially accepted by the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) in 1984 via its BTS84 (BIH Terrestrial System) that later became WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) and the various ITRFs (International Terrestrial Reference Systems).
Due to the movement of Earth 's tectonic plates, the line of 0 ° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning. As a result, the International Reference Meridian was established and is commonly used to denote Earth 's prime meridian (0 ° longitude) by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time. Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy 's transit circle drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres per year relative to this Earth - centred 0 ° longitude. Circa 1999 the international reference meridian (IRM) passed 5.31 arcseconds east of Airy 's meridian or 102.5 metres (336.3 feet) at the latitude of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London. It is also the reference meridian of the Global Positioning System operated by the United States Department of Defense, and of WGS84 and its two formal versions, the ideal International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) and its realization, the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). A current convention on the Earth uses the opposite of the IRM as the basis for the International Date Line.
On Earth, starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the IERS Reference Meridian (as of 2016) passes through:
As on the Earth, prime meridians must be arbitrarily defined. Often a landmark such as a crater is used; other times a prime meridian is defined by reference to another celestial object, or by magnetic fields. The prime meridians of the following planetographic systems have been defined:
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what is the major feature of fungi imperfecti | Fungi imperfecti - wikipedia
See below.
The Fungi imperfecti or imperfect fungi, also known as Deuteromycota, are fungi which do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their sexual form of reproduction has never been observed; hence the name "imperfect fungi. '' The phylogenetic line can be traced back to the point where these species hoard some of the rudimentary characteristics that could imply information sufficient to redirect them into the known and confirmed taxon. Only their asexual form of reproduction is known, meaning that this group of fungi produce their spores asexually, in the process called sporogenesis.
There are about 25,000 species that have been classified in the deuteromycota and many are basidiomycota or ascomycota anamorphs. Fungi producing the antibiotic penicillin and those that cause athlete 's foot and yeast infections are algal fungi. In addition, there are a number of edible imperfect fungi, including the ones that provide the distinctive characteristics of Roquefort and Camembert cheese.
Other, more informal names besides Deuteromycota ("Deuteromycetes '') and fungi imperfecti are anamorphic fungi, or mitosporic fungi, but these are terms without taxonomic rank. Examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma etc.
Although Fungi imperfecti / Deuteromycota is no longer formally accepted as a taxon, many of the fungi it included have yet to find a place in modern fungal classification. This is because most fungi are classified based on characteristics of the fruiting bodies and spores produced during sexual reproduction, and members of the Deutromycota have only been observed to reproduce asexually or produce no spores.
Mycologists are unique among those who study extant organisms in using a dual system of nomenclature. Dual naming was permitted by Article 59 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (which governs the naming of plants and fungi); however, this was abolished in the 2011 update of the Code.
Under the former system, a name for an asexually reproducing fungus was considered a form taxon. For example, the ubiquitous and industrially important mold, Aspergillus niger, has no known sexual cycle. Thus Aspergillus niger is considered a form taxon. In contrast, isolates of its close relative, Aspergillus nidulans, revealed it to be the anomorphic stage of a teleomorph (the ascocarp or fruiting body of the sexual reproductive stage of a fungus), which was already named Emericella nidulans. When such a teleomorphic stage is known, that name will take priority over the name of an anamorph (which lacks a sexual reproductive stage). Hence the formerly classified Aspergillus species is now properly called Emericella nidulans.
Phylogenetic classification of asexually reproducing fungi now commonly uses molecular systematics. Phylogenetic trees constructed from comparative analyses of DNA sequences, such as rRNA, or multigene phylogenies may be used to infer relationships between asexually reproducing fungi and their sexually reproducing counterparts. With these methods, many asexually reproducing fungi have now been placed in the tree of life. However, because phylogenetic methods require sufficient quantities of biological materials (spores or fresh specimens) that are from pure (i.e., uncontaminated) fungal cultures, for many asexual species their exact relationship with other fungal species has yet to be determined. Under the current system of fungal nomenclature, teleomorph names can not be applied to fungi that lack sexual structures. Classifying and naming asexually reproducing fungi is the subject of ongoing debate in the mycological community.
These groups are no longer formally accepted because they do not adhere to the principle of monophyly. The taxon names are sometimes used informally. In particular, the term ' hyphomycetes ' is often used to refer to molds, and the term ' coelomycetes ' is used to refer to many asexually reproducing plant pathogens that form discrete fruiting bodies.
Following, a classification of the Fungi imperfecti:
Other, according to Dörfelt (1989):
Other systems of classification are reviewed by (Kendrick 1981).
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how many years of english in high school to graduate | High school diploma - wikipedia
A high school diploma is a North American academic school leaving qualification awarded upon high school graduation. The high school diploma is typically studied for over the course of four years, from Grade 9 to Grade 12. The diploma is typically awarded by the school in accordance with the requirements of the local state or provincial government. Requirements for earning the diploma vary by jurisdiction, and there may be different requirements for different streams or levels of high school graduation. Typically they include a combination of selected coursework meeting specified criteria for a particular stream and acceptable passing grades earned on the state exit examination.
In British Columbia, the diploma is known as the British Columbia Certificate of Graduation. The province of BC has two distinct graduation programs: the BC Certificate of Graduation (Dogwood Diploma) and the BC Adult Graduation Diploma (Adult Dogwood). Students also have the opportunity to meet their educational goals (other than graduation) through the BC School Completion Certificate (Evergreen Certificate).
The current Dogwood requirements have been in place since July 1, 2004. Under current regulations, students must earn a minimum of 80 credits to graduate, which must include 48 credits for required courses, a minimum of 28 elective credits, and 4 credits for "graduation transitions '', a standards - based assessment evaluated by schools under BC Ministry of Education guidelines. Required courses include, among other things, language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science courses in grades 10, 11, and 12. Part of the evaluation of students includes standardized provincial examinations in a number of the required courses in grades 10 and 12. As part of the 80 credits for the Dogwood, 16 credits must be at the Grade 12 level, and must include English 12 or Communications 12.
In Ontario, the high school diploma is known as the Ontario Secondary School Diploma. The diploma is awarded to all students who complete the Ontario educational curriculum. The requirements for the diploma include compulsory credits in English or French, Mathematics, Science, Canadian History, Canadian Geography, Arts, Health and Physical Education, and a second language; compulsory half credits in Career Studies and Civics; one credit each from three elective groups; 12 optional credits, 4 of which may be obtained through dual - credit classes; 40 hours of community service; and the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test. Those who leave school after completing 14 credits but prior to obtaining the diploma can obtain the Ontario Secondary School Certificate.
Quebec issued the D.E.S. (French: diplôme des études secondaires), formerly Quebec Certificate of Education (and sometimes were known Quebec HS Secondary Certificate and Québécois baccalaureat) before it changed into HS Diploma / Diplôme D.E.S. at the end of secondary V (grade 11), for graduation from secondary school (high school), a five - year school spanning secondary I (grade 7) to secondary V (grade 11).
To earn a high school diploma, Saskatchewan students are required to earn a total of 24 credits from grades 10 to 12. For a regular English program diploma, they must earn 5 credits in English Language Arts, 3 credits in Social Studies, 2 credits in mathematics, 2 credits in science, 1 credit in Physical Education / Health Education, 2 credits in Arts Education / Practical and Applied Arts, and 9 elective credits.
A United States high school diploma usually refers to the satisfactory completion of grade schooling including kindergarten through the 12th grade and is then issued by the school district and the high school after a student 's graduation.
In Alabama, all students are required to earn 24 credits. The required credits are: English (4 credits), Math (4 credits), Science (4 credits), History (4 credits), PE / JROTC (1 credit), Health (0.5 credits), Career Prep (1 credit), CTE / arts education / Foreign language (3 credits), and Electives (2.5 credits).
County schools offer Honors, and AP classes.
In California, students are required to take, and successfully complete the following minimum requirements to earn a high school diploma: 3 years of English, 2 years of Math including Algebra I, 3 years of History / Social Studies including one year of U.S. history and geography; one year of world history, culture, and geography; one semester of American government and civics, and one semester of economics, 2 years of science including biological and physical sciences, 1 year of either visual and performing arts, foreign language, or career technical education, 2 years of Physical Education, and Beginning in 2005 -- 06, all students must pass the California High School Exit Examination prior to graduation, which is normally first administered in the 10th grade. Most schools ' individual graduation requirements far outweigh the state 's minimum standards. The California exit exam was suspended until 2018.
This information is taken from the California Department of Education.
In Illinois, students are required to take English, mathematics, science, social science, world language, fine arts, physical education, and elective classes meeting selected criteria as part of the program of study for the High School Diploma. Electives may include advanced courses, career and technical education (CTE), Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps (JROTC), dual - enrollment, or additional classes in the required subjects that meet school board requirements. Driver 's Education is required for all students. An additional requirement is a passing grade on the Prairie State Achievement Examination which is typically taken in Grade 11.
Accommodations are made for select students with unique needs. English Language Learner (ELL) students may substitute English as a Second Language for English to meet the graduation requirements. Students receiving special education services may complete modified requirements according to an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
In New York State, the high school diploma awarded is known as the Regents Diploma, which is earned upon successful completion of the Regents Exams in the required subjects. Two levels are offered: the standard Regents Diploma and the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation. Both diplomas require 22 credits, including 4 credits in English, 4 credits in Social Studies, 3 credits in Math, 3 credits in Science, 0.5 credits in Health, 1 credit in Art or Music, and 2 credits in Physical Education; the Regents Diploma requires 1 credit of Secondary Language and 3.5 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives, while the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation requires 3 credits of Secondary Language and 1.5 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives.
The subjects for which passing grades on the Regents Exams are required for the Regents Diploma include Comprehensive English, any one Mathematics, Global History, US History, any one Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE). The subjects for which passing grades on the Regents Exams are required for the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation are Comprehensive English, all three Mathematics, Global History, US History, one physical Science, one life Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE). A passing score is 65 in each subject; the "With Honors '' designation is added if the average score in all required exams is 90 or greater. A "Technical Endorsement '' is given to students enrolled in a Career and Technical Education (CTE) program who additionally complete an approved technical assessment, a work - based learning experience, and a work - skills employability profile. You are also able to receive a Mastery in Mathematics and Mastery in Science designation on your diploma alongside others.
The New York State Regents Diploma, with or without advanced designation, honors, or mastery, is the most heavily weighed and usually most influential high school diploma offered in the country. A Regents diploma is often referred to as the most difficult and challenging diploma to obtain. The highest level of a New York State Regents diploma is a: New York State Regents diploma with Honors, Advanced Designation, Mastery of Science, Mastery of Mathematics, with a Technical Endorsement.
In Texas, there are three programs offered for graduation: the Minimum High School Program (MHSP), the Recommended High School Program (RHSP), and the Advanced (Distinguished) High School Program (AHSP / DHSP). The Recommended and Distinguished programs are the streams typically chosen by most students, and are expected of students who are college - bound. Also required for graduation is successful completion with passing grades on the Exit Level examination of the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR), which is typically taken in Grade 11. Multiple re-sits for the exam are available, in case of failure on a previous attempt.
Students in the Recommended and Distinguished programs must take four years of English, mathematics, science, and social studies classes as part of their program of study. Students in the Distinguished program must also take a minimum amount of advanced - level coursework, which could include Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate classes or university classes taken as dual - enrollment. Students in the Minimum program have less stringent requirements to complete their diploma than students in the other diploma programs.
By Texas state law, completion of the Recommended or Distinguished programs or a program with an equivalent curriculum and level of rigor, along with suitable scores on the SAT or the ACT, is required for a student to be eligible to be considered for admission to a four - year public institution of higher education in Texas.
The General Education Development (GED) credential is offered as an alternative qualification for those who did not successfully earn a high school diploma. Examination involves taking and passing tests in five subjects: Reading, Writing, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. A Certificate of High School Equivalency is generally offered to those who successfully complete the GED. While the GED itself may not necessarily enable the same higher education and employment opportunities as the high school diploma, the GED can enhance employability prospects for former high school dropouts, and progression is available to tertiary study at select higher education institutions.
IB World Schools may offer the IB Diploma in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IB Diploma is an academically rigorous program of study. The program of study for the IB Diploma includes subjects chosen from five subject groups: Studies in Language and Literature, Language Acquisition, Individuals and Societies, Sciences, Mathematics, and the Arts. Three subjects are taken at Higher Level, and three are taken at Standard Level. Also included is the Diploma Programme Core, which is composed of Extended Essay; Theory of Knowledge; and Creativity, Action, and Service (CAS) components. The IB Diploma is an internationally recognized academic school - leaving qualification that provides entry to, and in some cases, advanced standing in, university. International Baccalaureate (IB) exams are typically considered equivalent to Advanced Placement (AP) exams and are at an academic level above the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for successful completion of IB subjects by American and Canadian universities as well as Universities around the World.
International schools following the British Curriculum of education may offer the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) qualification, which is considered to be at the same level, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IGCSE is the international counterpart to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualification, taken by secondary school students at Key Stage 4 in the United Kingdom. Edexcel and Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) are examination boards which offer the IGCSE qualification worldwide.
Students generally take five to ten subjects, according to their desired program of study and the offerings available at their school; an IGCSE with eight subjects at grades A * - C is considered equivalent to the full high school diploma. Unlike the high school diploma, which is typically studied for in years 9 - 12 and awarded in year 12, the IGCSE is typically awarded at year 11, after which the A Levels are studied for and awarded.
Following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Cambridge Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) Diploma, developed by the Cambridge International Examinations board. As part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma program, students take a combination of Cambridge International AS Level and A Level subjects, administered by Cambridge International Examinations with at least one subject taken in each of three subject areas: Mathematics and Science, Languages, and Arts and Humanities; subjects from a fourth subject group, Global Perspecties, may also be chosen. Six credits must be earned to achieve the Diploma; an AS Level counts as a full (single) credit, and an A Level counts as a double credit. The Cambridge AICE Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma by American and Canadian Universities.
As an alternative to the Cambridge AICE Diploma, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Edexcel International Diploma (ID), in lieu of or alongside the traditional high school diploma, following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE. The International Diploma requires successful completion of three Edexcel A Levels or three BTEC Level 3 Extended Diplomas, along with a Level 3 Extended Project (EPQ), a BTEC Level 3 WorkSkills Plus Certificate, and an Edexcel AS Level in General Studies. This qualification thus allows for a blended mix of academic studies and vocational training, to prepare students for higher education as well as the workplace. The Edexcel International Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the International Diploma by American and Canadian universities.
International schools following the French Curriculum of education may offer the Baccalauréat (Le Bac) in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The Baccalauréat is the traditional school - leaving qualification of French schools. The Baccalauréat is offered in several streams; subjects chosen for the Baccalauréat depend on the stream chosen by the student.
Accredited French international schools in the United States may also offer the Baccalauréat Franco Américain (French American Baccalauréat), as an alternative to the traditional Baccalauréat, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The French American Baccalauréat is offered as a joint initiative of the College Board and the French Ministry of Education. The curriculum includes Advanced Placement (AP) subjects and French classes; in lieu of three French classes, students take three corresponding AP classes in the première (year 11) and terminale (year 12) years of high school. AP exams are taken in May of year 11 or year 12, and French Baccalauréat exams are taken according to the normal academic calendar. Students may elect to take the Baccalauréat Franco Américain in the Literature (L), Economics (ES), and Science (S) courses of study.
In England and Wales, the high school diploma is considered to be at the level of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), which is awarded at Year 11. For college and university admissions, the high school diploma may be accepted in lieu of the GCSE if an average grade of C is obtained in subjects with a GCSE counterpart.
As the more academically rigorous A Levels awarded at Year 13 are expected for university admission, the high school diploma alone is generally not considered to meet university requirements. Students who wish to study in the United Kingdom may additionally participate in the Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, which are considered to be at the level of the A Level qualifications and earn points on the UCAS Tariff, or may opt to take A Level examinations in British international schools or as private candidates. College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) tests, such as the SAT, SAT Subject Tests, or the ACT, may also be considered.
The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) recommends that in addition to a high school diploma, grades of 3 or above in at least two, or ideally three, Advanced Placement exams may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission. The IB Diploma may also be accepted. For the College Entrance Examination Board tests, a minimum score of 600 or higher in all sections of the SAT or a minimum score of 26 or higher in all sections of the ACT along with a minimum score of 600 in relevant SAT Subject Tests may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission.
Within the United States and Canada, there is universal recognition of all officially awarded high school diplomas earned in any jurisdiction. Employers, colleges, and universities generally do not distinguish between high school diplomas based on the jurisdiction of awarding, and consider all high school diplomas of the same level to be equivalent. However, where differences in curriculum requirements or levels of academic rigor are made between diplomas issued in a particular jurisdiction, distinctions may be made. Specific requirements for the curriculum content and the level of academic rigor needed for acceptance may be made by those who request a high school diploma.
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who was the first to sing the lion sleeps tonight | The Lion Sleeps Tonight - wikipedia
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' is a song written and recorded originally by Solomon Linda with the Evening Birds for the South African Gallo Record Company in 1939, under the title "Mbube ''. Composed in Zulu, it was adapted and covered internationally by many 1950s and ' 60s pop and folk revival artists, including the Weavers, Jimmy Dorsey, Yma Sumac, Miriam Makeba and the Kingston Trio. In 1961, it became a number one hit in the United States as adapted in English with the best - known version by the doo - wop group the Tokens. It went on to earn at least US $15 million in royalties from cover versions and film licensing. The pop group Tight Fit had a number one hit in the UK with the song in 1982.
"Mbube '' (Zulu for "lion '') was written in the 1920s, by Solomon Linda, a South African singer of Zulu origin, who later worked for the Gallo Record Company in Johannesburg as a cleaner and record packer. He spent his weekends performing with the Evening Birds, a musical ensemble, and it was at Gallo Records, under the direction of producer Griffiths Motsieloa, that Linda and his fellow musicians recorded several songs including "Mbube, '' which incorporated a call - response pattern common among many Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups, including the Zulu.
According to journalist Rian Malan:
"Mbube '' was n't the most remarkable tune, but there was something compelling about the underlying chant, a dense meshing of low male voices above which Solomon yodelled and howled for two exhilarating minutes, improvising occasionally. The third take was the best, achieving immortality when Solly took a deep breath, opened his mouth, and improvised the melody that the world now associates with these words:
In the jungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight.
Issued by Gallo as a 78 - rpm record in 1939, and marketed to black audiences, "Mbube '' became a hit and Linda a star throughout South Africa. By 1948, the song had sold over 100,000 copies in Africa and among black South African immigrants in Great Britain. Linda also lent its name to a style of African a cappella music that evolved into isicathamiya (also called mbube), popularized by Ladysmith Black Mambazo.
In 1949, Alan Lomax, then working as folk music director for Decca Records, brought Solomon Linda 's 78 recording to the attention of his friend Pete Seeger of the folk group The Weavers. In November 1951, after having performed the song for at least a year in their concerts, The Weavers recorded an adapted version with brass and string orchestra and chorus and released it as a 78 single entitled "Wimoweh '', a mishearing of the original song 's chorus of "Uyimbube '', Zulu: You are a lion. Their version contained the chanting chorus "Wimoweh '' and Linda 's improvised melodic line. The Weavers credited the song as "Traditional '', with arrangement by "Paul Campbell '', later found to be a pseudonym used by the Weavers in order to claim royalties. It reached Billboard 's top ten and became a staple of The Weavers ' live repertoire, achieving further exposure on their best - selling The Weavers at Carnegie Hall LP album, recorded in 1955 and issued in 1957. The song was also covered extensively by other folk revival groups such as The Kingston Trio, and exotica singer Yma Sumac. However, Miriam Makeba, in 1960, recorded the same song as "Mbube '', with the writing credit given to "J. Linda ''.
In 1961, two RCA records producers, Hugo Peretti and Luigi Creatore, hired Juilliard - trained musician and lyricist George David Weiss to arrange a pop music cover of "Wimoweh '', for the B - side of a 45 - rpm single called "Tina, '' sung by the teenage doo - wop group The Tokens. Weiss wrote the English lyrics: "In the jungle, the mighty jungle, The lion sleeps tonight... '' and "Hush, my darling, do n't fear, my darling... ''
Weiss also brought in soprano Anita Darian to reprise Yma Sumac 's version, before, during and after the saxophone solo. "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' was issued by RCA in 1961, and it rocketed to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Weiss ' Abilene Music Inc., was the publisher of this arrangement, and listed "Albert Stanton '' (a pseudonym for Al Brackman, the business partner of Pete Seeger 's music publisher, Howie Richmond), as one of the song 's writers or arrangers.
Social historian Ronald D. Cohen writes, "Howie Richmond copyrighted many songs originally in the public domain (sic) but now slightly revised to satisfy Decca and also to reap profits. '' Canadian writer Mark Steyn, on the other hand, attributes the invention of the pseudonym "Paul Campbell '' to Pete Seeger. Howie Richmond 's claim of author 's copyright could secure both the songwriter 's royalties and his company 's publishing share of the song 's earnings.
Although Linda was listed as a performer on the record itself, the Weavers thought he had recorded a traditional Zulu song. Their managers, publisher, and their attorneys knew otherwise because they had been contacted by -- and had reached an agreement with -- Eric Gallo of Gallo Records in South Africa. The Americans maintained, however, that South African copyrights were not valid because South Africa was not a signatory to U.S. copyright law. In the 1950s, after Linda 's authorship was made clear, Seeger sent Linda $1000. Seeger also instructed TRO / Folkways to henceforth pay his share of authors ' earnings to Linda. The folksinger apparently trusted his publisher 's word of honor and either saw no need, or was unable to make sure these instructions were carried out.
In 2000, South African journalist Rian Malan wrote a feature article for Rolling Stone magazine in which he recounted Linda 's story and estimated that the song had earned $15 million for its use in the Disney movie The Lion King alone. The piece prompted filmmaker François Verster to create the Emmy - winning documentary A Lion 's Trail, that told Linda 's story while incidentally exposing the workings of the multi-million dollar corporate music publishing industry.
In July 2004, as a result of the publicity generated by Malan 's article and the subsequent documentary, the song became the subject of a lawsuit between Linda 's estate and Disney, claiming that Disney owed $1.6 million in royalties for the use of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' in the film and musical stage productions of The Lion King. At the same time, the Richmond Organization began to pay $3,000 annually into Linda 's estate. In February 2006, Linda 's descendants reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music Publishers, who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney, to place the earnings of the song in a trust.
The song has been recorded by numerous artists, and is a standard that has become a part of popular culture.
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who played dr burke on grey's anatomy | Isaiah Washington - wikipedia
Isaiah Washington IV (born August 3, 1963) is an American actor. A veteran of several Spike Lee films, Washington is best known for his role as Dr. Preston Burke on the ABC medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy from 2005 until 2007, and again in 2014. From 2014 to 2018, Washington portrayed Thelonious Jaha on The CW 's science fiction television series The 100.
Washington was born in Houston, Texas where his parents were residents in the Houston Heights community. His parents moved to Missouri City, Texas around 1980, where he was one of the first graduates from Willowridge High School, Houston, in 1981. Washington revealed in an interview with Star Jones that his father, after whom he was named, was murdered when he was 13 years old. Washington went on to serve in the United States Air Force and attended Howard University.
In 2005, Washington originated the role of gifted cardiothoracic surgeon Dr. Preston Burke on the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy. His portrayal earned him two NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series, as well as a Screen Actors Guild Award. He was paired onscreen with Sandra Oh, who plays intern Cristina Yang. Washington had originally auditioned for the role of Derek Shepherd, which ultimately went to Patrick Dempsey. Burke had originally been described as a nebbishy, stout forty - something man. For his portrayal of Burke, Isaiah was honored by TV Guide as one of "TV 's Sexiest Men '' in June 2006, and was named one of TV 's sexiest doctors in June 2008 on TV Guide 's television channel. Prior to the TV Guide honor, Isaiah was named as one of People 's "50 Beautiful People '' in May 2006. On March 6, 2014, ABC announced that Washington would be returning to the show in a guest appearance as Burke. He returned in season 10, which served as part of a farewell storyline for Sandra Oh 's character, Cristina Yang. The characters had been previously engaged to be married.
In the show 's third season, Washington became a central figure in a widely reported backstage controversy. In October 2006, rumors surfaced that Washington had insulted co-star T.R. Knight with a homophobic slur. Shortly after the details of the argument became public, Knight publicly disclosed that he was gay. The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on - set ''.
The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the Golden Globes in January 2007. While being interviewed on the red carpet prior to the awards, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay ''. After the show won Best Drama, Washington, in response to press queries as to any conflicts backstage, said, "No, I did not call T.R. a faggot ''. However, in an interview with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Knight said that "everybody heard him ''.
After being rebuked by his studio, Touchstone Television (now ABC Studios), Washington issued a statement apologizing at length for using the epithet in an argument with Patrick Dempsey. On January 30, 2007, a source told People magazine that Washington was scheduled to return to the Grey 's Anatomy set as early as that Thursday for the first time since entering "executive counseling '' after making the comments at the Golden Globes.
However, on June 7, 2007, ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington 's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show. "I 'm mad as hell and I 'm not going to take it anymore, '' Washington said in a statement released by his publicist (borrowing the famous line from Network). In another report, Washington stated he was planning to "spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone, work on an independent film and avoid worrying about the show ''. Washington, in late June 2007, began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series. On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN, to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word '' in reference to Knight, but rather told Dempsey to stop treating him like a "F - word '' during an argument "provoked '' by Dempsey, who, he felt, was treating him like a "B - word '', a "P - word '', and the "F - word '', which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back ''. He also disputed the accusations made by Knight, who he claimed was misrepresenting himself out of disappointment over his character.
In July 2007, NBC decided to cast Washington as a guest star in a story arc in its new series Bionic Woman. NBC co-chairman Ben Silverman noted his eagerness to work with Washington, saying it would be "like A-Rod leaving the Yankees in midseason ''. However, Bionic Woman was cancelled after only eight episodes due to low ratings. Washington himself said that his dismissal from Grey 's Anatomy was an unfortunate misunderstanding that he was eager to move past. By the beginning of the next season of Grey 's Anatomy, Washington 's character "Burke '' had left the show following the end of the season finale.
In January 2014, in an interview with I Am Entertainment magazine, Washington spoke about life after Grey 's Anatomy and he stated, "I do n't worry about whether or not the stories I tell will destroy my acting career because, you ca n't take away something that does n't exist. They killed the actor (in me) on June 7, 2007. ''
Washington played the role of Chancellor Jaha in The 100, an American post-apocalyptic drama television series that began airing on The CW Television Network in spring 2014. The series is based on a book of the same name by Kass Morgan, and developed by Jason Rothenberg. Washington 's character was killed in the second episode of the show 's fifth season, "Red Queen ''.
Washington also starred in the film Blue Caprice, which was inspired by the Beltway sniper attacks during which two men, John Muhammed (played by Washington) and Lee Malvo (Tequan Richmond), conducted a siege of terror on the Washington, D.C. area. The film was released in theaters on September 13, 2013.
Washington married Jenisa Marie Garland on February 14, 1996. The couple have three children. Washington has written a book called A Man from Another Land, which chronicles Washington 's early life, his TV and film career, and his search to find his roots after going through a DNA test that showed his ancestors came from Sierra Leone in West Africa. Since learning about his history, Washington has traveled to Sierra Leone, donated medical supplies to a hospital there, and built a school. He has also been invested with a chieftaincy title of the Mende people in appreciation for his work in the country, taking the regnal name of Gandobay Manga I.
Washington has endorsed Jill Stein for President of the United States.
Washington is of African descent. A genealogical DNA test conducted by African Ancestry, Inc. revealed that Washington 's maternal ancestry can be traced to what is now Sierra Leone, and that he has an ancestral link to the Mende and Temne peoples there. In May 2006 he visited Sierra Leone, and received a warm welcome. He travelled to Sierra Leone in May 2006 marking the beginning of his charity work and was granted Sierra Leonean citizenship, making him the first African American to be granted full citizenship based on DNA.
His paternal ancestry links him to the Mbundu people, an ethnic group in Angola.
Image Awards
Screen Actors Guild Awards
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how do you use a standard normal table | Standard normal table - wikipedia
A standard normal table, also called the unit normal table or Z table, is a mathematical table for the values of Φ, which are the values of the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution. It is used to find the probability that a statistic is observed below, above, or between values on the standard normal distribution, and by extension, any normal distribution. Since probability tables can not be printed for every normal distribution, as there are an infinite variety of normal distributions, it is common practice to convert a normal to a standard normal and then use the standard normal table to find probabilities.
Normal distributions are symmetrical, bell - shaped distributions that are useful in describing real - world data. The standard normal distribution, represented by the letter Z, is the normal distribution having a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
If X is a random variable from a normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ, its Z - score may be calculated from X by subtracting μ and dividing by the standard error:
For the average of a sample of size n from some population in which the mean is μ and the standard deviation is σ, the standard error is σ / √ n:
Z tables are typically composed as follows:
Example: To find 0.69, one would look down the rows to find 0.6 and then across the columns to 0.09 which would yield a probability of 0.25490 for a cumulative from mean table or 0.75490 from a cumulative table.
Because the normal distribution curve is symmetrical, probabilities for only positive values of Z are typically given. The user has to use a complementary operation on the absolute value of Z, as in the example below.
Z tables use at least three different conventions:
This table gives a probability that a statistic is between 0 (the mean) and Z.
Note that for z = 1, 2, 3, one obtains (after multiplying by 2 to account for the (- z, z) interval) the results f (z) = 0.6827, 0.9545, 0.9974, characteristic of the 68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule.
This table gives a probability that a statistic is less than Z (i.e. between negative infinity and Z).
The values are calculated using the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal distribution with mean of zero and standard deviation of one, usually denoted with the capital Greek letter Φ (\ displaystyle \ Phi) (phi), is the integral
Φ (\ displaystyle \ Phi) (z) is related to the error function, or erf (z).
This table gives a probability that a statistic is greater than Z.
This table gives a probability that a statistic is greater than Z, for large integer Z values.
A professor 's exam scores are approximately distributed normally with mean 80 and standard deviation 5. Only a cumulative from mean table is available.
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malwa majha and baba regions are all part of which state | Malwa (Punjab) - Wikipedia
Malwa is the region of Punjab south of the Satluj river.
The following districts are classified as Malwa:
Coordinates: 30 ° 30 ′ 00 '' N 76 ° 00 ′ 00 '' E / 30.5000 ° N 76.0000 ° E / 30.5000; 76.0000
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when was obey taken out of marriage vows | Marriage vows - wikipedia
Marriage vows are promises each partner in a couple makes to the other during a wedding ceremony based upon Western Christian norms. They are not universal to marriage and not necessary in most legal jurisdictions. They are not even universal within Christian marriage, as Eastern Christians do not have marriage vows in their traditional wedding ceremonies.
In the time of the Roman Empire (17 BC -- 476 AD) the lower classes had "free '' marriages. The bride 's father would deliver her to the groom, and the two agreed that they were wed, and would keep the vow of marriage by mutual consent. Wealthy Romans, though, would sign documents listing property rights to publicly declare that their union was legalized and not a common law marriage. This was the beginning of the official recording of marriage.
The oldest traditional wedding vows can be traced back to the manuals of the medieval church. In England, there were manuals of the dioceses of Salisbury (Sarum) and York. The compilers of the first Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, based its marriage service mainly on the Sarum manual. Upon agreement to marry, the Church of England usually offered couples a choice. The couple could promise each other to "love and cherish '' or, alternatively, the groom promises to "love, cherish, and worship '', and the bride to "love, cherish, and obey ''.
Couples wedding in the Roman Catholic Church essentially make the same pledge to one another. According to the Rite of Marriage (# 25) the customary text in English is:
I, ____, take you, ____, to be my (husband / wife). I promise to be true to you in good times and in bad, in sickness and in health. I will love you and honour you all the days of my life.
In the United States, Catholic wedding vows may also take the following form:
I, ____, take you, ____, to be my lawfully wedded (husband / wife), to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, until death do us part.
The priest will then say aloud "You have declared your consent before the Church. May the Lord in his goodness strengthen your consent and fill you both with his blessings. What God has joined, men must not divide. Amen. ''
The law in England authorizes marriages to be legal if properly carried out and registered in the Church of England and some other religious bodies (e.g. Jewish, Quakers): other men and women who wish to marry can be married by a local official authorized to do so (civil ceremony). Circumstances may result in the same partners having both ceremonies at different times, though this is rare. The vows, presence of witnesses, and civil registration are absolute requirements under the law.
Civil ceremonies often allow couples to choose their own marriage vows, although many civil marriage vows are adapted from the traditional vows, taken from the Book of Common Prayer, "To have and to hold from this day forward, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part. ''
They were first published in English in the prayer book of 1549, based on earlier Latin texts (the Sarum and York Rituals of the medieval period). An older version of the final phrase is "until death us depart '' where "depart '' means "separate ''. "Until death us depart '' had to be changed due to changes in the usage of "depart '' in the Prayer Book of 1662. In the 1928 prayer book (not authorized) and in editions of the 1662 prayer book printed thereafter "obey '' was retained (in the 1928 book an alternative version omitted this). The 1928 revised form of Matrimony was quite widely adopted, though the form of 1662 was also widely used, though less so after the introduction of the Alternative Service Book.
The original wedding vows, as printed in The Book of Common Prayer, are:
Groom: I, ____, take thee, _____, to be my wedded Wife, to have and to hold from this day forward, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part, according to God 's holy ordinance; and thereto I plight thee my troth.
Bride: I, _____, take thee, _____, to be my wedded Husband, to have and to hold from this day forward, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love, cherish, and to obey, till death us do part, according to God 's holy ordinance; and thereto I give thee my troth.
Then, as the groom places the ring on the bride 's finger, he says the following:
With this Ring I thee wed, with my body I thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I thee endow: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
In the Alternative Service Book (1980) two versions of the vows are included: the bride and groom must select one of the versions only. Version A:
I, ____, take you, ____, to be my wife (or husband), to have and to hold from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part, according to God 's holy law, and this is my solemn vow.
Version B is identical except for the clause "to love and to cherish '' where the groom says "to love, cherish, and worship '' and the bride says "to love, cherish, and obey ''.
Since 2000 the service in Common Worship the normal vows are as follows:
I, N, take you, N, to be my wife (or husband), to have and to hold from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part, according to God 's holy law, in the presence of God I make this vow.
However, the bride and groom may choose to replace the clause "to love and to cherish '' with "to love, cherish, and obey '' when the bride makes her vows.
On September 12, 1922, the Episcopal Church voted to remove the word "obey '' from the bride 's section of wedding vows. Other churches of the Anglican Communion each have their own authorized prayer books which in general follow the vows described above though the details and languages used do vary.
In the United Kingdom, since the first law regulating marriage (the Marriage Act 1753), the state recognises marriages conducted by the "Society of Friends '' (Quakers), Jews, and the Church of England.
The declarations made in Quaker marriage were first set down in a London Yearly Meeting minute in 1675 as such:
Man: Friends, in the fear of the Lord, and before this assembly, I take my friend AB to be my wife, promising, through divine assistance, to be unto her a loving and faithful husband, until it shall please the Lord by death to separate us.
Woman: Friends, in the fear of the Lord, and before this assembly, I take my friend CD to be my husband, promising, through divine assistance, to be unto him a loving and faithful wife, until it shall please the Lord by death to separate us.
The procedure is restated in a minute of London Yearly Meeting of 1754, and the declarations remained the same until the twentieth century. In July 1922, the Committee on the Marriage Declaration was set up, and this reported to London Yearly Meeting in 1923, and after reference to a further committee the final phrase was changed to as long as we both on earth shall live; although the option of until it shall please the Lord by death to separate us remained as an alternative.
The current declarations allowed in Britain Yearly Meeting is:
Friends, I take this my friend (name) to be my spouse, promising, through divine assistance, to be unto him / her a loving and faithful spouse, so long as we both on earth shall live.
The following alternatives are currently allowed:
Whilst couples may add to these, under the Marriage Act 1949, all civil marriage in England and Wales, and marriage by an authorised person (this includes religious marriage not carried out by the Anglican church, Jewish or Society of Friends (Quakers)), must include the following declaration and contracting words:
I do solemnly declare that I know not of any lawful impediment why I ____ may not be joined in matrimony to ____.
I call upon these persons here present to witness that I ____ do take thee ____ to be my lawfully wedded wife / husband.
The Marriage Ceremony (Prescribed Words) Act 1996 allowed an alternative declaration of either:
I declare that I know of no legal reason why I ____ may not be joined in marriage to ____.
Registrar / Minister: Are you ____ free lawfully to marry ____ Man / Woman: I am.
and an alternative of the contracting words of:
I ____ take you / thee ____ to be my wedded wife / husband.
The wedding vows as practised in most English - speaking countries derive ultimately from the Sarum rite of mediaeval England. The first part of the vows of the Sarum rite is given in Latin, but is instructed to be said by the priest "in linguam materna '', i.e. in the "mother tongue '' of those present. The vows of the first English prayer book of 1549 mostly correspond to those of the Sarum rite.
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how can the number of judges of the supreme court be increased | Supreme court of India - Wikipedia
The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court, with the power of constitutional review. Consisting of the Chief Justice of India and 30 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.
As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the high courts of various states of the Union and other courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and settles disputes between various governments in the country. As an advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it under the constitution by the President of India. It also may take cognisance of matters on its own (or suo moto), without anyone drawing its attention to them. The law declared by the supreme court becomes binding on all courts within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142, it is the duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.
In 1861 the Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create high courts for various provinces and abolished supreme courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the sadar adalats in presidency towns which had acted as the highest court in their respective regions. These new high courts had the distinction of being the highest courts for all cases till the creation of Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935. The Federal Court had jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeal against judgements of the high courts. The first CJI of India was H.J. Kania.
The Supreme Court of India came into being on 28 January 1950. It replaced both the Federal Court of India and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which were then at the apex of the Indian court system.
Supreme court initially had its seat at Chamber of Princes in the parliament building where the previous Federal Court of India sat from 1937 to 1950. The first Chief Justice of India was Sir HJ Kania. In 1958, the supreme court moved to its present premises. Originally, the Constitution of India envisaged a supreme court with a chief justice and seven judges; leaving it to parliament to increase this number. In formative years, the supreme court met from 10 to 12 in the morning and then 2 to 4 in the afternoon for 28 days in a month.
The building is shaped to symbolize scales of justice with its centre - beam being the Central Wing of the building comprising the chief justice 's court, the largest of the courtrooms, with two court halls on either side. The Right Wing of the structure has the bar -- room, the offices of the Attorney General of India and other law officers and the library of the court. The Left Wing has the offices of the court. In all, there are 15 courtrooms in the various wings of the building.
The foundation stone of the supreme court 's building was laid on 29 October 1954 by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India. The main block of the building has been built on a triangular plot of 17 acres and has been designed in an Indo - British style by the chief architect Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar, the first Indian to head the Central Public Works Department.It has a 27.6 m (90 ft 7 in) high dome and a spacious colonnaded verandah. The Court moved into the building in 1958. In 1979, two new wings -- the East Wing and the West Wing -- were added to the complex. 1994 saw the last extension.
On 20 February 1980, a black bronze sculpture of 210 cm (6 ft 11 in) height was installed in the lawn of the supreme court. It portrays Mother India in the form of the figure of a lady, sheltering the young Republic of India represented by the symbol of a child, who is upholding the laws of land symbolically shown in the form of an open book. On the book, a balance beam is shown, which represents dispensation of equal justice to all. The sculpture was made by the renowned artist Chintamoni Kar. The sculpture is just behind the statue of Mahatma Gandhi.
The design of the Court 's seal is reproduced from the wheel that appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion capital of Asoka with 24 spokes. The inscription in Sanskrit, यतो धर्मस्ततो जयः (IAST: Yato Dharmastato Jayaḥ, means "whence law (dharma), thence victory ''. It is also referred to -- as the wheel of righteousness, encompassing truth, goodness and equity.
The registry of the supreme court is headed by the Secretary - General who is assisted by 8 registrars, several additional and deputy registrars, etc., with 1770 employees in all (221 gazetted officers, 805 non-gazetted and 744 Class IV employees) Article 146 of the constitution deals with the appointments of officers and servants of the supreme court registry.
Supreme Court Rules, 2013 entitle only those advocates who are registered with the supreme court, called ' advocates - on - record ' to appear, act and plead for a party in the court. Those advocates who are designated as ' senior advocates ' by the supreme court or any of the high courts can appear for clients along with an advocate - on - record. Any other advocate can appear for a party along with or under instructions from an advocate - on - record.
Initially the Constitution of India provided for a supreme court with a chief justice and 7 judges. In the early years, a full bench of the supreme court sat together to hear the cases presented before them. As the work of the Court increased and cases began to accumulate, parliament increased the number of judges from the original 8 in 1950 to 10 in 1956, 13 in 1960, 17 in 1977, 26 in 1986 and 31 in 2008 (current strength). As the number of the judges has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two or three (referred to as a division bench) -- coming together in larger benches of five or more (referred to as a constitution bench) when required to settle fundamental questions of law. A bench may refer a case before it to a larger bench, should the need arise.
A citizen of India not exceeding 65 years age per Article 124 of the constitution who has been
is eligible to be recommended for appointment, a judge of the supreme court.
I am proud to be an Indian. India is the only country where a member of the minority Parsi community with a population of 1, 67,000, like myself, can aspire to attain the post of the Chief Justice of India. These things do not happen in our neighbouring countries.
In practice, judges of the supreme court have been selected so far, mostly from amongst judges of the high courts. Barely seven justices -- S.M. Sikri, S. Chandra Roy, Kuldip Singh, Santosh Hegde, R.F. Nariman, U.U. Lalit, L. Nageswara Rao and Indu Malhotra -- have been appointed to the supreme court directly from the bar (i.e. who were practising advocates).
The supreme court saw its first woman judge when Justice M. Fathima Beevi was sworn into office in 1989. The seventh and the most recent woman judge in the court is Justice Indu Malhotra. In 1968, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah became the first Muslim Chief Justice of India. In 2000, Justice K.G. Balakrishnan became the first judge from the dalit community. In 2007 he also became the first dalit Chief Justice of India. In 2010, Justice S.H. Kapadia coming from a Parsi minority community became the Chief Justice of India. In 2017, Justice Jagdish Singh Khehar became the first Sikh Chief Justice of India. Indu Malhotra is the first women justice to be selected directly from bar.
The constitution seeks to ensure the independence of supreme court judges in various ways. Per Article 50 of directive principles of state policy, the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive. Independence of the judiciary, the supremacy of the constitution and rule of law are the features of the basic structure of the constitution. Supreme court and high courts are empowered to frame suo moto cases without receiving the formal petitions / complaints on any suspected injustice including actions / acts indulging in contempt of court and contempt of the constitution by the executive, legislators, citizens, etc. The main purpose of supreme court is to decide constitutional issues. It is the duty of the judiciary to frame suo moto cases or to probe the cases / petitions at the earliest against the executive or legislature when laws are implemented violating the basic foundation and basic structure of the constitution as the Article 38 (1) of directive principles ensures that the state / judiciary shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated / informed in all institutions of life.
Dr. Ambedkar clarified as given below in the Constituent Assembly debates on Article 38 (1) high lighting its inevitable implementation.
... The word ' strive ' which occurs in the Draft Constitution, in judgement, is very important. We have used it because our intention is even when there are circumstances which prevent the Government, or which stand in the way of the Government giving effect to these Directive Principles, they shall, even under hard and unpropitious circumstances, always strive in the fulfilment of these Directives. That is why we have used the word ' strive '. Otherwise, it would be open for any Government to say that the circumstances are so bad, that the finances are so inadequate that we can not even make an effort in the direction in which the Constitution asks us to go.
As per the constitution, as held by the court in the Three Judges Cases -- (1982, 1993, 1998), a judge is appointed to the supreme court by the president on the recommendation of the collegium -- a closed group of the Chief Justice of India, the four most senior judges of the court and the senior-most judge hailing from the high court of a prospective appointee. This has resulted in a Memorandum of Procedure being followed, for the appointments.
Judges used to be appointed by the President on the advice of the Union Cabinet. After 1993 (the Second judges ' Case), no minister, or even the executive collectively, can suggest any names to the President, who ultimately decides on appointing them from a list of names recommended only by the collegium of the judiciary. Simultaneously, as held in that judgment, the executive was given the power to reject a recommended name. However, according to some, the executive has not been diligent in using this power to reject the names of bad candidates recommended by the judiciary.
The collegium system has come under a fair amount of criticism. In 2015, the parliament passed a law to replace the collegium with a National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). This was struck down as unconstitutional by the supreme court, in the Fourth judges ' Case, as the new system would undermine the independence of the judiciary. Putting the old system of the collegium back, the court invited suggestions, even from the general public, on how to improve the collegium system, broadly along the lines of -- setting up an eligibility criteria for appointments, a permanent secretariat to help the collegium sift through material on potential candidates, infusing more transparency into the selection process, grievance redressal and any other suggestion not in these four categories, like transfer of judges. This resulted in the court asking the government and the collegium to finalize the memorandum of procedure incorporating the above.
Once, in 2009, the recommendation for the appointment of a judge of a high court made by the collegium of that court, had come to be challenged in the supreme court. The court held that who could become a judge was a matter of fact, and any person had a right to question it. But who should become a judge was a matter of opinion and could not be questioned. As long as an effective consultation took place within a collegium in arriving at that opinion, the content or material placed before it to form the opinion could not be called for scrutiny in court.
Supreme court judges retire at the age of 65. However, there have been suggestions from the judges of the Supreme Court of India to provide for a fixed term for the judges including the Chief Justice of India.
Article 125 of the Indian constitution leaves it to the Indian parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, leave of absence, pension, etc. of the supreme court judges. However, the parliament can not alter any of these privileges and rights to the judge 's disadvantage after his / her appointment. A judge of the supreme court draws a salary of ₹ 250,000 (US $3,700) per month, equivalent to the Cabinet Secretary of India, while the chief justice earns ₹ 280,000 (US $4,200) per month.
As Per Article 124 and third Schedule of the constitution, the chief justice (or a judge) of the Supreme Court of India is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the President an oath or affirmation that he / she
will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgement perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill - will and that I will uphold the Constitution and the laws.
Per Article 124 (4) of the constitution, President can remove a judge on proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. For initiating impeachment proceedings against a judge, at least 50 members of Rajya Sabha or 100 members of Lok Sabha shall issue the notice as per judges (inquiry) act, 1968. Then a judicial committee would be formed to frame charges against the judge, to conduct the fair trial and to submit its report to parliament. When the judicial committee report finds the judge guilty of misbehaviour or incapacity, further removal proceedings would be taken up by the parliament if the judge is not resigning himself.
The judge upon proven guilty is also liable for punishment as per applicable laws or for contempt of the constitution by breaching the oath under disrespecting constitution
A Person who has retired as a judge of the supreme court is debarred from practicing in any court of law or before any other authority in India.
Article 137 of the Constitution of India lays down provision for the power of the supreme court to review its own judgements. As per this Article, subject to the provisions of any law made by parliament or any rules made under Article 145, the supreme court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.
Under Order XL of the supreme court Rules, that have been framed under its powers under Article 145 of the constitution, the supreme court may review its judgment or order but no application for review is to be entertained in a civil proceeding except on the grounds mentioned in Order XLVII, Rule 1 of the Code of Civil Procedure.
Under Articles 129 and 142 of the constitution the supreme court has been vested with power to punish anyone for contempt of any court in India including itself. The supreme court performed an unprecedented action when it directed a sitting Minister of the state of Maharashtra, Swaroop Singh Naik, to be jailed for 1 - month on a charge of contempt of court on 12 May 2006. This was the first time that a serving Minister was ever jailed.
The Constitution of India under Article 145 empowers the supreme court to frame its own rules for regulating the practice and procedure of the Court as and when required (with the approval of the President of India). Accordingly, "supreme court Rules, 1950 '' were framed. The 1950 Rules were replaced by the supreme court Rules, 1966. In 2014, supreme court notified the supreme court Rules, 2013 replacing the 1966 Rules effective from 19 August 2014.
The supreme court decided to follow a new roster system from February 5, 2018 for allocation of matters to judges. Under the new roster system, the CJI will hear all special leave petitions (SLPs), and matters related to public interest, social justice, elections, arbitration, and criminal matters, among others. The other collegium / senior judges to hear matters related to labour disputes, taxation matters, compensation matters, consumer protection matters, maritime law matters, mortgage matters, personal law matters, family law matters, land acquisition matters, service matters, company matters etc.
Supreme court Reports is the official journal of reportable supreme court decisions. It is published under the authority of the Supreme Court of India by the Controller of Publications, Government of India, Delhi. In addition, there are many other reputed private journals that report supreme court decisions. Some of these other important journals are: SCR (The supreme court Reports), SCC (supreme court Cases), AIR (All India Reporter), SCALE, etc.
In the year 2010, the supreme court filed an appeal before itself challenging the judgement of the Delhi high court holding that the office of the chief justice of India came under the ambit of the RTI Act and was liable to reveal information under it. Though the supreme court is in favour of bringing CJI office under RTI act, the judgement of the pending case is not yet pronounced.
Legal - aid, court - fee vendors, first - aid post, dental clinic, physiotherapy unit and pathology lab; rail - reservation counter, canteen, post office and a branch and 3 ATMs of UCO Bank, supreme court Museum can be availed by litigants and visitors.
After some of the courts overturned state laws for redistributing land from zamindar (landlord) estates on the ground that the laws violated the zamindars ' fundamental rights, the parliament passed the 1st amendment to the constitution in 1951, followed by the 4th amendment in 1955, to uphold its authority to redistribute land. The supreme court countered these amendments in 1967 when it ruled in Golaknath v. State of Punjab that the parliament did not have the power to abrogate fundamental rights, including the provisions on private property. The 25th amendment to the constitution in 1971 curtailed the right of a citizen to property as a fundamental right and gave authority to the government to infringe private property, which led to a furor amongst the zamindars.
The independence of judiciary was severely curtailed during the Indian Emergency (1975 -- 1977) of Indira Gandhi. The constitutional rights of imprisoned persons were restricted under Preventive detention laws passed by the parliament. In the case of Shiva Kant Shukla Additional District Magistrate of Jabalpur v. Shiv Kant Shukla, popularly known as the Habeas Corpus case, a bench of five senior-most judges of supreme court ruled in favour of state 's right for unrestricted powers of detention during the emergency. Justices A.N. Ray, P.N. Bhagwati, Y.V. Chandrachud, and M.H. Beg, stated in the majority decision:
The only dissenting opinion was from Justice H.R. Khanna, who stated:
It is believed that before delivering his dissenting opinion, Justice Khanna had mentioned to his sister: "I have prepared my judgment, which is going to cost me the Chief Justice - ship of India. '' In January 1977, Justice Khanna was superseded despite being the most senior judge at the time and thereby Government broke the convention of appointing only the senior most judge to the position of Chief Justice of India. Justice Khanna remains a legendary figure among the legal fraternity in India for this decision.
The New York Times, wrote of this opinion: "The submission of an independent judiciary to absolutist government is virtually the last step in the destruction of a democratic society; and the Indian supreme court 's decision appears close to utter surrender. ''
During the emergency period, the government also passed the 39th amendment, which sought to limit judicial review for the election of the prime minister; only a body constituted by parliament could review this election. Subsequently, the parliament, with most opposition members in jail during the emergency, passed the 42nd Amendment which prevented any court from reviewing any amendment to the constitution with the exception of procedural issues concerning ratification. A few years after the emergency, however, the supreme court rejected the absoluteness of the 42nd amendment and reaffirmed its power of judicial review in the Minerva Mills case (1980).
After Indira Gandhi lost elections in 1977, the new government of Morarji Desai, and especially law minister Shanti Bhushan (who had earlier argued for the detenues in the Habeas Corpus case), introduced a number of amendments making it more difficult to declare and sustain an emergency, and reinstated much of the power to the supreme court. It is said that the Basic Structure doctrine, created in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, was strengthened in Indira Gandhi 's case and set in stone in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.
The supreme court 's creative and expansive interpretations of Article 21 (Life and Personal Liberty), primarily after the Emergency period, have given rise to a new jurisprudence of public interest litigation that has vigorously promoted many important economic and social rights (constitutionally protected but not enforceable) including, but not restricted to, the rights to free education, livelihood, a clean environment, food and many others. Civil and political rights (traditionally protected in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian constitution) have also been expanded and more fiercely protected. These new interpretations have opened the avenue for litigation on a number of important issues.
Among the important pronouncements of the supreme court post 2000 is the Coelho case I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (Judgment of 11 January 2007). A unanimous bench of 9 judges reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine. It held that a constitutional amendment which entails violation of any fundamental rights which the Court regards as forming part of the basic structure of the constitution, then the same can be struck down depending upon its impact and consequences. The judgment clearly imposes further limitations on the constituent power of parliament with respect to the principles underlying certain fundamental rights. The judgment in Coelho has in effect restored the decision in Golak Nath regarding non-amendability of the constitution on account of infraction of fundamental rights, contrary to the judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati case.
Another important decision was of the five - judge bench in Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India; where the constitutional validity of Central Educational Institutions (Reservations in Admissions) Act, 2006 was upheld, subject to the "creamy layer '' criteria. Importantly, the Court refused to follow the ' strict scrutiny ' standards of review followed by the United States supreme court. At the same time, the Court has applied the strict scrutiny standards in Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007) ((1)) a
The supreme court declared allotment of spectrum as "unconstitutional and arbitrary '' and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A. Raja (then minister for communications & IT), the main official accused in the 2G case.
The government refused to disclose details of about 18 Indians holding accounts in LGT Bank, Liechtenstein, evoking a sharp response from a bench comprising justices B Sudershan Reddy and SS Nijjar. The court ordered Special investigation team (SIT) to probe the matter. Lack of enthusiasm made the court create a special investigative team (SIT).
The supreme court refused to stay the Andhra Pradesh High Court judgement quashing 4.5 % sub-quota for minorities under OBC reservation quota of 27 %.
Three judge bench presided by chief justice, Justice Altamas Kabir issued notice to the Centre and the Election Commission of India (EC) on the PIL filed by a group of NRIs for online / postal ballot for the Indian citizens living abroad.
While hearing T.S.R. Subramanian vs Union of India, a division bench of the supreme court ruled that --
These rulings were received mostly positively, and were termed as a ' major reform '.
In April 2014, Justice K.S. Radhakrishnan declared transgender to be the ' third gender ' in Indian law, in the case, National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India. The ruling said:
Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres, hospitals, they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society 's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.
Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education. He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings and therefore they have every right to enjoy their human rights '', concluding by declaring that:
(1) Hijras, eunuchs, apart from binary gender, be treated as "third gender '' for the purpose of safeguarding their rights under Part III of our constitution and the laws made by the parliament and the State Legislature.
(2) Transgender persons ' right to decide their self - identified gender is also upheld and the Centre and State Governments are directed to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.
In B. Prabhakara Rao vs. State of A.P. involved sudden reduction in age of superannuation from 58 years to 55 years of over 35,000 public servants of State Government, public sector undertakings, statutory bodies, educational institutions and Tirupathi - Tirumalai Devasthanams (TTD). They lost first round of litigation in the supreme court. Realising the mistake, fresh legislation was brought restoring the original age of superannuation of 58 years but providing that the benefit of new legislation would not extend to those whose reduction of age of superannuation had been upheld. In challenge to this law, Subodh Markandeya argued that all that was required was to strike down naughty "not '' -- which found favour with the supreme court bringing relief to over 35,000 public servants.
The year 2008 saw the supreme court embroiled in several controversies, from serious allegations of corruption at the highest level of the judiciary, expensive private holidays at the tax payers expense, refusal to divulge details of judges ' assets to the public, secrecy in the appointments of judges ', to refusal to make information public under the Right to Information Act. The chief justice K.G. Balakrishnan invited a lot of criticism for his comments on his post not being that of a public servant, but that of a constitutional authority. He later went back on this stand. The judiciary has come in for serious criticisms from former presidents Pratibha Patil and A.P.J. Abdul Kalam for failure in handling its duties. Former prime minister Manmohan Singh, has stated that corruption is one of the major challenges facing the judiciary, and suggested that there is an urgent need to eradicate this menace.
The Cabinet Secretary of India introduced the judges Inquiry (Amendment) Bill 2008 in parliament for setting up of a panel called the National Judicial Council, headed by the Chief Justice of India, that will probe into allegations of corruption and misconduct by High Court and supreme court judges.
According to supreme court newsletter, there are 58,519 cases pending in the supreme court, out of which 37,385 are pending for more than a year, at the end of 2011. Excluding connected cases, there are still 33,892 pending cases. As per the latest pendency data made available by the supreme court, the total number of pending cases in the supreme court as on 1 November 2017 is 55,259 which includes 32,160 admission matters (miscellaneous) and 23,099 regular hearing matters. In May, 2014, former Chief Justice of India, Justice R.M. Lodha, proposed to make Indian judiciary work throughout the year (instead of the present system of having long vacations, specially in the higher courts) in order to reduce pendency of cases in Indian courts; however, as per this proposal there is not going to be any increase in the number of working days or working hours of any of the judges and it only meant that different judges would be going on vacation during different periods of the year as per their choice; but, the Bar Council of India rejected this proposal mainly because it would have inconvenienced the advocates who would have to work throughout the year. More over, various time frames specified in ' code of civil procedure ' are also diluted by supreme court judgements to give the courts right to endlessly adjourn the cases.
Supreme court has not taken up the trail of many pending cases, since April 2014 (more than three years), challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which was enacted by the parliament without following the stipulated procedure in the constitution and is claimed detrimental to the basic foundation of the constitution on which the basic structure of the constitution is resting. The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens which is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any legislation of the parliament. Whereas the fair trial to examine the validity of the ninety - ninth constitutional amendment dated 31 December 2014, to form National Judicial Appointments Commission for the purpose of appointing the judges of the supreme court and high courts, was conducted on utmost priority and supreme court delivered its judgement on 16 October 2015 (within a year) quashing the constitutional amendment as unconstitutional and ultra virus stating the said amendment is interfering with the independence of the judiciary. Disposal of the various petitions filed against Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 is also equally important as it has alienated the basic rights of a vast section of Indian citizens and also against federal character of the constitution which is part of the basic structure of the constitution. Supreme court is also wasting its valuable time by not taking up the case in toto but conducted a piecemeal trail by delivering its judgement to dispose the petitions related with apportionment of assets between the newly formed states Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Supreme court is also conducting piecemeal trail of the petitions filed by the states regarding water sharing of rivers and bifurcation of the common high court without considering the earlier pending petitions challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which is the basic cause of all these disputes. Under checks and balances as provided in the constitution, it is the duty of the judiciary / supreme court to establish the rule of law at the earliest by rectifying any misuse of the constitution by the parliament and the executive without colluding with them and to remove perceptions of people that rule of law is side lined and a section of its citizens are subjected to discrimination.
On 12 January 2018, four senior judges of the supreme court; Jasti Chelameswar, Ranjan Gogoi, Madan Lokur and Kurian Joseph addressed a press conference criticizing Chief Justice Dipak Misra 's style of administration and the manner in which he allocated cases among judges of the supreme court. However, people close to Misra refuted the allegations that allocation of cases was unfair. On 20 April 2018, seven opposition parties submitted a petition seeking impeachment of Dipak Misra to the Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, with signatures from seventy - one parliamentarians. On 23 April 2018, the petition was rejected by Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, primarily on the basis that the complaints were about administration and not misbehaviour, and that thus impeachment would seriously interfere with the constitutionally protected independence of the judiciary.
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what type of dance is at the end of dirty dancing | Dirty Dancing - wikipedia
Dirty Dancing is a 1987 American romantic drama dance film written by Eleanor Bergstein, directed by Emile Ardolino and starring Patrick Swayze and Jennifer Grey in the lead roles, and featuring Cynthia Rhodes and Jerry Orbach.
Originally a low - budget film by a new studio, Vestron Pictures, Dirty Dancing became a box office hit. As of 2009, it has earned over $214 million worldwide. It was the first film to sell more than a million copies on home video, and the Dirty Dancing soundtrack created by Jimmy Ienner generated two multi-platinum albums and multiple singles, including "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life '', which won both the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song, and a Grammy Award for best duet. The film 's popularity led to a 2004 prequel, Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights, and a stage version which has had sellout performances in Australia, Europe, and North America.
A made - for - TV remake was released in 2017. Unlike the original theatrical film, the remake received negative reviews from critics.
In the summer of 1963, 17 - year - old Frances "Baby '' Houseman is vacationing with her family at Kellerman 's, a resort in the Catskill Mountains. Baby, the younger of two daughters, plans to study economics in underdeveloped countries and enter the Peace Corps. Her father, Jake, is the doctor and friend of Max Kellerman, the resort proprietor. Baby develops a crush on the resort 's dance instructor, Johnny Castle, and meets his cousin, Billy. The staff holds secret after - hours parties in their quarters, and Baby is surprised by their "dirty dancing ''. Intrigued, Baby receives a brief, impromptu dance lesson from Johnny.
Baby discovers that Johnny 's dance partner, Penny Johnson, is pregnant by Robbie Gould, a womanizing waiter who is cheating on Baby 's older sister, Lisa. Baby borrows money from her father to pay for Penny 's illegal abortion without explaining why. Penny eventually accepts the money but identifies another issue. Penny will miss her weekly dance performance if she goes for the abortion, forfeiting Penny 's and Johnny 's salary for the season. Billy suggests that Baby fill in for her. Johnny 's scoffing overcomes Baby 's initial resistance. Billy and Penny insist that Johnny can teach anyone to dance. Johnny teaches Baby the mambo, and the two spend several awkward practice sessions together. Baby gradually improves, and they develop a romantic attraction.
Billy takes Penny to an abortionist. Johnny 's and Baby 's performance is mostly successful, although Baby is too nervous to accomplish the dance 's climactic lift. Johnny and Baby return to Kellerman 's and find Penny in agony. Billy explains that the "doctor '' turned out to be a back - alley hack. Baby brings her father to help Penny. Johnny claims responsibility for her pregnancy out of fear that Penny will be fired if her relationship with Robbie is revealed. Jake treats Penny but forbids Baby from associating with Johnny or his friends. After Baby apologizes to Johnny for her father 's behavior, they dance and have sex. Jake tells his family they will be leaving early for breakfast but relents when they object. Baby continues to see Johnny despite her father 's warning. She pulls Johnny off the footpath when her father is nearby, and Johnny is hurt that she will not stand up for him. After Robbie taunts them, Johnny assaults him.
Due to his growing feelings for Baby, Johnny refuses payment for sex with another guest, Vivian Pressman. Vivian has sex with Robbie in his cabin, and Lisa accidentally interrupts them. When Vivian leaves the cabin the next morning, she sees Baby leave Johnny 's cabin. Over breakfast, Max and Neil Kellerman reveal to the Housemans that Moe Pressman 's wallet was stolen. Vivian accuses Johnny of the theft in a fit of jealousy. Johnny is unable to provide a verifiable alibi, to protect his relationship with Baby. To save Johnny from being fired, Baby confesses she was with him. Johnny is cleared of the theft after it is revealed that two elderly guests, Mr. and Mrs. Schumacher, stole several guests ' wallets. Max fires Johnny anyway for having a fraternizing affair with Baby. Baby and Johnny embrace and bid farewell to each other, saying they will never regret their affair. Baby pointedly apologizes to Jake for lying about her relationship with Johnny but not for the relationship itself.
Baby and her parents watch the end - of - season talent show. Jake gives Robbie a tip in an envelope. Robbie thanks Jake, willingly reveals that he got Penny pregnant; Jake yanks the envelope back. Staff and guests (including Lisa) are singing the closing song together when Johnny interrupts them to perform the last dance of the season. Johnny leads Baby onstage and makes a brief speech about how "Frances '' has made him a better man. Baby and Johnny dance a more provocative version of their mambo duet, and the other "dirty dancers '' join in. Baby runs to Johnny and executes the elusive lift move they practiced. The dirty dancers pull guests from their seats to join in the celebration. Jake apologizes to Johnny for thinking he got Penny pregnant and reconciles with Baby. All dance joyously to "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life ''.
Note: Actress Jane Brucker wrote the song "Hula Hana, '' which she performed in her role of Lisa in the show rehearsal scene.
Dirty Dancing is based in large part on screenwriter Eleanor Bergstein 's own childhood: she is the younger daughter of a Jewish doctor from New York, spent summers with her family in the Catskills, participated in "Dirty Dancing '' competitions, and was herself nicknamed "Baby '' as a girl. In 1980, Bergstein wrote a screenplay for the Michael Douglas film, It 's My Turn. However, the producers cut an erotic dancing scene from the script, much to her dismay. She then conceived a new story, focused almost exclusively on dancing. In 1984, she pitched the idea to MGM executive Eileen Miselle, who liked it and teamed Bergstein with producer Linda Gottlieb. They set the film in 1963, with the character of Baby based on Bergstein 's own life, and the character of Johnny based on the stories of Michael Terrace, a dance instructor whom Bergstein met in the Catskills in 1985 while she was researching the story. She finished the script in November 1985, but management changes at MGM put the script into turnaround, or limbo.
Bergstein then shopped the script around to other studios but was repeatedly rejected, until she brought it to Vestron Pictures, the newly formed studio division of Stamford, Connecticut, based Vestron Inc., the leading independent home video distribution company. While honing their pitch to Vestron, Gottlieb and Bergstein chose Emile Ardolino as the film 's director, who had won the 1983 Academy Award for the documentary, He Makes Me Feel Like Dancin '. Ardolino had never directed a feature film, but was extremely passionate about the project; he even sent a message from where he was sequestered on jury duty, insisting that he was the best choice as director. The team of Gottlieb, Bergstein, and Ardolino then presented their vision for the film to Vestron 's president, Jon Peisinger, and the company 's vice president for production, Mitchell Cannold. By the end of the meeting, Peisinger had greenlighted the project to become Vestron 's first feature film production. The approved film was budgeted at the relatively low amount of $5 million, at a time when the average cost for a film was $12 million.
For choreographer, Bergstein chose Kenny Ortega, who had been trained by Gene Kelly. For a location, they did not find anything suitable in the Catskills (as many of the resorts had been shut down at that point), so they decided on a combination of two locations: Lake Lure, North Carolina and the Mountain Lake Hotel near Pembroke, Virginia, and with careful editing made it look like all shooting was done in the same area.
Director Ardolino was adamant that they choose dancers who could also act, as he did not want to use the "stand - in '' method that had been used with Flashdance (1983). For the female lead of Frances "Baby '' Houseman, Bergstein chose the 26 - year - old Jennifer Grey, daughter of the Oscar - winning actor and dancer Joel Grey (e.g., of the film Cabaret (1972)), who, like her father, was a trained dancer. They then sought a male lead, initially considering 20 - year - old Billy Zane, who had the visual look desired (originally the Johnny character was to be Italian and have a dark exotic look), but initial dancing tests when he was partnered with Grey did not meet expectations. The next choice was 34 - year - old Patrick Swayze, who had been noticed for his roles in Grandview, U.S.A. (1984) and Red Dawn (1984). He was a seasoned dancer, with experience from the Joffrey Ballet. The producers were thrilled with him, but his agent was opposed to the idea. However, Swayze read the script, liked the multi-level character of Johnny, and took the part anyway, and Johnny was changed from being Italian to Irish. Grey was initially not happy about the choice, as she and Swayze had difficulty getting along on Red Dawn, but when they did their dancing screen test, the chemistry between them was obvious. Bergstein described it as "breathtaking ''.
Other casting choices were Broadway actor Jerry Orbach as Dr. Jake Houseman, Baby 's father; and Jane Brucker as Lisa Houseman, her older sister. Bergstein also attempted to cast her friend, sex therapist Dr. Ruth Westheimer, to play Mrs. Schumacher, and Joel Grey as her husband. However, Westheimer backed out when she learned the role involved being a thief. The role went instead to 89 - year - old Paula Trueman, and Joel Grey was not cast. Another role went to Bergstein 's friend, New York radio personality "Cousin Brucie ''. She initially wanted him to portray the social director but then later asked him to play the part of the magician. The role of the social director went to the then unknown Wayne Knight (of later Seinfeld and 3rd Rock from the Sun fame). The part of Baby 's mother was originally given to Lynne Lipton, who is briefly visible in the beginning, when the Houseman family first pulls into Kellerman 's (she is in the front seat for a few seconds; her blonde hair is the only indication), but she became ill during the first week of shooting and was replaced by actress Kelly Bishop, who had already been cast to play Vivian Pressman, the highly sexed resort guest. Bishop moved into the role of Mrs. Houseman, and the film 's assistant choreographer Miranda Garrison took on the role of Vivian.
Principal photography for Dirty Dancing took place in Lake Lure, North Carolina, and Mountain Lake, Virginia. Scenes in Lake Lure were filmed at the old Boys Camp, which is now a private, residential community known as Firefly Cove. These scenes included the interior dancing scenes, Baby carrying the watermelon and practicing on the signature stairs, Johnny 's cabin, the staff cabins, the golf scene where Baby asks her father for $250. Scenes filmed at Mountain Lake included the famous "water lift '' scene, dining scenes, Kellerman 's Hotel, the beach games, Penny crying in the kitchen, and the Houseman family 's cabins.
The tight schedule allowed only two weeks for rehearsal and 44 days for filming, as it was already the tail end of summer. The cast stayed in the same hotel at Mountain Lake Lodge in Pembroke, Virginia and at the 1927 Lake Lure Inn & Spa in Lake Lure, N.C. Rehearsals quickly turned into disco parties involving nearly every cast member, even non-dancers such as Jack Weston.
The dancing and drinking went on almost non-stop and, immersed in the environment, the lead actors, Grey and Swayze, began identifying with their characters. Bergstein built upon this, encouraging the actors to improvise in their scenes. She also built the sexual tension by saying that no matter how intimate or "grinding '' the dance steps, that none of the dancers were to have any other kind of physical contact with each other for the next six months.
Filming started on September 5, 1986 but was plagued by the weather, which ranged from pouring rain to sweltering heat. The outside temperature rose to 105 ° F (41 ° C), and with all the additional camera and lighting equipment needed for filming, the temperature inside could be as high as 120 ° F (49 ° C). According to choreographer Kenny Ortega, on one day 10 people passed out within 25 minutes of shooting. The elderly Paula Trueman collapsed and was taken to the local emergency room to be treated for dehydration. Patrick Swayze also required a hospital visit; insisting on doing his own stunts, he repeatedly fell off the log during the "balancing '' scene and injured his knee so badly he had to have fluid drained from the swelling.
Delays in the shooting schedule pushed filming into the autumn, which required the set decorators to spray - paint the autumn leaves green. The uncooperative weather then took a different turn, plunging from oppressive heat to down near 40 ° F (4 ° C), causing frigid conditions for the famous swimming scene in October. The crew wore warm coats, gloves, and boots. Swayze and Grey stripped down to light summer clothing, to repeatedly dive into the cold water. Despite her character 's enjoyment, Grey later described the water as "horrifically '' cold, and she might not have gone into the lake, except that she was "young and hungry ''.
Relations between the two main stars varied throughout production. They had already had trouble getting along in their previous project, Red Dawn (1984), and worked things out enough to have an extremely positive screen test, but that initial cooperation soon faded, and they were soon "facing off '' before every scene. There was concern among the production staff that the animosity between the two stars would endanger the filming of the love scenes. To address this, producer Bergstein and director Ardolino forced the stars to re-watch their initial screen - tests -- the ones with the "breathtaking '' chemistry. This had the desired effect, and Swayze and Grey were able to return to the film with renewed energy and enthusiasm.
Director Ardolino encouraged the actors to improvise and often kept the cameras rolling, even if actors went "off script ''. One example of this was the scene where Grey was to stand in front of Swayze with her back to him and put her arm up behind his head while he trailed his fingers down her arm (similar to the pose seen in the movie poster). Though it was written as a serious and tender moment, Grey was exhausted, found the move ticklish, and could not stop giggling each time Swayze tried it, no matter how many takes Ardolino asked for. Swayze was impatient to finish the scene and found Grey 's behavior annoying. However, the producers decided the scene worked as it was and put it into the film, complete with Grey 's giggling and Swayze 's annoyed expression. It became one of the most famous scenes in the movie, turning out, as choreographer Kenny Ortega put it, "as one of the most delicate and honest moments in the film. ''
The shooting wrapped on October 27, 1986, both on - time and on - budget. No one on the team, however, liked the rough cut that was put together, and Vestron executives were convinced the film was going to be a flop. Thirty - nine percent of people who viewed the film did not realize abortion was the subplot. In May 1987, the film was screened for producer Aaron Russo. According to Vestron executive Mitchell Cannold, Russo 's reaction at the end was to say simply, "Burn the negative, and collect the insurance. ''
Further disputes arose over whether a corporate sponsor could be found to promote the film. Marketers of the Clearasil acne product liked the film, seeing it as a vehicle to reach a teen target audience. However, when they learned the film contained an abortion scene, they asked for that part of the plot to be cut. As Bergstein refused, the Clearasil promotion was dropped. Consequently, Vestron promoted the film themselves and set the premiere on August 16, 1987. The Vestron executives had planned to release the film in theaters for a weekend, and then send it to home video, since Vestron had been in the video distribution business before film production. Considering how many people disliked the film at that point, producer Gottlieb 's recollection of her feelings at the time was, "I would have only been grateful, if when it was released, people did n't yell at me. ''
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 72 % based on reviews from 61 critics and a rating average of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Like its winsome characters, Dirty Dancing uses impressive choreography and the power of song to surmount a series of formidable obstacles. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
For the film 's opening, The New York Times published a review titled "Dirty Dancing Rocks to an Innocent Beat ''. The Times reviewer called the film "a metaphor for America in the summer of 1963 -- orderly, prosperous, bursting with good intentions, a sort of Yiddish - inflected Camelot. '' Other reviews were more mixed: Gene Siskel gave the film a "marginal Thumbs Up '' as he liked Jennifer Grey 's acting and development of her character, while Roger Ebert gave it "Thumbs Down '' due to its "idiot plot '', calling it a "tired and relentlessly predictable story of love between kids from different backgrounds. '' TIME magazine was lukewarm, saying, "If the ending of Eleanor Bergstein 's script is too neat and inspirational, the rough energy of the film 's song and dance does carry one along, past the whispered doubts of better judgment. '' In a retrospective review, Jezebel 's Irin Carmon called the film "the greatest movie of all time '' as "a great, brave movie for women '' with "some subtle, retrospectively sharp - eyed critiques of class and gender. ''
Abortion rights advocates have called the film the "gold standard '' for cinematic portrayals of abortion, which author Yannis Tzioumakis described as offering a "compassionate depiction of abortion in which the woman seeking an abortion was not demonized with the primary concerns being her health and preserving her capacity to bear children at a future time rather than the ethical dilemma that might or might not inform her decision, a portrayal that is not necessarily available in current films. ''
The film drew adult audiences instead of the expected teens, with viewers rating the film highly. Many filmgoers, after seeing the film once, went right back into the theater to watch it a second time. Word - of - mouth promotion took the film to the number one position in the United States, and in 10 days it had broken the $10 million mark. By November, it was also achieving international fame. Within seven months of release, it had brought in $63 million in the US and boosted attendance in dance classes across America. It was one of the highest - grossing films of 1987, earning $170 million worldwide.
The film 's popularity continued to grow after its initial release. It was the number one video rental of 1988 and became the first film to sell a million copies on video. When the film was re-released in 1997, ten years after its original release, Swayze received his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and videos were still selling at the rate of over 40,000 per month. As of 2005, it was selling a million DVDs per year, with over ten million copies sold as of 2007.
A May 2007 survey by Britain 's Sky Movies listed Dirty Dancing as number one on "Women 's most - watched films '', above the Star Wars trilogy, Grease, The Sound of Music, and Pretty Woman. The film 's popularity has also caused it to be called "the Star Wars for girls. '' An April 2008 article in Britain 's Daily Mail listed Dirty Dancing as number one on a list of "most romantic movie quotes ever '', for Baby 's line: "I 'm scared of walking out of this room and never feeling the rest of my whole life the way I feel when I 'm with you. ''
The film 's music has also had considerable impact. The closing song, "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life '', has been listed as the "third most popular song played at funerals '' in the UK.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Rehearsals for the dancing, and some filming, used music from Bergstein 's personal collection of gramophone records. When it came time to select actual music for the film, Vestron chose Jimmy Ienner as music supervisor. Ienner, who had previously produced albums and songs for John Lennon and Three Dog Night, opted to stick with much of the music that had already been used during filming and obtained licenses for the songs from Bergstein 's collection. He also enlisted Swayze to sing the new song "She 's Like the Wind ''. Swayze had written the song a few years earlier with Stacy Widelitz, originally intending for it to be used in the film Grandview, U.S.A. (1984).
John Morris composed the film 's score. The lyrics for the Kellermans ' song that closes the talent show were written specifically for the film and were sung to the tune of "Annie Lisle '', a commonly used theme for school alma maters. Kenny Ortega and his assistant Miranda Garrison chose the song for the finale by going through an entire box of tapes, listening to each one. According to Ortega, literally the last tape they listened to had "The Time of My Life '', which they saw as the obvious choice. Ienner then insisted that Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes record it. The song won the 1988 Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group, an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.
The film 's soundtrack started an oldies music revival, and demand for the album caught RCA Records by surprise. According to Franke Previte, before a single had even been released, there were a million albums on back - order. The Dirty Dancing album spent 18 weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 album sales charts and went platinum eleven times, selling more than 32 million copies worldwide. It spawned a follow - up multi-platinum album in February 1988, entitled More Dirty Dancing.
Songs from the album which appeared on the charts included:
Additionally, the resurgence in popularity of the oldies contained in the movie led to a re-release of The Contours ' single "Do You Love Me ''. "Do You Love Me '' was featured in the movie but was omitted from the original soundtrack; it was included on More Dirty Dancing. Upon being re-released, "Do You Love Me '' became a surprise hit all over again, this time peaking at # 11 (it originally hit # 3 back in 1962).
As for the studio, despite the film 's huge monetary success, Vestron followed it up with a series of flops and ran out of money. Vestron 's parent company, Vestron Inc., went bankrupt in 1989, and was bought out in January 1991 by LIVE Entertainment for $26 million. The rights to Dirty Dancing now rest with Lionsgate Entertainment, which purchased Artisan Entertainment in 2003.
Orbach, already known as a successful Broadway actor, continued in different genres. He was the voice of the candelabrum "Lumiere '' in the Disney animated film Beauty and the Beast (1991), before taking on his best known role, detective Lennie Briscoe in the TV crime drama Law & Order, which he played from 1992 until his death in 2004.
Choreographer Ortega went on to choreograph and direct other major pictures such as Newsies (1992) and starting in 2006, the High School Musical series. He also became a director of film and television, including several episodes of Gilmore Girls, in which Dirty Dancing 's Kelly Bishop had a starring role.
Lake Lure celebrated its Dirty Dancing legacy in the 1980s with the Dirty Dancing Revue featuring the A-Lure Dancers, soul singer Maurice Williams (whose song "Stay '' was featured in the film), and Billy Scott and the Party Prophets. Today, Lake Lure hosts the annual Dirty Dancing Festival.
Kellerman 's Hotel is the Mountain Lake Hotel, and it now offers "Dirty Dancing Weekends ''.
Various images and lines from the film have worked their way into popular culture. Johnny Castle 's line, "Nobody puts Baby in a corner '', has been used in song lyrics, as the title of the "Nobody Puts Baby in a Corner '' episode of the TV series Veronica Mars, and as the title of a Fall Out Boy song. "Nobody puts Baby in a corner '' was also quoted in Supernatural: when Dean says the line concerning his beloved Impala and his brother Sam retorts that the line is from a Swayze movie; Dean responds: "Swayze always gets a pass ''. The line was parodied in the webcomic Looking for Group where Richard, one of the primary characters, uttered a variation involving his own name, and in Family Guy, where the scene is parodied by Baby 's parents questioning Johnny due to her youth. In Sweden, feminist art group Sisters of Jam put the text "Nobody puts Baby in a corner '' (in English) in white neon light at Umeå Bus Square (2008) and at Karlstad University (2012).
Family Guy also parodies the scene where Baby first sees Johnny dancing with the staff. In the TV series How I Met Your Mother, Barney Stinson attempts to pass off the Dirty Dancing story as the story of his own loss of virginity because he is ashamed of his actual story; the original "Love is Strange '' scene is shown with Barney replacing Johnny.
The French film Heartbreaker (2010) pays homage to the film, as a plot detail, with some clips from the film shown and a "recreation '' by the two main characters of the "lift '' scene.
In the first episode of the TV series New Girl, the female lead Jess watches the film repeatedly after her break up.
Since 2009, there has been a Dirty Dancing Festival in Lake Lure, North Carolina.
The film was adapted for the stage in 2004 as a musical, Dirty Dancing: The Classic Story on Stage. Produced by Jacobsen Entertainment in Australia for $6.5 million, it was written by Eleanor Bergstein and had the same songs as the film, plus a few extra scenes. Musical direction was by Chong Lim (one of the composers for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney), and the initial production starred Kym Valentine as Baby and Sydney Dance Company 's Josef Brown as Johnny. Although reviews were mixed, the production was a commercial success, selling over 200,000 tickets during its six - month run. It has also had sellout runs in Germany and in London 's West End, where it opened at the Aldwych Theatre on October 23, 2006 with the highest pre-sell in London history, earning £ 6 million ($ US12 million). As of March 2011, over 1 million people have seen the musical in London, selling out 6 months in advance. The original West End production closed in July 2011 after a five - year run, prior to a two - year national tour. The show returned to the West End at the Piccadilly Theatre and ran from July 13, 2013 to February 22, 2014 before resuming its tour of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.
A New York production was in the planning stage in 2006, with the show first starting in other North American cities. It broke box office records in May 2007 for its first such venue, selling $2 million on the first day of ticket sales in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The production opened on November 15, 2007 at the Royal Alexandra Theatre, with an all - Canadian cast, except for Monica West (Baby Housman), Britta Lazenga (Penny), and Al Sapienza (Jake Housman). After Toronto, the musical opened in Chicago in previews on September 28, 2008 and officially on October 19, 2008, running through January 17, 2009, followed by Boston (February 7 -- March 15, 2009) and Los Angeles.
An official American tour began in September 2014 at The National Theatre in Washington, DC with dates scheduled in 31 cities. Previews started August 26 and the official opening night was on September 2.
Dirty Dancing has appeared in other forms than the stage version. In 1988, a music tour named Dirty Dancing: Live in Concert, featuring Bill Medley and Eric Carmen, played 90 cities in three months. Also in 1988, the CBS network launched a Dirty Dancing television series, however with none of the original cast or crew. The series was canceled after only a few episodes.
In 2004, a prequel of the film was released, entitled Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights. It tells the story of a sheltered American teenager learning about life through dance, when her family relocates to Havana, Cuba just before the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Swayze was paid $5 million to appear in a cameo role as a dance teacher -- considerably more than the $200,000 he earned for the first film.
For the 20th anniversary in 2007, the film was re-released in theatres with additional footage, while the original film version was re-released on DVD with deleted scenes, and included writer commentary. At the same time, Codemasters released Dirty Dancing: The Video Game. In the United Kingdom, the anniversary was marked by a reality TV show based on the film; titled Dirty Dancing: The Time of Your Life, the TV show was filmed at the Mountain Lake resort.
In the UK, to mark the 20th anniversary of the film, Channel Five broadcast a special documentary called Seriously Dirty Dancing. It was presented by Dawn Porter, an investigative journalist and a self - confessed Dirty Dancing addict. The documentary was very successful, being Channel Five 's highest rated documentary of 2007. Porter visited the set of the film, met other Dirty Dancing fanatics, and learned the last dance, which she performed at the end of the documentary in front of family and friends.
In August 2011, Lionsgate, who owns the film rights, announced their plan to remake the film. It was confirmed that the studio had hired the film 's choreographer, Kenny Ortega, to direct. "We believe that the timing could n't be better to modernize this story on the big screen, and we are proud to have Kenny Ortega at the helm, '' Joe Drake, president of Lionsgate 's Motion Picture Group, explained about the project. A miniseries version of "Dirty Dancing '' had been scheduled to be shot in Western North Carolina. As of July 29, 2015, the miniseries has been put on hold.
In December 2015, ABC ordered a three - hour musical remake of Dirty Dancing, starring Abigail Breslin, Colt Prattes, Debra Messing, Sarah Hyland, Nicole Scherzinger, Billy Dee Williams & Shane Harper. It aired on May 24, 2017. It received negative reviews from a majority of critics.
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how do you spell geordie why i man | Geordie - wikipedia
Geordie (/ ˈdʒɔːrdi /) is both a regional nickname for a person from the larger Tyneside region of North East England and the name of the Northern English dialect spoken by its inhabitants. The term is associated with Tyneside, south eastern parts of Northumberland and northern parts of County Durham. Geordie has been used and still is used by people to refer to anyone from North East England.
In many respects, Geordie speech represents a direct continuation and development of the language spoken by the Anglo - Saxon settlers of this region -- initially mercenaries employed by the ancient Brythons to fight the Pictish invaders after the end of Roman rule in Britannia in the 5th century. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes who arrived became -- in the course of time -- ascendant politically and culturally over the native British through subsequent migration from tribal homelands along the North Sea coast of the German Bight. The Anglo - Saxon kingdoms that emerged during the Dark Ages spoke largely mutually intelligible varieties of what is now called Old English, each varying somewhat in phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. This linguistic conservatism can be seen today to the extent that poems by the Anglo - Saxon scholar the Venerable Bede translate more successfully into Geordie than into present - day Standard English. Thus in Northern England and the Scottish borders area, then dominated by the kingdom of Northumbria, there developed a distinct "Northumbrian '' Old English dialect. Later Irish migrants (who, while relatively few in number, influenced Geordie phonology from the early 19th century onwards) and Scottish admixture influenced the dialect. In more recent years (20th century to present), the North East area has received migrants from the rest of the world as well.
The word "Geordie '' can refer to a supporter of Newcastle United,. The Geordie Schooner glassware was traditionally used to serve Newcastle Brown Ale, and more generally as a serving glass for bottled beer. A similar schooner style glass is often used to serve beer in the United States but this often extends to draft, unlike in the UK where draft beers and lagers tend to be served in a pint or half pint glass.
The Geordie dialect and self - identification as a Geordie are primarily associated with those of a working - class background. A 2008 newspaper survey found the Geordie accent the "most attractive in England ''.
When referring to the people, as opposed to the dialect, dictionary definitions of a Geordie typically refer to "a native or inhabitant of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, or its environs '', an area that encompasses Blyth, Ashington, North Tyneside, Newcastle, South Tyneside and Gateshead. This area has a combined population of around 2,597,000, based on 2011 Census data.
The term itself, according to Brockett, originated from all the North East coal mines. The catchment area for the term "Geordie '' can include Northumberland and County Durham or be confined to an area as small as the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and the metropolitan boroughs of Tyneside.
People from Sunderland differentiate themselves as "Mackems ''. The earliest known recorded use of the term found by an Oxford English Dictionary word hunt occurred only as late as 1988.
Just as a Cockney is often colloquially defined as someone "born within the sound of the Bow bells '', the term Geordie is sometimes defined as "within spitting distance of the Tyne '' and thus the area more associated with the Geordie accent could be thought of as the watershed and bioregion of the River Tyne, and Geordies as its inhabitants. Geordie is referred to as Tyneside English in academic journals.
A number of rival theories explain how the term came about, though all accept that it derives from a familiar diminutive form of the name George, "a very common name among the pitmen '' (coal miners) in North East England; indeed, it was once the most popular name for eldest sons in the region.
One explanation is that it was established during the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715. The Jacobites declared that the natives of Newcastle were staunch supporters of the Hanoverian kings, in particular of George I during the 1715 rebellion. This contrasted with rural Northumberland, which largely supported the Jacobite cause. If true, the term may have derived from the popular anti-Hanoverian song "Cam Ye O'er Frae France? '', which calls the first Hanoverian king "Geordie Whelps '', a play on "George the Guelph ''.
Another explanation for the name is that local miners in the northeast of England used Geordie safety lamps, designed by George Stephenson, known locally as "Geordie the engine - wright '', in 1815 rather than the competing Davy lamps, designed by Humphry Davy, used in other mining communities. Using the chronological order of two John Trotter Brockett books, Geordie was given to North East pitmen; later he acknowledges that the pitmen also christened their Stephenson lamp Geordie.
Alternatively; Geordie could also have been a derivative or continuation of the North Sea Germanic name Jordanes; which in - turn itself also derives from an Old Norse root word - jord ("land, earth '') and possibly may have been brought over to the Eastern coast of Britain by Germanic or Nordic tribes; during Migration Period. Moreover, Roman bureaucrat and historian Jordanes bore this name; and consequently was believed to be a Romanised German author of Gothic background. Further supporting this hypotheses is that the Geordie dialect of English still retains the accent as well as many ancient words of Old English and Norse origin; which are usually not found in the other spoken regional dialects of Modern English.
Linguist Katie Wales also dates the term earlier than does the current Oxford English Dictionary; she observes that Geordy (or Geordie) was a common name given to coal mine pitmen in ballads and songs of the region, noting that such usage turns up as early as 1793. It occurs in the titles of two songs by songwriter Joe Wilson (1841 -- 1875): "Geordy, Haud the Bairn '' and "Keep your Feet Still, Geordie ''. Citing such examples as the song "Geordy Black '', written by Rowland Harrison of Gateshead, she contends that, as a consequence of popular culture, the miner and the keelman had become icons of the region in the 19th century, and "Geordie '' was a label that "affectionately and proudly reflected this, '' replacing the earlier ballad emblem, the figure of Bob Crankie.
In the English Dialect Dictionary of 1900, Joseph Wright gave the definition A man from Tyneside; a miner; a north - country vessel, quoting two sources from Northumberland, one from East Durham and one from Australia. The source from Durham stated, "In South Tyneside even, this name was applied to the Lower Tyneside men. ''
Newcastle publisher Frank Graham 's Geordie Dictionary states:
The origin of the word Geordie has been a matter of much discussion and controversy. All the explanations are fanciful and not a single piece of genuine evidence has ever been produced.
In Graham 's many years of research, the earliest record he found of the term 's use was in 1823 by local comedian Billy Purvis. Purvis had set up a booth at the Newcastle Races on the Town Moor. In an angry tirade against a rival showman, who had hired a young pitman called Tom Johnson to dress as a clown, Billy cried out to the clown:
Ah man, wee but a feul wad hae sold off his furnitor and left his wife. Noo, yor a fair doon reet feul, not an artificial feul like Billy Purvis! Thous a real Geordie! gan man an hide thysel! gan an ' get thy picks agyen. Thou may de for the city, but never for the west end o ' wor toon.
(Rough translation: "Oh man, who but a fool would have sold off his furniture and left his wife? Now, you 're a fair downright fool, not an artificial fool like Billy Purvis! You 're a real Geordie! Go on, man, and hide yourself! Go on and get your picks (axes) again. You may do for the city, but never for the west end of our town! '')
Graham is backed up historically by John Camden Hotten, who wrote in 1869: "Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, or coal - miner. Origin not known; the term has been in use more than a century. '' Using Hotten as a chronological reference, Geordie has been documented for at least 249 years as a term related to Northumberland and County Durham.
Bad - weather Geordy was a name applied to cockle sellers:
As the season at which cockles are in greatest demand is generally the most stormy in the year -- September to March -- the sailors ' wives at the seaport towns of Northumberland and Durham consider the cry of the cockle man as the harbinger of bad weather, and the sailor, when he hears the cry of ' cockles alive, ' in a dark wintry night, concludes that a storm is at hand, and breathes a prayer, backwards, for the soul of Bad - Weather - Geordy.
Travel writer Scott Dobson used the term "Geordieland '' in a 1973 guidebook to refer collectively to Northumberland and Durham.
The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used by Watt & Allen (2003). Other scholars may use different transcriptions.
Geordie consonants generally follow those of Received Pronunciation, with these unique characteristics as follows:
The Geordie dialect shares similarities with other Northern English dialects, as well as with the Scots language.
In her column for the South Shields Gazette, Dorothy Samuelson - Sandvid attests many samples of Geordie language usage, such as the nouns bairn ("child '') and clarts ("mud ''); the adjectives canny ("pleasant '') and clag ("sticky ''); and the imperative verb phrase howay ("hurry up! ''; "come on! '')
Howay is broadly comparable to the invocation "Come on! '' or the French "Allez - y! '' ("Go on! ''). Examples of common use include Howay man!, meaning "come on '' or "hurry up '', Howay the lads! as a term of encouragement for a sports team for example (the players ' tunnel at St James ' Park has this phrase just above the entrance to the pitch), or Ho'way!? (with stress on the second syllable) expressing incredulity or disbelief. The literal opposite of this phrase is haddaway ("go away ''); although not as common as howay, it is perhaps most commonly used in the phrase "Haddaway an ' shite '' (Tom Hadaway, Figure 5.2 Haddaway an ' shite; ' Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book. ').
Another word, divvie or divvy ("idiot ''), seems to come from the Co-op dividend, or from the two Davy lamps (the more explosive Scotch Davy used in 1850, commission disapproved of its use in 1886 (inventor not known, nicknamed Scotch Davy probably given by miners after the Davy lamp was made perhaps by north east miners who used the Stephenson Lamp), and the later better designed Davy designed by Humphry Davy also called the Divvy.) As in a north east miner saying ' Marra, ye keep way from me if ye usin a divvy. ' It seems the word divvie then translated to daft lad / lass. Perhaps coming from the fact one would be seen as foolish going down a mine with a Scotch Divvy when there are safer lamps available, like the Geordie, or the Davy.
The Geordie word netty, meaning a toilet and place of need and necessity for relief or bathroom, has an uncertain origin, though some have theorised that it may come from slang used by Roman soldiers on Hadrian 's Wall, which may have later become gabinetti in the Romanic Italian language (such as in the Westoe Netty, the subject of a famous painting from Bob Olley). However, gabbinetto is the Modern Italian diminutive of gabbia, which actually derives from the Latin cavea ("hollow '', "cavity '', "enclosure ''), the root of the loanwords that became the Modern English cave, cage, and gaol. Thus, another explanation would be that it comes from a Modern Romanic Italian form of the word gabinetti, though only a relatively small number of Italians have migrated to the North of England, mostly during the 19th century.
Some etymologists connect the word netty to the Modern English word needy. John Trotter Brockett, writing in 1829 in his A glossary of north country words..., claims that the etymon of netty (and its related form neddy) is the Modern English needy and need.
Bill Griffiths, in A Dictionary of North East Dialect, points to the earlier form, the Old English níd; he writes: "MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of his house a knyttyng '' York 1419, in which case the root could be OE níd ' necessary ' ". Another related word, nessy is thought (by Griffiths) to derive from the Modern English "necessary ''.
A poem called "Yam '' narrated by author Douglas Kew, demonstrates the usage of a number of Geordie words.
The Geordie dialect has featured prominently in the British media, as television presenters such as Ant & Dec (who first found fame in the Newcastle - set children 's drama Byker Grove) are now happy to use their natural accents on air.
Brendan Foster and Sid Waddell have both worked as television sports commentators. Cheryl Tweedy, a former member of Girls Aloud and judge on The X Factor, has a Geordie accent, she says that she 's "proud to be Geordie! '' as does Joe McElderry the winner of the sixth series of The X Factor. In May 2011, while named Cheryl Cole, she was let go from the American version of The X Factor because its "producers feared the American audience would not understand her Geordie accent. '' During May 2011, taping of Britain 's Got Talent, Declan Donnelly (of Ant & Dec) made an apparent attempt to stand up for Cole by asking co-producer and judge Simon Cowell on the show, "Can you understand my accent? ''.
The musicians Brian Johnson and Sting are Geordies (though Sting has lost much of his Geordie accent and speaks in a standard English accent). The song "Why Aye Man '' is also a popular Geordie song by Geordie Mark Knopfler.
Jade Thirlwall and Perrie Edwards from girl group Little Mix are both from South Shields, near Newcastle and have Geordie accents, Jade 's sometimes being very strong.
The dialect was also popularized by the comic magazine Viz, where the dialect is often conveyed phonetically by unusual spellings within the comic strips. Viz magazine was founded on Tyneside by two locals, Chris Donald and his brother Simon. The Steve Coogan - helmed BBC comedy I 'm Alan Partridge featured a Geordie named Michael (Simon Greenall) as the primary supporting character and de facto best friend of the eponymous hero, despite Partridge 's referring to Michael at one point as ' just the Work Geordie ' and having great difficulty understanding what he says. The movie Goal!, which stars Kuno Becker and Alessandro Nivola (and also sees a cameo of Brian Johnson) prominently exposes the Newcastle football club, as well as exposing the Geordies and their dialect.
Mike Neville presenter of the BBC local news programme Look North, in the 1960s and 1970s, not only incorporated Geordie into the show, albeit usually in comedy pieces pointing up the gulf between ordinary Geordies and officials speaking Standard English, but were responsible for a series of recordings, beginning with Larn Yersel ' Geordie which attempted, not always seriously, to bring the Geordie dialect to the rest of England.
In the lyrics of the song "Sailing to Philadelphia '' by Mark Knopfler, Jeremiah Dixon, surveyor of the Mason - Dixon line, describes himself as a "Geordie boy ''. Knopfler also includes a "Geordie '' reference in the song "5: 15 am '', from the album Shangri - La: "the bandit man / came up the great north road / up to geordieland / to mine the motherlode. '' In an earlier live album and video, Alchemy: Dire Straits Live, the band are seen in a pub -- on the wall hangs a scoreboard for darts featuring "Geordies '' vs. "All Others. ''
The Jocks and the Geordies was a Dandy comic strip running from 1975 to the early 1990s. Dorfy, real name Dorothy Samuelson - Sandvid, was a noted Geordie dialect writer who once wrote for the South Shields Gazette.
Auf Wiedersehen, Pet was a popular fictional British comedy - drama series about three Geordies (Dennis, Oz and Neville) leaving England to go and find work in Germany during the heights of unemployment in Thatcher 's Britain. Finding work on a building site in Düsseldorf, they lived there on - site in a basic wooden hut (not dissimilar from ones seen in a WWII - era POW camp) as part of a group of seven British migrant construction workers: the other four were Wayne from London, Bomber from somewhere in the West Country, Barry from the West Midlands, and Moxey from Liverpool. The three Geordie characters were supposed to be from Birtley Co. Durham (Dennis, played by Tim Healy), Gateshead (Oz, played by Jimmy Nail), and North Shields (Neville, played by Kevin Whately) and all three actors who played them were Geordies themselves.
In 1974, Alan Price 's "Jarrow Song '' reached number one in the old RNI International Service, and number 4 in the UK charts, which brought to the attention once again of the Jarrow Crusade. The character Detective Inspector Robert "Robbie '' Lewis (formerly Detective Sergeant) in the long - running ITV series Inspector Morse is a self - described Geordie -- although not a "professional '' one. His speech variety serves as a foil to Morse 's pedantry and RP. Comedian Sarah Millican is also a Geordie. The Hairy Bikers are a pair of television chefs, consisting of Geordie Simon King and Lancastrian Dave Myers. The duo 's lifestyle TV show The Hairy Bikers ' Cookbook is a mixture of cookery and travelogue.
The character "Geordie Georgie '', as portrayed by Catherine Tate in her eponymous TV show, is a Geordie, complete with a thick affected accent, and is portrayed regularly taking part in (mostly ridiculously ambitious) sponsored events for a North East - based charity -- the charity in question usually has a website with an outrageous domain name, for instance, the site for the charity she supports for battered husbands is "www.chinnedbythemissus.co.uk ''. The sketches usually conclude with her remonstrating her co-worker Martin, sometimes by violent means, for his apparent non-support of her charitable crusades.
The MTV programme Geordie Shore, a spin - off of Jersey Shore, is set in Newcastle and features several Geordie speaking cast members. The Richard Adams novel The Plague Dogs features a fox who speaks "Northumbrian '' Geordie, with a pronunciation guide and glossary. Scott Dobson provided assistance on the dialect. Actor Robson Green is a Geordie. Standup comic Ross Noble, a Newcastle native, has been known to make jokes about being Geordie. Capitalising on pride in speaking Geordie, a number of objects are sold that highlight Geordie speech and culture, such as a "Borth Sortificat for a genuine Geordie '', coffee mugs, etc.
Charlie Hunnam, who hails from Newcastle, refers to the swagger he walks with in Pacific Rim as a "Geordie walk ''. Episode 8.13 "And Justice for All '' of the ABC program Castle included a blue collar character who was a native Geordie speaker and student of English as a second language; this was somewhat humorous since, technically, speakers of this dialect already speak English.
In the BBC Radio drama series The Archers, the character Ruth Archer hails from Prudhoe, Northumberland and speaks with a Geordie accent, in contrast to the various Midland and other more southerly accents on the show, which is set in a fictional county in the English Midlands. The actress portraying her, Felicity Finch was raised in Egglescliffe, a town in the southern part of County Durham.
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who won the nba titles in the 80s | List of NBA champions - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 -- 49) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978.
The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 70 championships.
The trophy was originally referred to as the NBA Finals trophy, but was renamed in 1964 after Walter A. Brown, the original owner of the Boston Celtics who was instrumental in merging the BAA and the National Basketball League into the NBA in 1949.
The original trophy was awarded to the BAA / NBA champions from 1947 to 1976. The trophy was kept by the winning team for one year and given to the winning team of the following year 's finals, unless the previous team won again, much like the NHL 's Stanley Cup, which continues that tradition to this day.
A new trophy design was created for the 1977 NBA Finals, although it retained the Walter A. Brown title. Unlike the original championship trophy, the new trophy was given permanently to the winning team and a new one was made every year.
The inaugural winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia Warriors, who defeated the Chicago Stags. From 1957 to 1969, the Celtics won the NBA Finals 11 out of 13 times, including eight consecutive wins. The final winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia 76ers, who defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1983 NBA Finals. In 1984, the trophy was renamed the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
In 1984, the trophy was renamed to the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy, in honor of Larry O'Brien, who served as NBA commissioner from 1975 to 1984.
The current trophy is made out of 14.5 pounds of sterling silver and vermeil with a 24 karat gold overlay and stands 2 feet (0.61 m) tall. It is designed to look like a basketball about to enter a net. The year and team names are engraved on the trophies, which are often prominently displayed in the winning team 's arena.
The Boston Celtics were the inaugural winners of the renamed trophy, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers in seven games (4 -- 3) in the 1984 NBA Finals.
Legend
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who has the most assits in nba history | List of National Basketball Association single - game assists leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have recorded 23 or more assists in a game.
23 different players have recorded 23 or more assists in a game. It has occurred 39 times in the regular season and five times in the playoffs.
John Stockton has performed the feat the most times (10), followed by Earvin "Magic '' Johnson and Kevin Porter (6).
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ips on passports what does it stand for | HM Passport Office - Wikipedia
Her Majesty 's Passport Office (HMPO) is a division of the Home Office in the United Kingdom. It provides passports for British nationals worldwide and was formed on 1 April 2006 as the Identity and Passport Service, although the Passport Office had also been its previous name.
The General Register Office for England and Wales became a subsidiary of HMPO on 1 April 2008, and produces life event certificates such as birth, death, marriage and civil partnerships.
HMPO 's headquarters is co-located with the Home Office at 2 Marsham Street and it has seven regional offices around the UK, in London, Glasgow, Belfast, Chester, Peterborough, Liverpool, Newport and Durham as well as an extensive nationwide interview office network as all first time adult passport applicants are required to attend an interview to verify their identity as a fraud prevention measure.
The Identity and Passport Service was established on 1 April 2006, following the passing of the Identity Cards Act 2006 which merged the UK Passport Service with the Home Office 's Identity Cards programme to form the new executive agency.
In 2007, the ninety British diplomatic missions that issued passports were consolidated into seven regional passport processing centres (RPPCs) based in Düsseldorf, Hong Kong, Madrid, Paris, Pretoria, Washington, D.C. and Wellington with an additional centre in Dublin.
The Identity Documents Act 2010 repealed the Identity Cards Act 2006, and required the cancellation of all identity cards and the destruction of all data held.
On 1 April 2011 responsibility for British passports issued overseas passed from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to IPS. The printing of passports issued overseas had been done in the UK since August 2011 and the administrative work performed at these RPPCs was repatriated to the UK during the 2013 - 14 financial year. From April 2014 all British nationals based overseas had to apply for their passports directly to the UK.
The Identity and Passport Service was renamed HM Passport Office on 13 May 2013 in an effort to reflect the agency 's departure from its association with the scrapped National Identity Register and ID cards. The government stated in the press release that "The inclusion of ' Her Majesty 's ' in the title recognises that passports are the property of the Crown, bear the royal coat of arms and are issued under the royal prerogative. ''
HMPO 's executive agency status was removed on 1 October 2014 and it became a division within the Home Office.
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the term invisible hand is likely to be found in reference to | Invisible hand - Wikipedia
The invisible hand is a term used by Adam Smith to describe the unintended social benefits of individual self - interested actions. The phrase was employed by Smith with respect to income distribution (1759) and production (1776). The exact phrase is used just three times in Smith 's writings, but has come to capture his notion that individuals ' efforts to pursue their own interest may frequently benefit society more than if their actions were directly intending to benefit society. Smith may have come up with the two meanings of the phrase from Richard Cantillon who developed both economic applications in his model of the isolated estate.
Smith first introduced the concept in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, written in 1759, invoking it in reference to income distribution. In this work, however, the idea of the market is not discussed, and the word "capitalism '' is never used. By the time he wrote The Wealth of Nations in 1776, Smith had studied the economic models of the French Physiocrats for many years, and in this work the invisible hand is more directly linked to production, to the employment of capital in support of domestic industry. The only use of "invisible hand '' found in The Wealth of Nations is in Book IV, Chapter II, "Of Restraints upon the Importation from foreign Countries of such Goods as can be produced at Home. ''
The idea of trade and market exchange automatically channeling self - interest toward socially desirable ends is a central justification for the laissez - faire economic philosophy, which lies behind neoclassical economics. In this sense, the central disagreement between economic ideologies can be viewed as a disagreement about how powerful the "invisible hand '' is. In alternative models, forces which were nascent during Smith 's lifetime, such as large - scale industry, finance, and advertising, reduce its effectiveness.
The first appearance of the invisible hand in Smith occurs in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) in Part IV, Chapter 1, where he describes a selfish landlord as being led by an invisible hand to distribute his harvest to those who work for him:
The proud and unfeeling landlord views his extensive fields, and without a thought for the wants of his brethren, in imagination consumes himself the whole harvest... (Yet) the capacity of his stomach bears no proportion to the immensity of his desires... the rest he will be obliged to distribute among those, who prepare, in the nicest manner, that little which he himself makes use of, among those who fit up the palace in which this little is to be consumed, among those who provide and keep in order all the different baubles and trinkets which are employed in the economy of greatness; all of whom thus derive from his luxury and caprice, that share of the necessaries of life, which they would in vain have expected from his humanity or his justice... The rich... are led by an invisible hand to make nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life, which would have been made, had the earth been divided into equal portions among all its inhabitants, and thus without intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the society...
Elsewhere in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith has described the desire of men to be respected by the members of the community in which they live, and the desire of men to feel that they are honorable beings.
The part of The Wealth of Nations (1776) which describes what future generations would consider to be Smith 's invisible hand does not actually use the term. The process by which market competition channels individual self - interest is most clearly described in Book I, Chapter 7.
Adam Smith uses the metaphor in Book IV, Chapter II, paragraph IX of The Wealth of Nations.
But the annual revenue of every society is always precisely equal to the exchangeable value of the whole annual produce of its industry, or rather is precisely the same thing with that exchangeable value. As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value, every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was not part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.
Only in The History of Astronomy (written before 1758) Smith speaks of the invisible hand, to which ignorants refer to explain natural phenomena otherwise unexplainable:
Fire burns, and water refreshes; heavy bodies descend, and lighter substances fly upwards, by the necessity of their own nature; nor was the invisible hand of Jupiter ever apprehended to be employed in those matters.
In The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and in The Wealth of Nations (1776) Adam Smith speaks of an invisible hand, never of the invisible hand. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments Smith uses the concept to sustain a "trickling down '' theory, a concept also used in neoclassical development theory: The gluttony of the rich serves to feed the poor.
The rich... consume little more than the poor, and in spite of their natural selfishness and rapacity, though they mean only their own conveniency, though the sole end which they propose from the labours of all the thousands whom they employ, be the gratification of their own vain and insatiable desires, they divide with the poor the produce of all their improvements. They are led by an invisible hand (emphasis added) to make nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life, which would have been made, had the earth been divided into equal portions among all its inhabitants, and thus without intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the society, and afford means to the multiplication of the species. When Providence divided the earth among a few lordly masters, it neither forgot nor abandoned those who seemed to have been left out in the partition. These last too enjoy their share of all that it produces. In what constitutes the real happiness of human life, they are in no respect inferior to those who would seem so much above them. In ease of body and peace of mind, all the different ranks of life are nearly upon a level, and the beggar, who suns himself by the side of the highway, possesses that security which kings are fighting for.
Smith 's visit to France and his acquaintance to the French Économistes (known as Physiocrats) changed his views from micro-economic optimisation to macro-economic growth as the end of Political Economy. So the landlord 's gluttony in The Theory of Moral Sentiments is denounced in the Wealth of Nations as unproductive labour. Walker, the first president (1885 to 92) of the American Economic Association, concurred:
The domestic servant... is not employed as a means to his master 's profit. His master 's income is not due in any part to his employment; on the contrary, that income is first acquired... and in the amount of the income is determined whether the servant shall be employed or not, while to the full extent of that employment the income is diminished. As Adam Smith expresses it "a man grows rich by employing a multitude of manufacturers; he grows poor by maintaining a multitude of menial servants. ''
Smith 's theoretical U-turn from a micro-economical to a macro-economical view is not reflected in The Wealth of Nations. Large parts of this book are retaken from Smith 's lectures before his visit to France. So one must distinguish in The Wealth of Nations a micro-economical and a macro-economical Adam Smith. Whether Smith 's quotation of an invisible hand in the middle of his work is a micro-economical statement or a macro-economical statement condemning monopolies and government interferences as in the case of tariffs and patents is debatable.
The concept of the "invisible hand '' is nearly always generalized beyond Smith 's original uses. The phrase was not popular among economists before the twentieth century; Alfred Marshall never used it in his Principles of Economics textbook and neither does William Stanley Jevons in his Theory of Political Economy. Paul Samuelson cites it in his Economics textbook in 1948:
Even Adam Smith, the canny Scot whose monumental book, "The Wealth of Nations '' (1776), represents the beginning of modern economics or political economy - even he was so thrilled by the recognition of an order in the economic system that he proclaimed the mystical principle of the "invisible hand '': that each individual in pursuing his own selfish good was led, as if by an invisible hand, to achieve the best good of all, so that any interference with free competition by government was almost certain to be injurious. This unguarded conclusion has done almost as much harm as good in the past century and a half, especially since too often it is all that some of our leading citizens remember, 30 years later, of their college course in economics.
In this interpretation, the theory is that the Invisible Hand states that if each consumer is allowed to choose freely what to buy and each producer is allowed to choose freely what to sell and how to produce it, the market will settle on a product distribution and prices that are beneficial to all the individual members of a community, and hence to the community as a whole. The reason for this is that self - interest drives actors to beneficial behavior in a case of serendipity. Efficient methods of production are adopted to maximize profits. Low prices are charged to maximize revenue through gain in market share by undercutting competitors. Investors invest in those industries most urgently needed to maximize returns, and withdraw capital from those less efficient in creating value. All these effects take place dynamically and automatically.
Since Smith 's time, this concept has been further incorporated into economic theory. Léon Walras developed a four - equation general equilibrium model that concludes that individual self - interest operating in a competitive market place produces the unique conditions under which a society 's total utility is maximized. Vilfredo Pareto used an edgeworth box contact line to illustrate a similar social optimality.
Ludwig von Mises, in Human Action uses the expression "the invisible hand of Providence '', referring to Marx 's period, to mean evolutionary meliorism. He did not mean this as a criticism, since he held that secular reasoning leads to similar conclusions. Milton Friedman, a Nobel Memorial Prize winner in economics, called Smith 's Invisible Hand "the possibility of cooperation without coercion. '' Kaushik Basu has called the First Welfare Theorem the Invisible Hand Theorem.
Some economists question the integrity of how the term "invisible hand '' is currently used. Gavin Kennedy, Professor Emeritus at Heriot - Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland, argues that its current use in modern economic thinking as a symbol of free market capitalism is not reconcilable with the rather modest and indeterminate manner in which it was employed by Smith. In response to Kennedy, Daniel Klein argues that reconciliation is legitimate. Moreover, even if Smith did not intend the term "invisible hand '' to be used in the current manner, its serviceability as such should not be rendered ineffective. In conclusion of their exchange, Kennedy insists that Smith 's intentions are of utmost importance to the current debate, which is one of Smith 's association with the term "invisible hand ''. If the term is to be used as a symbol of liberty and economic coordination as it has been in the modern era, Kennedy argues that it should exist as a construct completely separate from Adam Smith since there is little evidence that Smith imputed any significance onto the term, much less the meanings given it at present.
The former Drummond Professor of Political Economy at Oxford, D.H. MacGregor, argued that:
The one case in which he referred to the ' invisible hand ' was that in which private persons preferred the home trade to the foreign trade, and he held that such preference was in the national interest, since it replaced two domestic capitals while the foreign trade replaced only one. The argument of the two capitals was a bad one, since it is the amount of capital that matters, not its subdivision; but the invisible sanction was given to a Protectionist idea, not for defence but for employment. It is not surprising that Smith was often quoted in Parliament in support of Protection. His background, like ours today, was private enterprise; but any dogma of non-intervention by government has to make heavy weather in The Wealth of Nations.
Harvard economist Stephen Marglin argues that while the "invisible hand '' is the "most enduring phrase in Smith 's entire work '', it is "also the most misunderstood. ''
Economists have taken this passage to be the first step in the cumulative effort of mainstream economics to prove that a competitive economy provides the largest possible economic pie (the so - called first welfare theorem, which demonstrates the Pareto optimality of a competitive regime). But Smith, it is evident from the context, was making a much narrower argument, namely, that the interests of businessmen in the security of their capital would lead them to invest in the domestic economy even at the sacrifice of somewhat higher returns that might be obtainable from foreign investment...
David Ricardo... echoed Smith... (but) Smith 's argument is at best incomplete, for it leaves out the role of foreigners ' investment in the domestic economy. It would have to be shown that the gain to the British capital stock from the preference of British investors for Britain is greater than the loss to Britain from the preference of Dutch investors for the Netherlands and French investors for France. ''
According to Emma Rothschild, Smith was actually being ironic in his use of the term. Warren Samuels described it as "a means of relating modern high theory to Adam Smith and, as such, an interesting example in the development of language. ''
Smith uses the metaphor in the context of an argument against protectionism and government regulation of markets, but it is based on very broad principles developed by Bernard Mandeville, Bishop Butler, Lord Shaftesbury, and Francis Hutcheson. In general, the term "invisible hand '' can apply to any individual action that has unplanned, unintended consequences, particularly those that arise from actions not orchestrated by a central command, and that have an observable, patterned effect on the community.
Bernard Mandeville argued that private vices are actually public benefits. In The Fable of the Bees (1714), he laments that the "bees of social virtue are buzzing in Man 's bonnet '': that civilized man has stigmatized his private appetites and the result is the retardation of the common good.
Bishop Butler argued that pursuing the public good was the best way of advancing one 's own good since the two were necessarily identical.
Lord Shaftesbury turned the convergence of public and private good around, claiming that acting in accordance with one 's self - interest produces socially beneficial results. An underlying unifying force that Shaftesbury called the "Will of Nature '' maintains equilibrium, congruency, and harmony. This force, to operate freely, requires the individual pursuit of rational self - interest, and the preservation and advancement of the self.
Francis Hutcheson also accepted this convergence between public and private interest, but he attributed the mechanism, not to rational self - interest, but to personal intuition, which he called a "moral sense. '' Smith developed his own version of this general principle in which six psychological motives combine in each individual to produce the common good. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, vol. II, page 316, he says, "By acting according to the dictates of our moral faculties, we necessarily pursue the most effective means for promoting the happiness of mankind. ''
Contrary to common misconceptions, Smith did not assert that all self - interested labour necessarily benefits society, or that all public goods are produced through self - interested labour. His proposal is merely that in a free market, people usually tend to produce goods desired by their neighbours. The tragedy of the commons is an example where self - interest tends to bring an unwanted result.
The invisible hand is traditionally understood as a concept in economics, but Robert Nozick argues in Anarchy, State and Utopia that substantively the same concept exists in a number of other areas of academic discourse under different names, notably Darwinian natural selection. In turn, Daniel Dennett argues in Darwin 's Dangerous Idea that this represents a "universal acid '' that may be applied to a number of seemingly disparate areas of philosophical inquiry (consciousness and free will in particular).
Christian socialist R.H. Tawney saw Smith as putting a name on an older idea:
If preachers have not yet overtly identified themselves with the view of the natural man, expressed by an eighteenth - century writer in the words, trade is one thing and religion is another, they imply a not very different conclusion by their silence as to the possibility of collisions between them. The characteristic doctrine was one, in fact, which left little room for religious teaching as to economic morality, because it anticipated the theory, later epitomized by Adam Smith in his famous reference to the invisible hand, which saw in economic self - interest the operation of a providential plan... The existing order, except insofar as the short - sighted enactments of Governments interfered with it, was the natural order, and the order established by nature was the order established by God. Most educated men, in the middle of the (eighteenth) century, would have found their philosophy expressed in the lines of Pope:
Naturally, again, such an attitude precluded a critical examination of institutions, and left as the sphere of Christian charity only those parts of life that could be reserved for philanthropy, precisely because they fell outside that larger area of normal human relations, in which the promptings of self - interest provided an all - sufficient motive and rule of conduct. (Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, pp. 191 -- 192.)
The Nobel Prize - winning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz, says: "the reason that the invisible hand often seems invisible is that it is often not there. '' Stiglitz explains his position:
Adam Smith, the father of modern economics, is often cited as arguing for the "invisible hand '' and free markets: firms, in the pursuit of profits, are led, as if by an invisible hand, to do what is best for the world. But unlike his followers, Adam Smith was aware of some of the limitations of free markets, and research since then has further clarified why free markets, by themselves, often do not lead to what is best. As I put it in my new book, Making Globalization Work, the reason that the invisible hand often seems invisible is that it is often not there. Whenever there are "externalities '' -- where the actions of an individual have impacts on others for which they do not pay, or for which they are not compensated -- markets will not work well. Some of the important instances have long understood environmental externalities. Markets, by themselves, produce too much pollution. Markets, by themselves, also produce too little basic research. (The government was responsible for financing most of the important scientific breakthroughs, including the internet and the first telegraph line, and many bio-tech advances.) But recent research has shown that these externalities are pervasive, whenever there is imperfect information or imperfect risk markets -- that is always. Government plays an important role in banking and securities regulation, and a host of other areas: some regulation is required to make markets work. Government is needed, almost all would agree, at a minimum to enforce contracts and property rights. The real debate today is about finding the right balance between the market and government (and the third "sector '' -- governmental non-profit organizations.) Both are needed. They can each complement each other. This balance differs from time to time and place to place.
The preceding claim is based on Stiglitz 's 1986 paper, "Externalities in Economies with Imperfect Information and Incomplete Markets '', which describes a general methodology to deal with externalities and for calculating optimal corrective taxes in a general equilibrium context. In it he considers a model with households, firms and a government.
Households maximize a utility function u h (x h, z h) (\ displaystyle u ^ (h) (x ^ (h), z ^ (h))), where x h (\ displaystyle x ^ (h)) is the consumption vector and z h (\ displaystyle z ^ (h)) are other variables affecting the utility of the household (ex: pollution). The budget constraint is given by x 1 h + q ⋅ x _̄ h ≤ I h + ∑ a h f ⋅ π f (\ displaystyle x_ (1) ^ (h) + q \ cdot (\ bar (x)) ^ (h) \ leq I ^ (h) + \ sum a ^ (hf) \ cdot \ pi ^ (f)), where q is a vector of prices, a the fractional holding of household h in firm f, π the profit of firm f, I a lump sum government transfer to the household. The consumption vector can be split as x h = (x 1 h, x _̄ h) (\ displaystyle x ^ (h) = \ left (x_ (1) ^ (h), (\ bar (x)) ^ (h) \ right)).
Firms maximize a profit π f = y 1 f + p ⋅ y _̄ 1 (\ displaystyle \ pi ^ (f) = y_ (1) ^ (f) + p \ cdot (\ bar (y)) _ (1)), where y is a production vector and p is vector of producer prices, subject to y 1 f − G f (y _̄ f, z f) ≤ 0 (\ displaystyle y_ (1) ^ (f) - G ^ (f) ((\ bar (y)) ^ (f), z ^ (f)) \ leq 0), G a production function and z are other variables affecting the firm. The production vector can be split as y f = (y 1 f, y _̄ f) (\ displaystyle y ^ (f) = \ left (y_ (1) ^ (f), (\ bar (y)) ^ (f) \ right)).
The government receives a net income R = t ⋅ x _̄ − ∑ I h (\ displaystyle R = t \ cdot (\ bar (x)) - \ sum I ^ (h)), where t = (q-p) is a tax on the goods sold to households.
It can be shown that in general the resulting equilibrium is not efficient.
∑ x _̄ h (q, I, z) − ∑ y _̄ f (p, z) = x _̄ (q, I, z) − ∑ y _̄ f (p, z) = 0 (\ displaystyle \ sum (\ bar (x)) ^ (h) (q, I, z) - \ sum (\ bar (y)) ^ (f) (p, z) = (\ bar (x)) (q, I, z) - \ sum (\ bar (y)) ^ (f) (p, z) = 0)
Let 's use ∂ E h ∂ q = E q h (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial E ^ (h)) (\ partial q)) = E_ (q) ^ (h)) as a simplifying notation, where E h (q, z h, u h) (\ displaystyle E ^ (h) \ left (q, z ^ (h), u ^ (h) \ right)) is the expenditure function that allows the minimization of household expenditure for a certain level of utility. If there is a set of taxes, subsidies, and lump sum transfers that leaves household utilities unchanged and increase government revenues, then the above equilibrium is not Pareto optimal. On the other hand, if the above non taxed equilibrium is Pareto optimal, then the following maximization problem has a solution for t = 0:
This is a necessary condition for Pareto optimality. Taking the derivative of the constraint with respect to t yields:
d I h d t + ∑ a h f (π z f d z f d t + π P f d p d t) = E q h d q d t + E z h d z h d t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)) + \ sum a ^ (hf) \ left (\ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) + \ pi _ (P) ^ (f) (\ frac (dp) (dt)) \ right) = E_ (q) ^ (h) (\ frac (dq) (dt)) + E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt)))
Where π z f = ∂ π ∗ f ∂ z f (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) = (\ frac (\ partial \ pi _ (*) ^ (f)) (\ partial z ^ (f)))) and π ∗ f (p, z f) (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (*) ^ (f) (p, z ^ (f))) is the firm 's maximum profit function. But since q = t + p, we have that dq / dt = I + dp / dt. Therefore, substituting dq / dt in the equation above and rearranging terms gives:
E q h + (E q h − ∑ a h f π P f) d p d t = d I h d t + (∑ a h f π z f d z f d t − E z h d z h d t) (\ displaystyle E_ (q) ^ (h) + \ left (E_ (q) ^ (h) - \ sum a ^ (hf) \ pi _ (P) ^ (f) \ right) (\ frac (dp) (dt)) = (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)) + \ left \ (\ sum a ^ (hf) \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) - E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt)) \ right \))
Summing over all households and keeping in mind that ∑ a h f = 1 (\ displaystyle \ sum a ^ (hf) = 1) yields:
∑ E q h + (∑ E q h − ∑ π P f) d p d t = ∑ d I h d t + (∑ π z f d z f d t − ∑ E z h d z h d t) (\ displaystyle \ sum E_ (q) ^ (h) + \ left (\ sum E_ (q) ^ (h) - \ sum \ pi _ (P) ^ (f) \ right) (\ frac (dp) (dt)) = \ sum (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)) + \ left \ (\ sum \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) - \ sum E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt)) \ right \))
By the envelope theorem we have:
x ^ k h (q; z h, u h) = ∂ E h ∂ q z h, u h (\ displaystyle (\ widehat (x)) _ (k) ^ (h) (q; z ^ (h), u ^ (h)) = \ left. (\ frac (\ partial E ^ (h)) (\ partial q)) \ right _ (z ^ (h), u ^ (h)))
∂ π ∗ f ∂ p k 1 z f = y k f (\ displaystyle \ left. (\ frac (\ partial \ pi _ (*) ^ (f)) (\ partial p_ (k_ (1)))) \ right _ (z ^ (f)) = y_ (k) ^ (f)); ∀ k
This allows the constraint to be rewritten as:
x _̄ + (x _̄ − y _̄) d p d t = ∑ d I h d t + (∑ π z f d z f d t − ∑ E z h d z h d t) (\ displaystyle (\ bar (x)) + \ left ((\ bar (x)) - (\ bar (y)) \ right) (\ frac (dp) (dt)) = \ sum (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)) + \ left (\ sum \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) - \ sum E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt)) \ right))
Since x _̄ = y _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (x)) = (\ bar (y))):
∑ d I h d t = x _̄ − (∑ π z f d z f d t − ∑ E z h d z h d t) (\ displaystyle \ sum (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)) = (\ bar (x)) - \ left (\ sum \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) - \ sum E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt)) \ right))
Differentiating the objective function of the maximization problem gives:
d R d t = x _̄ + d x _̄ d t ⋅ t − ∑ d I h d t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dR) (dt)) = (\ bar (x)) + (\ frac (d (\ bar (x))) (dt)) \ cdot t - \ sum (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt)))
Substituting ∑ d I h d t (\ displaystyle \ sum (\ frac (dI ^ (h)) (dt))) from the former equation in to latter equation results in:
d R d t = d x _̄ d t ⋅ t + (∑ π z f d z f d t − ∑ E z h d z h d t) = d x _̄ d t ⋅ t + (Π t − B t) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dR) (dt)) = (\ frac (d (\ bar (x))) (dt)) \ cdot t+ (\ sum \ pi _ (z) ^ (f) (\ frac (dz ^ (f)) (dt)) - \ sum E_ (z) ^ (h) (\ frac (dz ^ (h)) (dt))) = (\ frac (d (\ bar (x))) (dt)) \ cdot t+ (\ Pi ^ (t) - B ^ (t)))
Recall that for the maximization problem to have a solution at = 0:
d R d t = (Π t − B t) = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dR) (dt)) = \ left (\ Pi ^ (t) - B ^ (t) \ right) = 0)
In conclusion, for the equilibrium to be Pareto optimal dR / dt must be zero. Except for the special case where ∏ and B are equal, in general the equilibrium will not be Pareto optimal, therefore inefficient.
Noam Chomsky suggests that Smith (and more specifically David Ricardo) sometimes used the phrase to refer to a "home bias '' for investing domestically in opposition to offshore outsourcing production and neoliberalism.
Rather interestingly, these issues were foreseen by the great founders of modern economics, Adam Smith for example. He recognized and discussed what would happen to Britain if the masters adhered to the rules of sound economics -- what 's now called neoliberalism. He warned that if British manufacturers, merchants, and investors turned abroad, they might profit but England would suffer. However, he felt that this would n't happen because the masters would be guided by a home bias. So as if by an invisible hand England would be spared the ravages of economic rationality. That passage is pretty hard to miss. It 's the only occurrence of the famous phrase "invisible hand '' in Wealth of Nations, namely in a critique of what we call neoliberalism.
Stephen LeRoy, professor emeritus at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and a visiting scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, offered a critique of the Invisible Hand, writing that "(T) he single most important proposition in economic theory, first stated by Adam Smith, is that competitive markets do a good job allocating resources. (...) The financial crisis has spurred a debate about the proper balance between markets and government and prompted some scholars to question whether the conditions assumed by Smith... are accurate for modern economies.
Tadeusz Szuba, author of the model for the phenomenon of collective intelligence, proposed a theory -- that Adam Smith 's invisible hand metaphor is an occurring phenomenon that can be formalized, simulated and most probably used to propose all - new tools to analyze and predict markets in the future.
The proposed theory claims that the invisible hand is a symptom of the existence of another dimension of a market, which is of computational nature. A market and its agents are unaware of this, because only piece (s), or result (s) of this symptom can be observed. In this dimension, the nature of a market and agents creates a complete, programmable computer on the platform of brains of agents and the physical structure of the market. This computer is self - programming and since it exists and functions on the platform of market agents ' brains, results of computations are outputted via the brains of agents and represent themselves as the behavior of a market. These computations are chaotic, distributed, parallel, and non-continuous, with interleaving threads of different computations.
These computations are driven by:
What is fundamental for the emergence of this computational dimension, is that market agents are able to assign value to objects, services and actions, are able to build in consciously chains of inferences, and are able to convert conclusions into business actions.
According to this theory, the invisible hand is much more powerful and universal than Adam Smith and contemporary economists even expected. The invisible hand performs market control on several levels: in terms of production and consumption (equilibrium optimization); in terms of new discoveries (technical market optimization); in terms of social behavior (social market optimization), such as modifying and discovering new rules of market behavior. It is expected that this discovery may lead to the creation of all - new tools and models for market analysis and prediction, compared with today 's macroeconomic models.
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who makes up the 12 tribes of israel | Twelve tribes of Israel - wikipedia
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Tribes of Israel (Hebrew: שבטי ישראל ) descended from the 12 sons of the patriarch Jacob (who was later named Israel) by two wives, Leah and Rachel, and two concubines, Zilpah and Bilhah.
Deuteronomy 33: 6 -- 25 and Judges 5: 14 -- 18 present parallel listings of the twelve tribes:
Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph and his Egyptian wife Asenath) to the status of full tribes in their own right, replacing the tribe of Joseph.
In the Bible 's version of events, the period from the conquest of Canaan under the leadership of Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel, passed with the tribes forming a loose confederation, described in the Book of Judges. Modern scholarship has called into question the beginning, middle, and end of this picture and the account of the conquest under Joshua has largely been abandoned. The Bible 's depiction of the ' period of the Judges ' is widely considered doubtful. The extent to which a united Kingdom of Israel ever existed is also a matter of ongoing dispute.
Living in exile in the sixth century BCE, the prophet Ezekiel has a vision for the restoration of Israel, of a future utopia in which the twelve tribes of Israel are living in their land again.
In the Christian New Testament, the twelve tribes of Israel are referred to twice in the gospels and twice in the Book of Revelation. In Matthew, paralleled by Luke, Jesus anticipates that in the Kingdom of God, his followers will "sit on (twelve) thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel ''. In the vision of the writer of the Book of Revelation, 144,000 of all the tribes of the children of Israel were "sealed '', 12,000 from each tribe and in his vision of the New or Heavenly Jerusalem, the tribes ' names were written on the city gates:
The names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel: three gates on the east, three gates on the north, three gates on the south, and three gates on the west.
Thesouro de Nobreza, 1675
Asher
Benjamin
Dan
Ephraim
Gad
Issachar
Judah
Manasseh
Naphtali
Reuben
Simeon
Zebulun
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who sang the theme song to the facts of life | Gloria Loring - wikipedia
Gloria Loring - Lagler (born Gloria Jean Goff; December 10, 1946) is an American singer and actress. She is known for playing Liz Chandler on Days of Our Lives for five years. She and singer - actor Carl Anderson performed the duet "Friends and Lovers, '' which reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1986.
Loring was born in New York City, the daughter of Dorothy Ann (née Tobin), a singer, and Gerald "Buzzy '' Lewis Goff, a professional trumpet player with Tommy Dorsey Big Band as well as other renowned Swing groups; a salesman and hospitality / restaurant industry consultant
Loring began her music career at age 14, singing with a folk group known as Those Four. Loring released her first album in 1968. It was titled Gloria Loring, Today on MGM Records. Several singles, including cover versions of Harry Nilsson 's "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' and Roger Whittaker 's "New World in the Morning '' were released on the Evolution label, though none charted. She went on to perform on a wide range of television shows in the late 1960s and 1970s, from The Carol Burnett Show to the Academy Awards ceremony. Signed to Atco Records, she released the single "Brooklyn, '' produced by Mike Post, in 1977 under the alias Cody Jameson, and it became her first chart single, climbing to No. 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 and also appearing on the Adult Contemporary and Country Charts.
In March 1977 Gloria flew to Toronto to be the special guest star on the popular weekly variety program The Bobby Vinton Show which was seen all across the United States and Canada. The program was produced by her husband Alan Thicke. Loring performed "Will You Love Me Tomorrow '' and performed a duet with Vinton on "Breaking Up Is Hard to Do ''.
In 1979 and 1980, Loring and then - husband Alan Thicke composed the theme songs to Diff'rent Strokes and The Facts of Life. There were two versions of the Facts of Life theme song that Loring sang. One version was used from seasons two through six, and a second was used from seasons seven to nine.
Her son Brennan was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes in 1979. A year later, Loring joined Days of Our Lives and got the idea to create and self - publish the Days Of Our Lives Celebrity Cookbook to raise money for diabetes research. Volume One was published in 1981 and the follow - up Volume Two in 1983. The cookbooks, along with her recording "A Shot in the Dark '', raised more than $1 million for the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation ("JDRF ''). She followed that success with three commercially published books, Kids, Food and Diabetes, Parenting a Child with Diabetes, and Living with Type 2 Diabetes: Moving Past the Fear. For the past 30 years, she has served as a spokesperson for JDRF. JDRF was the official philanthropy of her college sorority, Alpha Gamma Delta, before shifting its focus to fighting hunger in 2017.
In 1980, when Loring joined the NBC daytime soap Days of Our Lives as chanteuse Liz Chandler, the show was going through a dry spell, with many veterans dropped and many new faces alienating long - time fans. Of the nine new characters introduced in the 1980 - 1981 season, only Liz garnered a fan following, and was the only one to have her contract renewed. For three years, in real - life, Loring dated Don Diamont, the actor who played the corrupt, long - lost son of her TV husband Dr. Neil Curtis.
In 1986, Loring scored a No. 2 Pop and No. 1 Adult Contemporary hit record in the United States with "Friends and Lovers '', with Carl Anderson (also a # 1 Country hit in 1986 for Eddie Rabbitt and Juice Newton under the title "Both to Each Other ''). Loring originally performed "Friends and Lovers '' on Days of Our Lives more than a year before the track finally hit the charts. Her performance of the song generated the largest mail response of any song in NBC daytime history. First recorded as a duet with Anderson (who appeared on Days of Our Lives to sing the song with Loring) in 1985, its release as a single was delayed for a year by legal complications. Loring left Days in 1986 and made sporadic film and television appearances over the next few decades. Her main efforts were spent in theater and in her recording career (though "Friends and Lovers '' was her only major hit single).
In 2003, Loring released her first holiday album, You Make It Christmas. In 2008, she released A Playlist, which included a new recording of the song "Friends and Lovers '' with Carl Anderson, recorded one year before he died.
Loring 's book, Coincidence Is God 's Way of Remaining Anonymous, is a spiritual autobiography of how a series of coincidences transformed her life. It was released October 2012 by HCI, Inc.
Loring was married to actor Alan Thicke from 1970 until 1986. She has two sons with Thicke, Brennan and singer Robin.
Loring was married to actor Christopher Beaumont from 1988 to 1993. In 1994, Loring married production designer René Lagler. They had met 24 years earlier on the set of Glen Campbell 's variety series.
Loring has been honored with the Lifetime Commitment Award from JDRF, and received the Woman of Achievement Award from the Miss America Organization. She has been featured in Who 's Who in America.
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who is the first english teacher of nepal | Durbar High school - Wikipedia
Durbar High School which translates to Palace High School, opened in 1892 is the oldest modern school in Nepal. Located in Ranipokhari, Kathmandu, it originally taught only members of the ruling family, but was opened to private citizens in 1902.
The founder of the Rana regime, Jung Bahadur Kunwar, later known as Jung Bahadur Rana, decided to give his children an English education rather than the traditional religiously oriented training. Once he had visited the UK and he had to give an speech in front of all the people of the UK and he could not speak English and was embarrassed and decided to teach his children English and also said that "aru kura na sikau tara afno chora lai angrezi bolna sikau '' which translated to "even if you do n't teach your son anything, teach your son english ''. In 1854 Jang Bahadur engaged an English tutor to hold classes for his children in the Rana palace. This act tipped the balance in favor of English education and established its supremacy over the traditional type of Sanskrit - based education. In 1991, English education still carried a higher status and prestige than did traditional education. It has two sections, English medium (the upper one) and Sanskrit medium (the lower one).
Some parts of the school were destroyed in the April 2015 Nepal earthquake.
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where are most producers likely to be found in a lake ecosystem | Lake ecosystem - wikipedia
A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions.
Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems. Lentic refers to stationary or relatively still water, from the Latin lentus, which means sluggish. Lentic waters range from ponds to lakes to wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two fields form the more general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology.
Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal, which has a maximum depth of 1740 m. The general distinction between pools / ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified (discussed in more detail below.) Ponds and pools have two regions: the pelagic open water zone, and the benthic zone, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the profundal. These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.
Light provides the solar energy required to drive the process of photosynthesis, the major energy source of lentic systems. The amount of light received depends upon a combination of several factors. Small ponds may experience shading by surrounding trees, while cloud cover may affect light availability in all systems, regardless of size. Seasonal and diurnal considerations also play a role in light availability because the shallower the angle at which light strikes water, the more light is lost by reflection. This is known as Beer 's law. Once light has penetrated the surface, it may also be scattered by particles suspended in the water column. This scattering decreases the total amount of light as depth increases. Lakes are divided into photic and aphotic regions, the prior receiving sunlight and latter being below the depths of light penetration, making it void of photosynthetic capacity. In relation to lake zonation, the pelagic and benthic zones are considered to lie within the photic region, while the profundal zone is in the aphotic region.
Temperature is an important abiotic factor in lentic ecosystems because most of the biota are poikilothermic, where internal body temperatures are defined by the surrounding system. Water can be heated or cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and surrounding substrate. Shallow ponds often have a continuous temperature gradient from warmer waters at the surface to cooler waters at the bottom. In addition, temperature fluctuations can be very great in these systems, both diurnally and seasonally.
Temperature regimes are very different in large lakes (Fig. 2). In temperate regions, for example, as air temperatures increase, the icy layer formed on the surface of the lake breaks up, leaving the water at approximately 4 ° C. This is the temperature at which water has the highest density. As the season progresses, the warmer air temperatures heat the surface waters, making them less dense. The deeper waters remain cool and dense due to reduced light penetration. As the summer begins, two distinct layers become established, with such a large temperature difference between them that they remain stratified. The lowest zone in the lake is the coldest and is called the hypolimnion. The upper warm zone is called the epilimnion. Between these zones is a band of rapid temperature change called the thermocline. During the colder fall season, heat is lost at the surface and the epilimnion cools. When the temperatures of the two zones are close enough, the waters begin to mix again to create a uniform temperature, an event termed lake turnover. In the winter, inverse stratification occurs as water near the surface cools freezes, while warmer, but denser water remains near the bottom. A thermocline is established, and the cycle repeats.
In exposed systems, wind can create turbulent, spiral - formed surface currents called Langmuir circulations (Fig. 3). Exactly how these currents become established is still not well understood, but it is evident that it involves some interaction between horizontal surface currents and surface gravity waves. The visible result of these rotations, which can be seen in any lake, are the surface foamlines that run parallel to the wind direction. Positively buoyant particles and small organisms concentrate in the foamline at the surface and negatively buoyant objects are found in the upwelling current between the two rotations. Objects with neutral buoyancy tend to be evenly distributed in the water column. This turbulence circulates nutrients in the water column, making it crucial for many pelagic species, however its effect on benthic and profundal organisms is minimal to non-existent, respectively. The degree of nutrient circulation is system specific, as it depends upon such factors as wind strength and duration, as well as lake or pool depth and productivity.
Oxygen is essential for organismal respiration. The amount of oxygen present in standing waters depends upon: 1) the area of transparent water exposed to the air, 2) the circulation of water within the system and 3) the amount of oxygen generated and used by organisms present. In shallow, plant - rich pools there may be great fluctuations of oxygen, with extremely high concentrations occurring during the day due to photosynthesis and very low values at night when respiration is the dominant process of primary producers. Thermal stratification in larger systems can also affect the amount of oxygen present in different zones. The epilimnion is oxygen rich because it circulates quickly, gaining oxygen via contact with the air. The hypolimnion, however, circulates very slowly and has no atmospheric contact. Additionally, fewer green plants exist in the hypolimnion, so there is less oxygen released from photosynthesis. In spring and fall when the epilimnion and hypolimnion mix, oxygen becomes more evenly distributed in the system. Low oxygen levels are characteristic of the profundal zone due to the accumulation of decaying vegetation and animal matter that "rains '' down from the pelagic and benthic zones and the inability to support primary producers.
Phosphorus is important for all organisms because it is a component of DNA and RNA and is involved in cell metabolism as a component of ATP and ADP. Also, phosphorus is not found in large quantities in freshwater systems, limiting photosynthesis in primary producers, making it the main determinant of lentic system production. The phosphorus cycle is complex, but the model outlined below describes the basic pathways. Phosphorus mainly enters a pond or lake through runoff from the watershed or by atmospheric deposition. Upon entering the system, a reactive form of phosphorus is usually taken up by algae and macrophytes, which release a non-reactive phosphorus compound as a byproduct of photosynthesis. This phosphorus can drift downwards and become part of the benthic or profundal sediment, or it can be remineralized to the reactive form by microbes in the water column. Similarly, non-reactive phosphorus in the sediment can be remineralized into the reactive form. Sediments are generally richer in phosphorus than lake water, however, indicating that this nutrient may have a long residency time there before it is remineralized and re-introduced to the system.
Bacteria are present in all regions of lentic waters. Free - living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and plants, suspended in the water column, and in the sediments of the benthic and profundal zones. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lentic animals as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play an important role in system metabolism through nutrient recycling, which is discussed in the Trophic Relationships section.
Algae, including both phytoplankton and periphyton are the principle photosynthesizers in ponds and lakes. Phytoplankton are found drifting in the water column of the pelagic zone. Many species have a higher density than water which should make them sink and end up in the benthos. To combat this, phytoplankton have developed density changing mechanisms, by forming vacuoles and gas vesicles or by changing their shapes to induce drag, slowing their descent. A very sophisticated adaptation utilized by a small number of species is a tail - like flagellum that can adjust vertical position and allow movement in any direction. Phytoplankton can also maintain their presence in the water column by being circulated in Langmuir rotations. Periphytic algae, on the other hand, are attached to a substrate. In lakes and ponds, they can cover all benthic surfaces. Both types of plankton are important as food sources and as oxygen providers.
Aquatic plants live in both the benthic and pelagic zones and can be grouped according to their manner of growth: 1) emergent = rooted in the substrate but with leaves and flowers extending into the air, 2) floating - leaved = rooted in the substrate but with floating leaves, 3) submersed = growing beneath the surface and 4) free - floating macrophytes = not rooted in the substrate and floating on the surface. These various forms of macrophytes generally occur in different areas of the benthic zone, with emergent vegetation nearest the shoreline, then floating - leaved macrophytes, followed by submersed vegetation. Free - floating macrophytes can occur anywhere on the system 's surface.
Aquatic plants are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts because freshwater has a higher density than air. This makes structural rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds (except in the aerial stems and leaves). Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth instead. In order to contend with stresses induced by wind and waves, plants must be both flexible and tough. Light, water depth and substrate types are the most important factors controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants. Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the benthic zone, but can not penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone and hence are not found there.
Zooplankton are tiny animals suspended in the water column. Like phytoplankton, these species have developed mechanisms that keep them from sinking to deeper waters, including drag - inducing body forms and the active flicking of appendages such as antennae or spines. Remaining in the water column may have its advantages in terms of feeding, but this zone 's lack of refugia leaves zooplankton vulnerable to predation. In response, some species, especially Daphnia sp., make daily vertical migrations in the water column by passively sinking to the darker lower depths during the day and actively moving towards the surface during the night. Also, because conditions in a lentic system can be quite variable across seasons, zooplankton have the ability to switch from laying regular eggs to resting eggs when there is a lack of food, temperatures fall below 2 ° C, or if predator abundance is high. These resting eggs have a diapause, or dormancy period that should allow the zooplankton to encounter conditions that are more favorable to survival when they finally hatch. The invertebrates that inhabit the benthic zone are numerically dominated by small species and are species rich compared to the zooplankton of the open water. They include Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, crayfish, and shrimp), molluscs (e.g. clams and snails), and numerous types of insects. These organisms are mostly found in the areas of macrophyte growth, where the richest resources, highly oxygenated water, and warmest portion of the ecosystem are found. The structurally diverse macrophyte beds are important sites for the accumulation of organic matter, and provide an ideal area for colonization. The sediments and plants also offer a great deal of protection from predatory fishes.
Very few invertebrates are able to inhabit the cold, dark, and oxygen poor profundal zone. Those that can are often red in color due to the presence of large amounts of hemoglobin, which greatly increases the amount of oxygen carried to cells. Because the concentration of oxygen within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or borrows in which they can hide and make the minimum movements necessary to circulate water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending much energy.
Fish have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures, dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are based on their activity levels and behaviors. Because fish are highly mobile, they are able to deal with unsuitable abiotic factors in one zone by simply moving to another. A detrital feeder in the profundal zone, for example, that finds the oxygen concentration has dropped too low may feed closer to the benthic zone. A fish might also alter its residence during different parts of its life history: hatching in a sediment nest, then moving to the weedy benthic zone to develop in a protected environment with food resources, and finally into the pelagic zone as an adult.
Other vertebrate taxa inhabit lentic systems as well. These include amphibians (e.g. salamanders and frogs), reptiles (e.g. snakes, turtles, and alligators), and a large number of waterfowl species. Most of these vertebrates spend part of their time in terrestrial habitats and thus are not directly affected by abiotic factors in the lake or pond. Many fish species are important as consumers and as prey species to the larger vertebrates mentioned above.
Lentic systems gain most of their energy from photosynthesis performed by aquatic plants and algae. This autochthonous process involves the combination of carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce carbohydrates and dissolved oxygen. Within a lake or pond, the potential rate of photosynthesis generally decreases with depth due to light attenuation. Photosynthesis, however, is often low at the top few millimeters of the surface, likely due to inhibition by ultraviolet light. The exact depth and photosynthetic rate measurements of this curve are system specific and depend upon: 1) the total biomass of photosynthesizing cells, 2) the amount of light attenuating materials and 3) the abundance and frequency range of light absorbing pigments (i.e. chlorophylls) inside of photosynthesizing cells. The energy created by these primary producers is important for the community because it is transferred to higher trophic levels via consumption.
The vast majority of bacteria in lakes and ponds obtain their energy by decomposing vegetation and animal matter. In the pelagic zone, dead fish and the occasional allochthonous input of litterfall are examples of coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM > 1 mm). Bacteria degrade these into fine particulate organic matter (FPOM < 1 mm) and then further into usable nutrients. Small organisms such as plankton are also characterized as FPOM. Very low concentrations of nutrients are released during decomposition because the bacteria are utilizing them to build their own biomass. Bacteria, however, are consumed by protozoa, which are in turn consumed by zooplankton, and then further up the trophic levels. Nutrients, including those that contain carbon and phosphorus, are reintroduced into the water column at any number of points along this food chain via excretion or organism death, making them available again for bacteria. This regeneration cycle is known as the microbial loop and is a key component of lentic food webs.
The decomposition of organic materials can continue in the benthic and profundal zones if the matter falls through the water column before being completely digested by the pelagic bacteria. Bacteria are found in the greatest abundance here in sediments, where they are typically 2 - 1000 times more prevalent than in the water column.
Benthic invertebrates, due to their high level of species richness, have many methods of prey capture. Filter feeders create currents via siphons or beating cilia, to pull water and its nutritional contents, towards themselves for straining. Grazers use scraping, rasping, and shredding adaptations to feed on periphytic algae and macrophytes. Members of the collector guild browse the sediments, picking out specific particles with raptorial appendages. Deposit feeding invertebrates indiscriminately consume sediment, digesting any organic material it contains. Finally, some invertebrates belong to the predator guild, capturing and consuming living animals. The profundal zone is home to a unique group of filter feeders that use small body movements to draw a current through burrows that they have created in the sediment. This mode of feeding requires the least amount of motion, allowing these species to conserve energy. A small number of invertebrate taxa are predators in the profundal zone. These species are likely from other regions and only come to these depths to feed. The vast majority of invertebrates in this zone are deposit feeders, getting their energy from the surrounding sediments.
Fish size, mobility, and sensory capabilities allow them to exploit a broad prey base, covering multiple zonation regions. Like invertebrates, fish feeding habits can be categorized into guilds. In the pelagic zone, herbivores graze on periphyton and macrophytes or pick phytoplankton out of the water column. Carnivores include fishes that feed on zooplankton in the water column (zooplanktivores), insects at the water 's surface, on benthic structures, or in the sediment (insectivores), and those that feed on other fish (piscivores). Fish that consume detritus and gain energy by processing its organic material are called detritivores. Omnivores ingest a wide variety of prey, encompassing floral, faunal, and detrital material. Finally, members of the parasitic guild acquire nutrition from a host species, usually another fish or large vertebrate. Fish taxa are flexible in their feeding roles, varying their diets with environmental conditions and prey availability. Many species also undergo a diet shift as they develop. Therefore, it is likely that any single fish occupies multiple feeding guilds within its lifetime.
As noted in the previous sections, the lentic biota are linked in complex web of trophic relationships. These organisms can be considered to loosely be associated with specific trophic groups (e.g. primary producers, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, etc.). Scientists have developed several theories in order to understand the mechanisms that control the abundance and diversity within these groups. Very generally, top - down processes dictate that the abundance of prey taxa is dependent upon the actions of consumers from higher trophic levels. Typically, these processes operate only between two trophic levels, with no effect on the others. In some cases, however, aquatic systems experience a trophic cascade; for example, this might occur if primary producers experience less grazing by herbivores because these herbivores are suppressed by carnivores. Bottom - up processes are functioning when the abundance or diversity of members of higher trophic levels is dependent upon the availability or quality of resources from lower levels. Finally, a combined regulating theory, bottom - up: top - down, combines the predicted influences of consumers and resource availability. It predicts that trophic levels close to the lowest trophic levels will be most influenced by bottom - up forces, while top - down effects should be strongest at top levels.
The biodiversity of a lentic system increases with the surface area of the lake or pond. This is attributable to the higher likelihood of partly terrestrial species of finding a larger system. Also, because larger systems typically have larger populations, the chance of extinction is decreased. Additional factors, including temperature regime, pH, nutrient availability, habitat complexity, speciation rates, competition, and predation, have been linked to the number of species present within systems.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton communities in lake systems undergo seasonal succession in relation to nutrient availability, predation, and competition. Sommer et al. described these patterns as part of the Plankton Ecology Group (PEG) model, with 24 statements constructed from the analysis of numerous systems. The following includes a subset of these statements, as explained by Brönmark and Hansson illustrating succession through a single seasonal cycle:
Winter 1. Increased nutrient and light availability result in rapid phytoplankton growth towards the end of winter. The dominant species, such as diatoms, are small and have quick growth capabilities. 2. These plankton are consumed by zooplankton, which become the dominant plankton taxa.
Spring 3. A clear water phase occurs, as phytoplankton populations become depleted due to increased predation by growing numbers of zooplankton.
Summer 4. Zooplankton abundance declines as a result of decreased phytoplankton prey and increased predation by juvenile fishes. 5. With increased nutrient availability and decreased predation from zooplankton, a diverse phytoplankton community develops. 6. As the summer continues, nutrients become depleted in a predictable order: phosphorus, silica, and then nitrogen. The abundance of various phytoplankton species varies in relation to their biological need for these nutrients. 7. Small - sized zooplankton become the dominant type of zooplankton because they are less vulnerable to fish predation.
Fall 8. Predation by fishes is reduced due to lower temperatures and zooplankton of all sizes increase in number.
Winter 9. Cold temperatures and decreased light availability result in lower rates of primary production and decreased phytoplankton populations. 10. Reproduction in zooplankton decreases due to lower temperatures and less prey.
The PEG model presents an idealized version of this succession pattern, while natural systems are known for their variation.
There is a well - documented global pattern that correlates decreasing plant and animal diversity with increasing latitude, that is to say, there are fewer species as one moves towards the poles. The cause of this pattern is one of the greatest puzzles for ecologists today. Theories for its explanation include energy availability, climatic variability, disturbance, competition, etc. Despite this global diversity gradient, this pattern can be weak for freshwater systems compared to global marine and terrestrial systems. This may be related to size, as Hillebrand and Azovsky found that smaller organisms (protozoa and plankton) did not follow the expected trend strongly, while larger species (vertebrates) did. They attributed this to better dispersal ability by smaller organisms, which may result in high distributions globally.
Lakes can be formed in a variety of ways, but the most common are discussed briefly below. The oldest and largest systems are the result of tectonic activities. The rift lakes in Africa, for example are the result of seismic activity along the site of separation of two tectonic plates. Ice - formed lakes are created when glaciers recede, leaving behind abnormalities in the landscape shape that are then filled with water. Finally, oxbow lakes are fluvial in origin, resulting when a meandering river bend is pinched off from the main channel.
All lakes and ponds receive sediment inputs. Since these systems are not really expanding, it is logical to assume that they will become increasingly shallower in depth, eventually becoming wetlands or terrestrial vegetation. The length of this process should depend upon a combination of depth and sedimentation rate. Moss gives the example of Lake Tanganyika, which reaches a depth of 1500 m and has a sedimentation rate of 0.5 mm / yr. Assuming that sedimentation is not influenced by anthropogenic factors, this system should go extinct in approximately 3 million years. Shallow lentic systems might also fill in as swamps encroach inward from the edges. These processes operate on a much shorter timescale, taking hundreds to thousands of years to complete the extinction process.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are naturally released from volcanoes, organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline, and the smelting of ores containing sulfur. These substances dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as acid rain. Lakes and ponds that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer, resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity, resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid. At a pH of 5 -- 6 algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an increase in water transparency -- a characteristic feature of acidified lakes. As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die and leave the systems without fishes. Acid rain has been especially harmful to lakes in Scandinavia, western Scotland, west Wales and the north eastern United States.
Eutrophic systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~ 30 μg / L), nitrogen (~ 1500 μg / L), or both. Phosphorus enters lentic waters from sewage treatment effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from agricultural fertilizers from runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of phytoplankton growth, termed a plankton bloom. This bloom decreases water transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants. The resultant reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species ' that utilize it for spawning, maturation and general survival. Additionally, the large number of short - lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of dead biomass settling into the sediment. Bacteria need large amounts of oxygen to decompose this material, reducing the oxygen concentration of the water. This is especially pronounced in stratified lakes when the thermocline prevents oxygen rich water from the surface to mix with lower levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions.
Invasive species have been introduced to lentic systems through both purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as unintentional events (e.g. in ballast water). These organisms can affect natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration, hybridization, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites. With regard to native species, invaders may cause changes in size and age structure, distribution, density, population growth, and may even drive populations to extinction. Examples of prominent invaders of lentic systems include the zebra mussel and sea lamprey in the Great Lakes.
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who is pat from wheel of fortune married to | Pat Sajak - wikipedia
Pat Sajak born Patrick Leonard Sajdak; October 26, 1946) is an American television personality, former weatherman, and talk show host, best known as the host of the American television game show Wheel of Fortune.
Sajak was born and raised in Chicago, the son of Joyce Helen (Brandecka) and Leonard Anthony Sajdak, a factory worker. All of his grandparents were Polish. He graduated from Farragut High School in 1964, then went to Columbia College Chicago while working as a desk clerk at the Palmer House hotel.
He served in the US military as a disc jockey during the Vietnam War for American Forces Vietnam Network. Sajak hosted the same Dawn Buster radio show that Adrian Cronauer had, and for 14 months followed Cronauer 's tradition of signing on with "Good Morning Vietnam! ''
Sajak won a contest on WLS radio 's Dick Biondi Show to be a guest teen deejay. While at Columbia College Chicago, his broadcasting instructor Al Parker told him that a local radio station (WEDC) was looking for a newsman. Sajak applied for the job and was hired to work from midnight to 6: 00 AM. In 1968, Sajak joined the U.S. Army, and was sent to Vietnam, where he served as a disc jockey on Armed Forces Radio. On The Military Channel 's program, An Officer and a Movie, Sajak admitted to botching President Nixon 's 1969 Christmas broadcast to the troops; he accidentally cut the feed off prematurely. Upon realizing the error, he decided it would be best not to resume the feed. In the early 1970s, Sajak DJed for a Murray, Kentucky, radio station for a year. Also in the early 1970s, Sajak began DJ'ing at 50,000 - watt WSM in Nashville; at the time WSM was playing pop music during the day, and he was the 3: 00 -- 5: 00pm afternoon personality. The radio station 's television sister, WSM - TV (now WSMV), brought Sajak on screen, first as a voiceover artist doing station identifications and anchoring the five - minute newscasts during NBC 's Today Show, then as a weekend and substitute weatherman, where he became acquainted with anchor Dan Miller. In 1977 KNBC - TV in Los Angeles was looking for a weatherman, and spotted Sajak working in Nashville. Sajak accepted KNBC 's request for him to be a full - time weatherman for the station.
In 1981 Merv Griffin asked Sajak if he would be interested in taking over the duties as host on Wheel of Fortune from Chuck Woolery. However, Fred Silverman, then president and CEO of NBC, rejected his hiring, claiming he was too local, and Griffin responded by imposing a moratorium on new tapings until Sajak was hired. The issue became moot when Silverman was dismissed due to repeated programming failures and replaced by Brandon Tartikoff. Sajak, who had already hosted two game show pilots in 1980, Press Your Luck for Ralph Edwards (no relation to the 1983 CBS game show of the same name) and Puzzlers for Mark Goodson, accepted the position. He hosted both the daytime (NBC) and syndicated evening versions of Wheel from 1983 to 1989, and continues to host the latter version.
Sajak had a small role as a Buffalo, New York, newscaster in the 1982 comedy film Airplane II: The Sequel. When his late - night talk show on CBS premiered in January 1989, he left the daytime version of Wheel, and was replaced by former San Diego Chargers place - kicker Rolf Benirschke. Sajak appeared on Super Password several times from 1984 to 1989, as well as Password Plus in 1981, shortly before taking on hosting duties on Wheel. Other game shows on which Sajak guested were Dream House and Just Men!.
Sajak hosted a short - lived late - night talk show on CBS from January 9, 1989, to April 13, 1990. Dan Miller, Sajak 's old friend and former anchor at WSM - TV in Nashville, joined Sajak as his sidekick. He later became a frequent guest host for CNN 's Larry King Live, effective when King himself was unable to attend. Sajak also became a regular substitute host for Regis Philbin on the syndicated Live with Regis and Kelly. Sajak also hosted a program, Pat Sajak Weekend, on the Fox News Channel in 2003. More recently, he began hosting The Pat Sajak Baseball Hour, a syndicated radio sports talk show.
Sajak is an External Director of conservative publishing house Eagle Publishing and is on the Board of Trustees at Hillsdale College in southern Michigan, currently as vice chairman. He has written for Human Events and served on the Board of Directors for the Claremont Institute.
In 1983, Sajak portrayed Kevin Hathaway in the NBC daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives.
In 1993, Sajak appeared as himself on the popular children 's cartoon show Rugrats.
In 1997, Sajak pulled an April Fool 's Day prank on fans when he and Vanna White were contestants on an episode of Wheel hosted by Alex Trebek. Both the winnings of Sajak and White were donated to charity (in this case, the American Cancer Society and the Boy Scouts of America). In return, Sajak hosted a regular episode of Jeopardy! in place of Trebek. He also appeared at the beginning of a 2010 April Fool 's episode, along with Jeff Probst and Neil Patrick Harris.
In 2001, he appeared as himself in the episode "Inner Tube '' on the sitcom The King of Queens.
Sajak began writing for the National Review Online in 2010. In his first post he questioned whether public employees should be allowed to vote on issues that would benefit them directly. He also has contributed to the center - right socio - political / social networking website, Ricochet.com.
Sajak also is the author of several puzzle games, the first and best - known of them being "Lucky Letters '', which debuted in 2007. The games, which Sajak developed with puzzle developer David L. Hoyt, are syndicated through Universal Uclick.
Sajak has also appeared on episodes of ESPN radio 's The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz, as well as Le Batard 's other show, Highly Questionable.
Sajak is signed as a host of Wheel of Fortune until 2020.
Pat Sajak was parodied in a 1980s Sesame Street sketch, with a Muppet named Pat Playjacks hosting "Squeal of Fortune ''. The goal was for the contestants (Prairie Dawn and The Count) to guess how many times a pig in the center of the wheel would squeal before the wheel stopped.
During the 1980s comedian Martin Short frequently portrayed on the sketch comedy television shows SCTV and Saturday Night Live a fictional character he called Ed Grimley, a hyperactive manchild who is obsessed with banal popular culture, Sajak in particular.
In an episode of the 1993 animated series, Animaniacs, Wakko refers to Yakko as Pat. Yakko then replies with "Wrong wheel '', a reference to Sajak and the Wheel of Fortune game show he hosts.
In the Comedy Central 's Brickleberry in Season 3, Episode 4: That Brother 's My Father, Pat Sajak gets kidnapped and becomes a hostage to the wheel of fortune.
In the 1994 Rugrats episode "Chuckie is Rich '', Pat Sajak awards Chaz with $10 million.
In 1992, Sajak was a special guest star in the TV show The Commish. The episode first aired on November 7, 1992 and was was called "The Two Faces Of Ed ''. He played psychologist Dr. Brian Brandon.
Sajak is married to Lesly Brown Sajak, a photographer, with whom he has a son, Patrick Michael James Sajak (born September 22, 1990), and a daughter, Maggie Marie Sajak (born January 5, 1995). The couple lives in Severna Park, Maryland, with a second home in Los Angeles, California.
In 2005, Sajak became an investor in the Golden Baseball League, a professional, independent baseball league with teams in California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Alberta, British Columbia, and Baja California. During a guest appearance in the broadcast booth at a March 2012 Baltimore Orioles -- Boston Red Sox spring training game, Sajak acknowledged that he had called some baseball games in the past.
Sajak is featured in a brief film shown at the visitor 's center at Mount Vernon, the residence of George Washington, where he explains to tourists the attractions of the site. Sajak owns Maryland - based AM radio station WNAV in Annapolis (since 1998).
Sajak has written a number of columns for the conservative magazine Human Events. According to NEWSMEAT, Sajak has donated over $17,000 to candidates and election committees, all associated with the Republican Party. Sajak is also a regular poster and podcast participant on the conservative blog ricochet.com. He has long acknowledged being a climate change skeptic. He is also a financial supporter of the Young America 's Foundation, which sponsors conservative speakers on college campuses.
Sajak is a member of the Churches of Christ.
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when did they get rid of figures in figure skating | Compulsory figures - wikipedia
Compulsory figures or school figures were formerly an aspect of the sport of figure skating, from which the sport derives its name. Carving specific patterns or figures into the ice was the original focus of the sport. The patterns of compulsory figures all derive from the basic figure eight. They have mostly disappeared from competitions but retain some influence, having evolved into moves in the field (MIF).
Until 1947, competitors at figure skating events were required to skate a total of twelve figures (six different figures skated on both feet) which were worth 60 % of the total score. With the increasing number of entrants, figures competitions (which were then skated outdoors) began to take a very long time, so in 1948 the number of figures was reduced to six (alternating left and right foot starts) while retaining their weight at 60 %. This competition format continued until 1968.
Pressure to reduce the weight of compulsory figures began when the Olympic Games and other skating competitions began to be widely shown on television. Figures were not considered appealing or exciting to television audiences. Completion of the figures and their analysis by the judges could last eight hours at the World Championships. In addition, skaters who excelled at compulsory figures were often not the most talented at free skating, but sometimes accumulated such a large lead from the school figures that they won the competitions overall. Such results would often leave general viewers stunned because they had watched only the free skating and had little or no knowledge of the compulsory figures.
A reform was undertaken to put more emphasis on the free skating. The first step was taken in 1968, when figures were reduced to 50 % of the total score. In 1973, the number of figures was reduced from six to three, and a new segment, the short program, was added to competitions. Despite the reduction, figures often began at 8 am at ISU Championships, such as 1975 Worlds and 1983 Europeans. In 1983, skaters would often spend almost twice as much time practicing figures, up to five hours a day, as they did practicing their free skating.
From 1973 to 1975, the weights of compulsory figures, short program, and free skating were 40 %, 20 %, and 40 %, respectively. From 1976 to 1988, this changed to 30 %, 20 %, and 50 %. In June 1988, the proportions were changed to 20 %, 30 %, and 50 % for the 1988 -- 89 and 1989 -- 90 seasons. In addition, ISU member nations voted 27 -- 4 to eliminate compulsories entirely from international competition after July 1990. Less practice ice being available in Europe meant that most European nations voted in favor of abolition. The United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand voted to retain figures.
Opponents of figures said they held back talented skaters such as Janet Lynn and Midori Ito, while supporters said they instilled discipline and produced higher quality of basic skating technique. In 1980, ISU president Jacques Favart stated that figures "are a waste of time and they prevent ice skaters from being more creative ''. With less coaching and ice time required, Hugh Graham, president of U.S. Figure Skating, estimated that skaters ' expenses would be reduced by at least 50 % after abolition. In the summer of 1997, U.S. Figure Skating voted to end domestic competitions in figures after the 1997 -- 98 season.
Compulsory figures are no longer a major competitive event and few competitive skaters have the interest to learn how to do them. Some adult recreational skaters, however, still find pleasure in the control and mental stamina required to master figures and the Ice Skating Institute (ISI) still holds competitions and events that require multiple levels of proficiency. Compulsory figures also remain a part of artistic roller skating. The inaugural World Figure Championship & Figure Festival was held in August 2015 in Lake Placid, New York under the auspices of the World Figure Sport Society. In 2017 the championship was expanded to include "Fancy Skating '' as a separate event.
Figures are composed of either two or three circular lobes. The simplest figure, the circle eight, consists of a circle skated on an edge on one foot tangent to another circle skated on the corresponding edge on the other foot. The place where the circles meet is called the center, and a line through the center of the circles is called the axis or long axis. The change of foot at the center is accomplished by a thrust from the former skating foot onto a strike by the new skating foot at the point of intersection of the two circles (the short axis).
More complex two - lobed figures include a three turn or bracket turn at the halfway point on each circle, or a double three -- two three turns placed symmetrically to divide the lobe into thirds.
The most basic three - lobed figure is the serpentine, skated by doing half a circle on the middle lobe and a change of edge on the same foot to complete the full circle at the end; and then repeating on the other foot to complete the figure. Variations on the three - lobed figures include placing a rocker or counter turn at the centers instead of a simple change of edge, or combining a change of edge with the turns in the ordinary two - lobed figures.
A paragraph figure is an advanced two - lobed figure skated entirely on one foot, with a change of edge at the center. The entire figure is then repeated on the other foot over the original tracing.
Most figures are skated on circles about three times the skater 's height. However, a special class of figures, the loops, are done on much smaller circles, about five feet in diameter -- approximately the height of the skater. Here the skater curves sharply inward at the top of the circle to make a teardrop - shaped loop tracing about a blade - length wide (similar to a limaçon with an inner loop). The basic loop is a two - lobed figure, but like the other two - lobed figures it also has more difficult serpentine and paragraph variants.
Practice of compulsory figures is sometimes referred to as "patch '' because each skater is assigned a defined area (or patch of ice) on which to skate.
Figures were formerly identified by these numbers in the rulebook. Each figure has several variants depending on which foot, edge, and direction is used to start the figure.
The Ice Skating Institute includes in its highest test level a number of figures from outside the ISU standard rulebook:
The ISI has also offered "creative figure '' and "free figure '' events, in which the skaters skate figures of their own design (which must be submitted to the judges in advance, on paper). They differ from each other mainly in judging emphasis.
The ISI publishes figures information and diagrams in the ISI Skaters & Coaches Handbook. In ISI testing and competitions, figures are treated as completely separate and independent events from free skating events, with their own separate test levels and awards. There is no requirement for ISI skaters to enter both free skating and figure events, and relatively few do so.
The criteria that are used to judge figures include:
Judges normally stand on the ice, off to one side, to watch the execution of the figure. When the skater has finished, the judges typically check the alignment of the figure from different angles, peer closely at the tracings of the turns, and pace off the diameters of the circles to check their sizes.
Compulsory figures require a blade that is less sharp than that used for free skating in order to achieve finer control over the edges and turns. A figure sharpening has a shallower hollow, which prevents accidental "flats '' caused by touchdown of the other edge. Blades for compulsory figures do n't need the large toe picks necessary for jumping, so blades made specifically for skating compulsory figures have toe picks that are smaller and sometimes placed higher on the front of the blade than free skating blades; this helps the skater avoid accidentally dragging the toe picks on the ice. Compulsory figures also do not require the extremely stiff boots used in free skating to support the foot and ankle on jumps. When compulsory figures were a regular part of competition, many skaters simply recycled their old worn - out "freestyle '' boots and blades for figures by grinding down the bottom toe pick and having the blades sharpened for figures.
A device called a scribe -- essentially, a large compass -- is commonly used as an aid for learning and practicing figures. It is used to lay out the initial shape of a figure and to check the shape and size of circles already skated, and as a straightedge to check the alignment and placement of the turns. However, scribes are not permitted in competition, nor may skaters rely on painted markings on the ice, usually meant for ice hockey rinks (such as faceoff spots, circles and the red and blue centre / zone division lines) to align their figures.
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how many seasons of gold rush are on hulu | List of gold Rush episodes - wikipedia
Gold Rush (formerly Gold Rush Alaska) is a reality television series that airs on Discovery Channel, with reruns also airing on TLC. The show 's eight season began airing on October 6, 2017. As of January 6, 2017 a total of 127 episodes of Gold Rush have been aired.
During season 1, the series was named Gold Rush: Alaska, and the mining occurred at Porcupine Creek, on the Alaskan panhandle.
For season 2, the series was retitled Gold Rush. The show followed groups of miners at locations in both the panhandle of Alaska, USA, and in the Klondike of the Yukon, Canada.
Between 1896 and 1899, more than 100,000 brave souls set out on a perilous journey into the frozen North on the legendary Klondike Gold Rush trail. Most never made it to the end. Killed or scared off by bears, treacherous terrain, raging torrents and temperatures below - 40 degrees, only one in three completed the journey. Now Parker Schnabel of Discovery GOLD RUSH fame, will attempt to make this same journey and document it in Gold Rush: Parker 's Trail.
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who are the leading video artists and why is their work interesting | List of video artists - wikipedia
This is a list of notable artists who create video art. Artists in this list have gained recognition or proven their importance because their work has been shown in film and video festivals and contemporary art exhibitions of worldwide importance, such as the documenta or the Venice Biennale, the Sao Paulo Art Biennial or exhibited in major modern or contemporary art museums and institutes.
Add names in alphabetical order.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
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according to the world health organization a health system is described as all except | Health system - wikipedia
A health system, also sometimes referred to as health care system or as healthcare system, is the organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.
There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. Implicitly, nations must design and develop health systems in accordance with their needs and resources, although common elements in virtually all health systems are primary healthcare and public health measures. In some countries, health system planning is distributed among market participants. In others, there is a concerted effort among governments, trade unions, charities, religious organizations, or other co-ordinated bodies to deliver planned health care services targeted to the populations they serve. However, health care planning has been described as often evolutionary rather than revolutionary.
The World Health Organization (WHO), the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system, is promoting a goal of universal health care: to ensure that all people obtain the health services they need without suffering financial hardship when paying for them. According to WHO, healthcare systems ' goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair means of funding operations. Progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions: provision of health care services, resource generation, financing, and stewardship. Other dimensions for the evaluation of health systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability, and equity. They have also been described in the United States as "the five C 's '': Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity, and Chronic Illness. Also, continuity of health care is a major goal.
Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective, for example reducing it to healthcare system. In many publications, for example, both expressions are used interchangeably. Some authors have developed arguments to expand the concept of health systems, indicating additional dimensions that should be considered:
The World Health Organization defines health systems as follows:
A health system consists of all organizations, people and actions whose primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health. This includes efforts to influence determinants of health as well as more direct health - improving activities. A health system is therefore more than the pyramid of publicly owned facilities that deliver personal health services. It includes, for example, a mother caring for a sick child at home; private providers; behaviour change programmes; vector - control campaigns; health insurance organizations; occupational health and safety legislation. It includes inter-sectoral action by health staff, for example, encouraging the ministry of education to promote female education, a well known determinant of better health.
Healthcare providers are institutions or individuals providing healthcare services. Individuals including health professionals and allied health professions can be self - employed or working as an employee in a hospital, clinic, or other health care institution, whether government operated, private for - profit, or private not - for - profit (e.g. non-governmental organization). They may also work outside of direct patient care such as in a government health department or other agency, medical laboratory, or health training institution. Examples of health workers are doctors, nurses, midwives, dietitians, paramedics, dentists, medical laboratory technologists, therapists, psychologists, pharmacists, chiropractors, optometrists, community health workers, traditional medicine practitioners, and others.
There are generally five primary methods of funding health systems:
Most countries ' systems feature a mix of all five models. One study based on data from the OECD concluded that all types of health care finance "are compatible with '' an efficient health system. The study also found no relationship between financing and cost control.
The term health insurance is generally used to describe a form of insurance that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used more broadly to include insurance covering disability or long - term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through a social insurance program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a group basis (e.g., by a firm to cover its employees) or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses.
By estimating the overall cost of health care expenses, a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) can be developed, ensuring that money is available to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is typically administered by a government agency, a non-profit health fund or a corporation operating seeking to make a profit.
Many forms of commercial health insurance control their costs by restricting the benefits that are paid by through deductibles, co-payments, coinsurance, policy exclusions, and total coverage limits and will severely restrict or refuse coverage of pre-existing conditions. Many government schemes also have co-payment schemes but exclusions are rare because of political pressure. The larger insurance schemes may also negotiate fees with providers.
Many forms of social insurance schemes control their costs by using the bargaining power of their community they represent to control costs in the health care delivery system. For example, by negotiating drug prices directly with pharmaceutical companies negotiating standard fees with the medical profession, or reducing unnecessary health care costs. Social schemes sometimes feature contributions related to earnings as part of a scheme to deliver universal health care, which may or may not also involve the use of commercial and non-commercial insurers. Essentially the more wealthy pay proportionately more into the scheme to cover the needs of the relatively poor who therefore contribute proportionately less. There are usually caps on the contributions of the wealthy and minimum payments that must be made by the insured (often in the form of a minimum contribution, similar to a deductible in commercial insurance models).
In addition to these traditional health care financing methods, some lower income countries and development partners are also implementing non-traditional or innovative financing mechanisms for scaling up delivery and sustainability of health care, such as micro-contributions, public - private partnerships, and market - based financial transaction taxes. For example, as of June 2011, UNITAID had collected more than one billion dollars from 29 member countries, including several from Africa, through an air ticket solidarity levy to expand access to care and treatment for HIV / AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in 94 countries.
In most countries, wage costs for healthcare practitioners are estimated to represent between 65 % and 80 % of renewable health system expenditures. There are three ways to pay medical practitioners: fee for service, capitation, and salary. There has been growing interest in blending elements of these systems.
Fee - for - service arrangements pay general practitioners (GPs) based on the service. They are even more widely used for specialists working in ambulatory care.
There are two ways to set fee levels:
In capitation payment systems, GPs are paid for each patient on their "list '', usually with adjustments for factors such as age and gender. According to OECD, "these systems are used in Italy (with some fees), in all four countries of the United Kingdom (with some fees and allowances for specific services), Austria (with fees for specific services), Denmark (one third of income with remainder fee for service), Ireland (since 1989), the Netherlands (fee - for - service for privately insured patients and public employees) and Sweden (from 1994). Capitation payments have become more frequent in "managed care '' environments in the United States. ''
According to OECD, "Capitation systems allow funders to control the overall level of primary health expenditures, and the allocation of funding among GPs is determined by patient registrations. However, under this approach, GPs may register too many patients and under - serve them, select the better risks and refer on patients who could have been treated by the GP directly. Freedom of consumer choice over doctors, coupled with the principle of "money following the patient '' may moderate some of these risks. Aside from selection, these problems are likely to be less marked than under salary - type arrangements. ''
In several OECD countries, general practitioners (GPs) are employed on salaries for the government. According to OECD, "Salary arrangements allow funders to control primary care costs directly; however, they may lead to under - provision of services (to ease workloads), excessive referrals to secondary providers and lack of attention to the preferences of patients. '' There has been movement away from this system.
Sound information plays an increasingly critical role in the delivery of modern health care and efficiency of health systems. Health informatics -- the intersection of information science, medicine and healthcare -- deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition and use of information in health and biomedicine. Necessary tools for proper health information coding and management include clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and computers and other information and communication technologies. The kinds of health data processed may include patients ' medical records, hospital administration and clinical functions, and human resources information.
The use of health information lies at the root of evidence - based policy and evidence - based management in health care. Increasingly, information and communication technologies are being utilised to improve health systems in developing countries through: the standardisation of health information; computer - aided diagnosis and treatment monitoring; informing population groups on health and treatment.
The management of any health system is typically directed through a set of policies and plans adopted by government, private sector business and other groups in areas such as personal healthcare delivery and financing, pharmaceuticals, health human resources, and public health.
Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health is typically divided into epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health are also important subfields.
Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, the effects of ageing and health inequities, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. For example, most countries have a vaccination policy, supporting public health programs in providing vaccinations to promote health. Vaccinations are voluntary in some countries and mandatory in some countries. Some governments pay all or part of the costs for vaccines in a national vaccination schedule.
The rapid emergence of many chronic diseases, which require costly long - term care and treatment, is making many health managers and policy makers re-examine their healthcare delivery practices. An important health issue facing the world currently is HIV / AIDS. Another major public health concern is diabetes. In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, this number will double. A controversial aspect of public health is the control of tobacco smoking, linked to cancer and other chronic illnesses.
Antibiotic resistance is another major concern, leading to the reemergence of diseases such as tuberculosis. The World Health Organization, for its World Health Day 2011 campaign, is calling for intensified global commitment to safeguard antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines for future generations.
Since 2000, more and more initiatives have been taken at the international and national levels in order to strengthen national health systems as the core components of the global health system. Having this scope in mind, it is essential to have a clear, and unrestricted, vision of national health systems that might generate further progresses in global health. The elaboration and the selection of performance indicators are indeed both highly dependent on the conceptual framework adopted for the evaluation of the health systems performances. Like most social systems, health systems are complex adaptive systems where change does not necessarily follow rigid epidemiological models. In complex systems path dependency, emergent properties and other non-linear patterns are under - explored and unmeasured, which can lead to the development of inappropriate guidelines for developing responsive health systems.
An increasing number of tools and guidelines are being published by international agencies and development partners to assist health system decision - makers to monitor and assess health systems strengthening including human resources development using standard definitions, indicators and measures. In response to a series of papers published in 2012 by members of the World Health Organization 's Task Force on Developing Health Systems Guidance, researchers from the Future Health Systems consortium argue that there is insufficient focus on the ' policy implementation gap '. Recognizing the diversity of stakeholders and complexity of health systems is crucial to ensure that evidence - based guidelines are tested with requisite humility and without a rigid adherence to models dominated by a limited number of disciplines. Healthcare services often implement Quality Improvement Initiatives to overcome this policy implementation gap. Although many deliver improved healthcare a large proportion fail to sustain. Numerous tools and frameworks have been created to respond to this challenge and increase improvement longevity. One tool highlighted the need for these tools to respond to user preferences and settings to optimize impact.
Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) is an emerging multidisciplinary field that challenges ' disciplinary capture ' by dominant health research traditions, arguing that these traditions generate premature and inappropriately narrow definitions that impede rather than enhance health systems strengthening. HPSR focuses on low - and middle - income countries and draws on the relativist social science paradigm which recognises that all phenomena are constructed through human behaviour and interpretation. In using this approach, HPSR offers insight into health systems by generating a complex understanding of context in order to enhance health policy learning. HPSR calls for greater involvement of local actors, including policy makers, civil society and researchers, in decisions that are made around funding health policy research and health systems strengthening.
Health systems can vary substantially from country to country, and in the last few years, comparisons have been made on an international basis. The World Health Organization, in its World Health Report 2000, provided a ranking of health systems around the world according to criteria of the overall level and distribution of health in the populations, and the responsiveness and fair financing of health care services. The goals for health systems, according to the WHO 's World Health Report 2000 -- Health systems: improving performance (WHO, 2000), are good health, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair financial contribution. There have been several debates around the results of this WHO exercise, and especially based on the country ranking linked to it, insofar as it appeared to depend mostly on the choice of the retained indicators.
Direct comparisons of health statistics across nations are complex. The Commonwealth Fund, in its annual survey, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall '', compares the performance of the health systems in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the United States Its 2007 study found that, although the United States system is the most expensive, it consistently underperforms compared to the other countries. A major difference between the United States and the other countries in the study is that the United States is the only country without universal health care. The OECD also collects comparative statistics, and has published brief country profiles. Health Consumer Powerhouse makes comparisons between both national health care systems in the Euro health consumer index and specific areas of health care such as diabetes or hepatitis.
Physicians and hospital beds per 1000 inhabitants vs Health Care Spending in 2008 for OECD Countries. The data source is http://www.oecd.org.
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what type of car does dwight schrute drive | Dwight Schrute - wikipedia
Angela Martin (wife, m. 2008, 2014 --) Esther Bruegger (girlfriend, season 9 ep 18 -- 22)
Dwight Kurt Schrute III / ˈʃruːt / is a fictional character on The Office (U.S. TV series), portrayed by Rainn Wilson, and based on Gareth Keenan from the original UK series. His character is one of the highest - ranking salesmen as well as assistant (to the) regional manager at the paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin, although the series expands on his character as bed - and - breakfast proprietor at Schrute Farms, a beet plantation, and as the owner of the business park enclosing Dunder Mifflin. He is notorious for his lack of social skills and common sense, his love for martial arts and the justice system, and his office rivalry with fellow salesman Jim Halpert. He is also known for his love relationship with Angela. He has at times risen to the position of acting Branch Manager of the Scranton branch, but often serves as a second or third in command as Assistant (to the) Regional Manager. In the final season, Dwight is finally offered the position of permanent Regional Manager.
Dwight Schrute is portrayed by American actor Rainn Wilson. In a Rolling Stone interview, Seth Rogen said he auditioned for the role. The character is based on Gareth Keenan of the original British version of the show, who was played by actor Mackenzie Crook.
All original series characters were adapted for the U.S. version. Unlike Steve Carell, Wilson watched every episode of the original British series, and was a fan before he auditioned for the U.S. version. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael Scott, a performance he described as a "terrible Gervais impersonation ''; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more, and hired him for the role. Wilson based Dwight 's hairstyle on the style he himself had when at the age of sixteen. In an interview, he said that he went to a barber to get "the worst haircut possible ''.
When the series begins, Dwight Schrute is a competent salesman, despite lacking general knowledge, at the Scranton branch of the paper distribution company, Dunder Mifflin. Dwight formally held the title of "Assistant to the Regional Manager '', but constantly refers to himself as "Assistant Regional Manager '', attempting to elevate himself to second - in - command to branch Manager, Michael Scott. (Michael privately makes him Assistant Manager in "The Fight '', tells him that no record / mention will be kept of the "title change only '', then never acknowledges it again.) Dwight craves authority over his co-workers, and relishes any minor task that Michael or anyone else will give him. Although Dwight acts superior to many individuals and is often resourceful in crises, he is shown to actually be quite gullible, ignorant, and naïve. For this reason, he is easily tricked and pranked by his desk - mate and fellow salesman, Jim Halpert.
Dwight often speaks in a halting, intense manner, even in casual conversations. At the office, his most recurring formal wear is a mustard - colored, short - sleeved collared shirt, with a dark necktie and, usually, a brown suit jacket. He often uses one - upmanship to better himself over his peers, such as boasting about how he trains specific parts of his body. Dwight will sometimes engage in jokes and games in attempts to please Michael, but often fails to do so, because of Michael 's perception of himself as the jokester of the workplace. After Dwight temporarily leaves Dunder Mifflin, it is shown that he had long been watering the office plant and arranging the toys on Michael 's desk in a manner that made Michael happy, unbeknownst to Michael.
Dwight is a former volunteer sheriff deputy, but has to step down after breaking his pledge by helping his boss pass his drug test in the episode ' Drug Testing '. He is also a notary public; this creates difficulties when Angela desires to send him a notarized letter regarding their break - up. He resides on his family 's beet farm, alongside his cousin, Mose (played by producer / writer Michael Schur). Dwight has affinities for paintball, Battlestar Galactica, ping pong, survivalism, Goju Ryu karate and weapons. He also has a preference to ride in the back seat of cars behind the driver, because it is the safest location in a car.
In "Whistleblower '', encouraged to invest in real estate by former CEO and owner of Dunder Mifflin, Jo Bennett, Dwight decides to purchase the industrial park building. He has shown entrepreneurial traits, like converting the building lobby into a coffee shop in "Nepotism '', converting an empty room in the office building into a state - of - the - art gym in "Mrs. California '', and organizing a barn maze before Halloween, where kids can pay admission to play, in "WUPHF.com ''.
In an episode commentary on the season one DVD, Wilson refers to Dwight as a "fascist nerd ''. In a feature on the season three DVD, Wilson describes Dwight as "someone who does not hate the system, but has a deep and abiding love for it ''.
All throughout the series Dwight drives a maroon 1987 Pontiac Trans Am, until the finale where he owns an orange 2012 Dodge Challenger.
In "Lecture Circuit '', Dwight claims to remember his own birth, including his father, Dwight Schrute II, delivering him from the womb, and his mother biting off the umbilical cord. In "Grief Counseling '', Dwight states that he was a twin, but he "resorbed '' his twin while still in his mother 's womb (this occurrence is called twin embolisation syndrome), causing him to believe that he now has "the strength of a grown man and a little baby ''. He also claims to have been born weighing 13 lb 5 oz (6.0 kg), rendering his mother incapable of walking for three months and two days, and in "Baby Shower '', he claims to have performed his own circumcision. In "Viewing Party '', he informs Jim and Pam Halpert that, in the Schrute family, the youngest child raises the other children.
Little is known about Dwight 's parents, except that his father used to take him hunting, cheated in games, made him and his siblings biscuits for breakfast every morning, and that he battled obesity, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol.
Dwight 's maternal grandfather, whose surname is Manheim (according to Dwight 's web log on NBC.com) fought in the Second World War. He killed twenty men before being imprisoned in an Allied prison camp (revealed in "The Fight ''), implying that he was a soldier in the German army. In "Dunder Mifflin Infinity '', Dwight tells the documentary film crew that his grandfather is (at the time of the episode) 103 years old, and is still "puttering around down in Argentina '', implying that his grandfather was one of the members of the SS who fled into South America. Dwight attempted to visit him once, but his travel visa was protested by the Shoah Foundation. In "Take Your Daughter to Work Day '', Michael refers to Dwight 's grandmother as a "Nazi war criminal ''. Dwight 's father and grandfather are also named Dwight Schrute; however, his Amish great - grandfather was named Dwide Schrude. In "Casino Night '', Dwight reveals that the tuxedo he is wearing is the one that his grandfather was buried in. In a deleted scene from "The Surplus '', Dwight tells Angela that his family came to the United States on a U-boat. It is revealed in "Money '' that it is a tradition in the Schrute family that when a male has intercourse with a woman, he is rewarded with a bag of wild oats that are left on his doorstep by his parents. Dwight also speaks German, but his knowledge of it is "pre-industrial and mostly religious '', as might be expected if the language was learned exclusively in a Mennonite or Amish church or context.
Dwight was shunned by his family from the age of four until his sixth birthday, for forgetting to save the excess oil from a can of tuna. He lost a grade school spelling bee to Raj Patel by misspelling the word "failure '', in front of the entire school. In seventh grade, Dwight played the invented role of "Mutey the Mailman '' in a production of Oklahoma! He explains that there were not enough roles for all of the children, so they made up roles.
Dwight lives in a nine - bedroom, one - bathroom farmhouse (with the single bathroom located under the porch, as revealed in "Office Olympics '') on his family 's 60 - acre (240,000 m) beet farm, with his cousin Mose. The cousins sell beets to local stores, restaurants, and roadside beet stands. Dwight uses part of his farm to grow hemp. Dwight and Mose have also turned Schrute Farms into a ramshackle bed and breakfast, that was visited by Jim and Pam, during "Money ''. The bed and breakfast had three theme rooms: America, Irrigation, and Nighttime. Schrute Farms was also to be the site of Andy and Angela 's wedding before the two broke off their engagement. In "Garden Party '', Andy throws a garden party at Schrute Farms in order to impress new CEO Robert California, and at the end of the episode, Robert also discusses the possibility of holding his birthday party at the farm.
According to one of Dwight 's web logs on NBC. com 's "Schrute - Space '', he had an uncle, named Gunther, a goat farmer, who fled the Allied invasion of Germany and married a Finnish woman, with whom he had 17 children. He also had an Uncle Girt, who revealed that the Schrute family has an ongoing hatred of Harry S. Truman, because they were staunch supporters of Thomas Dewey. In another blog, he mentions a cousin named Heindl, who received numerous injuries and infections from an attack by a small dog.
Dwight is trained in the art of surveillance, and is a former Lackawanna County volunteer sheriff 's deputy. He has a purple belt in Goju - Ryu karate, and is the senpai at his dojo. Dwight is a pop culture and sci - fi enthusiast, who has expressed fanship of many sci - fi movies and popular television series. In the episode "The Fire '', he mentioned the movie The Crow as being his favorite film. He hints at belief in fictional creatures such as androids, zombies and vampires (though curiously, despite having claimed in "Business School '', to have shot a werewolf (that was actually his neighbor 's dog), he says in one of his blog entries that he does not believe in them; however, he may have simply been denying claims of werewolves at Schrute Farms in order to prevent potential visitors from being frightened away). He enjoys, and is shown to be skilled at, playing table tennis, and states that many of his heroes are table tennis players. His musical tastes vary, but heavy metal and classic rock seem to be a recurring theme. His personal musical talents are not lacking, as he plays guitar and recorder, and sings, as well. He has a fascination with cars; he usually checks a car 's suspension, especially muscle cars. He drives a 1987 Pontiac Trans Am though in the Finale (The Office) he 's driving a 2013 Dodge Challenger. His technological talents are limited, but he shows a passion for the online role playing game Second Life, in which the only differences between himself and his avatar is that his avatar has the last name ' Shelford ' and the ability to fly. He also shows an interest in trains, as he is restoring a turn - of - the - century steam engine in his slaughterhouse, during "The Meeting '', which has him bonding with Toby Flenderson, as they share the same interest. In "Todd Packer '', it is revealed that Dwight does not know who Justin Bieber is, asking Jim "Who is Justice Beaver? '', leaving Jim to answer "A crime - fighting beaver. ''
Dwight owns an impressive array of weaponry. In addition to Laser Tag and paintball equipment, he has a crossbow range at his farm ("Office Olympics '') and, when he was named official Security Supervisor of the Scranton branch, hinted that he might bring a bo staff to work. He maintained a hidden arsenal of weapons around the office, including pepper spray, nunchucks, throwing stars, a stun gun, a boomerang, handcuffs, a nightstick, a pair of brass knuckles and a Chinese sword, all of which were confiscated by Toby. Dwight also claimed to have sat at his desk for an entire day with a spud gun, without any difficulty from Security. Dwight also uses a real gun, a Colt Anaconda, fired within city limits, to start off the race in "Fun Run ''. In "Branch Wars '', he produces a disturbing number of Molotov cocktails for a panty raid on Utica. In "Survivor Man '', it is revealed that Dwight still has numerous knives (and other weapons) hidden on himself (as in "Stress Relief '', there is a knife strapped to his leg) or strategically positioned throughout the office (such as "Mr. A Knife '' in a filing cabinet, twin sais behind a water cooler, a sword in a ceiling tile, a blow dart in a bathroom stall, and a compound bow under a couch), and that he owns a. 22 rifle with scope. Also, in this episode, it is shown that Dwight has extensive knowledge of how to survive in the wilderness, being able to provide himself with food, and, by observing Michael, from a distance, through the scope of his center - fire rifle, he stops Michael from poisoning himself, although it is not clear whether the mushrooms Michael started to ingest were actually poisonous.
Dwight is vocal about his views on justice, which is reflected in his television viewing habits, as he enjoys watching and has great admiration for Judge Judy, as well as Vic Mackey on The Shield. In "The Negotiation '', Roy Anderson attacks Jim, because he kissed Roy 's fiancee, Pam, but Dwight intercepts the attack with pepper spray. Throughout the episode, Jim attempts to show his appreciation, but Dwight refuses to accept his gifts, simply stating "Citizens do not accept prizes for being citizens ''. In "Drug Testing '', Dwight finds half of a joint in the parking lot, which incites him to carry out a severe, and thorough, investigation. When he discovers that Michael might have been exposed to illegal drugs at a concert, he substitutes his own urine during the mandatory drug test. Dwight then resigns from his volunteer position at the Sheriff 's Department, because he feels that he is no longer worthy of working there. In "Frame Toby '', Dwight states that he is skilled at framing people, as well as animals, revealing that he once framed a raccoon for opening a Christmas gift, and a bear for eating out of the garbage, although, he had made it obvious to the police that he wanted Toby to be imprisoned. In the episode "Women 's Appreciation '', he is quoted as saying "Better a thousand innocent men are locked up, than one guilty man roam free. ''
In "Conflict Resolution '', Dwight states that he does not like to smile, as showing one 's teeth is a submission signal in primates, and that whenever someone smiles at him, "all (he) sees is a chimpanzee, begging for its life ''. Dwight owns many exotic pets including piranhas, frogs, an arctic wolf, a raccoon, a porcupine named Henrietta, and an opossum, although the wolf escaped due to poor restraints and he flushed his piranhas down the toilet. He also has an interest in bears, and is ready to debate the habits and characteristics of different species of bears. He also has expressed a surprisingly large affection towards baby otters.
In "Costume Contest '', Dwight claims to be able to sit on a fence, and that he is even able to sleep on one, stating that "The trick is to do it face down, with the post in your mouth ''.
It is revealed in the "Suit Warehouse '' episode that as a child Dwight collected cat feces.
In "Drug Testing '', Dwight states that he likes his co-workers, "with four exceptions '', leaving it up to the audience to make educated guesses about whom these four exceptions are. The four are most likely Jim Halpert, Ryan Howard, Meredith Palmer and Toby Flenderson, due to Michael 's hatred of him. However, it is also probable that Phyllis Lapin - Vance could be one of the exceptions, as, on many occasions, she and Dwight are shown to have a strained relationship. Kelly Kapoor is likewise a viable choice as her ditsy nature contrasts Dwight 's overly serious character, as we see later in the same episode during Dwight 's interrogation of Kelly. This theory is also reinforced by Angela 's hatred of Kelly and the influence Angela may hold as Dwight 's girlfriend at the time. Pam Halpert is also a possible exception as she is often an accomplice to Jim 's pranks against Dwight.
Towards the middle of season 2, Dwight develops a secret relationship with Angela Martin. Pam begins to suspect a relationship between the two, in "E-mail Surveillance '', by observing their interactions, suspicions which are strengthened in "The Injury '' and "Conflict Resolution '', and confirmed by "Traveling Salesmen '', where Angela confides in Pam about her relationship, using code names. In "Michael 's Birthday '', Ryan discovers the relationship between the two when he overhears a coded conversation between them in the kitchen, while in "The Negotiation '' Jim discovers the relationship while coming out of the office bathroom after quitting time, to find Dwight and Angela kissing (he then tells the documentary crew that, with his silence, the debt he feels to Dwight is repaid).
In the episode "Fun Run '', Angela asks Dwight to care for her sick cat, Sprinkles. Instead of caring for the feline, Dwight feels he should kill it as a waste of resources, and then tells Angela Sprinkles was dead when he arrived. When he lets the truth slip out shortly after, Angela terminates their relationship. Jim, on a visit to Dwight 's beet farm, finds Dwight sitting alone at night, contemplating Angela 's cherub figurine and moaning in anguish.
In the fourth season finale "Goodbye, Toby '', Dwight is obviously hurt when Angela 's boyfriend, Andy, proposes to her. However, in the final scene of the episode, Phyllis catches Dwight having sex with Angela in the office.
In the fifth season premiere, "Weight Loss '', Dwight and Angela have resumed a covert relationship, using a storage room in the warehouse to have sex. In "Crime Aid '', Andy and Angela set a date for their wedding. After some advice from Phyllis, Dwight gives Angela an ultimatum: call off the engagement, or he will no longer be with her. She chooses to marry Andy. When Andy learns about Angela 's affair with Dwight, a duel between Dwight and Andy takes place, but both realize that Angela has been lying to them, and break up with her. For quite some time afterwards, Dwight and Angela avoid each other.
In the season 6 episode "The Delivery '', Dwight, witnessing Jim and Pam talk to customers about their unborn child, decides that he wants a child, and asks Angela to be the mother. They sign an elaborate contract, including eating guidelines for Angela to follow when she is pregnant, and how the baby will be raised. While Angela is excited by the reconciliation, Dwight does n't share her romantic feelings. When Dwight develops an interest in Pam 's friend Isabel, he tells Angela to forget about the contract; this infuriates Angela and she sues him in small - claims court. When an arbitrator tells them that the contract is valid and would involve a $30,000 settlement (because it would be illegal to force Dwight and Angela to procreate), Dwight cuts a deal with Angela for five sessions of sex. He then proceeds to abuse his genitals in an effort to sterilize himself, and fends off Angela 's efforts to be romantic.
In Season 7, after Angela meets a state senator who she finds much more personable than Dwight, she voids the pact in WUPHF.com.
In "Jury Duty '', it is revealed that, a month before her wedding to the state senator, Robert Lipton, Dwight and Angela had sex, as Robert was not fulfilling Angela 's sexual needs, so Dwight believes that he is the baby 's biological father. In "New Guys '', it is revealed that he is not the father.
In season 9, they become close again first when Dwight finds out that Robert is cheating on Angela with Oscar, and later in "Moving On '' when Angela helps him take care of his elderly aunt. They share a kiss, but afterwards both say that she should remain faithful to her husband. After inheriting his aunt 's beet farm, Dwight starts a relationship with neighboring brusselsprout farmer Esther Bruegger (Nora Kirkpatrick). When Dwight seems to be getting serious with Esther and the Senator has publicly dumped Angela, Angela breaks down and admits to Oscar Martinez that she still loves Dwight. On the day that he intends to ask Esther to marry him, Dwight instead proposes to Angela. She says yes, finally admitting that he is the father of her son Phillip. ("A.A.R.M. '')
Dwight holds a high level of respect for Michael, viewing him as a model for success, and often participating with Michael 's ill - conceived schemes. However, he betrays Michael numerous times, such as when he goes over Michael 's head to vie for the manager 's job in "The Coup ''. Despite this, Michael frequently dismisses Dwight and often appears embarrassed by his antics; for much of the series, he also refuses to promote Dwight from "Assistant to the Regional Manager '' to "Assistant Regional Manager ''. In later seasons, Dwight was shown to return the favor, such as Dwight telling Michael that he would have a better career if he 'd taken a job at Home Depot. Several times throughout the series, however, it is revealed that Michael does care about Dwight 's feelings, and the two sometimes share bonding moments. In "Training Day '', Dwight is unhappy when the open branch manager position goes to Deangelo Vickers, and when he learns that Michael did not recommend him for the job, as he led him to believe, he snubs Michael and goes to a meeting Vickers has called, leaving Michael standing outside, by himself. In "Goodbye, Michael '', Dwight is still frustrated with Michael, but his hostility turns into heartfelt appreciation as Michael hands him the recommendation letter. At first, the letter does not seem to impress him, but, as he reads through, he realizes that Michael really does respect him. They are later seen engaging in a friendly paintball fight, and Dwight 's loyalty to Michael is once again restored. Also, after Michael left, Dwight did not have the same respect for Deangelo and Andy that Dwight previously had for Michael, implying that Dwight truly respects and values Michael. In a deleted scene from "Finale '', Dwight stated that Michael sent him his "World 's Best Boss '' mug when he became Regional Manager.
In the episode "Finale '', as Jim explains that the "Bestest Mench '' (best man) in Dwight 's wedding must be older than him, Dwight is disappointed. However, the camera reveals that Michael returned, and the two continue to engage in a friendly conversation. During the wedding, Michael is present behind Angela and Dwight getting married, eventually attending the reception. He watches as his "family '' is sitting together, and is last seen dancing with Dwight.
Dwight is frequently the victim of practical jokes by co-workers Jim Halpert and Pam Beesly, including putting his desk supplies in the snack machine, putting his stapler into jello, and moving his desk into the men 's restroom, although it appears that he remains oblivious to Pam 's involvement; these pranks tend to exploit his stubborn and gullible nature. Dwight 's frustration with Jim 's pranks reaches a crisis point in "Conflict Resolution '', when Dwight threatens to quit unless Jim is transferred. Dwight occasionally pulls successful pranks on Jim in turn, most prominently in "Classy Christmas '' where he subjects Jim to a barrage of pranks revolving around snowballs. Professionally, Dwight wins the 2005 Salesman of the Year Award, although, this is likely due to, at least in part, his theft of Jim 's largest client.
During "Initiation '', Dwight tells Ryan he regrets that he and Jim never got along. In "Traveling Salesmen '', Dwight quits and hugs Jim as a farewell which surprises Jim as he does not know that Dwight quit. Later, Jim is irritated when Andy replaces Dwight and even says that he misses Dwight. Earlier in the same episode, Jim and Dwight make an incredibly efficient sales team, functioning well as a duo and thinking similarly in their tactics. The two were paired together when they began as traveling salesmen at the company. Dwight plans to demote Jim from the Assistant Regional Manager spot, and make him miserable, during "The Job ''.
Dwight 's relationship with Jim mellows somewhat in later seasons, and they, at times, cooperate effectively on sales calls or running the office in Michael 's absence, sometimes even socializing together. Jim often supports Dwight when he is genuinely hurt or in danger (such as in "Money '' and "Last Day in Florida '') and occasionally compliments his successes (such as in "Dwight K. Schrute, (Acting) Manager ''). However, when Jim is promoted to co-manager, Dwight 's enmity returns to full force, and he conducts an ongoing campaign to depose Jim, who eventually resumes his old job as sales representative in "Manager and Salesman ''.
Jim and Dwight team up in "Todd Packer '' to remove Todd Packer after he returns to the Dunder Mifflin offices and takes Dwight 's desk. The two at first can not agree on a plan, but eventually trick Packer into thinking he has got a job offer in Tallahassee.
During "After Hours '', Jim enlists Dwight into trying to get Kathy, an unwanted female suitor, out of his room by tricking Dwight into thinking that he has bedbugs. This prompts Dwight to overreact, first by stripping down to ward off bugs and then spraying Jim 's bed with cleaning chemicals. However, the ploy works when Kathy exits the room. Jim and Dwight are then shown sharing ice cream and a friendly smile in Dwight 's room, while watching TV on his bed, where it is implied Jim will have to stay the night due to the chemicals in his own room, as earlier Dwight suggested Jim stay with Kathy. In "Last Day in Florida '', Robert California confides to Jim that he 's going to terminate Dwight 's plans to launch the Sabre store, effectively terminating Dwight 's job altogether. Jim tries to let Dwight know, who dismisses his warnings as nothing more than just another prank and insults Jim throughout the day, including in front of the other Sabre staff. At Pam 's insistence, Jim tries to tell Dwight one more time before he 's dismissed, just as Dwight is about to accept what he thinks is his promotion in the board room. However, Jim physically attacks Dwight just before he goes in, and the two had a wrestling match to which Jim finally concedes. When Dwight steps in, he sees that Packer, who has stolen Dwight 's promotion in the meantime, takes the fall and is promptly fired by Robert in the meeting. Defeated, Dwight walks out of the boardroom and lends Jim a hand up and returns to Scranton. When Kelly sees Dwight, she mentions that she thought Dwight was staying in Florida, prompting Jim to distract her with a compliment.
During season 9 's "Dwight Christmas '', Dwight is convinced by Jim to hold a traditional Christmas party in the style of his family. Jim must leave before the party is over and Dwight is noticeably emotionally upset when Jim must leave. Later, when Jim returns, Dwight embraces him in a hug. Soon after, in "Suit Warehouse '', Dwight absent - mindedly says "love you '' at the end of a phone conversation with Jim, much to his embarrassment and the bemusement of his coworkers.
In "Livin ' the Dream '', the 3rd - to - last episode of the series, Jim suggests to David Wallace that Dwight deserves to replace Andy Bernard as Regional Manager because Dwight loves paper more than anyone else. David agrees and Dwight is promoted to Regional Manager at the end of the episode as a result; Dwight subsequently appoints Jim to fill his old position, Assistant to the Regional Manager.
In the final episode of the series "Finale '', Dwight asks Jim to be the best man at his wedding. Jim throws Dwight a commendable bachelor party rife with surprises (which Jim refers to as "pranks ''). Before the wedding Jim informs Dwight that, under Schrute tradition, he is not allowed to be best man as he is younger than him. Jim surprises him with the arrival of Michael Scott. The wedding proceeds in Schrute tradition with Michael as Dwight 's new best man. Later in the episode Jim and Pam tell Dwight they are quitting so Jim can pursue a sports marketing career in Austin, but Dwight fires them instead so he can give them severance packages.
Although she is often involved in Jim 's pranks on Dwight, Dwight has, at certain times, displayed a curious sense of protectiveness towards her. In "Back from Vacation '' and "Diwali '', he comforts a tearful Pam, and in "China '', he secretly allows Pam to save face when she feels vulnerable about her job abilities. In "The Job '', Dwight offers Pam the position of "Secret Assistant to the Regional Manager '', and following Jim 's advice concerning any offers from Dwight to be involved in something secret, she accepts. Though Jim presumably meant this as the opening move of a prank, Pam instead uses it as a bonding opportunity between her and Dwight.
The two briefly become best friends while he suffers a concussion in "The Injury ''. In the season 6 episode "The Delivery '', Dwight shows more signs of his begrudging friendship with Jim and Pam during Pam 's pregnancy. In the episode, he is sent to the Halperts ' house to retrieve Pam 's iPod, while they are at the hospital. Instead of finding the iPod and bringing it back to her, Dwight completely rebuilds and repaints their kitchen, after discovering mold. He also advises Pam on how to keep her daughter, Cece, from crying, during "Viewing Party '', by relating his child rearing experiences. Dwight 's odd friendship with Pam is explored again in "Doomsday ''. At this point, Pam is the only one in the office who is able to understand Dwight 's inner feelings, as she successfully convinces him to deactivate his doomsday machine. It is implied at the end of the episode that Dwight, despite his outward contempt for his coworkers, feels a sense of responsibility (and possibly even affection) towards them.
In a talking - head interview, in the episode "Tallahassee '', Dwight talks about how first impressions last forever. He recalls that, when he first met Pam, she said something to him that "slightly rubbed (him) the wrong way '', and while he has since loved working with her, even stating that she is wonderful, due to that first impression, he hates her. In the episode "The Whale '', Dwight openly tells Pam that he considers her his friend. In the final episode of the series, Dwight refers to Pam as his "best friend '', and he ensures that she and Jim get a large severance as they leave Dunder Mifflin.
As a result of the Scranton - Stamford merger, Dwight loses his number two position to Jim and engages in an ongoing battle with new salesman Andy Bernard, to gain Michael 's favor for "third - in - command ''. The struggle comes to a climax in "Traveling Salesmen ''. In Season 4, Andy and Dwight are shown to work well together as a sales team, but Andy 's successful pursuit of Angela, after she broke up with Dwight, was irritating to him. When Andy gets engaged to Angela, Dwight is greatly upset by this, and embarks on an affair with her. This affair culminates in a short - lived fight between Andy and Dwight, when they discover Angela has lied to both of them, about not having had sex with the other. In "Michael Scott Paper Company, '' they once again find themselves courting the same woman -- Erin Hannon. However, by the end of the fifth season, Andy and Dwight become friends, and discover they both share a mutual interest in music and hunting.
In the beginning of the series, Dwight feels threatened by Ryan Howard, to whom Michael often assigns personal tasks. He continues to resent Ryan, throughout the second season, often addressing him as "Temp '', even after Ryan took over Jim 's position. In the beginning of season 2, Dwight 's friendship with Michael was slightly torn during "The Fire '', when Michael seems to be viewing Ryan more favorably than Dwight, and in "Performance Review '', in which Michael must evaluate Ryan. In "Initiation '', Dwight decides to assist Ryan, during his first sales call, although the two get off to a rough start when Dwight hazes him in a series of bizarre initiation rituals. Soon afterwards, Dwight takes Ryan on his first meeting, which ends in disaster. Ryan then eggs the potential customer 's building out of spite, and Dwight develops some respect for him.
During season 4, Dwight, along with Michael, comes to Ryan 's rescue when they visit him in New York City, when he gets into a scuffle.
Ryan and Dwight later team up again in season 6, when Dwight plans to sabotage Jim 's occupation, as branch co-manager.
A subtle running joke throughout the series is Dwight 's surprising success with attractive women, with Michael often failing to "hook up '' at the same time. Despite Dwight 's unusual appearance and mannerisms, he manages to attract women, who usually develop stronger feelings for him than vice versa. Michael has even pointed out how socially weird Dwight is acting, only for the woman to brush it off. In "Night Out '', Dwight hooks up with a women 's basketball player, while Michael fails in his attempts with other women. As Michael and Dwight leave the club, the woman calls out for Dwight to call her, which he says to Michael that he will not do. In "Niagara '', Michael and Dwight compete for the attention of Pam 's best friend, Isabel. When Dwight starts talking about his farm, Michael tries to explain that no one can connect with his experiences as farmer, only for Isabel to become interested in Dwight 's horses. Dwight ultimately manages to have sex with her, and she begins to develop deeper feelings for him which he does not return, although it is finally hinted in "The Delivery '' that Dwight might have more intimate feelings for her than he originally let on. They meet again at the bar in "Happy Hour '', and bond further, kissing at the end of the episode. In a chat at OfficeTally.com, Mindy Kaling noted that Dwight is not a typical "nerd '' character, that he is a "farmer and kind of strapping and tall '', and it generally makes sense that he does well with the opposite sex. In season 9, he begins to date an attractive neighboring farmer named Esther (Nora Kirkpatrick). He ultimately ends his relationship with her in "A.A.R.M. ''. In the final episode, Dwight marries Angela Martin.
The Dwight Schrute character has had a very positive reception, and is often cited as one of the most popular characters on the show. According to Entertainment Weekly he is one of the "greatest sidekicks. '' In TV Guide 's list of the top 100 characters in television history, Dwight was ranked 85th. In an ABC News interview with Rainn Wilson, the interviewer commented that "Words barely describe Dwight Schrute, the suck - up salesman and assistant to the regional manager of the Scranton branch for the Dunder Mifflin Paper Company... '' and "Dwight, as played by the 41 - year - old Wilson, has become one of the breakout characters in television comedy. Dwight is a survivalist geek, a student of karate who likes to shoot a crossbow and watch "Battlestar Galactica '' on television. And he takes himself very, very seriously... '' E! News commented that Rainn Wilson should be nominated for an Emmy Award for his performance of Dwight, commenting: "... Who 's laughing now? Who 's laughing now, Dwight Schrute? Oh, only the ten million - plus people who watched as you pepper sprayed the living daylights out of Roy for trying to pop Jim in the face last night. My God, have I missed you, man. Mr. Schrute, you are the reason I love my job, my friend. It is the selflessly heroic actions of a man such as you that make television a nice place to be on a Thursday night. You may just be an everyday citizen who does not accept prizes for being a citizen, but you 'd best be accepting a supporting actor Emmy nod this year, because, hot damn if you do n't deserve it. ''
Another positive review of the character was given by PopMatters, an online entertainment news site. The review stated: "One of the show 's ironies is that Michael and Dwight, hapless though they might be within the office or in most social settings, are actually top salesmen... Undeterred, or unaware of any of this, Dwight carries on with his dreams of grandeur, even instituting a reward system called "Schrute Bucks '' for employees who please him during a brief but tyrannical reign as branch manager... Dwight approaches sales with the same militaristic fervor as everything else in his life, and it pays off for him (maybe that 's one of the reasons why, when Jim gives Dwight one of Benito Mussolini 's speeches to deliver when he accepts a sales award in Season Two, Dwight delivers it so enthusiastically that he gets a standing ovation)... '' Metalcore band The Devil Wears Prada named a song "Assistant to the Regional Manager, '' alluding to Dwight 's position. In addition, the band created a T - shirt design that indirectly associates itself with Dwight by strongly resembling him. It is named "Guy Wearing Tie. ''
In the episode "Valentine 's Day '', Dwight is given a bobblehead doll as a Valentine 's gift, from Angela. Following the episode, fans of the show petitioned NBC to make the bobblehead doll available for purchase on their online store. NBC responded by creating an initial run of 4,000 bobblehead dolls, which sold out almost immediately. The creator of the show, Greg Daniels, joked about the bobbleheads, saying "Yes, they are fun, but they also serve a business purpose. People who want to manage by consensus can buy six and keep them nodding all the time to whatever they say. '' In 2010 Hallmark released a smaller talking version of the doll as part of their 2010 Christmas Keepsake Ornament selection.
In "Halloween '', Jim and Pam uploaded Dwight 's resume to "Monster.com, Craigslist, and Google. '' A producer actually did create a Monster account for Dwight and uploaded his résumé a month before the episode aired. It can be found by employers with resume database access who search for salesmen in Scranton, Pennsylvania. The résumé stated that he was willing to relocate to another state, wanted a salary close to $30,000 (USD), desired the job title of Regional Manager, was currently "Assistant to the Regional Manager '', and had a Bachelor 's Degree. The posted résumé also stated: "My time spent at Dunder Mifflin was very enjoying. I had the opportunity to learn from an experienced and talented boss. My branch consistently was one of the top sellers of the company... ''
In "Money '', Pam refers to a TripAdvisor page for Dwight 's bed and breakfast. This can be found by searching for Schrute Farms. Jim and Pam discover that Dwight is running the Schrute Farm as an "agritourism '' bed and breakfast. They spend the night there, taking part in table - making demonstrations, beet wine - making, and distributing manure. That night, however, Jim hears an unnerving moaning sound throughout the night, later shown to be Dwight in his room crying over his breakup with Angela. The TripAdvisor page said:
"Schrute Farms is the number one beet - related agritourism destination in Northeastern Pennsylvania. We offer the finest accommodations for the casual traveler and / or radish enthusiast. Come join us and experience majestic Schrute Farms. ''
Jim and Pam ("JandP2 '') also posted a review, which can be seen on the reviews page. It read: "The architecture reminds one of a quaint Tuscan beet farm, and the natural aroma of the beets drifts into the bedrooms and makes you dream of simpler times. You will never want to leave your room. The informative lecture will satisfy all your beet curiosity, and the dawn goose walk will tug at your heart strings. Table making never seemed so possible. Great story to tell your friends. Plenty of parking! The staff 's attention to detail and devotion to cleanliness was limitless. From their enthusiastic welcome to the last wave good - bye, Schrute Farms delivers. ''
An angry Angela also put a review up, and mentioned the death of her cat as a main cause for the review. It said: "I have to warn people about the proprietor of Schrute Farms -- he may portray himself as a gentleman farmer, but he is not what he seems! He killed my cat, Sprinkles! Who knows what he might do to you or your loved ones... ''
According to Dwight, during the Civil War, while the Battle of Gettysburg was known for having the most deaths, the battle of Schrute Farms was known for having the highest DPA (deaths per acre). He also claimed it was the northernmost battle during the Civil War. However, in reality, it was actually a safe haven for men who wanted relief from the war to focus on artistic lifestyles. It is insinuated that this was a camp for homosexual soldiers. Melvin Fifer Garris is the only known soldier to write home from Schrute Farms during the Civil War.
On the May 7, 2008, episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, US Senator and Republican Party presidential nominee John McCain joked that Dwight Schrute would be his vice presidential candidate choice. Rainn Wilson appeared on The Tonight Show on May 14, 2008, and read to Jay Leno a list of demands from Dwight in exchange for being vice president. Included in this list was being able to pilot Air Force One at any time, and only to be addressed as "Iceman '' while piloting. He also demanded that Jack Bauer be immediately promoted to United States Secretary of Defense, his bunker to include a foosball table and be zombie - proof, and that the Secret Service members be armed with nunchakus, throwing stars, and flamethrowers. Finally, he demanded a flamethrower, an Iron Man suit, and that fellow character Michael Scott be an "ambassador to Hawaii. ''
Researchers at Brigham Young University, Stanford and Northwestern University demonstrated that social outsiders, similar to Dwight 's character, lead to better group decision making. Media accounts of their published study reported that having a Dwight Schrute around is good for business. Dwight was included in articles about the research by Time magazine, Toronto Globe and Mail, The Salt Lake Tribune and Brigham Young University.
On January 25, 2012, news broke that NBC was planning a spin - off series, starring Wilson as Dwight, that would be set at Schrute Farms, Dwight 's bed - and - breakfast and beet farm. The spin - off was to have been created by Wilson and executive producer Paul Lieberstein, but Office developer Greg Daniels would not have been involved. The series was in the works for a premiere in early 2013, and would have caused Wilson to leave The Office during the ninth season. The spin - off was scheduled to have been introduced as a backdoor pilot in a later episode of the ninth season. Despite the news report, Wilson tweeted "Do n't believe everything you read in the press, OK? ''. In October 2012, NBC announced that it was not accepting the spin - off series.
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when did the south declare war on the north | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Union victory
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston P.G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War (commonly known as the Civil War in the United States) was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long - standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States of America, who advocated for states ' rights to travel with slave attendants in the Americas or abolished tariffs on cotton and imports.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states, the lower Cotton States, individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South, while most slave states remained in the Union. The Confederacy grew to include eleven states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although Britain and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal, including the border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North.
The North and South quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the battle of Appomattox, on April 9, 1865, but Lincoln was shot 6 days later, followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the number of American military deaths in all other wars combined. Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills and houses. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in American history.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %. Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won many Southern leaders felt that disunion had become their only option, because they thought that they were losing representation, which would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war, in large measure, to protect southern society, and slavery was an integral part of it. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Historically, southern slave - holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still - nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full - fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British - French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation - state.
In the world of 19th century self - made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, "freedom '' could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure -- first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining the republic, based on the people 's vote. The people must now show: "... successful maintenance (of the Republic) against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections. Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they can not take by an election, neither can they take it by a war... ''
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the ' slaveholding states ' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "... was intended to be perpetual, '' but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the "... enumerated powers granted to Congress. '' One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln 's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina 's Fort Sumter.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort 's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
However, much of the North 's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.
In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat, and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
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where is potassium located in the human body | Potassium - wikipedia
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (from Neo-Latin kalium) and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name derives. In the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. All of the alkali metals have a single valence electron in the outer electron shell, which is easily removed to create an ion with a positive charge -- a cation, which combines with anions to form salts. Potassium in nature occurs only in ionic salts. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery - white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and reacts vigorously with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the reaction and burning with a lilac - colored flame. It is found dissolved in sea water (which is 0.04 % potassium by weight), and is part of many minerals.
Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar first ionization energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements that combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702, and was proven in 1807 using electrolysis. Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40 K is radioactive. Traces of 40 K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body.
Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all living cells. The transfer of potassium ions through nerve cell membranes is necessary for normal nerve transmission; potassium deficiency and excess can each result in numerous abnormalities, including an abnormal heart rhythm and various electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities. Fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. The body responds to the influx of dietary potassium, which raises serum potassium levels, with a shift of potassium from outside to inside cells and an increase in potassium excretion by the kidneys.
Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, such as potassium soaps. Heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95 % of global potassium chemical production.
The English name for the element potassium comes from the word "potash '', which refers to an early method of extracting various potassium salts: placing in a pot the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves, adding water, heating, and evaporating the solution. When Humphry Davy first isolated the pure element using electrolysis in 1807, he named it potassium which he derived from the word potash.
The symbol "K '' stems from kali, itself from the root word alkali, which in turn comes from Arabic: القَلْيَه al - qalyah "plant ashes. '' In 1797, the German chemist Martin Klaproth discovered "potash '' in the minerals leucite and lepidolite, and realized that "potash '' was not a product of plant growth but actually contained a new element, which he proposed to call kali. In 1807, Humphry Davy produced the element via electrolysis: in 1809, Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the name Kalium for Davy 's "potassium ''. In 1814, the Swedish chemist Berzelius advocated the name kalium for potassium, with the chemical symbol "K ''.
The English and French speaking countries adopted Davy and Gay - Lussac / Thénard 's name Potassium, while the Germanic countries adopted Gilbert / Klaproth 's name Kalium. The "Gold Book '' of the International Union of Physical and Applied Chemistry has designated the official chemical symbol as K.
Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium. It is a soft solid with a low melting point, and can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but it begins to tarnish toward gray immediately on exposure to air. In a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers.
Neutral potassium atoms have 19 electrons, one more than the extremely stable configuration of the noble gas argon. Because of this and its low first ionization energy of 418.8 kJ / mol, the potassium atom is much more likely to lose the last electron and acquire a positive charge than to gain one and acquire a negative charge (though negatively charged alkalide K − ions are not impossible). This process requires so little energy that potassium is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. In contrast, the second ionization energy is very high (3052 kJ / mol), because removal of two electrons breaks the stable noble gas electronic configuration (the configuration of the inert argon). Potassium therefore does not readily form compounds with the oxidation state of + 2 or higher.
Potassium is an extremely active metal that reacts violently with oxygen in water and air. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide, and with water potassium forms potassium hydroxide. The reaction of potassium with water is dangerous because of its violent exothermic character and the production of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen reacts again with atmospheric oxygen, producing water, which reacts with the remaining potassium. This reaction requires only traces of water; because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium - potassium -- NaK -- are potent desiccants that can be used to dry solvents prior to distillation.
Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, reactions with other elements are possible only in an inert atmosphere such as argon gas using air - free techniques. Potassium does not react with most hydrocarbons such as mineral oil or kerosene. It readily dissolves in liquid ammonia, up to 480 g per 1000 g of ammonia at 0 ° C. Depending on the concentration, the ammonia solutions are blue to yellow, and their electrical conductivity is similar to that of liquid metals. In a pure solution, potassium slowly reacts with ammonia to form KNH 2, but this reaction is accelerated by minute amounts of transition metal salts. Because it can reduce the salts to the metal, potassium is often used as the reductant in the preparation of finely divided metals from their salts by the Rieke method. For example, the preparation of magnesium by this method employs potassium as the reductant:
The only common oxidation state for potassium is + 1. Potassium metal is a powerful reducing agent that is easily oxidized to the monopositive cation, K +. Once oxidized, it is very stable and difficult to reduce back to the metal.
Potassium oxidizes faster than most metals and forms oxides with oxygen - oxygen bonds, as do all alkali metals except lithium. There are three possible oxides of potassium: potassium oxide (K O), potassium peroxide (K O), and potassium superoxide (KO); they contain three different oxygen - based ions: oxide (O2 −), peroxide (O2 − 2), and superoxide (O − 2). The latter two species, especially the superoxide, are rare and are formed only in reaction of very electropositive metals with oxygen; these species contain oxygen - oxygen bonds. All potassium - oxygen binary compounds are known to react with water violently, forming potassium hydroxide.
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is a very strong alkali, and 1.21 kg of it can dissolve in as little as a liter of water. KOH reacts readily with carbon dioxide to produce potassium carbonate, and is used to remove traces of the gas from air.
In general, potassium compounds are typically highly ionic and thus have excellent water solubility, owing to the high hydration energy of the K + ion. The main species in water solution are the aquated complexes (K (H 2O) n) + where n = 6 and 7. The potassium ion is colorless in water and is very difficult to precipitate; possible precipitation methods include reactions with sodium tetraphenylborate, hexachloroplatinic acid, and sodium cobaltinitrite into potassium tetraphenylborate, potassium hexachloroplatinate, and potassium cobaltinitrite.
There are 24 known isotopes of potassium, three of which occur naturally: 39 K (93.3 %), 40 K (0.0117 %), and 41 K (6.7 %). Naturally occurring 40 K has a half - life of 1.250 × 10 years. It decays to stable 40 Ar by electron capture or positron emission (11.2 %) or to stable 40 Ca by beta decay (88.8 %). The decay of 40 K to 40 Ar is the basis of a common method for dating rocks. The conventional K - Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon (40 Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic 40 Ar that has accumulated. The minerals best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered. Apart from dating, potassium isotopes have been used as tracers in studies of weathering and for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life.
40 K occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt substitutes) in sufficient quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a radioactive source for classroom demonstrations. 40 K is the radioisotope with the largest abundance in the body. In healthy animals and people, 40 K represents the largest source of radioactivity, greater even than 14 C. In a human body of 70 kg mass, about 4,400 nuclei of 40 K decay per second. The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq / g.
Potassium is formed in supernovas by nucleosynthesis from lighter atoms. Potassium is principally created in Type II supernovas via the explosive oxygen - burning process. 40 K is also formed in s - process nucleosynthesis and the neon burning process.
Potassium makes up about 2.6 % of the weight of the earth 's crust and is the seventh most abundant element in the crust. It is the 17th most abundant element by weight in the earth, and 20th most abundant element in the solar system. The potassium concentration in seawater is 0.39 g / L (0.039 wt / v %), about one twenty - seventh the concentration of sodium.
Potash is primarily a mixture of potassium salts because plants have little or no sodium content, and the rest of a plant 's major mineral content consists of calcium salts of relatively low solubility in water. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include the alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789. For a long time the only significant applications for potash were the production of glass, bleach, soap and gunpowder as potassium nitrate. Potassium soaps from animal fats and vegetable oils were especially prized because they tend to be more water - soluble and of softer texture, and are therefore known as soft soaps. The discovery by Justus Liebig in 1840 that potassium is a necessary element for plants and that most types of soil lack potassium caused a steep rise in demand for potassium salts. Wood - ash from fir trees was initially used as a potassium salt source for fertilizer, but, with the discovery in 1868 of mineral deposits containing potassium chloride near Staßfurt, Germany, the production of potassium - containing fertilizers began at an industrial scale. Other potash deposits were discovered, and by the 1960s Canada became the dominant producer.
Potassium metal was first isolated in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by electrolysis of molten KOH with the newly discovered voltaic pile. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later in the same year, Davy reported extraction of the metal sodium from a mineral derivative (caustic soda, NaOH, or lye) rather than a plant salt, by a similar technique, demonstrating that the elements, and thus the salts, are different. Although the production of potassium and sodium metal should have shown that both are elements, it took some time before this view was universally accepted.
Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because of its high reactivity. It reacts violently with water (see section Precautions below) and also reacts with oxygen. Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) is a common rock - forming mineral. Granite for example contains 5 % potassium, which is well above the average in the Earth 's crust. Sylvite (KCl), carnallite (KCl MgCl 2 6 (H 2O)), kainite (MgSO 4 KCl 3H 2O) and langbeinite (MgSO 4 K 2SO 4) are the minerals found in large evaporite deposits worldwide. The deposits often show layers starting with the least soluble at the bottom and the most soluble on top. Deposits of niter (potassium nitrate) are formed by decomposition of organic material in contact with atmosphere, mostly in caves; because of the good water solubility of niter the formation of larger deposits requires special environmental conditions.
Potassium is the eighth or ninth most common element by mass (0.2 %) in the human body, so that a 60 kg adult contains a total of about 120 g of potassium. The body has about as much potassium as sulfur and chlorine, and only calcium and phosphorus are more abundant (with the exception of the ubiquitous CHON elements). Potassium ions are present in a wide variety of proteins and enzymes.
Potassium levels influence multiple physiological processes, including
Potassium homeostasis denotes the maintenance of the total body potassium content, plasma potassium level, and the ratio of the intracellular to extracellular potassium concentrations within narrow limits, in the face of pulsatile intake (meals), obligatory renal excretion, and shifts between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
Plasma potassium is normally kept at 3.5 to 5.0 millimoles (mmol) (or milliequivalents (mEq)) per liter by multiple mechanisms. Levels outside this range are associated with an increasing rate of death from multiple causes, and some cardiac, kidney, and lung diseases progress more rapidly if serum potassium levels are not maintained within the normal range.
An average meal of 40 - 50 mmol presents the body with more potassium than is present in all plasma (20 - 25 mmol). However, this surge causes the plasma potassium to rise only 10 % at most as a result of prompt and efficient clearance by both renal and extra-renal mechanisms.
Hypokalemia, a deficiency of potassium in the plasma, can be fatal if severe. Common causes are increased gastrintestinal loss (vomiting, diarrhea), and increased renal loss (diuresis). Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex response; and in severe cases, respiratory paralysis, alkalosis, and cardiac arrhythmia.
Potassium content in the plasma is tightly controlled by four basic mechanisms, which have various names and classifications. The four are 1) a reactive negative - feedback system, 2) a reactive feed - forward system, 3) a predictive or circadian system, and 4) an internal or cell membrane transport system. Collectively, the first three are sometimes termed the "external potassium homeostasis system ''; and the first two, the "reactive potassium homeostasis system ''.
Renal handling of potassium is closely connected to sodium handling. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells (150 mmol / L, (4.8 g)), while sodium is the major cation of extracellular fluid (150 mmol / L, (3.345 g)). In the kidneys, about 180 liters of plasma is filtered through the glomeruli and into the renal tubules per day. This filtering involves about 600 g of sodium and 33 g of potassium. Since only 1 -- 10 g of sodium and 1 -- 4 g of potassium are likely to be replaced by diet, renal filtering must efficiently reabsorb the remainder from the plasma.
Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits; potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits. Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved also, but, because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium, the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, urine usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high.
With no potassium intake, it is excreted at about 200 mg per day until, in about a week, potassium in the serum declines to a mildly deficient level of 3.0 -- 3.5 mmol / L. If potassium is still withheld, the concentration continues to fall until a severe deficiency causes eventual death.
The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell membrane. When ions move through pumps there is a gate in the pumps on either side of the cell membrane and only one gate can be open at once. As a result, approximately 100 ions are forced through per second. Pores have only one gate, and there only one kind of ion can stream through, at 10 million to 100 million ions per second. The pores require calcium to open although it is thought that the calcium works in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores. Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the amino acids mimic the water hydration that takes place in water solution by the nature of the electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the pore.
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) sets Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), or Adequate Intakes (AIs) for when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes. The current AI for potassium for women and men ages 14 and up is 4700 mg. AI for pregnancy equals 4700 mg / day. AI for lactation equals 5100 mg / day. For infants 0 -- 6 months 400 mg, 6 -- 12 months 700 mg, 1 -- 13 years increasing from 3000 to 4500 mg / day. As for safety, the IOM also sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals, but for potassium the evidence was insufficient, so no UL established.
Most Americans consume only half that amount per day.
Likewise, in the European Union, in particular in Germany and Italy, insufficient potassium intake is somewhat common. However, the British National Health Service recommends a lower intake, saying that adults need 3,500 mg per day and that excess amounts may cause health problems such as stomach pain and diarrhoea.
Potassium is present in all fruits, vegetables, meat and fish. Foods with high potassium concentrations include yam, parsley, dried apricots, milk, chocolate, all nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, bananas, avocados, coconut water, soybeans, and bran. Dried apricots have the highest concentration of potassium by weight of any food. Many processed foods contain no potassium.
The USDA lists tomato paste, orange juice, beet greens, white beans, potatoes, bananas and many other dietary sources of potassium, ranked in descending order according to potassium content.
Diets low in potassium can lead to hypertension and hypokalemia.
Supplements of potassium are most widely used in conjunction with diuretics that block reabsorption of sodium and water upstream from the distal tubule (thiazides and loop diuretics), because this promotes increased distal tubular potassium secretion, with resultant increased potassium excretion. A variety of prescription and over-the counter supplements are available. Potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty / bitter taste make liquid supplements unpalatable. Typical doses range from 10 mmol (400 mg), to 20 mmol (800 mg). Potassium is also available in tablets or capsules, which are formulated to allow potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix, since very high concentrations of potassium ion that occur adjacent to a solid tablet can injure the gastric or intestinal mucosa. For this reason, non-prescription potassium pills are limited by law in the US to a maximum of 99 mg of potassium.
Since the kidneys are the site of potassium excretion, individuals with impaired kidney function are at risk for hyperkalemia if dietary potassium and supplements are not restricted. The more severe the impairment, the more severe is the restriction necessary to avoid hyperkalemia.
A meta - analysis concluded that a 1640 mg increase in the daily intake of potassium was associated with a 21 % lower risk of stroke. Potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate may be useful to control mild hypertension.
Potassium can be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ions taste sweet, allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices, while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter / alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of high - potassium solutions makes high - dose potassium supplementation by liquid drinks a palatability challenge.
Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive evaporite deposits in ancient lake bottoms and seabeds, making extraction of potassium salts in these environments commercially viable. The principal source of potassium -- potash -- is mined in Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, Jordan, and other places around the world. The first mined deposits were located near Staßfurt, Germany, but the deposits span from Great Britain over Germany into Poland. They are located in the Zechstein and were deposited in the Middle to Late Permian. The largest deposits ever found lie 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) below the surface of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The deposits are located in the Elk Point Group produced in the Middle Devonian. Saskatchewan, where several large mines have operated since the 1960s pioneered the technique of freezing of wet sands (the Blairmore formation) to drive mine shafts through them. The main potash mining company in Saskatchewan is the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan. The water of the Dead Sea is used by Israel and Jordan as a source of potash, while the concentration in normal oceans is too low for commercial production at current prices.
Several methods are used to separate potassium salts from sodium and magnesium compounds. The most - used method is fractional precipitation using the solubility differences of the salts at different temperatures. Electrostatic separation of the ground salt mixture is also used in some mines. The resulting sodium and magnesium waste is either stored underground or piled up in slag heaps. Most of the mined potassium mineral ends up as potassium chloride after processing. The mineral industry refers to potassium chloride either as potash, muriate of potash, or simply MOP.
Pure potassium metal can be isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has changed little since it was first used by Humphry Davy in 1807. Although the electrolysis process was developed and used in industrial scale in the 1920s, the thermal method by reacting sodium with potassium chloride in a chemical equilibrium reaction became the dominant method in the 1950s.
The production of sodium potassium alloys is accomplished by changing the reaction time and the amount of sodium used in the reaction. The Griesheimer process employing the reaction of potassium fluoride with calcium carbide was also used to produce potassium.
Reagent - grade potassium metal costs about $10.00 / pound ($22 / kg) in 2010 when purchased by the tonne. Lower purity metal is considerably cheaper. The market is volatile because long - term storage of the metal is difficult. It must be stored in a dry inert gas atmosphere or anhydrous mineral oil to prevent the formation of a surface layer of potassium superoxide, a pressure - sensitive explosive that detonates when scratched. The resulting explosion often starts a fire difficult to extinguish.
Potassium ions are an essential component of plant nutrition and are found in most soil types. They are used as a fertilizer in agriculture, horticulture, and hydroponic culture in the form of chloride (KCl), sulfate (K 2SO 4), or nitrate (KNO 3). Agricultural fertilizers consume 95 % of global potassium chemical production, and about 90 % of this potassium is supplied as KCl. The potassium content of most plants range from 0.5 % to 2 % of the harvested weight of crops, conventionally expressed as amount of K 2O. Modern high - yield agriculture depends upon fertilizers to replace the potassium lost at harvest. Most agricultural fertilizers contain potassium chloride, while potassium sulfate is used for chloride - sensitive crops or crops needing higher sulfur content. The sulfate is produced mostly by decomposition of the complex minerals kainite (MgSO 4 KCl 3H 2O) and langbeinite (MgSO 4 K 2SO 4). Only a very few fertilizers contain potassium nitrate. In 2005, about 93 % of world potassium production was consumed by the fertilizer industry.
Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC 4O 6, Rochelle salt) is the main constituent of baking powder; it is also used in the silvering of mirrors. Potassium bromate (KBrO 3) is a strong oxidizer (E924), used to improve dough strength and rise height. Potassium bisulfite (KHSO 3) is used as a food preservative, for example in wine and beer - making (but not in meats). It is also used to bleach textiles and straw, and in the tanning of leathers.
Major potassium chemicals are potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium chloride. Megatons of these compounds are produced annually.
Potassium hydroxide KOH is a strong base, which is used in industry to neutralize strong and weak acids, to control pH and to manufacture potassium salts. It is also used to saponify fats and oils, in industrial cleaners, and in hydrolysis reactions, for example of esters.
Potassium nitrate (KNO 3) or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and evaporites or manufactured via the Haber process; it is the oxidant in gunpowder (black powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals, in particular silver and gold, by forming complexes. Its applications include gold mining, electroplating, and electroforming of these metals; it is also used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate (K 2CO 3 or potash) is used in the manufacture of glass, soap, color TV tubes, fluorescent lamps, textile dyes and pigments. Potassium permanganate (KMnO 4) is an oxidizing, bleaching and purification substance and is used for production of saccharin. Potassium chlorate (KClO 3) is added to matches and explosives. Potassium bromide (KBr) was formerly used as a sedative and in photography.
Potassium chromate (K 2CrO 4) is used in inks, dyes, stains (bright yellowish - red color); in explosives and fireworks; in the tanning of leather, in fly paper and safety matches, but all these uses are due to the chemistry of the chromate ion, rather than the potassium ion.
There are thousands of uses of various potassium compounds. One example is potassium superoxide, KO 2, an orange solid that acts as a portable source of oxygen and a carbon dioxide absorber. It is widely used in respiration systems in mines, submarines and spacecraft as it takes less volume than the gaseous oxygen.
Another example is potassium cobaltinitrite, K 3 (Co (NO 2) 6), which is used as artist 's pigment under the name of Aureolin or Cobalt Yellow.
The stable isotopes of potassium can be laser cooled and used to probe fundamental and technological problems in quantum physics. The two bosonic isotopes possess convenient Feshbach resonances to enable studies requiring tunable interactions, while K is one of only two stable fermions amongst the alkali metals.
An alloy of sodium and potassium, NaK is a liquid used as a heat - transfer medium and a desiccant for producing dry and air - free solvents. It can also be used in reactive distillation. The ternary alloy of 12 % Na, 47 % K and 41 % Cs has the lowest melting point of − 78 ° C of any metallic compound.
Metallic potassium is used in several types of magnetometers.
Potassium metal reacts violently with water producing potassium hydroxide (KOH) and hydrogen gas.
This reaction is exothermic and releases enough heat to ignite the resulting hydrogen in the presence of oxygen, possibly explosively splashing onlookers with potassium hydroxide, which is a strong alkali that destroys living tissue and causes skin burns. Finely grated potassium ignites in air at room temperature. The bulk metal ignites in air if heated. Because its density is 0.89 g / cm, burning potassium floats in water that exposes it to atmospheric oxygen. Many common fire extinguishing agents, including water, either are ineffective or make a potassium fire worse. Nitrogen, argon, sodium chloride (table salt), sodium carbonate (soda ash), and silicon dioxide (sand) are effective if they are dry. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are also effective. These agents deprive the fire of oxygen and cool the potassium metal.
Potassium reacts violently with halogens and detonates in the presence of bromine. It also reacts explosively with sulfuric acid. During combustion, potassium forms peroxides and superoxides. These peroxides may react violently with organic compounds such as oils. Both peroxides and superoxides may react explosively with metallic potassium.
Because potassium reacts with water vapor in the air, it is usually stored under anhydrous mineral oil or kerosene. Unlike lithium and sodium, however, potassium should not be stored under oil for longer than 6 months, unless in an inert (oxygen free) atmosphere, or under vacuum. After prolonged storage in air dangerous shock - sensitive peroxides can form on the metal and under the lid of the container, and can detonate upon opening.
Because of the highly reactive nature of potassium metal, it must be handled with great care, with full skin and eye protection and preferably an explosion - resistant barrier between the user and the metal. Ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions.
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how much is the wsop main event bracelet worth | World Series of Poker bracelet - wikipedia
The World Series of Poker (WSOP) bracelet is considered the most coveted non-monetary prize a poker player can win. Since 1976, a bracelet has been awarded to the winner of every event at the annual WSOP. Even if the victory occurred before 1976, WSOP championships are now counted as "bracelets ''. During the first years of the WSOP only a handful of bracelets were awarded each year. In 1990, there were only 14 bracelet events. By 2000, that number increased to 24. As the popularity of poker has increased during the 2000s, the number of events has likewise increased. In 2011, 58 bracelets were awarded at the WSOP, seven at the World Series of Poker Europe (WSOPE), and one to the WSOP National Circuit Champion. This brought the total number of bracelets awarded up to 959. Five additional bracelets were awarded for the first time in April 2013 at the inaugural World Series of Poker Asia - Pacific (WSOP APAC) in Melbourne, Australia.. In 2017, 74 for bracelets were awarded at the WSOP and an additional 11 will be awarded at the WSOPE in Czech Republic.
After the conclusion of the 2014 WSOP APAC, there have been 1083 bracelets awarded, 500 of which were won by 170 players who have won at least two bracelets, with all of the other bracelets being won by one - time winners. This includes (up to this point) 17 Main Event winners: Hal Fowler, Bill Smith, Mansour Matloubi, Brad Daugherty, Jim Bechtel, Russ Hamilton, Noel Furlong, Robert Varkonyi, Chris Moneymaker, Greg Raymer, Joe Hachem, Jamie Gold, Jerry Yang, Peter Eastgate, Pius Heinz, Ryan Riess and Martin Jacobson.
Since Chris Moneymaker won the 2003 Main Event, (through the completion of Event No. 74 in 2017) only three players have won and followed it up with a win in another bracelet event, Jonathan Duhamel, Joe Cada and Joe McKeehen.
The 1976 bracelet looked "like gold nuggets kind of hammered flat. '' The bracelet in 1976 cost approximately $500. In the 1980s, Las Vegas jeweler Mordechai Yerushalmi became the exclusive manufacturer of WSOP bracelets until Harrah 's Entertainment bought the rights to the WSOP in 2004. According to 2003 WSOP Champion Chris Moneymaker, the design of the bracelet remained relatively unchanged under Yerushalmi. In 2005, Gold and Diamond International based in Memphis, TN won the bid from Harrah 's Entertainment to manufacture the 2005 World Series of Poker bracelets. The company also manufactures the WSOP circuit rings.
In 2006, Frederick Goldman, Inc. made the WSOP bracelets while luxury watch maker Corum introduced some commemorative watches as part of the prize package. In 2006, the Champion 's bracelet had 259 stones including 7.2 carats (1.4 g) of diamonds, 120 grams of white and yellow gold. It also used rubies to represent the heart and diamond suits, a sapphire to represent the spade and three black diamonds to represent the clubs.
In 2007, Corum became the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP. Some of the 2007 World Series of Poker champions received both a watch and a bracelet from Corum. Corum designed four variations for the 2007 World Series of Poker Bracelets. The standard version that is presented to 53 winners features 53 diamonds. The Ladies World Champion receives a bracelet that is adorned with four black diamonds, two rubies and 87 blue sapphires. The $50,000 HORSE Champion Bracelet has 91 black diamonds and two rubies. The World Series of Poker Main Event Bracelet has 120 diamonds on 136 grams of 18 carat (75 percent) white gold. The value of the 2007 bracelets have not been released, but the typical price of a Corum watch ranges from $1,500 -- $30,000 +.
In 2008, the Main Event Bracelet had 291 diamonds, totalling 2.81 carats set in 168 grams of 18kt white gold. The other 54 event bracelets consisted of 55 diamonds, totalling 0.25 carats set in 80 grams of 14kt yellow gold.
In 2010, an Australian - based company OnTilt Designs Pty Ltd won a multi-year contract to become the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP. OnTilt jewelers decided that the 2010 bracelet design would return to the tradition of the 1970s and 1980s where the bracelet was a heavy piece of unadorned metal. American jewelry designer Steve Soffa was chosen to design and manufacture the entire set of bracelets. The goal was to create a bracelet that somebody would actually want to wear every day. In 2011, OnTilt has also been chosen to manufacture the WSOP Circuit rings.
In 2012, Jason Arasheben, famed jewelry designer and owner of Jason of Beverly Hills was chosen as the official bracelet manufacturer of the WSOP. Arasheben had designed the championship rings for the 2009 and 2010 Los Angeles Lakers and the 2011 Green Bay Packers, among others. The Main Event bracelet will feature each suit in the deck in either rubies or black diamonds. In terms of sheer mass, it weighs in at over 160 grams of 14 karat gold and over 35 carats of flawless diamonds.
A special platinum bracelet was awarded at the 2012 WSOP to the winner of The Big One for One Drop, Antonio Esfandiari. The event was a $1 million buy - in tournament created as a fundraiser for the One Drop Foundation, a charity established by Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté.
At first, the bracelets did not have much prestige. Ten - time bracelet winner Doyle Brunson said that his first bracelet "did n't mean anything '' to him and that he did not even pick up two of them.
Some professional poker players believe that there are two types of poker players; those who have won a bracelet and those who have not. Those who have belong to an exclusive club. "It 's impossible to overstate the value of a World Series of Poker gold bracelet to anyone who takes the game seriously, '' stated World Series of Poker Commissioner Jeffrey Pollack during the 2006 bracelet unveiling. "It is the equivalent of winning the Stanley Cup in hockey or the Lombardi Trophy in football. ''
Many professional poker players desire the recognition that is associated with the bracelet. Former Celebrity Poker Showdown host and poker star Phil Gordon said, "I want that bracelet more than anything. '' Freddy Deeb said that he did not appreciate his first bracelet because he did not recognize what it meant. He said his 2007 bracelet, however, "means everything to me ''. Jennifer Tilly says that winning her 2005 Women 's Championship bracelet was "better than an Oscar ''.
When the World Poker Tour decided to offer a prize to its event champions, they decided to present them with WPT Bracelets. In so doing, WPT Founder, President and CEO Steve Lipscomb said, "The championship bracelet has become synonymous with poker as a symbol of achievement and respect, and we are honored to continue the tradition that Benny Binion (the founder of the WSOP) began over 30 years ago. ''
Bracelets have not always been awarded for winning events. In 1970, the first WSOP Champion received nothing but a silver cup and whatever cash he won during the event. From 1971 -- 1974, according to Becky Behnen (the daughter of WSOP founder Benny Binion), the winner received an undescribed "corny trophy ''. In 1975, the winners received a sterling plate. The following year, 1976, the WSOP started the tradition of issuing bracelets to the event winners.
In 1980 and 1981, one did not have to win a WSOP event to win a gold bracelet. In 1980 and 1981, H.D. "Oklahoma Johny '' Hale and Chip Reese received a gold bracelet for being the "Best All Around Player '' at the WSOP, respectively. These bracelets, however, are not considered in the count of WSOP championship bracelets.
In 2007, Thomas Bihl became the first person to ever win a WSOP bracelet outside Las Vegas, Nevada. Bihl won the £ 2,500 World Championship H.O.R.S.E. at the World Series of Poker Europe in London, England. Days later, Annette Obrestad became the youngest player to ever win a WSOP bracelet at 18 years, 364 days, also becoming the first woman to win a World Series Main Event (WSOPE). Caesars Entertainment (known until 2010 as Harrah 's Entertainment), the owner of the WSOP, considers the WSOP Europe bracelet to be the same in prestige as those awarded every year in Las Vegas.
In 2008, Jesper Hougaard became the first person to have won both a WSOP and WSOPE bracelet.
In 2011, a World Series of Poker bracelet was awarded for the first time to the WSOP Circuit National Championship winner in the 100 - qualifier event from May 27 -- 29. The following year, the Circuit National Championship moved to New Orleans, where it will also be held in 2013.
Starting in 2013, bracelets are also awarded in Australia at the World Series of Poker Asia - Pacific, held at Crown Melbourne.
Of the three top WSOP bracelet winners, only Johnny Chan still has them all. He keeps them locked in a vault because they are worth, according to him, "millions. '' Brunson did not pick up two of his. Fourteen - time bracelet winner Phil Hellmuth gave away ten of his. "To me, '' Hellmuth said, "the bracelets have always been a really huge deal, to me more than the other guys, because I knew that they represented history. ''
Three - time WSOP Bracelet winner Hamid Dastmalchi and six - time winner Ted Forrest had been playing for four days non-stop at the Mirage when Hamid started to complain about the 1992 Main Event Championship Bracelet he received. Bitter about a dispute with the Binion 's Horseshoe, the owners of the WSOP at the time, Hamid told the table that the Binion 's "say it 's worth $5,000, but I 'd take $1,500 for it. '' To which Forrest responded "Sold '' and immediately tossed Hamid $1,500 in chips. Dastmalchi mailed Forrest his bracelet. Ted Forrest also reported that three of his five bracelets have been stolen over the years, and that he gave his daughter one.
In November 2010, Peter Eastgate put his main event bracelet up for auction on eBay with a starting bid of $16,000. It eventually sold for $147,500 and this money was donated to UNICEF.
As of the end of the 2013 World Series of Poker, 22 players have earned five or more WSOP bracelets. Of those, the top bracelet winners are as follows:
(bold = won Main Event)
Johnny Moss, with a win at the 1971 WSOP, became the first person to have won multiple lifetime WSOP "bracelets '' (as mentioned above, the first actual bracelet was given in 1976).
Moss also was the first person to win five lifetime WSOP bracelets, with a win at the 1975 WSOP.
Johnny Chan, with a win in Event No. 25 at the 2005 World Series of Poker, became the first person to win 10 lifetime WSOP bracelets, just a few days before Doyle Brunson won his 10th bracelet in Event No. 31 of that same WSOP.
The first person to win two bracelets in the same WSOP was Johnny Moss at the 1971 WSOP.
The first person to win three bracelets in the same WSOP was Walter "Puggy '' Pearson, at the 1973 WSOP. As of the start of the 2016 WSOP, only five other players have won three bracelets in a single WSOP.
Bill Boyd and Doyle Brunson are the only players to have won bracelets in four consecutive years (Boyd from 1971 to 1974, and Brunson from 1976 to 1979).
In 2005, the WSOP started hosting Circuit Events at many of their casinos around the country. In order to differentiate these events and to ensure the prestige of the WSOP Bracelet, the circuit events present a ring to the winners. In 2011, the WSOP awarded a bracelet to the winner of the Circuit Event National Championship. The Circuit Event National Championship was an invitation only event that used the standings of players from the various circuit events in determining who was invited.
Starting with the 2011 WSOP Circuit, the Circuit National Championship was held as a closed event for participants of various circuit events.
Starting in 2012, qualification for the Circuit National Championship was significantly changed. A total of 100 players now receive automatic seats in the National Championship. The winners of each Circuit main event and the highest point earner at each circuit stop receive seats, with the remaining automatic seats filled by the top points earners throughout the Circuit season who are not already qualified. Additionally, the top 100 players in the "WSOP World Rankings '', a points race determined on results in open events of the previous two WSOPs, are eligible to enter. The Circuit qualifiers play the National Championship on a freeroll, while the WSOP World Rankings qualifiers must pay a $10,000 buy - in.
The winner of the Circuit National Championship wins a World Series of Poker bracelet.
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o brother where art thou carried out on a log | Riding a rail - Wikipedia
Riding the rail (also called being "run out of town on a rail '') was a punishment most prevalent in the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries in which an offender was made to straddle a fence rail held on the shoulders of two or more bearers. The victim was then paraded around town or taken to the city limits and dumped by the roadside.
Being ridden on a rail was typically a form of extrajudicial punishment administered by a mob, sometimes in connection with tarring and feathering, intended to show community displeasure with the offender so they either conformed their behavior to the mob 's demands or left the community.
A story attributed to Abraham Lincoln has him quoting a victim of being ridden out of town on a rail as having said, "If it were n't for the honor of the thing, I 'd just as soon it happened to someone else. ''
In the film O Brother, Where Art Thou?, Homer Stokes denounces the Soggy Bottom Boys as hostile to the social order, but the crowd is unimpressed and runs him out of town on a rail.
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how does beryllium react with water and hcl | Beryllium hydroxide - wikipedia
Magnesium hydroxide
Beryllium hydroxide, Be (OH), is an amphoteric hydroxide, dissolving in both acids and alkalis. Industrially, it is produced as a by - product in the extraction of beryllium metal from the ores beryl and bertrandite. The natural pure beryllium hydroxide is rare (in form of the mineral behoite, orthorhombic) or very rare (clinobehoite, monoclinic). When alkali is added to beryllium salt solutions the α - form (a gel) is formed. If this left to stand or boiled, the rhombic β - form precipitates. This has the same structure as zinc hydroxide, Zn (OH), with tetrahedral beryllium centers.
With alkalis it dissolves to form the tetrahydroxidoberyllate (2 -) anion. With sodium hydroxide solution:
With acids, beryllium salts are formed. For example, with sulfuric acid, H SO, beryllium sulfate is formed:
Beryllium hydroxide dehydrates at 400 ° C to form the soluble white powder, beryllium oxide:
Further heating at higher temperature produces acid insoluble BeO.
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songs from mana mia here we go again | Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again - Wikipedia
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again (also known as Mamma Mia! 2 or Mamma Mia! 2: Here We Go Again) is a 2018 jukebox musical romantic comedy film directed and written by Ol Parker, from a story by Parker, Catherine Johnson, and Richard Curtis. It is a follow - up to the 2008 film Mamma Mia!, which in turn is based on the musical of the same name using the music of ABBA. The film features an ensemble cast, including Lily James, Amanda Seyfried, Christine Baranski, Julie Walters, Pierce Brosnan, Andy García, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Jessica Keenan Wynn, Alexa Davies, Jeremy Irvine, Hugh Skinner, Josh Dylan, Cher, and Meryl Streep. Both a prequel and a sequel, the plot is set after the events of the first film, and also features flashbacks to 1979, telling the story of Donna Sheridan 's arrival on the island of Kalokairi and her first meetings with her daughter Sophie 's three possible fathers.
Due to the financial success of the first film, Universal Pictures had long been interested in a sequel. The film was officially announced in May 2017, with Parker hired to write and direct. In June 2017, many of the original cast confirmed their involvement, with James being cast in the role of Young Donna that July. Filming took place from August to December 2017 in Croatia, and at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England. A British and American joint venture, the film was co-produced by Playtone, Littlestar Productions and Legendary Entertainment
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again premiered at the Hammersmith Apollo in London on July 16, 2018 and was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on July 20, 2018, ten years to the week of its predecessor 's release, in both standard and IMAX formats. The film has grossed over $280 million worldwide and received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the performances and musical numbers, though the necessity of the film and underuse of some of the original cast (particularly Streep) received some criticism.
Sophie Sheridan is preparing for the grand reopening of her mother Donna 's hotel, following Donna 's death a year earlier. She is upset because two of her fathers, Harry and Bill, are unable to make it to the reopening and she is having trouble in her relationship with Sky, who is in New York, over her memorializing her mother 's life.
In 1979, a young Donna is getting ready to travel the world. While in Paris, she meets and parties with Harry. She later misses her boat to Kalokairi but is offered a ride by Bill, and along the way, they are able to help a stranded fisherman, Alexio, make it in time to stop the love of his life from marrying another. Unbeknownst to Donna, Harry has followed her to Greece; but he arrived too late, and sadly watches the boat sailing off in the distance.
In the present, Tanya and Rosie arrive to support Sophie with the reopening and it 's revealed that Rosie and Bill have split up. Sophie then visits Sam, who is still grieving over the death of Donna. Back in the past, Donna arrives on the island and while exploring the farmhouse, a sudden storm causes her to discover a spooked horse in the basement. She goes in search of help only to find a young Sam riding his motorcycle and he helps her to save the horse. Back in the present, a storm has caused serious disruption to Sophie 's plans for the grand reopening and prevented media coverage of the event.
Back in the past, Donna and Sam are enjoying a whirlwind romance that ends when Donna discovers a picture of Sam 's fiancée in his drawer. A devastated Donna demands that Sam leave the island. In the present, Sam tells Sophie about her value to her mother. Meanwhile, Harry leaves his business deal in Tokyo to support Sophie, and separately Bill gets the same idea. Bill and Harry meet at the docks but are told there are no boats. However, Bill meets the fisherman Alexio and thereby secures boat passage for himself, Harry as well as the newly arrived Sky.
In the past, a depressed Donna is heartbroken over Sam but is able to channel her anger into singing with Tanya and Rosie. She meets Bill again and they go out on his boat; while they are gone, Sam returns, having recently ended his engagement for Donna, but is saddened to hear that she is with another man and leaves the island again. Donna discovers she is pregnant but has no idea which one of her three recent lovers is the father. Sofia, the mother of the owner of the bar where Donna and the Dynamos performed, overhears Donna 's wish to stay on the island and offers to let Donna live at her farmhouse and Donna happily accepts. It is there that she eventually gives birth to Sophie.
Back in the present, the guests have arrived at the party and Sophie is reunited with her other two fathers and Sky. Sophie reveals to Sky she is pregnant and has never felt closer to her mother, having now understood what her mother went through. Bill and Rosie reunite over their grief for Donna. Sophie 's estranged grandmother and Donna 's mother, Ruby, arrives despite Sophie deciding not to invite her. She reveals that Sky tracked her down in New York and she wants to build a real relationship with Sophie. Sophie then performs a song with Tanya and Rosie in honor of her mother, with her grandmother tearfully telling her afterward how proud she is of her. It is then revealed that the manager of the hotel, Fernando, is Ruby 's ex-lover from 1959 in Mexico, and the two are joyously reunited.
Nine months later, Sophie has given birth to a baby boy and everyone has gathered for his christening where Tanya flirts with Fernando 's brother. The ceremony takes place with Donna 's spirit watching over her daughter with pride. All the characters, including Donna and the younger cast, sing "Super Trouper '' at a huge party at Hotel Bella Donna.
Cameo appearances
A soundtrack album was released on July 13, 2018 by Capitol and Polydor Records in the United States and internationally, respectively. The album was produced by Benny Andersson, who also served as the album 's executive producer alongside Björn Ulvaeus and Judy Craymer. Each song is featured within the film, with the exception of "I Wonder (Departure) '' and "The Day Before You Came ''.
Due to Mamma Mia! 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, co-chairman of Universal Pictures, told the Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still many ABBA songs to make use of.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a release date of July 20, 2018. It was written and directed by Ol Parker. On September 27, 2017, Benny Andersson confirmed 3 ABBA songs that would be featured in the film: "When I Kissed the Teacher, '' "I Wonder (Departure), '' and "Angeleyes. '' "I Wonder (Departure) '' was cut from the film, but is included on the soundtrack album.
On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would return as Sophie. Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed that he would return for the sequel, along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan as Sky, Donna, Harry, and Sam, respectively. In July 2017, Baranski was also confirmed to return as Tanya. On July 12, 2017, Lily James was cast to play the role of young Donna. On August 3, 2017, Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies were also cast in the film, with Irvine playing Brosnan 's character Sam in a past era, and Hugh Skinner to play Young Harry, Davies as a young Rosie, played by Julie Walters. On August 16, 2017, it was announced that Jessica Keenan Wynn had been cast as a young Tanya, who is played by Baranski. Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård also reprised their roles as Rosie and Bill, respectively. On October 16, 2017, it was announced that singer and actress Cher had joined the cast, in her first on - screen film role since 2010, and her first film with Streep since Silkwood.
Principal photography on the film began on August 12, 2017 in Croatia, including the island of Vis. In October 2017, the cast gathered at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, to film song and dance numbers with Cher. Filming wrapped on December 2, 2017.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was released on July 20, 2018 by Universal Pictures, in the UK, US and other selected countries in both standard and IMAX formats. The film premiered on July 16, 2018 at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.
The first trailer for the film was released on December 21, 2017, in front of Pitch Perfect 3, another Universal Pictures film. Cher performed "Fernando '' at the Las Vegas CinemaCon on April 25, 2018, after footage of the film was shown. Universal sponsored YouTube stars the Merrell Twins to perform a cover version of the song Mamma Mia to promote the film.
As of August 12, 2018, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again has grossed $103.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $177 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $280.8 million, against a production budget of $75 million.
In June 2018, three weeks prior to its release, official industry tracking had the film debuting to $27 -- 33 million, which increased to as much as $36 million by the week of its release. It made $14.3 million on its first day, including $3.4 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $35 million, finishing second, behind fellow newcomer The Equalizer 2 ($36 million), and besting the opening of the first film ($27.8 million) by over 24 %. It fell 57 % to $15.1 million in its second weekend, finishing second behind newcomer Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. In its third weekend the film grossed $9 million, dropping to fourth place, and $5.8 million in its fourth weekend, finishing seventh.
In the United Kingdom, the film grossed $12.7 million in its opening weekend, topping the box office and achieving the fourth biggest opening for a film in 2018. In its second weekend of international release, the film made $26.6 million (for a running total of $98.6 million). Its largest new markets were France ($1.7 million), Poland ($1.3 million), Switzerland ($223,000) and Croatia ($151,000), while its best holdovers were Australia ($9.5 million), the UK ($8.6 million) and Germany ($8.2 million).
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80 % based on 194 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again doubles down on just about everything fans loved about the original -- and my my, how can fans resist it? '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score as its predecessor, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 83 % overall positive score.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian termed the sequel as "weirdly irresistible '' and gave it three out of five stars. He described his reaction to the first film as "a combination of hives and bubonic plague, '' but concedes that this time, the relentlessness and greater self - aware comedy made him smile. He concludes: "More enjoyable than I thought. But please. Enough now. '' Mark Kermode of The Observer gave the film five stars and commented, "This slick sequel delivers sharp one - liners, joyously contrived plot twists and an emotional punch that left our critic reeling. '' Joy Watson from Exclaim! thoroughly enjoyed the movie, saying, "With multitalented writer and director Ol Parker at the helm, and perhaps more importantly, Richard Curtis (king of the British rom - com) behind the scenes to balance out the cheesiness, Here We Go Again builds giddy energy and tension throughout until Cher arrives in a helicopter to blow the whole thing sky high with an ode to "Fernando. '' Pure bliss. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film two and a half stars out of five, noting the absence of Streep for the majority of the film hindered his enjoyment, and saying, "her absence is deeply felt since the three - time Oscar winner sang and danced her heart out as Donna Sheridan ''. Lindsay Bahr of Associated Press awarded the film three out of four stars, calling it "wholly ridiculous '', but complimenting its self - awareness. She also praised James ' performance and singing talent. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the sequel a mixed review, awarding it two stars out of four, criticizing the reprises of "Dancing Queen '' and "Super Trouper '' as uninspired, and feeling that some of the musical numbers dragged the pacing. He considered the younger counterparts to the main characters "energetic '' and "likeable. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time gave the film a mixed review, writing "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is atrocious. And wonderful. It 's all the reasons you should never go to the movies. And all the reasons you should race to get a ticket. ''
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who wrote the song how do you like me now | How Do You Like Me Now?! (Song) - wikipedia
"How Do You Like Me Now?! '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Toby Keith. It released in November 1999 as the second single and title track from his album of the same name. Keith wrote it with Chuck Cannon.
The song spent five weeks at Number One on the Billboard U.S. Hot Country Songs chart beginning in March 2000. It was his first major crossover hit peaking at number 31 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. The song was also the first number - one single for the now defunct DreamWorks Nashville label. The song also became the fourth number one hit of his career and his first since "Me Too '' 1997. At the 2001 Academy of Country Music awards, the song was nominated for Single of the Year and Song of the Year.
Keith discussed the inspiration for the song on his website in 2000. "Initially, I said, ' Here 's my title: "You Never Loved Me Before, So How Do You Like Me Now? ' '' It 's one of my catch - phrases. A lot of people become successful after they 've been told they wo n't ever be, so people can relate to this. It can be about an old flame or a boss or a teacher - whatever it means to each individual. It was a fun song to write. ''
Keith had originally recorded the song near the end of his contract with Mercury Records Nashville in the late 1990s. According to a 2005 interview with Billboard, Keith had the album How Do You Like Me Now?! completed, but label executives rejected the entire album except for two songs: "Getcha Some '' and "If a Man Answers '', both of which were put on his 1998 Greatest Hits album. After he recorded two more songs which were also rejected, he asked to terminate his contract with Mercury, and purchased the rights to the rest of the album. Upon the album 's release in late 1999, both the album and its lead single, "When Love Fades '', were performing poorly on the charts; as a result, Keith asked that "When Love Fades '' be withdrawn as a single in favor of "How Do You Like Me Now?! '' Keith stated that DreamWorks executives were "scared to put it out '', but within five days of Keith 's request, "When Love Fades '' was withdrawn and "How Do You Like Me Now?! '' was released.
The song discusses Keith 's attraction to the female valedictorian of his high school -- a beautiful woman who ignored him at the time. Keith wonders if the woman remembers him now that he is famous.
The song 's music video debuted on the television network CMT on November 22, 1999, and was directed by Michael Salomon. It features Toby Keith singing the song at a hometown football game in the middle of the night.
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, calling it a "great little tune about the underdog fulfilling his dreams, and the story is wrapped in a melody that demands attention. '' She goes on to call Keith 's performance "feisty '' and say that the production "just percolates. ''
Jessica Andrews references both Keith and the song in her 2002 single "There 's More to Me Than You ''.
"How Do You Like Me Now?! '' debuted at number 57 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of November 20, 1999.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
On his 2000 album Just Another Day in Parodies, country music parodist Cledus T. Judd recorded a parody entitled "How Do You Milk a Cow. '' This version peaked at number 67 on Hot Country Songs.
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who played the captain on hill street blues | List of Hill Street Blues characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from the NBC police drama Hill Street Blues.
Officers are listed by the rank they held at first appearance on the program; some officers later held higher ranks.
Furillo is in charge of the Hill Street Precinct and the focus of most episodes. He is honest and capable, though some of his colleagues find him a bit superior in attitude. Furillo joined the police force in 1964 and was a Lieutenant at Division prior to his promotion to Captain. Though he was the protege of Police Chief - to - be Daniels, Furillo often disagrees with Daniels on policy and generally has little respect for him. Frank is divorced from Fay Furillo, though he tolerates her regular tirades and helps her out as if they were still married. His relationship with Joyce Davenport, whom he affectionately calls "Counselor '', is at first secret; by the end of Season 3, they are married. The majority of episodes end with them in bed, reviewing the events of the day. While on duty, Frank almost never appears in anything but a three - piece suit; one episode, Bald Ambition, has his colleagues astounded by his wearing a blazer. In the first season, Frank is revealed to be a recovering alcoholic.
Davenport works mainly as a public defender (though she was an Assistant District Attorney for five months in Season 5) and is an extremely successful and well - respected attorney. She is in a relationship with Capt. Furillo, whom she refers to as "Pizza Man '' as a term of endearment (she first used the term on screen in Season 1, Episode 2). They originally met during a court trial when Furillo was a recently divorced Lieutenant; their first date was to a (free) classical music concert, followed by pizza. Though the relationship is initially hidden, Davenport reveals the relationship in Season 2 and they are married near the end of Season 3. They have no children, as she is unable to bear children (to the dismay of Furillo 's mother).
Esterhaus is the Desk Sergeant, in charge of the uniformed officers, and is rarely seen outside of the station house. Each show opens with "Roll Call '', Esterhaus 's morning briefing, which always ends with his catchphrase "Let 's be careful out there. '' His speech is filled with complex syntax and numerous synonyms, but his style of delivery is never patronizing and indeed is often enjoyed by the officers. While on duty, he maintains a professional demeanor, but has lost his temper in a few cases of extreme provocation (such as when his treasured Buick was stolen). He passed the lieutenant examination four times, but never advanced in rank - three times due to budget limitations, and the fourth without explanation. Despite, or perhaps because of, his professional and fatherly demeanor, he is pursued by numerous women. He is a divorcé, and nearly marries his 18 - year - old girlfriend at the end of Season 1, until the appearance of his paramour Grace Gardner causes him to faint and call off the marriage. Three seasons later, Esterhaus dies during a romantic tryst with Grace Gardner; this served to cover for Michael Conrad 's death due to urethral cancer on November 22, 1983.
An extremely capable undercover detective. He is small in stature but strong, wiry, and very fast. He is Jewish and often poses undercover as a Hasidic Jew. Belker likes to growl and to bite suspects (but only when they have attacked him first); he revealed that his father, a tailor who was also short of stature, tended to bite people during fights. Belker addresses friends and foes alike with insults such as "dog breath '' or "hair bag '', and will threaten them with violence (for example, to "rip out (their) kidneys '' or collapse a lung) to keep them in line (his seldom - mentioned sister Luana shares the same style of speech); however, he is extremely loyal and respectful to Capt. Furillo and has an almost filial feeling towards Sergeant Esterhaus. Originally a loner, Belker has had relationships with women (none of which turned out successfully) and weds Officer Robin Tataglia in Season 6 and they have a son, whom they name Philip after Sergeant Esterhaus. Belker suffers the death of both his father (Season 3) and his beloved mother Rose (Season 6) during the course of the series. One of the most surprising relationships in Belker 's life is his friendship in Season 3 with Eddie Gregg, a gay prostitute whom Belker originally arrests, then befriends; Eddie left town after first informing to Belker on his boyfriend, who had murdered some Peruvian drug dealers, then almost wrecking the case by warning the boyfriend that the police were after him, but returned in Season 6 to tell Belker that he (Eddie) was dying of AIDS.
Goldblume is often in charge of negotiating in hostage situations. In the early years especially, he is at odds with Howard Hunter, whose distinctly right - wing view of the world contrasts with his own. He is often the confidant of Captain Furillo, to the irritation of Lieutenant Calletano. He joined the police force in 1969 and was stationed at Jefferson Heights prior to his transfer to Hill Street. Though somewhat meek early on (emphasized by his wearing of a bow tie and his reluctance to draw his gun), he becomes more self - confident as the series progresses. At the beginning of the series, he is married with three children; however, after he is shot during an undercover operation, his wife -- who did not want him working undercover -- divorces him. In Season Four, Goldblume acted as Fay Furillo 's labor coach, and briefly became her lover. He later fell head - over-heels for the wealthy widow of a mob boss, only to witness her cold - blooded murder during a dinner date. He had aspirations to become a writer during high school, and is convinced to write his memoirs in Season Seven following the tragic death of a former high school friend, who was also an aspiring writer.
Renko 's partner, generally well - meaning and good - hearted. Previously stationed at Jefferson Heights. A trained boxer, he twice won Golden Gloves championships and also twice won the Metro Police Middleweight Championship, though his attempt to win a third middleweight championship ended when he was knocked out with one punch in the final match. He is briefly the vice-president of the Black Officers ' Coalition. In Season 4, he wins $100,000 in the lottery and promptly loses almost all of it gambling. Unlike his partner, Hill does not aspire to plainclothes work. He and his partner are fiercely loyal to each other -- though this is occasionally tested, as in the aftermath of their nearly fatal shooting in Season 1.
Partners with Bobby Hill, who calls him "Cowboy '', even though he was born in New Jersey and had "never been west of Chicago in my life. '' He speaks with a Southern accent and rides a motorcycle when he 's not in a squad car. He favors country music and, in the early seasons, was often shown wearing a Waylon Jennings baseball cap. He is known for his semi-serious braggadocio and can not leave for his shift without his "morning sit - down '' in the lavatory. Despite the occasional facetious racial comment, he considers Bobby Hill his closest friend and soulmate. He often addresses him as "Bobby Hill, '' rather than just Bobby. Renko aspires to become a detective, and has taken college courses towards that goal. In Season 4, he marries the former Daryl Ann McConnicke, and together they have a daughter, Laura Ann; unfortunately, the marriage collapses after affairs on both sides in Season 7.
In charge of the Emergency Action Team, Hunter loves to postulate and theorize about the degeneration of society. A decorated Marine and a veteran of the Vietnam War, Hunter tends to speak in an overly complex manner similar to Sergeant Esterhaus; however, unlike Sergeant Esterhaus, he rarely thinks about or seems to understand the consequences of some of the things he says, especially relating to racial or ethnic subjects / situations, and often comes across as extremely patronizing. Though a very capable officer and an expert in weaponry, his handling of many an inanimate object often results in comic situations. His attempts to acquire sophisticated weaponry (such as the PANDA "urban tank '') often fail spectacularly and only serve to hinder his career ambitions (one such incident directly resulted in him being placed dead last on the captaincy list). Despite these mishaps, however, Hunter is held in high regard by almost everyone at Hill Street. He rarely sees eye to eye with Captain Furillo, believing that militaristic action is often the best solution to a situation, though he is bound by his loyalty to his superiors. Often he has tried to find female companionship, but he has never been able to keep a steady significant other. He joined the police department directly following his service in Vietnam, wearing badge 1146 in the Midtown Precinct; while there, he was compelled to serve as a bagman for dishonest officers, and the later revelation of that activity embarrassed Hunter to the point of attempting suicide. Initially a Sergeant, he is promoted to Lieutenant in Season 1. In Season 7, Hunter shows questionable judgement in a fatal off - duty shooting and is demoted to Sergeant (becoming the new Desk Sergeant, ending his Roll Call with a succinct "dismissed '') before eventually being restored to Lieutenant and commander of the EAT.
For much of the series, the sole female officer who is given story lines. An effective officer, she occasionally finds conflicts of conscience in her work. Though she tries to be "one of the boys, '' she is at times highly judgmental of her colleagues. Lucy is usually partnered with Joe Coffey, though they have somewhat of a love - hate relationship. After a brief stint as Desk Sergeant in Season 4 following the death of Esterhaus, she returned to motor patrol with the arrival of Sergeant Jablonski; she also assumed Desk Sergeant duties during emergencies and following the reinstatement of Hunter 's lieutenancy near the end of the series. She eventually adopts a child, Fabian, the biological son of a drug - addicted mother.
A talented undercover officer whose great skills as a detective are constantly marred by his drinking, his womanizing and his get - rich - quick schemes (such as "Saloondromat '' -- a bar and laundry -- and his promotion of narcoleptic comic Vic Hitler). His recurrent battles with alcoholism have put him at odds with recovering alcoholic Captain Furillo, to the extent that Furillo nearly had LaRue dismissed from the police force for arriving to a major undercover operation inebriated. Though his sobriety remains in check, he can not resist scams, even after close brushes with Internal Affairs. LaRue is an inveterate practical joker, often targeting Hunter 's paramilitary escapades. He regularly hurls insults at Belker.
A former football player whose career ended due to a knee injury, Washington is the frequent partner of LaRue. He is a very good undercover officer, respected by his captain. Though Washington admits that he learned almost "everything I know '' about undercover from LaRue, LaRue 's drinking, schemes and libido cause him no end of trouble. (He even feels compelled to remind LaRue on several occasions about the penalties for statutory rape.) Neal 's trademarks are a toothpick in the side of his mouth and a habit of referring to everyone as "babe ''. His nickname for his partner is "Lover. '' When frustrated by LaRue, he usually turns his head and mutters "Ohh, maaaaann... '' He develops a promising relationship with a young woman during the sixth season, only to be shot in the back by her pre-teen son during an argument.
Colombian - born, but a naturalized American citizen and former Marine, Calletano serves as Furillo 's "right - hand man '' (and Chief Daniels has recognized him as such). His fluency in Spanish often comes in handy, especially in dealing with Hispanic youth gangs such as the Diablos. Though he has reached the high rank of lieutenant, Ray 's leadership abilities are sometimes called into question (even by Furillo himself), and Ray is jealous of the attention lavished by Furillo on Henry Goldblume. When he is eventually promoted to Captain of the Polk Avenue Precinct, his leadership problems follow him, and an explosion of racial tensions at Polk Avenue result in him being relieved of command and made an advisor to Chief Daniels. Ray often has uneasy conversations with Howard Hunter, the latter of whom uses occasional Spanish words to ingratiate himself to Ray. By the end of the series, Ray has resigned from the force and is instead providing Spanish - language training to the police.
A patrol officer who is partnered with Lucy Bates. Lucy is attracted to Joe, but is in constant judgment of his off - duty lifestyle, which she considers to be that of a "lounge lizard. '' Joe, a Vietnam veteran, is well - liked by his colleagues. Because of his large stature, he is usually the one chosen to break down doors when necessary. Coffey holds the unusual distinction of being killed twice during the course of the series; his first death was changed into a severe injury when the producers decided to make Coffey 's character Bates ' regular partner.
Frank 's ex-wife. In early seasons, she made frequent visits to the precinct house to harangue Frank about things such as alimony, child support, the exploits of their son Frank Junior and her own life problems. As the series progressed (especially in Season 3 when, after one such harangue had begun, Furillo lost his temper with her and forced her to come to terms with the fact that since they were no longer married, she should n't keep coming to him for solutions and should take charge of her own life), she became less shrill and developed new life interests; she also became pregnant by Judge Paul Grogan and delivered a baby girl. She later became romantically involved with Goldblume and, to a lesser extent, Detective Garabaldi. Her relationship with Joyce Davenport (ex-wife to current wife) is rarely covered during the series, but after a rocky start after Furillo and Joyce 's relationship became public (especially at one point when Frank Junior appeared to prefer Joyce to his mother), they seem to have come to an understanding. In his excited moments, when he is defending his ex-wife to a third party, Furillo will occasionally slip and refer to Fay as his wife. Her screen time was dramatically reduced, and ultimately eliminated without fanfare during the sixth season.
An "old school '' cop who takes over from Sgt. Esterhaus after the latter 's death. He is transferred from Polk Avenue after a physical altercation with a female officer, supplanting Bates as Desk Sergeant in the process. Well - respected by the men, though he does not inspire the emotional bond that Phil had. Lives alone except for his dog, Blackie. Instead of urging his officers to "be careful out there, '' he encourages his people to "do it to them before they do it to us ''; in Season 6, this is tempered to "They 're getting away out there! '' His angina progresses to a heart attack early in Season 7, requiring coronary artery bypass surgery and forcing him into retirement. Post-retirement, he continues to spend time with his former colleagues during their off duty hours and occasionally provides assistance when the opportunity arises.
A transferee from the Midtown Precinct, Garibaldi is willing to bend rules to make a bust. He spends his nights in law school classes, juggling his schedules so that he can complete law school in four years. Partners with Detective Mayo. Fatally stabbed in Season 6 while heavily in debt to loan sharks from gambling losses.
Much more "by the book '' than her partner, Detective Garibaldi, and very defensive of her police practices. Made advances on the married Captain Furillo, who politely declined a romantic relationship. Chief Daniels became infatuated with her in Season 5 after reviewing a videotape of her being undressed by a predatory dentist; when Mayo rebuffed his advances, Daniels tried to have her kicked off the force, until Furillo intervened. Returned to Midtown at the beginning of Season 6.
Buntz is an effective officer and an excellent marksman, but he often cuts corners and uses questionable tactics. His manner is loud and full of as much profanity as television would allow at the time. On his first day on the Hill, he convinces a captain in another precinct to retire so that Ray can take his captaincy and leave and he, Buntz, can function more effectively in his new precinct. Buntz develops an uneasy relationship with Sid the Snitch. Due to his aggressive style, Buntz is frequently the target of internal investigations; in one case, a corrupt Internal Affairs investigator sets Buntz up, using Buntz 's record to make the set - up appear real. In the last episode, he punches Chief Daniels - who had been publicly calling for his dismissal - in the face. Disgraced and unemployed, he moves to Beverly Hills, California with Sid and becomes a private investigator - the premise of the short - lived spin - off Beverly Hills Buntz. Buntz is very similar in character to Franz 's previous character on Hill Street Blues, corrupt Detective Sal Benedetto of Midtown Vice.
Transfers to Hill Street in Season 7. Turned in his partner, an old friend of Lieutenant Buntz, earning his enmity. Romantically linked with Sgt. Bates and, later, Grace Gardner.
Transfers to Hill Street in Season 7. Works undercover and is accused of exchanging sexual favors for information. Mentored by Belker.
Though he has many men under him, the Chief seems to pay special attention to Frank. Daniels respects Furillo 's integrity, though it often frustrates him, as it interferes with what he considers effective policy. Several times he accuses Frank of disloyalty. Though not corrupt, Daniels is an opportunist with very little conscience. He is also known to let racial epithets and inappropriate jokes slip out, though rarely with any consequences. He finds a kindred spirit in Howard Hunter, though Hunter is not within the Chief 's inner echelon. Formerly an Inspector and the Captain of the 23rd Precinct before becoming Chief.
Originally introduced as the commander of the powerful Midtown Precinct, Cleveland was also the president of the Black Officers ' Coalition, and he nominated Bobby Hill to the vice-presidency of the BOC. When mayoral candidate Councilman Benjamin Fisk accidentally kills himself ten days before the election, Cleveland enters the race and - assisted by Fletcher Daniels ' mishandling of a police shooting and Deputy Chief Mahoney 's last - minute revelations of Daniels ' role in trying to cover up that shooting - wins election in a landslide. He has a particular hatred of drug dealers - having grown up constantly exposed to them in a poor area of the city - and invests significant political capital in "Operation Stop ' n ' Cop '', a sweep operation that nearly costs Furillo his command. Cleveland 's own son, Lee, is revealed to be a junkie; while Ozzie wants Lee out of his life, his wife Leona still supports him. Cleveland later survives an assassination attempt engineered by former Captain Jerry Fuchs.
The "khaki '' officer in charge of booking. He wears glasses, is somewhat overweight, and is in a rather unhappy marriage. Leo attempts to save a drug addict named Rico, staying with him in a jail cell until he gets straight, but Rico eventually relapses. After his wife leaves him, Leo loses quite a bit of weight and later on elopes to New Zealand with the female "khaki '' officer.
The widow of Chief of Detectives Sam Gardner, Grace is hired to improve the appearance of the Hill Street stationhouse and immediately falls for Phil Esterhaus. Her erotic desires seem to know no end and, even in public, she sometimes appears to be restraining the throes of passion. Briefly partnered with Hunter before returning to Esterhaus. Esterhaus eventually expires while in her bed, and she becomes a nun. Unable to avoid the temptations of the flesh, she leaves the nunnery and becomes a field representative for a condom company.
Introduced as the warlord of the Diablos youth gang, Martinez often works with Furillo if he can gain an advantage for himself. Serves time in jail after he uses a government grant to play the futures market, loses all the money, and tries to recoup his losses by stealing the police payroll. He renounces his gang colors after his marriage, enrolls in law school (using forged documents), and becomes a paralegal, though he still remains an advisor of sorts for Furillo.
Introduced as the Captain in charge of Vice when it was based out of the Midtown Precinct. He is a tough cop with a New York accent, and was a former "drinking buddy '' of Furillo before Furillo swore off alcohol. Fuchs is not well respected by his superiors or his officers, who consider being under Fuchs ' command a license to do anything they want. His department was found to be pervasively corrupt, leading to its dissolution; Fuchs quit rather than be fired and instead set up his own private investigation firm. Fuchs attempts to kill Mayor Cleveland and then suffers a heart attack while trying to flee to Saint Louis, Missouri; he dies in the hospital.
Introduced as a sleazy and unscrupulous attorney who occasionally hangs around the Hill Street precinct, Wachtel attended law school with Joyce Davenport, where he was one of the best students in the class. After a period of wearing dresses to "explore his gender identity '', he eventually becomes a judge courtesy of political patronage and, after a rough start, quickly becomes tired and somewhat cynical.
A superhero want - to - be who crosses paths with Belker on several occasions. He gives inspirational speeches to Belker about society and the power of the human mind and spirit, though they are invariably followed by a statement that reveals him to be insane. Killed when he attempts to intervene in an armed robbery of a bar set up for a police investigation.
Often faces off against Joyce Davenport in court. Recruited Davenport to the District Attorney 's office in Season 5. Known to refer to himself as "Mrs. Bernstein 's son '' when making a point. In Season 6, Bernstein is part of Captain Furillo 's commission on corruption, which secures indictments against more than three dozen officers and lays blame on Chief Daniels as well. He confesses his attraction to Joyce Davenport and kisses her in Season 7. Leaves Hill Street in the last episode for a private practice in Los Angeles.
Originally transferred to Hill Street in Season 2. Ingratiated herself to Detective Belker when she agreed to accompany him on visits to his incapacitated father. Pursued an on - again, off - again relationship with Belker until becoming pregnant by him in Season 6 and marrying him later that season.
Previous character of Dennis Franz, the corrupt Detective from Midtown Vice is famous for three events: blindsiding Renko in a backstreet brawl, being beaten up by Hill in revenge, and committing suicide in a bank 's safe - deposit area when his corruption is discovered (after one of his schemes nearly gets Washington killed).
A street cop who is generally well - liked by the other members of the precinct. He speaks both English and Spanish fluently. In the episode "Doris in Wonderland '', he shoots a child in an apartment whom he mistakes to be a prowler. His recovery from the tragedy is slow and painful.
Widow of a mobster and paramour to Lieutenant Goldblume, Gina was shot by an assassin for acting as a police informant and died in Goldblume 's arms. She left Goldblume $1.1 million, from which Goldblume received $80,000 after settling encumbrances with the IRS.
Ally to Lieutenant Norman Buntz; originally seen in the company of LaRue, Washington, and Belker in an undercover operation, after which he was arrested. Despite the fact that he interacts with dangerous criminals, Sid is most often a comic character, annoying his associates on both sides of the law with his grating, overly - loquacious manner. Sid wears loud clothing and is constantly broke and seeking any amount of money from Hill Street officers in exchange for information. He speaks in a roundabout manner, one apparently designed to lightly disguise descriptions of illegal activity, though he fools no one.
A junior member of the Diablos youth gang, Ruiz on three separate occasions takes hostages in an attempt to better his position. Frank and Joyce frequently intercede in hopes of saving him from a life of crime. Unfortunately, when Ruiz takes mayoral candidate Benjamin Fisk hostage in retaliation for not being named head of the Diablos (while Jesus Martinez was in jail), Ruiz is shot and killed by an EAT sharpshooter.
A part of a three - episode story arc in the third season, Vic Hitler is arrested for excessive fines in parking tickets. He quickly reveals himself to be a stand - up comic of the "old school, '' with rapid fire one - liners that send the Hill Street cops into stitches. After many failures (due to Vic 's insistence on using the Hitler name), LaRue finally manages to get Vic an engagement at a disreputable nightclub. Vic is initially a success, only to then reveal -- unintentionally, in mid-performance -- that he is a narcoleptic.
A no - nonsense judge who presides over numerous arraignments. He is impatient of what he feels to be baseless arrests. Oberman can also be merciful without being sentimental. He is balding with thick glasses and bushy eyebrows, and has a generally judicial demeanor.
A judge often seen at arraignments. Similar to Oberman in his approach to procedure, though somewhat more irascible. He is slightly disheveled looking, often wearing an ordinary shirt under his robe. He is a football fan and he once called a recess so that he, Joyce and the other court officers could watch the end of a football game in his office. Despite his friendliness with her, however, he once publicly and with vitriol berated her from the bench for what he thought was improper conduct.
A white - haired, bow - tie wearing judge with a reputation for harsh sentencing ("Heads - Will - Roll Cole ''). To the shock of the Hill Street cops, however, Cole is caught picking up a payoff from a bus station locker and also accepting a bribe. He is forced to resign in disgrace and it is mentioned, almost in passing, that he commits suicide not long afterward.
A tough, high - ranking officer who often supervises Furillo. Though Furillo is loyal to the department, he is always hesitant to carry out the policies of Briscoe when he feels Briscoe is merely trying to spare the department embarrassment or, alternately, gain some good publicity for the department. Furillo 's actions tend to work out better in the end than what Briscoe proposed; nevertheless, Briscoe views Furillo as arrogant and self - righteous. He is loyal to the chief, though nowhere near as cynical.
A pickpocket and purveyor of stolen merchandise who is frequently arrested by Belker. Apart from in his last appearance, he gives Belker a fake name, usually a comical one which refers to his merchandise. When in possession of stolen skiing equipment, for instance, he claims to be named Jean - Claude Killy; when arrested with stolen golf equipment, he claims his name was Sam Snead. Shot and killed in Season 4; he died in Belker 's arms.
Famous for appearing almost randomly, opening his trenchcoat, and yelling, "I 'm Buck NEKKID! '' So frequently did he make this exclamation that he was once booked as "Buck Naked ''. Known to prefer turkey dinners, as ham "disconveniences (his) stomach ''.
Gang culture was a feature in all seven seasons beginning with the first episode. Several storylines related to gang life, and the different approaches to negotiation, in particular by officers such as Furillo, Goldblume, Hunter, and to a lesser extent those of the uniform or plain clothes detective ranks.
Interactions included multiple gang meetings held at the precinct to negotiate "turf '' boundaries and truces in exchange for facilitating a presidential visit that did not come to pass or the return of a governor 's pet dog. The gang / police meetings more often formed part of the comic rather than the dramatic elements of the series.
Gang interactions mostly centered around the Hispanic gang Los Diablos, and the fragile but productive and increasingly trusting relationship between its leader Jesus Martinez and Furillo, who even attends Martinez ' wedding. Martinez, the only gang character given any extended development, moves through the series from early and relapsing belligerence, to negotiation, to finally renouncing his gang colors and qualifying as a paralegal.
David Caruso had a recurring role as Tommy Mann, the leader of a rival Irish street gang named the Shamrocks, in the early years of the series.
Danny Glover had an early career appearance in the first four episodes of season two as Jesse John Hudson, erstwhile leader of the Black Arrows, whose stated aim to "go straight '' turned out to be hypocritical when he attempted to take back control of the gang with violence and murder.
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how many times has south carolina beat clemson | Clemson -- South Carolina rivalry - wikipedia
The Clemson -- South Carolina rivalry, also called the Carolina -- Clemson rivalry, is an American collegiate athletic rivalry between the University of South Carolina Gamecocks and the Clemson University Tigers. Since 2015, the two also compete in the Palmetto Series, which is an athletic, head - to - head competition between both schools, not just in football, but also more than a dozen competitions throughout each school year. Both institutions are public universities supported by the state of South Carolina, and their campuses are separated by only 132 miles. USC and Clemson have been bitter rivals since 1896, and a heated rivalry continues to this day for a variety of reasons, including the historic tensions regarding their respective charters and the passions surrounding their athletic programs.
Much like the Alabama -- Auburn Rivalry, the Kentucky -- Louisville rivalry and the Carolina - NC State Rivalry, the Clemson -- South Carolina rivalry is an in - state collegiate rivalry. This is one of a handful of rivalries where the teams are in different premier conferences: South Carolina is in the Southeastern Conference (SEC); Clemson is in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC).
Since 1960, the game has been held in late November, usually on Thanksgiving weekend. In 2014, the annual football game between the two schools was officially dubbed the Palmetto Bowl.
Unlike most major college rivalries, the Carolina -- Clemson rivalry did not start innocently and because of competitive collegiate sports. The deep - seated bitterness began between the two schools long before Clemson received its charter and became a college. The two institutions were founded eighty - eight years apart: South Carolina College in 1801 and Clemson Agricultural College in 1889.
South Carolina College was founded in 1801 to unite and promote harmony between the Lowcountry and the Backcountry. It closed during the Civil War when its students aided the Southern cause, but the closure gave politicians an opportunity to reorganize it to their liking. The Radical Republicans in charge of state government during Reconstruction opened the school to blacks and women while appropriating generous funds to the university, which caused the white citizens of the state to withdraw their support for the university and view it as a symbol of the worst aspects of Reconstruction.
The Democrats returned to power in 1877 following their decisive electoral victory over the Radical Republicans and promptly proceeded to close the university. Sentiment in the state favored opening an agriculture college, so the university was reorganized as the South Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. In 1882, the college was renamed to its antebellum name, South Carolina College, which infuriated the farmers who felt that the politicians had frustrated the will of the people by de-emphasizing agriculture education, even though the school still retained the department of agriculture. Clemson, from its beginning, was an all - white male military school. The school remained this way until 1955 when it changed to "civilian '' status for students and became a coeducational institution.
Benjamin Tillman emerged in the 1880s as a leader of the agrarian movement in South Carolina and demanded that the South Carolina College take agricultural education more seriously by expanding the agriculture department. In 1885, Tillman was convinced of the superiority of a separate agricultural college by Stephen D. Lee, then the President of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of the State of Mississippi, and subsequently Tillman would accept nothing less than a separate agriculture college in South Carolina. He offered the following reasons why he felt that it was necessary to have a separate agriculture college outside the confines of Columbia:
The Conservatives, who held the reins of power in South Carolina from 1877 to 1890, replied to each point made by Tillman:
Tillman was bolstered in 1886 when Thomas Green Clemson agreed to will his Fort Hill estate for the establishment of an agriculture college. Yet, Tillman did not want to wait until Clemson died to start a separate agriculture college so he pushed the General Assembly to use the Morrill funds and Hatch funds for that purpose. Instead, the legislature gave those funds to the South Carolina College in 1887 which would use them along with a greater state appropriation to reorganize itself as the second University of South Carolina and to also greatly expand the agriculture department. After this victory for South Carolina, in January 1888 Tillman wrote a letter to the News and Courier that he was retiring from public life.
It was less than ninety days when Tillman reemerged on the scene upon the death of Thomas Green Clemson in April 1888. Tillman advocated that the state accept the gift by Clemson, but the Conservatives in power opposed the move and an all out war for power in the state commenced. The opening salvo was fired by Gideon Lee, the father of Clemson 's granddaughter and John C. Calhoun 's great granddaughter Floride Isabella Lee, who wrote a letter on her behalf to the News and Courier in May that she was being denied as Calhoun 's rightful heir. Furthermore, he stated that Clemson was egotistical and "only wanted to erect a monument to his own name. '' In November, Lee filed a lawsuit in Federal Court to contest the will which ultimately ruled against him in May 1889.
The election of 1888 afforded Tillman an opportunity to convince the politicians to accept the Clemson bequest or face the possibility of being voted out of office. He demanded that the Democratic party nominate its candidates by the primary system, which was denied, but they did accept his request that the candidates for statewide office canvass the state. Tillman proved excellent on the stump, by far superior to his Conservative opponents, and as the Democratic convention neared there was a clear groundswell of support for the acceptance of Clemson 's estate.
Tillman explained his justification for an independently controlled agriculture college by pointing to the mismanagement and political interference of the University of South Carolina as had occurred during Reconstruction. The agriculture college, as specified in Clemson 's will, was to be privately controlled. With declining cotton prices, Tillman played upon the farmer 's desperation by stating that the salaries of the college professors were exorbitant and it must be a sign of corruption. Consequently, the legislature was compelled to pass the bill to accept Clemson 's bequest in December 1888, albeit with the tie - breaking vote in the state Senate from Lieutenant Governor William L. Mauldin. Thus was reborn the antagonistic feelings of regional bitterness and class division that would plague the state for decades.
Having achieved his agriculture college, Tillman was not content to sit idly by because what he really desired was power and political office. After winning the 1890 election and becoming Governor, Tillman renewed the attacks on the Conservatives and those who had thwarted his agriculture college. He saved the coup de grâce for Senator Wade Hampton III, a South Carolina College graduate and Confederate General during the Civil War, who "invoked Confederate service and honor as a barrier to Tillmanism. '' Tillman directed the legislature to defeat Hampton 's renomination for another term in December 1890.
While campaigning for Governor in 1890, Tillman leveled his harshest criticism towards the University of South Carolina and threatened to close it along with The Citadel, which he called a "dude factory. '' Despite the rhetoric, Tillman only succeeded in reorganizing the University of South Carolina into a liberal arts college while in office. It would eventually be rechartered for the last time in 1906 as the University of South Carolina. However, Clemson Agricultural College held sway over the state legislature for decades and was generally the more popular college during the first half of the 20th century in South Carolina.
In the 1950s, the University of South Carolina expanded its reach across the state by establishing branch campuses under the auspices of the University of South Carolina System. Clemson, having obtained university status in 1964, established a branch campus in Sumter and formed a two - year transfer partnership with Greenville Technical College. House Speaker Sol Blatt was alarmed by the spread of Clemson and declared that South Carolina "should build as many two - year colleges over the state as rapidly as possible to prevent the expansion of Clemson schools for the Clemson people. '' Accordingly, the University of South Carolina began a new wave of expansion across the state and was aided by the fact that the Clemson Sumter extension suffered from low enrollment. In 1973, Sumter officials negotiated an agreement between USC and Clemson for the school to join the USC branch system.
In the past ten years, Clemson has experienced a larger percentage of enrollment growth over its rival school. Since 2005, Clemson University has grown by 30.5 percent compared to USC 's 24.5 percent growth at its main Columbia campus and a 22.5 percent enrollment increase in the entire USC system. Both schools currently enroll more students than any time in their entire history.
The annual Carolina - Clemson football game (sometimes dubbed "The Battle of the Palmetto State '', and known officially since 2014 as the "Palmetto Bowl '', from the state 's nickname) is the longest uninterrupted series in the South and the second longest uninterrupted NCAA DI - A / FBS series in the country. The series dates back to 1896, and has been renewed every year since 1909. (107 consecutive games) The universities maintain college football stadiums in excess of 80,000 seats each, placing both in the top 20 in the United States. Although the series has been interrupted seven times since its inception, it is uninterrupted since 1909, making it the second - longest continuous rivalry in FBS Division 1 college football, after only Minnesota / Wisconsin (uninterrupted since 1907). From 1896 -- 1959, the Carolina - Clemson game was played in Columbia and referred to as "Big Thursday. '' Since 1960, the game has alternated between both teams ' home stadiums -- South Carolina 's Williams - Brice Stadium and Clemson 's Memorial Stadium as the regular season finale.
Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series. Clemson holds a 41 -- 29 -- 2 advantage in the Modern Era (post-WWII), and Clemson leads the series 11 -- 7 in the 21st century. Clemson has more wins against USC than any other program has, and Carolina is second behind Georgia Tech in most wins against Clemson.
Every year, each school engages in a ritual involving the other team 's mascot. South Carolina holds the "Tiger Burn '', and Clemson holds a mock funeral for Cocky. After 7 students (6 from USC, 1 from Clemson) died in the Ocean Isle Beach house fire in 2007, the Cocky funeral was cancelled and the Tiger Burn was changed to the "Tiger Tear Down '' for that year.
When Clemson began its football program in 1896, coached by Walter Riggs, they scheduled the rival South Carolina College for a Thursday morning game in conjunction with the State Fair. Carolina won that game 12 -- 6 and a new tradition was born -- Big Thursday. Clemson would win the next four contests (including a 51 -- 0 win in 1900, still the largest margin of victory by either team in the series) before the 1st break in the series took place in 1901.
The Gamecock mascot made its first appearance in 1902. In that first season as the Gamecocks, Carolina defeated a highly favored Clemson team coached by the legendary John Heisman 12 -- 6. But it was the full - scale riot that broke out in the wake of the game that is remembered most.
"The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail, '' Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they are your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. ''
As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909. The Carolina -- Clemson game has been played every year since.
World War II produced one of the most bizarre situations in the history of the rivalry. Cary Cox, a football player of the victorious Clemson squad in 1942, signed up for the V - 12 program in 1943 and was placed at USC. The naval instructors at USC ordered him to play on the football team and he was named the captain for the Big Thursday game against Clemson. Cox was reluctant to play against his former teammates and he voiced his concerns to coach Lt. James P. Moran who responded, "Cox, I ca n't promise you 'll get a Navy commission if you play Thursday, but I can damn well promise that you wo n't get one if you do n't play. '' Cox then went out and led the Carolina team to a 33 -- 6 win against Clemson. He returned to Clemson after the war and captained the 1947 team in a losing effort to Carolina, but Cox earned his place in history as the only player to captain both schools ' football teams.
1946: Near riot -- counterfeit tickets The 1946 game could be the most chaotic in the football series. Two New York mobsters printed counterfeit tickets for the game. Fans from both sides were denied entrance when the duplicate tickets were discovered, which led to a near riot. To add to the wild scene, a Clemson fan strangled a live chicken at midfield during halftime. Fans from both sides of the rivalry, many of whom who had been denied entrance, along with fans who poured out of the stands, stormed the fences and gates and spilled onto the field. It took U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, who attended the game along with Strom Thurmond, to settle down the hostile crowd. Once order was restored, fans were allowed to stand along the sidelines, with the teams, while the second half was played to the game 's conclusion. The Gamecocks eventually won by a score of 26 -- 14.
1952: Game mandated by South Carolina law The Southern Conference (SoCon) almost brought the longstanding rivalry to an abrupt end when it ordered Clemson to play no other league team other than Maryland as punishment for both schools accepting bowl bids against conference rules (both Clemson and USC were members at the time). Upon request of both schools ' presidents, the S.C. General Assembly passed a resolution on February 27, 1952, ordering the game to be played. The Gamecocks won the contest 6 -- 0. The SoCon reacted to the game by attempting to suspend Clemson, leading seven member schools, including Clemson and USC, to leave the league and form the Atlantic Coast Conference in May 1953.
1959: Final Big Thursday For 64 years, Clemson traveled to Columbia to face the Gamecocks for the annual Big Thursday rivalry. This year would mark the end of the tradition as the rivalry progressed to a home - and - home series played on a Saturday. However, the two schools would not move the contest to the last regular season game until two years later. Clemson won the final Big Thursday match - up 27 -- 0.
1961: The Prank In 1961, the USC fraternity Sigma Nu pulled what some have called the greatest prank in the rivalry 's history. A few minutes before Clemson football players entered the field for pre-game warm ups, a group of Sigma Nu fraternity members ran onto the field, jumping up and down and cheering in football uniforms that resembled the ones worn by the Tigers. This caused the Clemson band to start playing "Tiger Rag, '' which was followed by the pranksters falling down as they attempted to do calisthenics. They would also do football drills where guys would drop passes and miss the ball when trying to kick it. Clemson fans quickly realized that they had been tricked, and some of them angrily ran onto the field. However, security restored order before any blows could be exchanged. The Carolina frat boys had also acquired a sickly cow they planned to bring out during halftime to be the "Clemson Homecoming Queen '', but the cow died en route to the stadium. Carolina won the game 21 -- 14.
1963: National tragedy moves game On November 23, 1963, the Tigers and Gamecocks were set to play the annual rivalry on live national TV. However, the assassination of President John F. Kennedy the day before would affect the scheduling of the game. Both schools planned to proceed with the original day and time, but federal government pressure caused the schools to push the game to November 28, marking the only time Clemson and Carolina played on Thanksgiving Day. Clemson won the game 24 -- 20.
1975: Most points scored by Carolina On November 22, 1975, Carolina defeated Clemson 56 -- 20 to set a Gamecock record for most points scored in a football game against the Tigers.
1977: "The Catch '' On November 19, 1977, Clemson WR Jerry Butler made a diving, backwards, 20 - yard touchdown reception on a pass from QB Steve Fuller with 49 seconds left in the fourth quarter to give Clemson the 31 -- 27 victory in Columbia. This play is known as "The Catch '' and is one of the most memorable plays in the rivalry.
1980: Orange pants In the last regular season game for the 1980 season, a heavily favored Carolina team traveled to Death Valley to take on the Tigers. In a surprise to both the players and the fans, Coach Danny Ford unveiled new orange uniform pants for the Tigers to wear. This was the first time in Clemson 's history that they wore orange pants in any combination for a football game. Inspired by the pants, the underdog Tigers defeated the Gamecocks, 27 -- 6.
1981: Clemson wins a National Championship In 1981, Clemson defeated Carolina 29 -- 13 en route to the National Championship.
1984: Black Magic Carolina took their 9 -- 1 record on the road to Clemson, and fell behind 21 -- 3 to the Tigers. With about three minutes remaining in the game, Gamecock QB Mike Hold led an eight - play 86 - yard touchdown drive and, thanks to a Clemson penalty that allowed a re-kick of a missed extra point, defeated the Tigers 22 -- 21 to finish the first 10 - win season in program history.
1989: Orange on the road and Ford 's last hurrah After suffering two disappointing upsets to Duke and Georgia Tech, the 8 -- 2 Tigers traveled to Columbia for the annual game. Danny Ford allowed the Clemson players to wear orange pants on the road for the first time. Led by halfback Terry Allen 's 97 - yard, two touchdown first half, the Tigers rolled the Gamecocks on the ground for 355 yards en route to a 45 -- 0 victory. The game would be Ford 's last against South Carolina as Clemson 's coach. He finished with a 7 -- 3 -- 1 record against the Gamecocks.
1992: Signing the Paw After an 0 -- 5 start to begin the 1992 season (USC 's first in the SEC), freshman sensation Steve Taneyhill led Carolina to four wins in his first five starts as Gamecock quarterback. With Clemson needing a win at home to become bowl - eligible, Taneyhill led his team to a 24 -- 13 victory and famously signed his name with his finger on the Tiger Paw at midfield following a key second - half touchdown.
1994: "The Return '' With both teams entering the game 5 -- 5 and trying to become bowl - eligible, Carolina led 14 -- 7 at the half in Clemson. Gamecock RB Brandon Bennett received the kick to start the third quarter, took a few steps, then turned and threw a backward pass to the other side of the field which was caught by DB Reggie Richardson who returned the ball 85 yards to the Tigers ' 6 - yard line. Bennett ran it in for a touchdown on the next play, putting Carolina ahead 21 -- 7 and the Gamecocks never looked back, going on to win the game 33 -- 7 and clinching a bid to the Carquest Bowl.
2000: "The Catch II '' / "The Push - off '' In 2000, Trailing late in the game 14 -- 13, Clemson quarterback Woody Dantzler connected with wide - receiver Rod Gardner for a 50 - yard reception to Carolina 's 8 - yard line with 10 seconds remaining. Carolina fans point to a replay that seems to show Gardner pushing off the Gamecock defender, but Clemson fans contend that the contact was mutual and incidental. No penalty flag was thrown on the play, leaving Clemson kicker Aaron Hunt to kick a 25 - yard field goal that gave Clemson a 16 -- 14 win. Clemson fans remember this game as "The Catch II '' while Carolina fans call it "The Push - Off Game ''.
2001: A bicentennial win In the 200th year of the University of South Carolina, the Gamecocks hosted the Tigers at the end of a successful regular season that saw them ranked in the Top 25 every week and 7 -- 3 heading into the rivalry game. Carolina jumped out to an early 20 -- 9 lead behind a strong ground attack, and held on to win 20 -- 15 and secure a bid to their second straight Outback Bowl. Interestingly, this would not be the final regular season game for Clemson due to September 11 attacks. The Tigers rescheduled their September 15 game (Vs. Duke) for the first weekend of December.
2003: Most points scored by Clemson In 2003, Clemson defeated Carolina 63 -- 17 to set the record for the most points scored by either team in the series.
2004: The Brawl The South Carolina - Clemson brawl during the 2004 football game is the most recent eruption of hostilities in this rivalry. It is also the last time Lou Holtz coached, having retired shortly thereafter. Clemson won the game 29 -- 7. Each team had won a total of six games that year and were technically bowl eligible. However, both schools elected to forfeit their postseason because of the unsportsmanlike nature of the fight.
2005: A quarterback wins 4 In 2005, the two teams showed an unusual gesture of sportsmanship by meeting at midfield before the game to shake hands, putting the melee of 2004 behind them. Clemson won this game 13 -- 9, leaving the Tiger 's quarterback, Charlie Whitehurst, undefeated against USC in his 4 years at Clemson. The only Carolina quarterback to do so against the Tigers was Tommy Suggs, who led the Gamecocks to three victories in a row from 1968 -- 1970.
2006: Kickers make the difference Clemson was leading 28 -- 14 in the third quarter, with Carolina quarterback Blake Mitchell throwing three interceptions. The Gamecocks then scored 17 unanswered points, including two Mike Davis touchdown runs and a 35 - yard field goal from Ryan Succop -- the only points in the fourth quarter -- to give the Gamecocks a 31 -- 28 lead. Clemson kicker Jad Dean missed a field goal attempt wide left as time expired to give Carolina the win. This game would also mark the moving of the series to the Saturday following Thanksgiving Day.
2007: Last - second victory On November 24, 2007, Clemson kicker Mark Buchholz hit a 35 - yard field goal as time expired to give # 21 Clemson a memorable 23 -- 21 victory over Carolina. The win lifted Clemson coach Tommy Bowden to 7 -- 2 all - time against the Gamecocks and 2 -- 1 against USC coach Steve Spurrier. The 2007 game is notable as the first in the series with the winning points scored on the game 's final play.
2013: Highest Ranked Meeting In the highest - ever ranked matchup between the two teams (Clemson # 6, South Carolina # 10), the Gamecocks secured their fifth straight victory over the Tigers with a score of 31 -- 17. Carolina took advantage of six turnovers by Clemson, including two during punt returns, to secure the victory. The win marked the Gamecocks ' longest streak versus Clemson in the rivalry 's history. With the win, South Carolina quarterback Connor Shaw finished his college career unbeaten at Williams - Brice Stadium.
2017: Last Meeting
No. 3 Clemson defeated No. 24 South Carolina to win their fourth in a row in the series, 34 - 10. Clemson 's defense held South Carolina to 207 yards total offense. Clemson quarterback Kelly Bryant and the Tigers racked up 469 yards total offense to maintain possession of the Palmetto Bowl title. During the game, Clemson head coach Dabo Swinney was penalized for unsportsmanlike conduct for complaining that the South Carolina fans were throwing bottles and trash onto the field and at Clemson players.
Clemson victories are colored █ █ orange. South Carolina victories are colored █ █ garnet. Ties are white.
Conference expansion: SEC vs ACC
In baseball, Clemson leads the series overall 176 -- 137 -- 2. The teams previously met four times during the regular season, with two games scheduled at each home field. Two of the games were played on Saturday and Sunday, and then later in the season 2 games were played during the mid-week, usually on Wednesday. Since 2010, the teams have competed against each other over the course of a single weekend: once on each home field and once at a neutral site. Fluor Field at the West End (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017) in Greenville, SC and Riley Park (2012) in Charleston, SC have served as the host sites. The other instances where the teams met in neutral site games were the 2002 College World Series and the 2010 College World Series, both times at Rosenblatt Stadium in Omaha, NE. Both schools are perennially considered to be among the top programs in the country, giving the rivalry a prominent spot in college baseball beyond the state of South Carolina. SEBaseball. com 's Mark Etheridge has called it "college baseball 's most heated rivalry, '' and Baseball America 's Aaron Fitt has called it "far and away the most compelling rivalry college baseball has to offer. ''
The rivalry has taken a deeper hold in the 2000s and 2010s, as twice in the century the two teams battled, coincidentally in the semifinals both times, with the Tigers being 2 -- 0 and needing only one win to advance to the championship, and the Gamecocks losing the first game and having to win twice to reach the finals out of the double elimination repechage round in both situations.
2002 Leading up to the 2002 semifinals, Clemson had already won three out of four regular season games against Carolina. The Gamecocks beat their rivals soundly, 12 -- 4, and then beat the Tigers again, 10 -- 2, the following day to advance to the national championship game. The Gamecocks fell to Texas 12 -- 6 in the championship game, the last under the format where a one - game final was played.
Eight years later, in what has been called The Last Bat at Rosenblatt, an identical situation leading to the series began. Clemson had taken both on - campus games from South Carolina in the regular season, including a lopsided 19 -- 6 victory in the rubber match, played before over 8,000 fans at Carolina Stadium in Columbia, but had lost in the "neutral site '' game. The Gamecocks had just come off a 12 - inning win against the Oklahoma Sooners less than 24 hours before, while the Tigers had two days of rest. However, fatigue was not a factor as the Gamecocks won the first game, 5 -- 1, on a dominating complete game pitching performance by reliever Michael Roth, who had not started a game in more than a year. Carolina won the second game the following day, 4 -- 3, to advance to the championship series against UCLA, who they defeated, 7 -- 1 (Game 1) and 2 -- 1 (Game 2) to win the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship. South Carolina went on to win the National Championship again against Florida in 2011 and finished "runner - up '' to Arizona in 2012.
The rivalry extends beyond sports to the annual blood drive between the two schools. Students, faculty and fans from the schools band together in an effort to collect blood before the holiday season when many are too busy to give blood. The drive is held from Monday through Friday the week before the football matchup. The University of South Carolina and Clemson University wrapped up their 31st annual blood drive in 2015, resulting in the eighth consecutive win for USC. Carolina now holds a 18 - 15 lead in the yearly competition.
The 2015 Carolina - Clemson Blood Drive took place on both campuses Nov 16 -- 20 with students, staff, faculty and fans showing support for their favorite team by donating blood. This year 's event resulted in 6,217 donors presenting to give blood. Carolina support totaled 3,554 donors, while Clemson support totaled 2,663 donors. The blood drive is sponsored by The Blood Connection and American Red Cross at the University of South Carolina with the help of the University of South Carolina Fraternity and Sorority Council in addition to the Men 's Rugby team and the Gamma Lambda chapter of the Alpha Phi Omega national service fraternity at Clemson, and the two schools have collected approximately 100,000 pints of blood over the past three decades. Everyone who gives blood receives a free shirt, with the graphic on the back usually featuring a Tiger and Gamecock together and a statement explaining that even though the competition is part of the rivalry, both schools share the common ground of giving blood. It is currently the largest collegiate blood drive in the country.
On August 4, 2015, leaders from the South Carolina Department of Agriculture, Clemson University, and the University of South Carolina gathered at the South Carolina State House to announce the launch of the Certified SC Grown Palmetto Series, in which the Tigers and Gamecocks will compete for the Palmetto Series trophy based primarily on head to head athletic competition.
The following 13 sports will count toward the series: baseball, men 's basketball, women 's basketball, women 's cross country, women 's diving, football, men 's golf, women 's golf, men 's soccer, women 's soccer, men 's tennis, women 's tennis, and volleyball. These are all sports that either compete head to head or will face each other in the same tournament or meet. The winning team in each sport (including postseason) earns one point, while a half a point will be awarded if the teams evenly split a series throughout the year (example, if Carolina baseball were to win 2 of 3 from Clemson in the regular season, but Clemson later wins 2 of 3 in postseason play, both teams would be awarded half a point each for splitting their meetings). In the case of a tie in the 2015 -- 2016 year, the winner of the schools ' annual food drive and the average student athlete GPA will be used for tie breaker. After the 2015 -- 2016 year, the previous year 's winner will retain the Palmetto Series trophy in the event of a tie.
On July 7, 2016, the University of South Carolina was named winner of the inaugural Palmetto Series with a score of 10 -- 5.
On July 6, 2017, Carolina won the Palmetto Series for the second straight year with a score of 8 -- 7.
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where is supremacy clause found in the constitution | Supremacy Clause - wikipedia
The Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the supreme law of the land. It provides that state courts are bound by the supreme law; in case of conflict between federal and state law, the federal law must be applied. Even state constitutions are subordinate to federal law. In essence, it is a conflict - of - laws rule specifying that certain federal acts take priority over any state acts that conflict with federal law. In this respect, the Supremacy Clause follows the lead of Article XIII of the Articles of Confederation, which provided that "Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress Assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. '' A constitutional provision announcing the supremacy of federal law, the Supremacy Clause assumes the underlying priority of federal authority, at least when that authority is expressed in the Constitution itself. No matter what the federal government or the states might wish to do, they have to stay within the boundaries of the Constitution. This makes the Supremacy Clause the cornerstone of the whole American political structure.
This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.
In Federalist No. 44, James Madison defends the Supremacy Clause as vital to the functioning of the nation. He noted that state legislatures were invested with all powers not specifically defined in the Constitution, but also said that having the federal government subservient to various state constitutions would be an inversion of the principles of government, concluding that if supremacy were not established "it would have seen the authority of the whole society everywhere subordinate to the authority of the parts; it would have seen a monster, in which the head was under the direction of the members ''.
The constitutional principle derived from the Supremacy Clause is federal preemption. Preemption applies regardless of whether the conflicting laws come from legislatures, courts, administrative agencies, or constitutions. For example, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, an act of Congress, preempts state constitutions, and Food and Drug Administration regulations may preempt state court judgments in cases involving prescription drugs.
Congress has preempted state regulation in many areas. In some cases, such as the 1976 Medical Device Regulation Act, Congress preempted all state regulation. In others, such as labels on prescription drugs, Congress allowed federal regulatory agencies to set federal minimum standards, but did not preempt state regulations imposing more stringent standards than those imposed by federal regulators. Where rules or regulations do not clearly state whether or not preemption should apply, the Supreme Court tries to follow lawmakers ' intent, and prefers interpretations that avoid preempting state laws.
In Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796), the United States Supreme Court for the first time applied the Supremacy Clause to strike down a state statute. Virginia had passed a statute during the Revolutionary War allowing the state to confiscate debt payments by Virginia citizens to British creditors. The Supreme Court found that this Virginia statute was inconsistent with the Treaty of Paris with Britain, which protected the rights of British creditors. Relying on the Supremacy Clause, the Supreme Court held that the treaty superseded Virginia 's statute, and that it was the duty of the courts to declare Virginia 's statute "null and void ''.
In Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803), the Supreme Court held that Congress can not pass laws that are contrary to the Constitution, and it is the role of the Judicial system to interpret what the Constitution permits. Citing the Supremacy Clause, the Court found Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 to be unconstitutional to the extent it purported to enlarge the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court beyond that permitted by the Constitution.
In Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, 14 U.S. 304 (1816), and Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 264 (1821), the Supreme Court held that the Supremacy Clause and the judicial power granted in Article III give the Supreme Court the ultimate power to review state court decisions involving issues arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States. Therefore, the Supreme Court has the final say in matters involving federal law, including constitutional interpretation, and can overrule decisions by state courts.
In McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819), the Supreme Court reviewed a tax levied by Maryland on the federally incorporated Bank of the United States. The Court found that if a state had the power to tax a federally incorporated institution, then the state effectively had the power to destroy the federal institution, thereby thwarting the intent and purpose of Congress. This would make the states superior to the federal government. The Court found that this would be inconsistent with the Supremacy Clause, which makes federal law superior to state law. The Court therefore held that Maryland 's tax on the bank was unconstitutional because the tax violated the Supremacy Clause.
In Ableman v. Booth, 62 U.S. 506 (1859), the Supreme Court held that state courts can not issue rulings that contradict the decisions of federal courts, citing the Supremacy Clause, and overturning a decision by the Supreme Court of Wisconsin. Specifically, the court found it was illegal for state officials to interfere with the work of U.S. Marshals enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act or to order the release of federal prisoners held for violation of that Act. The Supreme Court reasoned that because the Supremacy Clause established federal law as the law of the land, the Wisconsin courts could not nullify the judgments of a federal court. The Supreme Court held that under Article III of the Constitution, the federal courts have the final jurisdiction in all cases involving the Constitution and laws of the United States, and that the states therefore can not interfere with federal court judgments.
In Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 350 U.S. 497 (1956) the Supreme Court struck down the Pennsylvania Sedition Act, which made advocating the forceful overthrow of the federal government a crime under Pennsylvania state law. The Supreme Court held that when federal interest in an area of law is sufficiently dominant, federal law must be assumed to preclude enforcement of state laws on the same subject; and a state law is not to be declared a help when state law goes farther than Congress has seen fit to go.
In Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957), the Supreme Court held that international treaties and laws made pursuant to them must comply with the Constitution.
In Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958), the Supreme Court rejected attempts by Arkansas to nullify the Court 's school desegregation decision, Brown v. Board of Education. The state of Arkansas, acting on a theory of states ' rights, had adopted several statutes designed to nullify the desegregation ruling. The Supreme Court relied on the Supremacy Clause to hold that the federal law controlled and could not be nullified by state statutes or officials.
In Edgar v. MITE Corp., 457 U.S. 624 (1982), the Supreme Court ruled: "A state statute is void to the extent that it actually conflicts with a valid Federal statute ''. In effect, this means that a State law will be found to violate the Supremacy Clause when either of the following two conditions (or both) exist:
In 1920, the Supreme Court applied the Supremacy Clause to international treaties, holding in the case of Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416, that the Federal government 's ability to make treaties is supreme over any state concerns that such treaties might abrogate states ' rights arising under the Tenth Amendment.
The Supreme Court has also held that only specific, "unmistakable '' acts of Congress may be held to trigger the Supremacy Clause. Montana had imposed a 30 percent tax on most sub-bituminous coal mined there. The Commonwealth Edison Company and other utility companies argued, in part, that the Montana tax "frustrated '' the broad goals of the federal energy policy. However, in the case of Commonwealth Edison Co. v. Montana, 453 U.S. 609 (1981), the Supreme Court disagreed. Any appeal to claims about "national policy '', the Court said, were insufficient to overturn a state law under the Supremacy Clause unless "the nature of the regulated subject matter permits no other conclusion, or that the Congress has unmistakably so ordained ''.
However, in the case of California v. ARC America Corp., 490 U.S. 93 (1989), the Supreme Court held that if Congress expressedly intended to act in an area, this would trigger the enforcement of the Supremacy Clause, and hence nullify the state action. The Supreme Court further found in Crosby v. National Foreign Trade Council, 530 U.S. 363 (2000), that even when a state law is not in direct conflict with a federal law, the state law could still be found unconstitutional under the Supremacy Clause if the "state law is an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of Congress 's full purposes and objectives ''. Congress need not expressly assert any preemption over state laws either, because Congress may implicitly assume this preemption under the Constitution.
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who was michelle married to in coronation street | Michelle Connor - wikipedia
Michelle Connor is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street, portrayed by former Hear'Say singer, Kym Marsh. The character first appeared on - screen during the episode airing on 3 April 2006. Marsh took maternity leave in January 2011, and the character returned on 3 November 2011.
Michelle 's storylines have included a serious relationship with Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson), discovering that her son had been swapped at birth, the death of her eldest brother Paul (Sean Gallagher) in 2007, and the murder of her other brother Liam (Rob James - Collier) in 2008. Other storylines have focused on the relationships with her sisters - in - law, Carla (Alison King) and Maria (Samia Ghadie), her failed engagement to Ciaran McCarthy (Keith Duffy), surviving a minibus crash, becoming pregnant with Steve 's baby, learning that Steve has also impregnated Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson) and delivering a stillborn son, Ruairi, a relationship with Robert Preston (Tristan Gemmill), and being kidnapped, tied up and gagged by her ex-boyfriend, Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden).
Michelle auditions as a background singer for Vernon Tomlin 's (Ian Reddington) band and also gets a job as barmaid at The Rovers Return Inn. She is soon joined by her son, Ryan (Ben Thompson), and her brothers, Paul (Sean Gallagher) and Liam (Rob James - Collier). It is established that Michelle had Ryan when she was a teenager and that Ryan 's father, Dean, was killed in a car accident five years before. Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson) falls for Michelle immediately but his mother, Liz (Beverley Callard), does not approve of Michelle as Vernon is clearly attracted to her.
When Michelle 's sister - in - law, Carla Connor (Alison King), married to Paul, hints that Paul and Liam have a secret, she confronts them. Paul denies it but Liam admits that Paul actually drove on the night Dean died, not him. She lashes out violently at her brothers for hiding Paul 's crime and struggles to forgive them but does keep the truth from Ryan. After having a brief fling with Steve, Michelle begins dating Sonny Dhillon (Pal Aron) but ends it after discovering he is bisexual and having an affair with Sean Tully (Antony Cotton). Devastated, Michelle ends her friendship with Sean.
During December 2007, Ryan is followed repeatedly by a man in a blue car. He appears constantly and scares Ryan, who tells Michelle, but initially, the claims fall on deaf ears. On 9 December 2007, the driver starts a conversation with him, using his name. Ryan, frightened, flees to the Rovers and tells his mother and uncle. Liam tries to catch the mystery man but he escapes. He reappears on 17 December and goes to a house in the suburbs. The Connors follow, determined to find out why this man is following Ryan. Michelle rings the doorbell and the door is answered by another 15 - year - old, Alex Neeson (Dario Coates). She is horrified to see that the teenage boy in front of her is the image of her late partner, Dean. Her worst fears are confirmed -- Alex and Ryan were swapped accidentally just after birth, making Alex Michelle 's biological son, not Ryan. Alex later appears in The Kabin and tells Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden) that his mother would pay for the sweets he wanted. Norris asks who his mother is and Alex tells him his mother 's name is Michelle Connor. Later that day, news spreads about Ryan not being Michelle 's son and Ryan is not amused when Amber Kalirai (Nikki Patel) comments on it. The police later arrive at The Rovers with Alex. He has been shoplifting and tells them Michelle is his mother. They ask her if this is true and Michelle tells them it is and that it is okay for him to stay at The Rovers. He stays for a couple of weeks, causing problems for everyone, so Ryan moves in with Liam and Maria Connor (Samia Ghadie). He "loses '' Steve 's daughter Amy Barlow (Amber Chadwick) and barricades himself in the pub, but Michelle can not not bring herself to send him back to his adoptive mother, Wendy Neeson (Jane Slavin). She meets Alex again and has taken him to Ireland to meet his grandparents. She later tells Alex and his family that she can not have Alex in her life because Ryan is her son.
Michelle 's remaining brother, Liam, dies in a hit - and - run accident arranged by Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien). Michelle is distraught, especially as her brother, Paul, also died in a car accident just over a year before. Michelle attends Tony and Carla 's wedding and later discovers that Liam had an affair with Carla as Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) drunkenly tells Maria. This infuriates her and she confides in Michelle and Tom Kerrigan (Philip McGinley), confusing them as they thought she had the wrong idea about the situation. Steve has a drunken one - night stand with Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly), following a dispute with Michelle. He does n't tell Michelle but she becomes suspicious when Steve and his best friend Lloyd Mullaney (Craig Charles) are nervous when she 's around. Liz tells Michelle that Steve is good friends with Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson), so she blames her, as she knows that Steve has had a one - night stand. Steve tells her that he is in love with Becky and Michelle ends their relationship. After the break - up, Michelle quits her job at The Rovers as she and Ryan move in with Maria.
Michelle leaves to do another tour with JD for six months. The night before she left, she sleeps with Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and Michelle and Ryan walk in on Maria and Tony kissing and furiously storm out. She later apologises to Maria and helps her tell Michelle 's parents, Helen (Dearbhla Molloy) and Barry Connor (Frank Grimes) about her new relationship. She returns in early September and has a brief fling with builder Jake Harman (Kenny Doughty). Michelle catches the eye of Rovers colleague, Ciaran McCarthy (Keith Duffy), who rentlessly pursues her, despite Michelle giving him the cold shoulder in an attempt to mask her true feelings. Ciaran is leaving for a cruise and persuades her to go too and she accepts. 10 months later, Michelle and Ciaran return and are shocked when a shaken Carla tells her that while she was away, her partner, Frank Foster (Andrew Lancel), raped her and that he is on bail, awaiting trial. Michelle and Ciaran help Carla cope and persuade her not to sell the factory because of Frank 's lies. Carla eventually returns to work, much to Ciaran and Michelle 's relief but Underworld suffers as Carla struggles, and Michelle gratefully accepts help from Nick Tilsley (Ben Price). Michelle and Ciaran 's romance also suffers as they realise that they want different things and Ciaran has doubts about Michelle. Ciaran tells Michelle that he is returning to the cruise ships and Michelle decides to go too but changes her mind, feeling that she ca n't leave Carla. Michelle tells Ciaran she will always love him and tearfully watches as Ciaran leaves.
Michelle steals a contract from Carla 's ex-partner, Frank, to stop him putting Carla out of business. When Frank is found dead in the Underworld Factory, everyone is a suspect and Carla is arrested on suspicion of murder but is released without charge. Michelle worries that she will be arrested because she went to see Frank, and stole the contract, shortly before he was killed but does n't admit what she 's done until after Frank 's mother, Anne Foster (Gwen Taylor), accuses Carla. Michelle later tells Carla what she did and Carla burns the contract. Carla later persuades Anne to tell the police that she killed Frank accidentally after she heard Frank taunting Carla and admitting that he raped her.
A few months later, Carla 's younger brother, Rob Donovan (Marc Baylis), arrives and starts work at Underworld with Michelle and Carla. In July, Michelle is overjoyed when Ryan (now played by Sol Heras) returns from university but is angered when he sets fire to Steve 's bum while helping Sophie Webster (Brooke Vincent) paint the house. Further questioning by Michelle forces Ryan to admit that he was expelled for taking drugs. Michelle takes Ryan to work with Kirk at the factory. However, when alone, Ryan fakes an injury to get time off and Michelle thinks that he is really hurt so she and Rob take him to hospital. Later, Ryan tells her that he plans to sue and Michelle tries to talk him out of it but he is unmoved, insisting that he will do it anyway. Michelle eventually realises that Ryan is lying when Rob and Eva Price (Catherine Tyldesley) expose his deceit by making sure she sees him doing a dance.
On a night out, Ryan offers Kylie Platt (Paula Lane) some cocaine but she turns him down in disgust and tells Michelle but he insists that Kylie offered him the cocaine. However, Michelle later finds Ryan snorting cocaine in The Rovers toilets and is livid. To make him realise what he is doing, she calls the police and has him arrested but he is released with a caution. Michelle and Kylie almost fight in the street but are stopped by Lloyd and Gail McIntyre (Helen Worth). Steve begins helping Ryan so that Michelle will go out with him. She eventually does, they reunite and rent the flat above the kebab shop. When Michelle 's sister - in - law, Carla, gives Peter Barlow a share in Underworld, Michelle is wary of Peter destroying the factory, like he did the bookies. After arguing repeatedly with Peter, Michelle quits and goes to work at The Rovers. Steve later announces that he has bought The Rovers from Stella Price (Michelle Collins) and intends to make Michelle landlady. However, he does n't mention that his mother, Liz, owns half of the pub. She returns to Weatherfield and resumes her place as landlady. Michelle moves into the pub with Steve, Liz and Amy (now played by Elle Mulvaney). Michelle and Carla reconcile but she stays at The Rovers and is replaced by Eva at Underworld.
In January 2015, Steve is diagnosed with clinical depression and not wanting to burden Michelle, he decides to end their relationship without explanation. This leads Michelle to believe that he does not love her anymore so she goes on a date with a client from her party planning business, Hamish Young (James Redmond). Whilst driving the Underworld staff to an awards ' ceremony, Steve is chased by some boy racers who eventually cut him up and cause him to swerve. Steve crashes the minibus, leaving the staff trapped in the wreckage. Michelle escapes and goes to find Steve, much to the other passengers ' worry. Whilst at the hospital, Steve tells Michelle that he has depression and that this is the reason why he ended their relationship. Michelle promises to help him recover.
In March, Michelle discovers that Steve owes £ 10,000 in tax which he had been ignoring. Liz 's boyfriend, Tony Stewart (Terence Maynard) offers to lend him the money to clear his debt, but after starting an affair with Tracy, the couple plan to take The Rovers from the McDonalds ' so Tony tells Steve that he needs his money back. Subsequently, Steve proposes to Michelle but is convinced that she does n't really want to marry him, and only said yes out of pity, so he calls off the engagement. Later, Steve finds a candlelight dinner prepared and assumes that Tony has prepared the meal for Liz, and calls Tony out in front of the entire Rovers at the Butler Auction. Michelle then confesses that it was actually her who prepared it for them, and calls Steve up onto the stage to explain that she had said yes because she loves him. Michelle then proposes to Steve, getting the engagement back on track.
In May, after some persuasion from Liz, a reluctant Steve agrees to sell his share of The Rovers to a company called "Travis Limited '', who, is actually Tony. Tony then persuades Liz to sell her share to Travis Ltd, in order to start a new life in Spain. However, Carla steps in and offers to buy Liz 's share, so Michelle no longer has to worry about being kicked out of their home, and Liz accepts as Carla promises to keep Steve and Michelle as the pub managers. Liz then learns about Tony and Tracy 's affair so she stops the sale. In May 2015, Steve and Michelle finally marry. In late 2015, Liz persuades Tony to give their relationship another go but only does this to make him sign The Rovers over to Steve. Once he has done this, she dumps Tony in front of the whole pub and he leaves, humiliated. Michelle is overjoyed, because The Rovers is hers again.
In 2015, Steve leaves Weatherfield for a while. Michelle stays as she has too much work on, including planning a wedding for a client named Saskia. Saskia introduces her fiancé, Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden), to Michelle. She is surprised as Will was Michelle 's first boyfriend. Michelle and Will spend time together and develop feelings for each other. Michelle tries to back away from Will by refusing to organise the wedding, then getting help so she does not have to deal directly with the couple but this does not work. Michelle and Will acknowledge their feelings for each other. When Steve does not come home for Michelle 's 40th birthday, Michelle goes to Will 's home and they kiss. As Michelle and Will are about to sleep together, Michelle sees photos of Will and Saskia and leaves. Michelle goes home and finds Steve has come home. Michelle tells Carla about what happened with her and Will and he tells Michelle that he has called off his wedding for her but Michelle tells Will that she loves Steve. Michelle tells Liz about kissing Will. Liz tells Michelle not to ruin her marriage over it but Saskia tells Michelle to stay away from Will. Steve is shocked but later forgives Michelle and they reconcile. Michelle discovers she is pregnant but Steve then says he does not any more children, unaware that Leanne is also pregnant as a result of a one - night stand during Steve and Michelle 's separation over Will.
In January 2017, Michelle falls ill at her and Leanne 's shared baby shower moments after Robert Preston (Tristan Gemmill) confesses his love for her. She is rushed to hospital and is kept overnight. However, in the morning Michelle goes into labour after a 23 - week - long pregnancy and gives birth to a baby boy, whom she and Steve name Ruairi. Ruairi is not breathing and due to the hospital 's policy of not intervening before 24 weeks, he dies. This leaves Michelle devastated, and she contemplates suicide in order to be with Ruairi, but is talked out of it by Robert. In February 2017, Leanne gives birth in an elevator, with Michelle visiting her newborn baby, Oliver. At Oliver 's welcome home party at the Bistro, Steve holds Oliver and reveals that he is Oliver 's biological father. Michelle is initially furious and punches Leanne, however is distraught at Steve for betrayal her. Michelle throws glasses at Steve at front of everybody at The Rovers. Michelle then discovers Liz knew the truth. Steve begs Michelle to forgive him but Michelle tells Steve that he kills their marriage before leaves and orders Steve to not follow her. The following week Michelle locks Steve and Liz out of the pub, she then grabs Eva by the hair and kicks her out after Eva refuses to leave. A few weeks later she kisses Leanne 's boyfriend Nick after they talk about Leanne and Steve being together. Michelle goes to spend a few days with Carla, until things calm down.
When she returns, Steve arranged for him and Michelle to go for a marriage counseling session. After initially agreeing to go, she changes her mind after Robert 's confession of his love to her. They have sex together back at Robert 's flat, however Steve finds out about their relationship. He is furious and threatens to fight her for the divorce. When Steve mentions that Michelle is still wearing her wedding ring, thinking that she does n't want a divorce, she hits back that she only wears her wedding ring to remind her of how much she hated him. She angrily throws her ring at Steve and declares war on him, promising she will do whatever it takes to get half of everything, and she moves out of The Rovers and moves in with Robert for romance and business. In August 2017, Will returns to Weatherfield as a potential love interest for Maria, while Michelle is left shaken after witnessing Chesney Brown (Sam Aston) being stabbed with a glass bottle in the bistro by one of Robert 's former drug dealers, Rich Collis (Fraser Ayres). A vendetta is later started against Robert, and Michelle is convinced that Rich is behind it. After going into town for a drink, Michelle 's drink is drugged and she is kidnapped, tied up, gagged and left in the boot of a car in a nearby car park. The following morning, she is found by a woman in a state of complete distress and gives a statement to the police describing what happened. A few days later, Michelle does a drug test and is told that Rohypnol was used to abduct her. Robert believes that Rich is behind Michelle 's kidnap and brutally beats him up, leaving him in a critical condition and Robert facing a court hearing. Everyone is unaware, however, that Will was behind the kidnap and is stalking Michelle. She later however finds out and he is found guilty.
In November 2017, after Robert is released from prison he is diagnosed with testicular cancer leaving Michelle distraught. Robert struggles with the diagnosis badly and begins gambling, running the bistro into large debts. Due to this, Michelle robs the bistro but is hit over the head by Kate who does n't know it is her. Later on after recovering from the head injury Michelle visits Kate and pretends to be innocent however Kate knows she was the robber, Michelle however starts to blackmail Kate as she knows about her affair with Rana Habeeb (Bhavna Limbachia).
In February 2018, Michelle cuts her hand and goes to the medical centre and meets a trainee doctor named Ali (James Burrows), whom she discovers is her son Alex, who is bitter at Michelle for not being in contact with him for years. They gradually start patching their relationship up. Robert proposes to Michelle, which she accepts and they start to plan their wedding. In May, Michelle is distraught when Aidan commits suicide and considers postponing the wedding but does n't even though Robert has a heart attack due to steroid use as well. Ryan (now played by Ryan Prescott) flies from Ibiza back to Weatherfield for the wedding and does n't get along with Ali, which upsets Michelle.
The character of Michelle was first created as a cameo appearance for singer / actress Kym Marsh with the possibility of returning. She was later signed up to return on a more permanent basis. Of the decision to become a regular on the show, Marsh said: "If anybody had told me I 'd end up starring in Coronation Street one day, I 'd have laughed and told them to shut up. I 've always said this would be my dream job. My mum has watched the show for years so I 've grown up with it. '' In June 2008, Marsh signed a contract for £ 100,000 after keen producers nearly doubled her salary to keep her as part of the show. Marsh stated she wanted to be on the show for a long time.
The Inside Soap Magazine announced that a Coronation Street spokesperson had denied reports that Kym Marsh is leaving the show to go to Hollywood. Despite confirmation that her boyfriend Jamie Lomas is heading to LA, Kym will be staying put. With Kym confirming herself that she had just signed another one - year contract. Of the decision to stay, Marsh said: "I am absolutely delighted about it. It 's not necessarily always my decision. I mean, if the producers do n't want you, you 're out. I 'm lucky the writers feel that they can still write for my character, Michelle Connor, after doing so for three years. '' Marsh said she is unsure about her future in Coronation Street. Speaking to PA, Marsh said that she is unsure of what plans producers have for her and that she will have to wait until 2012 to see what happens. She said she would like to stay and added that she is excited to see how the story develops for her character.
Michelle 's character has a multi-faceted personality. of this actress Kym Marsh said: "The good thing about playing a character like her, she 's got so many sides. She can be a bitch, she can be sensitive and she can be feisty too. She 's just so well - rounded -- there 's plenty more mileage left in her. '' Marsh also discussed her character 's personality during an interview with Inside Soap magazine stating that she thinks her character has a more devious side because she is part of the Connor family. Going on to say that her character has got quite a temper on her and that she enjoys portraying her tough side.
During a magazine interview Marsh spoke about the effect her relationship with Steve had on her character stating: "I 'd like to see a lot more of the old, feisty Michelle. She became a bit too dependent on Steve and now she is an independent woman again I think she needs a bit of a challenge. '' Of her character 's relationship with Peter, Marsh stated: "I think it might be interesting to see where things might go with Peter Barlow. Peter 's quite a deep character. He 's got a lot of layers, some good and some bad. '' Going on to comment about wanting her character to be more feisty unlike when she was with Steve explaining: "I think she is suited to Peter because there 's bound to be drama. He 's not exactly got the best track record. ''
On 5 December 2008, Kym Marsh announced that she and boyfriend Jamie Lomas were expecting a baby. She was due to go on maternity leave in June 2009 and return at the beginning of 2010. On 12 February 2009, Marsh 's son was born 18 weeks early and died shortly after birth. On 27 February 2009, it was revealed that Marsh had returned to filming earlier in the week. Marsh 's second pregnancy was announced in 2010 and she took maternity leave in January 2011. It was confirmed in July 2011 that she would return to filming in September 2011. Upon her return in November 2011, Michelle announced that she was engaged to Ciaran, she learns of Carla 's rape ordeal culminating in confronting Frank and taking charge of Underworld.
In January 2015, it was revealed that Michelle would reunite Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson) in the aftermath of the upcoming mini bus crash storyline. It was also confirmed that Michelle and Steve would be the next Weatherfield couple to tie the knot. Speaking of this Marsh said; "I 'm delighted, absolutely delighted. It 'll be weird after being Michelle Connor for nearly nine years, but it totally makes sense for us as characters. Simon and I love working together, and nobody likes to see us broken up. '' It was also revealed that Michelle would get "feisty '' again when her Steve is blamed for the mini-bus crash.
Kym Marsh also revealed that Michelle and Steve 's mum Liz would clash over the best course of action for Steve. With Michelle now focused solely on helping Steve to get better with his depression following their reconciliation, she faces opposition from his mum Liz as it becomes apparent that they have very different approaches. While Liz adopts a "tough love '' approach with her son, Michelle thinks they should tread more carefully around him, worried about his vulnerable state. Marsh said: "They both obviously want to help Steve but because both of them are so worried about him and love him so much - they both want to help him in their own way. Understandably they clash as they 're both so concerned about him. They both have different approaches - Liz is more of the tough love approach and tries to get Steve up and doing things, whereas Michelle is much more trying the softly - softly approach. '' Marsh added: "Liz does n't think it 's the best way because Michelle is so protective of Steve and does n't want to hurt or upset him. After everything that 's happened with the crash, Michelle thinks they should go easy on him. '' Despite the disagreement, Marsh believed that the pair would be able to put their differences aside eventually in order to work together to help Steve.
As Michelle settled into the canvas, she became an increasingly large focus of storylines as well as airtime. In 2007, Kym Marsh won a number of awards for her work as Michelle. At the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards, she won the Best Soap Newcomer award for her portrayal of Michelle. She also won ' Best Newcomer ' at The British Soap Awards. However, in 2008, as the character dominated more storylines, some fans began to tire of her as well as her behaviour. The baby - swap storyline, which Michelle was central to, was largely panned by both fans and critics, columnist Grace Dent said of the plot; "... It feels like something ripped from a copy of Pick Me Up magazine and read to me laboriously over 22 weeks ''. In September 2008, Marsh won the award for ' Best Dressed Soap Star ' at the Inside Soap Awards. In August 2017, Marsh was longlisted for Best Actress at the Inside Soap Awards, while the death of Michelle and Steve 's son was longlisted for Best Show - Stopper. While Marsh was not shortlisted for Best Actress, the nomination for Best Show - Stopper made its shortlist. They lost out to Emmerdale 's motorway crash.
In 2009 Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture who runs a monthly feature of the most popular and unpopular soap opera characters, profiled Michelle, criticising her personality stating: "She 's continuing to get more and more entitled and unbearable, but we 're not sure the Coronation Street writers have noticed how much we all hate her yet... '' Later that year Deller criticised Michelle again stating: "It really is the month for all our old hate figures to resurface. Michelle 's still apparently irresistible, and her hatefulness was amplified when the show paired her up with the equally detestable Jake. Do the writers realise we hate her? Are they deliberately torturing us? It 's beginning to look more and more the case... ''
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first person to sail around the world by the clipper route | Clipper route - Wikipedia
In sailing, the clipper route was the traditional route derived from the Brouwer Route and sailed by clipper ships between Europe and the Far East, Australia and New Zealand. The route ran from west to east through the Southern Ocean, in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the Roaring Forties. Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route, particularly at Cape Horn, which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe.
The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam ships, and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals. However, it remains the fastest sailing route around the world, and as such has been the route for several prominent yacht races, such as the Around Alone and Vendée Globe.
The clipper route from England to Australia and New Zealand, returning via Cape Horn, offered captains the fastest circumnavigation of the world, and hence potentially the greatest rewards; many grain, wool and gold clippers sailed this route, returning home with valuable cargos in a relatively short time. However, this route, passing south of the three great capes and running for much of its length through the Southern Ocean, also carried the greatest risks, exposing ships to the hazards of fierce winds, huge waves, and icebergs. This combination of the fastest ships, the highest risks, and the greatest rewards combined to give this route a particular aura of romance and drama.
This route ran from England down the east Atlantic Ocean to the Equator, crossing at about the position of Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, around 20 degrees west. A good sailing time for the 3,275 miles (5,271 km) to this point would have been around 21 days; however, an unlucky ship could spend an additional three weeks crossing the doldrums.
The route then ran south through the western South Atlantic, following the natural circulation of winds and currents, passing close to Trindade, then curving south - east past Tristan da Cunha. The route crossed the Greenwich meridian at about 40 degrees south, taking the clippers into the Roaring Forties after about 6,500 miles (10,500 km) sailed from Plymouth. A good time for this run would have been about 43 days.
Once into the forties, a ship was also inside the ice zone, the area of the Southern Ocean where there was a significant chance of encountering icebergs. Safety would dictate keeping to the north edge of this zone, roughly along the parallel of 40 degrees south; however, the great circle route from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia, curving down to 60 degrees south, is 1,000 miles (1,600 km) shorter, and would also offer the strongest winds. Ship 's masters would therefore go as far south as they dared, weighing the risk of ice against a fast passage.
The clipper ships bound for Australia and New Zealand would call at a variety of ports. A ship sailing from Plymouth to Sydney, for example, would cover around 13,750 miles (22,130 km); a fast time for this passage would be around 100 days. Cutty Sark made the fastest passage on this route by a clipper, in 72 days. Thermopylae made the slightly shorter passage from London to Melbourne, 13,150 miles (21,160 km), in just 61 days in 1868 -- 69.
The following map traces the outbound route of the 1874 voyage from London to Adelaide, South Australia, of the clipper ship City of Adelaide, which today is the world 's oldest surviving clipper ship. The latitudes and longitudes are obtained from the surviving diary of 21 - year - old passenger James McLauchlan.
The return passage continued east from Australia; ships stopping at Wellington would pass through the Cook Strait, but otherwise this tricky passage was avoided, with ships passing instead around the south end of New Zealand. Once again, eastbound ships would be running more or less within the ice zone, staying as far south as possible for the shortest route and strongest winds. Most ships stayed north of the latitude of Cape Horn, at 56 degrees south, following a southward dip in the ice zone as they approached the Horn.
The Horn itself had, and still has, an infamous reputation among sailors. The strong winds and currents which flow perpetually around the Southern Ocean without interruption are funnelled by the Horn into the relatively narrow Drake Passage; coupled with turbulent cyclones coming off the Andes, and the shallow water near the Horn, this combination of factors can create violently hazardous conditions for ships.
Those ships which survived the Horn then made the passage back up the Atlantic, following the natural wind circulation up the eastern South Atlantic and more westerly in the North Atlantic. A good run for the 14,750 miles (23,740 km) from Sydney to Plymouth would be around 100 days; Cutty Sark made it in 84 days, and Thermopylae in 77 days. Lightning made the longer passage from Melbourne to Liverpool in 65 days in 1854 -- 55, completing a circumnavigation of the world in 5 months, 9 days, which included 20 days spent in port.
The later windjammers, which were usually large four - masted barques optimized on cargo and handling rather than running, usually made the voyage in 90 to 105 days. The fastest recorded time on Great Grain Races was on Finnish four - masted barque Parma, 83 days in 1933. Her master on the voyage was the Finnish captain Ruben de Cloux.
The following map traces the homeward route of the 1867 voyage from Adelaide to London of the clipper ship City of Adelaide. The latitudes and longitudes were obtained from the surviving diary of 15 - year - old passenger Frederick Bullock. A visual comparison of this map with the previous map shows that the City of Adelaide travelled a figure - of - eight route around the North and South Atlantic Oceans, following the natural circulation of winds and currents. On other homeward voyages the City of Adelaide sometimes travelled around Cape Horn.
The route sailed by a sailing ship was always heavily dictated by the wind conditions, which are generally reliable from the west in the forties and fifties. Even here, however, winds are variable, and the precise route and distance sailed would depend on the conditions on a particular voyage. Ships in the deep Southern Ocean could find themselves faced with persistent headwinds, or even becalmed.
Sailing ships attempting to go against the route, however, could have even greater problems. In 1922, Garthwray attempted to sail west around the Horn carrying cargo from the Firth of Forth to Iquique, Chile. After two attempts to round the Horn the "wrong way '', her master gave up and sailed east instead, reaching Chile from the other direction.
Even more remarkable was the voyage of Garthneill in 1919. Attempting to sail from Melbourne to Bunbury, Western Australia, a distance of 2,000 miles (3,200 km), she was unable to make way against the forties winds south of Australia, and was faced by strong westerly winds again when she attempted to pass through the Torres Strait to the north. She finally turned and sailed the other way, passing the Pacific, Cape Horn, the Atlantic, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Indian Ocean to finally arrive in Bunbury after 76 days at sea.
It is also worth pointing out that the first person to circumnavigate the world solo, Joshua Slocum in the Spray, did it rounding Cape Horn from east to west. His was not the fastest circumnavigation on record, and he took more than one try to get through Cape Horn.
The introduction of steam ships, and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals, spelled the demise of the clipper route as a major trade route. However, it remains the fastest sailing route around the world, and so the growth in recreational long - distance sailing has brought about a revival of sailing on the route.
The first person to attempt a high - speed circumnavigation of the clipper route was Francis Chichester. Chichester was already a notable aviation pioneer, who had flown solo from London to Sydney, and also a pioneer of single - handed yacht racing, being one of the founders of the Single - Handed Trans - Atlantic Race (the OSTAR). After the success of the OSTAR, Chichester started looking into a clipper - route circumnavigation. He wanted to make the fastest ever circumnavigation in a small boat, but specifically set himself the goal of beating a "fast '' clipper - ship passage of 100 days to Sydney. He set off in 1966, and completed the run to Sydney in 107 days; after a stop of 48 days, he returned via Cape Horn in 119 days.
Chichester 's success inspired several others to attempt the next logical step: a non-stop single - handed circumnavigation along the clipper route. The result was the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, which was not only the first single - handed round - the world yacht race, but in fact the first round - the world yacht race in any format. Possibly the strangest yacht race ever run, it culminated in a successful non-stop circumnavigation by just one competitor, Robin Knox - Johnston, who became the first person to sail the clipper route single - handed and non-stop. However Bernard Moitessier decided to withdraw from the race after rounding Cape Horn in a promising position. Instead of heading home to Europe he decided to continue to Tahiti, completing his circumnavigation south of Cape Town and doing actual one and a half when arriving in Papeete.
Today, there are several major races held regularly along the clipper route. The Volvo Ocean Race is a crewed race with stops which sails the clipper route every four years. Two single - handed races, inspired by Chichester and the Golden Globe race, are the Around Alone, which circumnavigates with stops, and the Vendée Globe, which is non-stop.
In March 2005, Bruno Peyron and crew on the catamaran Orange II set a new world record for a circumnavigation by the clipper route, of 50 days, 16 hours, 20 minutes and 4 seconds.
Also in 2005, Ellen MacArthur set a new world record for a single - handed non-stop circumnavigation in the trimaran B&Q / Castorama. Her time along the clipper route of 71 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes 33 seconds is the fastest ever circumnavigation of the world by a single - hander. While this record still leaves MacArthur as the fastest female singlehanded circumnavigator, in 2008 Francis Joyon eclipsed that record in the trimaran IDEC with a time of 57 days, 13 hours, 34 minutes 6 seconds.
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who owned the new orleans saints before tom benson | History of the New Orleans Saints - Wikipedia
The New Orleans Saints are a professional American football team organized in 1967 and based in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. This article details the history of the New Orleans Saints NFL football team.
The city of New Orleans was awarded an NFL franchise on November 1, 1966, thanks to a combination of local activism (most notably by David Dixon and by members of the local media, such as New Orleans States - Item sports editor Crozet Duplantier) and political force (Senator Russell Long and Congressman Hale Boggs, who made approval of the NFL - AFL merger conditional on the awarding of a franchise to New Orleans).
In December, oilman John W. Mecom, Jr. became the majority shareholder and thus president of the team; later that month, Tom Fears was named head coach. The team was named "Saints '' due to its birthday on the Roman Catholic Church 's All Saints Day -- a fitting nickname for a team in the largely Catholic New Orleans area. The name was announced on January 9, 1967. The team 's original stadium was Tulane Stadium, which could seat more than 80,000 fans. The team was placed in the Capitol Division of the NFL 's Eastern Conference; their division foes were the Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, and Washington Redskins. The team started off well, with a 5 -- 1 preseason record; then, on the first play of the 1967 regular season, wide receiver John Gilliam returned the opening kickoff 94 yards for a touchdown. However, this was not enough for the Saints, and they lost their regular season opener to the Los Angeles Rams, 13 -- 27. Their first win came on November 5 as they defeated the Eagles 31 -- 24. That would be one of the Saints ' only triumphs in their inaugural campaign; they ended the season 3 -- 11, the second - worst mark in the league and 3 1 / 2 games behind Washington in the divisional race. At the time, however, the Saints ' three wins tied for the most ever for an expansion team 's inaugural season.
Their next few seasons continued along similar lines. They improved slightly in 1968, putting up a 4 -- 9 -- 1 record as they competed in the Century Division against the Cleveland Browns, St. Louis Cardinals, and Pittsburgh Steelers; in 1969, they returned to the Capitol Division (featuring the same division opponents as 1967) and managed to go 5 -- 9.
The 1970 season saw yet another realignment for the Saints due to the AFL -- NFL merger. The Saints were placed in the NFC West, where they would remain through 2001. Their original NFC West competitors -- the Atlanta Falcons, Los Angeles (and later, St. Louis) Rams, and San Francisco 49ers -- would also remain in the division through 2001 (with the Carolina Panthers joining in 1995), leading to the development of long - standing rivalries.
The season started off poorly for the Saints. After going 1 - 5 - 1 in the first seven games, Fears was fired and replaced by J.D. Roberts on November 3. In Roberts ' first game as coach, New Orleans trailed the Detroit Lions 17 - 16 with time winding down, but Tom Dempsey kicked an NFL - record 63 - yard field goal as time expired to win the game. The record would stand through 2013 (43 years later), when Matt Prater of the Denver Broncos broke it with a 64 - yard field goal. Dempsey 's achievement is made all the more remarkable by the fact that he was born without toes on his right foot (which he kicked with). This Saints victory, however, would be the last for the season; they lost their last six games to finish 2 - 11 - 1, the worst record in the young history of the franchise.
In the 1971 NFL Draft, the Saints owned the second overall pick behind the Boston Patriots. Deciding that a franchise quarterback was necessary, they selected Archie Manning out of Mississippi. In the season opener, Manning did not disappoint; he passed for 218 yards and a touchdown and ran in another touchdown on the final play to give the Saints a 24 - 20 win over the Rams. Four weeks later, Manning engineered a 24 - 14 upset of the Dallas Cowboys, the same team who would return to Tulane Stadium three months later and win Super Bowl VI over the Miami Dolphins. Throughout the season, Manning split the quarterbacking duties with veteran Edd Hargett. Manning ended the season with six passing touchdowns and four rushing touchdowns; he did well enough to become the team 's undisputed starter the next season. Despite the promise Manning showed, the Saints ' misfortunes continued as they finished 4 - 8 - 2.
In 1972, the Saints started 0 - 5 and finished 2 - 11 - 1. During the 1973 preseason, the Saints fired Roberts and hired John North, who led the Saints to consecutive 5 - 9 seasons in 1973 and 1974.
In 1975, the Saints moved from Tulane Stadium into the Louisiana Superdome. Despite the new home, they went just 2 - 12; North was fired after six games, and Ernie Hefferle was named interim head coach for the final eight games of the season.
For the 1976 season, Hank Stram was hired as head coach; he came with a proven track record (three AFL titles, one Super Bowl win) from his years with the Kansas City Chiefs (formerly the Dallas Texans). However, his talents proved ineffective in his first season, as the Saints went 4 - 10; Manning sat out the entire season after undergoing elbow surgery just after Stram 's hiring, forcing the quarterback duties to be split by backup Bobby Scott and Chicago Bears castoff Bobby Douglass. 1977 was not much better as the Saints went 3 - 11, including a humiliating 33 - 14 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on December 11, the Buccaneers ' first victory in the NFL after 26 consecutive losses.
In 1978, Stram was replaced by Dick Nolan. The season saw an improvement in the Saints ' fortunes; Manning had the best season of his career up to that point, passing for 3,416 yards and 17 touchdowns. He was named to the NFC Pro Bowl squad for the first time and was also named the NFC 's Most Valuable Player by The Sporting News and UPI. The Saints put together a record of 7 - 9, their best ever mark. The Saints might have made the playoffs had it not had been for a pair of losses to the Atlanta Falcons, where the Falcons used the "Big Ben '' play to score the winning touchdown in the final seconds of each contest, as well as a last - minute loss to the eventual Super Bowl XIII champion Pittsburgh Steelers.
In 1979, the Saints built on the success of the previous year. After an 0 - 3 start (including a 40 - 34 overtime loss to the Falcons on opening day), the Saints won five of their next six games to take sole possession of the NFC West lead after nine games. The Saints were 7 - 6 heading into a Monday night game with the Oakland Raiders; their rivals for the NFC West title, the Rams, were 8 - 6. The Saints jumped out to a 35 - 14 lead and seemed certain to gain a share of first place with their win. But the Saints blew the lead and lost 42 - 35. The next week, they were blown out 35 - 0 at the Superdome by the San Diego Chargers, ending their playoff hopes. The Saints, however, did manage to beat the Super Bowl - bound Rams (playing their last game at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum) in the final game of the regular season. This gave them an 8 - 8 record, the first non-losing season in team history. It was also the first time that the Saints finished higher than third place in their division.
In 1980, the Saints had high hopes after their two relatively successful seasons. Instead, the bottom fell out, where, despite a strong offense, their defense was almost nonexistent. The team started 0 - 12, and Dick Nolan was fired; he was replaced by Dick Stanfel, who lost two games (including one in San Francisco where the Saints blew a 28 - point lead). They managed to win against the New York Jets, who finished with the league 's second worst record at 4 - 12, by a point. This game was also noteworthy for an episode where Archie Manning was signing autographs after the game. A boy ran up to him and stole his (unfastened) necktie, after which he was fined for violating the NFL 's dress code. The Saints then lost their last game of the season to the New England Patriots to finish 1 - 15, the worst mark in team history and (at the time) the worst for a 16 - game schedule, since eclipsed by the 2008 Detroit Lions (0 - 16). A local journalist and radio / TV personality, Buddy Diliberto, wore a paper grocery bag over his head to promote the brown bag special of Sonic, the Saint 's sponsor at the time. Many fans took to wearing bags over their heads when attending games. The moniker "Aints '' was also born due to the ineptitude of the 1980 Saints.
In 1981, ex-Houston Oilers head coach Bum Phillips was put in charge. The dismal 1980 season meant that the Saints would get the first pick in the 1981 NFL Draft. They selected Heisman - winning running back George Rogers out of South Carolina. Rogers was the team 's workhorse, playing in all but one game and averaging more than 25 carries a game. He ran for a total of 1,674 yards, making him the NFL rushing champion. However, his fine performances were not enough to make the Saints a winning club. They finished the season 4 - 12, but two of those wins came over the Rams, New Orleans ' first regular - season sweep of the Rams since the two teams were placed in the NFC West by the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970.
In 1982, the Saints signed former Oakland Raiders and Houston Oilers quarterback Ken Stabler and traded Archie Manning to the Oilers. Two games into the season, the Saints were 1 - 1, but a players ' strike led to the cancellation of seven games. When the season resumed, the Saints won two games in a row to take their record to 3 - 1, but they lost four games in a row before winning their last game. They finished 4 - 5, but missed out on qualifying for the playoffs (expanded to 16 teams due to the strike) on a tiebreaker.
1983 saw the Saints improve on the previous season once again. They hovered at or above. 500 for most of the season, but lost a golden opportunity to stay one step ahead in the playoff race by giving up 17 points in the 4th quarter of a 31 - 28 loss to the New York Jets on Monday Night Football. Their playoff hopes came down to the final game of the season, when they hosted the Rams. Los Angeles scored two touchdowns on interception returns and another on a punt return, and Mike Lansford kicked a 42 - yard field goal with six seconds remaining to give the Rams the victory and a playoff berth, and end the Saints ' season. The Saints finished 8 - 8, tying their previous best season record.
Eight weeks after the conclusion of the 1983 season, the Saints traded their number one pick in the 1984 NFL Draft to the New York Jets for quarterback Richard Todd, who had worn out his welcome in the Big Apple by throwing too many interceptions, and was being phased out in favor of rookie Ken O'Brien. During the 1984 season, New Orleans traded for former Heisman Trophy winner and future Hall of Fame running back Earl Campbell, who won the NFL rushing championship in each of his first three seasons with the Oilers, when Bum Phillips coached the club. The Saints won for the first time on Monday Night Football by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Superdome, but a three - game losing streak late in the season dropped the Saints to 7 - 9.
The biggest news of the 1984 season was that John Mecom, the owner of the team for almost 20 years, was putting them up for sale. Speculation was rife that a new owner might move the Saints out of New Orleans, namely Jacksonville, Florida. But on May 31, 1985, negotiations were finalized to sell the team to Tom Benson, a native New Orleanian who owned numerous car dealerships throughout the New Orleans area. The team 's future in New Orleans was safe for the time being.
In 1985, the Saints started off 3 - 2, but then lost six games in a row. Bum Phillips resigned twelve games into the season, and his son Wade Phillips, the Saints ' defensive coordinator, was named interim coach. The Saints ended the season 5 - 11. A bright spot of the campaign was the emergence of quarterback and Louisiana native Bobby Hebert, who led the Saints to victories over the Vikings and Rams late in the season. Hebert previously spent three seasons in the United States Football League with the Michigan Panthers and Oakland Invaders, leading the Panthers to the first USFL championship in 1983.
Before the 1986 season, Saints owner Tom Benson put his stamp on the team by making two important hires: first, he named Jim Finks president and general manager; then, he named Jim Mora head coach. The Saints ' offense struggled throughout the year after Bobby Hebert went down with a knee injury in the third game of the season, but behind a revitalized defense and NFC Rookie of the Year Rueben Mayes, New Orleans improved to 7 - 9.
The 1987 Saints started 1 - 1; then, another player strike followed. This time, however, replacement players were used until the regular players ended their strike. As a result, the season was only one game shorter than usual. The Saints went 2 - 1 with replacement players as they were led by their quarterback, New Orleans native John Fourcade. When the regular players returned, their first game was against the San Francisco 49ers. The Saints lost 24 - 22, but that would be the last time they would taste defeat that year. They ran off a nine - game winning streak to close out the season -- a remarkable feat considering that the Saints had never before won nine games in a season, let alone nine games in a row. The loss against San Francisco, however, would keep the Saints from being NFC West Champions; instead, the Saints finished 12 - 3, behind the 13 - 2 49ers, and had to settle for a wild - card spot in the playoffs despite having a better record than either of the other division champions that year. The Saints hosted the Minnesota Vikings on January 3, 1988; after twenty years, the Saints finally took part in the NFL playoffs. The game started well for the Saints as they took a 7 - 0 lead, but Minnesota answered by taking a 31 - 10 lead into halftime. The Vikings added 13 more points in the second half to make the final score 44 - 10. Despite the loss, the Saints were recognized for their accomplishments; six players were selected for the Pro Bowl, and Mora and Finks were named NFL Coach and Executive of the Year, respectively.
The 1988 Saints looked to return to the playoffs. After starting the season with a loss to their nemesis, the 49ers, the Saints bounced back with a seven - game win streak. After the streak, though, the Saints lost five of their next seven games. They won their last game of the season, against Atlanta, but they missed out on the playoffs due to tiebreakers.
The 1989 Saints managed to finish 9 - 7, but thanks to other strong performances in the NFC, they missed the playoffs by two games.
In 1990, the Saints started off poorly, going 2 - 5 in their first seven games. However, they turned their season around and close wins in their final two games of the season were enough to give them an 8 - 8 record and a playoff berth in the newly expanded NFL playoffs, which now included six teams from each conference. They traveled to Soldier Field to take on the Chicago Bears, but lost 16 - 6.
In 1991, the Saints started with a seven - game win streak, a team - record best start, and an overall impressive start, considering the Saints had never started better than 2 - 0. With the 7 - 0 start, the Saints opened up a four - game lead over the rest of the division. But then the Saints lost five of their next seven games, giving Atlanta and San Francisco a shot at claiming the division title. However, the Saints regrouped in the final two games of the season, and they finished 11 - 5 as the Falcons and 49ers finished 10 - 6 to give the Saints their first - ever division title. The Saints ' first - round playoff game would be at the Superdome against Atlanta. The Falcons came from behind to defeat the Saints 27 - 20.
In 1992, the Saints attempted to defend their division title, but their hated rivals, the 49ers, swept the season series and finished 14 - 2 to the Saints ' 12 - 4, meaning that the Saints would once again have to settle for a wild card berth to the NFC playoffs. They hosted the Philadelphia Eagles but once again could not put their home field advantage to good use, losing 36 - 20 for their fourth playoff loss in as many games.
The 1993 season would see the Saints start their decline from regular playoff contender to league doormat once again. They started off 5 - 0, but lost eight of their last eleven games to finish 8 - 8, one game out of the playoffs.
After seven straight years without a losing record, the team returned to the losing ways of the pre-Mora era in 1994. The Saints started 4 - 8 on their way to a 7 - 9 record.
In 1995, the Saints again finished 7 - 9 in the NFC West, which was newly expanded to include the Carolina Panthers. Due to tiebreakers, the Saints had the disgrace of finishing in last place in the division behind even the expansion team.
In 1996, after the Saints started 2 - 6, Mora resigned after more than ten years with the franchise. He finished his Saints tenure with 93 wins and 78 losses, making him far and away the most successful Saints coach ever. In fact, Mora was (up to then) the only coach ever to have a winning record during his Saints tenure, and his 93 wins were three more than the team had won in its entire history prior to his arrival. Rick Venturi was named interim head coach, but he had even less success than Mora did that season, going 1 - 7 to bring the Saints ' final record to 3 - 13, their worst record since 1980.
Before the 1997 season, Tom Benson named legendary Chicago Bears head coach Mike Ditka as the Saints coach, leading to optimism that he would be able to win a Super Bowl with the Saints as he had done with the Bears. However, the Ditka era would be a tumultuous time for the organization.
In 1997, Ditka led the team to a 6 - 10 record, a three - game improvement from the previous season; the team was marked by strong defense (anchored by defensive end Joe Johnson, middle linebacker Winfred Tubbs, and veteran cornerback Eric Allen, among others) and inconsistent offense.
The 1998 season was even more chaotic. Starting quarterback Billy Joe Hobert was lost for the year in the season - opening win against the St. Louis Rams. Later in the season, the team claimed quarterback Kerry Collins off the waiver wire; Collins had been released by the Carolina Panthers earlier in the season after he informed the team his heart was n't in the game anymore. Collins was inconsistent as a starter, including a 31 - 17 loss to a previously winless Panthers team, but he was also at the helm for a 22 - 3 upset of the Dallas Cowboys, the high point of the season, before being benched against the Buffalo Bills in Week 17. His lackluster performance, coupled with a highly publicized DUI arrest, led Ditka to state that the team would not seek to re-sign Collins. The Saints finished 6 - 10 once again.
In the months before the 1999 NFL Draft, Ditka became enamored with Texas running back Ricky Williams, the Heisman Trophy winner who 'd set an NCAA record for career rushing yards with the Longhorns. Ditka 's remarks that he 'd "trade his entire draft '' for the standout runner were well - publicized; holding the # 13 overall pick, the Saints needed to trade up to have a chance at selecting Williams.
They got their chance to do so when the Indianapolis Colts selected Miami running back Edgerrin James with the # 4 overall pick. The Saints orchestrated a three - way trade with the Washington Redskins and the Chicago Bears that involved the Saints taking Washington 's # 5 overall pick -- and therefore, Williams -- in exchange for all the Saints ' remaining 1999 draft picks and their 1st - and 3rd - rounders in 2000.
The trade drew mixed reactions from Saints fans. In the days after the draft, Ditka boldly predicted that the Saints would go to the Super Bowl.
Fan opinion began to solidify against Ditka when it became clear that his prediction would not come true. The Saints ' 1999 season was marked by yet more inconsistency at quarterback, a porous defense, and a hobbled Williams, who struggled with a high ankle sprain and an elbow injury in his rookie year. The Saints finished 3 - 13. Owner Tom Benson had had enough; soon after the season ended, he fired Ditka, the entire coaching staff, and general manager Bill Kuharich.
The Ditka era in New Orleans saw seven different starters at quarterback in three seasons (Heath Shuler, Danny Wuerffel, Doug Nussmeier, Billy Joe Hobert, Billy Joe Tolliver, Kerry Collins, and Jake Delhomme) and a defense which went from top - ten to near the bottom of the league in nearly every statistical category.
To replace Ditka and Kuharich, Tom Benson settled on Randy Mueller, formerly of the Seattle Seahawks, as general manager, and Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Jim Haslett as head coach. Mueller shook up the roster, bringing in a squad of fresh talent via free agency: wide receivers Jake Reed and Joe Horn, quarterback Jeff Blake, tight end Andrew Glover, defensive tackle Norman Hand, cornerback Fred Thomas, safety Chris Oldham, and linebacker Darrin Smith, among others. Lacking their top draft pick because of the Williams trade (a pick the Redskins would use to draft linebacker LaVar Arrington), New Orleans selected defensive end Darren Howard early in the 2nd round.
Inspired by Terrell Davis and the Denver Broncos ' offense, new offensive coordinator Mike McCarthy implemented a form of the West Coast Offense with Ricky Williams as the focal point: a run - first attack designed to open up passing lanes and create opportunities for the occasional deep ball.
After a sputtering 1 - 3 start, the Saints found their groove, winning six straight games behind Williams and an opportunistic defense. The 2000 season marked the surprising emergence of Joe Horn, who 'd previously been a backup receiver with the Kansas City Chiefs but was flourishing as Blake 's main target.
Adversity struck, however, with injuries in consecutive games to Williams and Blake, forcing the team to rely on backups at both positions for the remainder of the season. Blake 's injury presented an opportunity for quarterback Aaron Brooks, who led the team to two critical road wins: an upset over the defending champion St. Louis Rams and a late comeback against the San Francisco 49ers, keeping the Saints atop the NFC West. A Week 16 victory over the Atlanta Falcons, coupled with a St. Louis loss the following night, gave the Saints a 10 - 5 record, a playoff berth, and their first division title since 1991.
In the regular season finale, the Saints lost to the Rams, setting up a rematch between the two teams in the wild card playoff round. Though they lost Horn to an injury early in the game, the Saints managed to surge ahead to a 31 - 7 lead early in the 4th quarter behind three touchdowns from Brooks to backup wide receiver Willie Jackson. A late comeback by the Rams was halted in dramatic fashion when St. Louis wide receiver Az - Zahir Hakim fumbled a punt late in the game. Saints fullback Brian Milne fell on the ball, and New Orleans able to run out the clock to secure its first - ever playoff win. The final score was 31 - 28.
The return of Ricky Williams the next week could not prevent the injury - hobbled Saints from losing to the Minnesota Vikings. Despite the 34 - 16 loss, the 2000 season was viewed as an overwhelming success by the fans and the media. Haslett and Mueller were recognized by the NFL as Coach of the Year and Executive of the Year, respectively. Five Saints were selected to the Pro Bowl: Horn, left tackle Willie Roaf, defensive linemen Joe Johnson and La'Roi Glover, and linebacker Keith Mitchell. Horn set a franchise record with 1,340 receiving yards and emerged as a playmaker and tenacious possession receiver. Despite his injury, Williams rushed for 1,000 yards and eight touchdowns in 10 games.
The next five seasons failed to meet the raised expectations of fans and media. The 2001 season established a trend of team inconsistency from week to week; though the Saints engineered a stirring comeback from several touchdowns down to beat the Rams on the road, they also collapsed at the end of the season, losing their last four games by embarrassing margins to finish 7 - 9. New Orleans was outscored 160 - 40 in its final four games and shut out 38 - 0 by San Francisco in the finale at home in the Saints ' final game as a member of the NFC West.
The season was notable for the curious behavior of Albert Connell, a wide receiver acquired in the offseason and intended to be the long - term starter opposite Joe Horn. Connell was accused of, and subsequently admitted to, stealing over $4,000 from teammate Deuce McAllister, though he claimed the theft was just a prank. Connell caught only 12 passes in 11 games with the Saints; the team suspended him for the last four games of the season and later terminated his contract.
In the offseason, the Saints -- having drafted running back Deuce McAllister in the first round of the 2001 NFL Draft -- traded starter Ricky Williams to the Miami Dolphins. The trade ended up giving the Saints two 1st - round picks.
The 2002 season started with promise (in the brand new NFC South division) but finished in familiar fashion. The Saints began the year with impressive wins over three 2001 playoff teams -- an overtime win over new division rival Tampa Bay, a 15 - point trouncing of Green Bay, and a come - from - behind win over Chicago on the road. But the season would include a loss to bottom - dweller Detroit, as well as another late - season collapse that included three straight losses to Minnesota, Cincinnati, and Carolina, when a victory in any one of these three games would have all but guaranteed a playoff berth. The Saints, after starting 6 - 1, finished at 9 - 7 and missed the playoffs once again.
Jim Haslett and his coaching staff drew criticism for not benching starting quarterback Aaron Brooks in any of the season 's final games. Brooks had been hobbled by a shoulder injury, and though both he and Haslett insisted the injury would not affect his play, Brooks ' performance suggested otherwise. Over the last six games of the season, Brooks completed only 47 % of his passes, throwing for six touchdowns and five interceptions and losing six fumbles. His passer rating over those six games was 66.7, far less than his 80.1 rating over the entire season.
Backing up Brooks in 2002 was fan - favorite Jake Delhomme, who 'd played at nearby UL - Lafayette and had come off the bench to cement a victory over Tampa Bay several weeks earlier. Brooks ' poor performance late in the 2002 season prompted fans to chant "We Want Jake! '' at games, but Haslett ignored these chants. In the offseason, Delhomme signed with Carolina, in part because he 'd be able to compete for the starting job. Delhomme would lead the Panthers to Super Bowl XXXVIII in his first season in Carolina, further rubbing salt in the wounds of Saints fans.
The 2003 season started off poorly for the Saints, going 1 - 4 in their first five games, including a 55 - 21 blowout loss at home against the Indianapolis Colts, as Colts quarterback and New Orleans native Peyton Manning threw six touchdown passes to hand the Saints a humiliating loss on national television. The Saints, however, would rebound somewhat from their poor start and finish the season 8 - 8. McAllister ran for a career - high 1,641 yards.
The 2004 season saw the Saints struggle out of the gate. They compiled a 4 - 8 record in their first twelve games, and Haslett 's job appeared to be in jeopardy. Then the Saints put together three straight wins (two of them on the road) to give them a shot at an 8 - 8 record and a playoff berth. The Saints faced Carolina (also 7 - 8) in Week 17. The Saints needed to beat the Panthers; they also needed one of two things to happen: a St. Louis tie or loss, or a Seattle win or tie and a Minnesota win or tie. The New Orleans, St. Louis, and Minnesota games were all played at 1: 00 PM EST that Sunday. The Saints defeated the Panthers 21 - 18, but Minnesota lost to Washington (also by a 21 - 18 score), meaning that the Saints ' playoff chances came down to the game between the Rams and the New York Jets. The game went to overtime with the score tied 29 - 29. The teams battled back and forth for most of the overtime period. The crucial moment occurred when Jets kicker Doug Brien (formerly of the Saints) missed a 53 - yard field goal. The Rams capitalized on the good field position and kicked a field goal of their own to win with a little over 3 minutes left in overtime, sending the Saints out of the playoffs on the tiebreaker scenarios. Though the Saints had beaten the Rams earlier in the season, their loss to the Vikings and the fact that the Rams did not play the Vikings that season meant that the tiebreaker had to go to the best conference record, where the Rams finished ahead of the Saints and Vikings to claim one of the NFC 's wild card spots. The Vikings then got the final wild card spot thanks to their win over the Saints. While the season finished in heartbreaking fashion, many thought that Haslett would have been fired if not for his team 's four - game win streak to end the season.
Going into the 2005 season, the Saints were optimistic that they could build on their good results at the end of 2004. But when Hurricane Katrina struck, the Saints were thrown into chaos with the rest of their city. The Saints relocated their headquarters to San Antonio, Texas. The Saints managed to provide an emotional lift for their hometown when they defeated the Panthers 23 - 20 in Week 1. The NFL decreed that the Saints ' first home game would be played in Giants Stadium, adding insult to injury as the Saints were forced to play a "home '' game against the New York Giants in front of a hostile crowd. The Saints struggled and lost 27 - 10, feeling aggrieved at the situation. The rest of the Saints ' home games would be played either in San Antonio 's Alamodome or Baton Rouge 's Tiger Stadium. The Saints lost to Minnesota in Week 3, but won in the Alamodome the next week over Buffalo to bring their record to 2 - 2. They then proceeded to be blown out 52 - 3 in Green Bay by a team which came into the game 0 - 4. The loss to the Packers was even worse for the Saints due to a season - ending injury suffered by star running back Deuce McAllister. The Saints would eventually finish the season with a 3 - 13 record; the last few games of the season saw quarterback Aaron Brooks being benched (and later traded to the Oakland Raiders), giving playing time for backup quarterback Todd Bouman and even third - stringer Adrian McPherson and, eventually, the season ended with head coach Jim Haslett losing his job.
The 2006 Saints orchestrated one of the more remarkable turnarounds in NFL history, as they were the first team to go from 3 - 13 to a conference title game the next season. First - year head coach Sean Payton, who came from Dallas as a Bill Parcells pupil, was hired for a daunting task at hand. In his first move as coach, he released almost half of the roster, most notably inconsistent quarterback Aaron Brooks.
The Saints were aggressive in free agency, signing former San Diego Chargers quarterback Drew Brees, who had been released after suffering a career - threatening injury to his throwing shoulder during the last game of the 2005 season and was still recovering from surgery at that time. Brees was also being pursued by Nick Saban and the Miami Dolphins but their doctors gave Brees a 25 % chance of making a comeback. The Saints gambled on his ability to recover in time for the season and signed him to a major long - term contract. His signing would become a major turning point for the Saints. Then came April, and the 2006 NFL Draft.
On the eve before the draft on April 29, news broke that the Houston Texans could not reach an agreement with Reggie Bush and instead reached a deal with defensive end Mario Williams as the # 1 pick. When the team found out that Bush would be available, they selected the USC running back with their # 2 pick. In that draft, the Saints also picked an unknown player in the 7th - round who would become a standout: wide receiver Marques Colston from Hofstra as the 252nd pick.
When preseason got underway, the Saints started out strong in a victory over the Tennessee Titans, which featured a dazzling run by Reggie Bush where he reversed his direction for a big run. That was the only highlight for the Saints ' preseason as they finished just 1 -- 3, losing their other three preseason games.
The 2006 regular season officially began for the Saints with a road win against the Cleveland Browns, with Bush accounting for 129 yards from scrimmage, while Colston caught a touchdown pass from Brees. The next week, the Saints went to Green Bay, where the Saints lost 52 - 3 the previous year, to face the Packers. The start of the game looked bleak for the Saints as they quickly went down 0 -- 13, but Brees led a comeback, throwing for 353 yards and two touchdowns as the Saints came back to win a shootout, 34 -- 27. The Saints then headed back for the first game in the Superdome since the 2005 preseason, a Monday Night date with the Atlanta Falcons on September 25.
The Saints entered the game 2 -- 0 against the 2 -- 0 Falcons with many expecting the Falcons ' powerful running game to overwhelm the team. The game kicked off to fanfare of the Saints ' official return to New Orleans. The game also featured pregame festivities featuring Green Day and U2 performing a song that would become the team 's unofficial anthem, "The Saints Are Coming ''. New Orleans dominated the game right from the start when Steve Gleason blocked a punt that was recovered for a touchdown by Curtis Deloatch. The Saints went on to win 23 -- 3.
The next week, the Saints lost their first game of the season to division rival Carolina, 18 -- 21. The Saints bounced back in their second game in New Orleans facing division rival Tampa Bay. With time winding down and the Saints down by four, they were set to receive a punt. Reggie Bush returned the punt 65 yards, untouched, for the winning touchdown, and the first of his career. The Saints were 4 -- 1 and in control of the NFC South. A week later, the Saints upset the favored Philadelphia Eagles in New Orleans, 27 -- 24, and the Saints were taken seriously heading into their bye week.
New Orleans entered a midseason slump, losing three of four by Week 10 before going on a three - game win streak. They defeated Atlanta, San Francisco, and Dallas in convincing fashion.
The Saints concluded the regular season at 10 -- 6, winning the NFC South title and, for the first time in the team 's history, securing a first - round bye in the playoffs.
The Saints ' divisional playoff game would be a Week 6 rematch with the Eagles, who were led by backup quarterback Jeff Garcia this time and riding a six - game winning streak. The game featured several lead changes and a most inspired effort by Deuce McAllister, who rushed for almost 150 yards and two touchdowns, one receiving and one rushing. New Orleans won its first divisional playoff game in team history, 27 -- 24, and only the second playoff win in franchise history. The Saints then traveled to Chicago to face the Bears in the team 's first ever NFC Championship appearance, where they ended up falling short in the title game, 14 -- 39.
New Orleans led the NFL in total yards gained and passing yards in the 2006 season. Drew Brees set new Saints single - season records in passes completed (356), passer rating (96.2), and passing yards (4,418). The team sent three players to the 2007 Pro Bowl: Brees, defensive end Will Smith, and offensive tackle Jammal Brown.
The 2007 regular season began with a primetime matchup against the defending Super Bowl champion Indianapolis Colts, but New Orleans suffered a 10 -- 41 pounding. The losses continued, as Tampa Bay and Tennessee routed them, followed by a close loss to Carolina. The Saints finally managed a victory in Week 6 by defeating the Seattle Seahawks 28 -- 17. After three more victories, they lost two more games, then beat the Carolina Panthers, and then fell to the Buccaneers again. In Week 16, the Saints lost to Philadelphia, which removed them from the playoffs. A loss to the Chicago Bears in the regular season finale ended the Saints ' season with a 7 -- 9 record.
In 2008, the Saints began by defeating the Buccaneers before losing three of the next four games. New Orleans was selected for that year 's international series game in London, where they beat San Diego 37 -- 32. The remainder of the season was an uneven string of games, and after being beat by Carolina on December 28, the team ended its 2008 campaign with an 8 -- 8 record.
New Orleans started off 2009 innocently enough with a rout of the hapless Detroit Lions. Afterwards, they traveled to Philadelphia and beat an Eagles team that was missing its starting quarterback, Donovan McNabb, due to an injury. They accumulated further easy wins over the Buffalo Bills and New York Jets in the next two games. After the bye week, they handily defeated the New York Giants and then beat the Miami Dolphins in a high - scoring affair at Landshark Stadium. With this impressive win, which featured a second - half rally, the Saints moved to 6 -- 0. The next four opponents were comparatively weak ones, and the Saints soon found themselves at 10 -- 0 along with the Colts. In Week 12, they faced the New England Patriots in the Superdome and inflicted a stunning defeat on the three - time Super Bowl champions. The Saints nearly lost their next game against the 3 -- 8 Washington Redskins at FedEx Field. The score was tied 30 -- 30 at the end of regulation, and in overtime, Washington almost broke the Saints ' eleven - game winning streak. However, a fumble by the Redskins gave the Saints the ball. They then made a field goal and won the game, 33 -- 30, clinching the NFC South division title. Afterwards, New Orleans faced the Dallas Cowboys at home and were finally brought down by a 17 -- 24 score. The next week, the Saints were upset at home by the 2 -- 12 Tampa Bay Buccaneers in overtime. They secured the # 1 NFC playoff seed when the 11 -- 3 Minnesota Vikings lost to the Chicago Bears in Week 16. The Saints rested starters during their Week 17 game against the Panthers, finishing their season at 13 -- 3. The re-energized team came back from the first - round bye week and hosted the Arizona Cardinals, crushing them 45 -- 14. Now in the NFC Championship, the Saints faced the Vikings. The two teams waged an epic struggle through all four quarters. Minnesota quarterback Brett Favre was hit several times by the New Orleans defensive line, and there were multiple penalties, timeouts, and booth reviews of questionable plays. Although the Vikings never trailed by more than a touchdown, they could not gain a lead, and as the 4th quarter was drawing to a close, Favre threw an ill - advised pass across the middle of the field, which was intercepted by Saints cornerback Tracy Porter. The game went into overtime, and New Orleans got possession of the ball after winning the coin toss. Kicker Garrett Hartley made a 40 - yard field goal, sending the Saints to Super Bowl XLIV.
The Super Bowl was played in Miami against the Colts, who had won Super Bowl XLI there three years earlier. Indianapolis jumped out to a 10 - 0 lead by the end of the 1st quarter. The Saints were unable to score a touchdown in the first half, and instead settled for two long Hartley field goals, making the score 10 - 6 at halftime. The 3rd quarter opened with New Orleans executing a surprise onside kick, and both teams got into an argument over who got hold of the ball. The Saints were ultimately ruled to have recovered it. A screen pass by Drew Brees to running back Pierre Thomas was good for a touchdown, giving the Saints a 13 -- 10 lead, their first of the game. After another Colts touchdown, Hartley kicked another field goal to make it a 17 -- 16 game. The Saints regained the lead with 5: 42 remaining in the 4th quarter; a 2 - yard touchdown pass from Brees to tight end Jeremy Shockey, followed by a two - point conversion by Lance Moore, made it a 24 -- 17 Saints lead. On the Colts ' ensuing drive, quarterback Peyton Manning was intercepted by Tracy Porter, who returned it 74 yards for the game - clinching touchdown. A strong defensive effort by New Orleans halted the Colts ' attempt at another scoring drive, and the game ended 31 -- 17. The Saints had finally won a championship after decades of futility, sending the city of New Orleans, and the region, into wild celebrations.
The Saints did not quite live up to their 2009 level of play the following season. Hosting the Vikings in the 2010 season opener, a much - vaunted rematch of the NFC Championship resulted in a meandering 14 - 9 win, the lowest - scoring victory of Sean Payton 's tenure as head coach. After a close win in San Francisco, the Saints went 3 - 3 down the stretch, as Drew Brees threw several interceptions and Garrett Hartley (the hero of the 2009 postseason) missed multiple field goals that resulted in his being temporarily benched in favor of John Carney, a former Saint who had first played in the NFL back in 1988. The last remaining active NFL player from the 1980s booted two field goals to help New Orleans beat the 0 - 3 Carolina Panthers in Week 3. After a loss to the Cardinals the following week, Carney quit, and the kicking position returned to Hartley.
Overall, the Saints looked sloppy and out of form during the early season, and they suffered their worst loss when the Cleveland Browns beat them at home in Week 7. But after the bye week, the team got back on course and won four games in a row before losing to Baltimore in Week 15. A Monday night matchup with the Atlanta Falcons saw New Orleans win 17 - 14. The Saints lost to Tampa Bay 23 - 13 to end the regular season with a record of 11 - 5. New Orleans reached the playoffs, but had to settle for a wild card spot as division rival Atlanta had already locked up the NFC South title and the # 1 seed. The # 5 - seeded Saints headed to Seattle, where their season came to a spectacular end, as the 7 - 9 Seahawks overpowered the defending champions 41 - 36. The game was highlighted by a 67 - yard touchdown run by Marshawn Lynch, who broke several tackles on the play.
In 2011, New Orleans played in the season opener for the second year in a row, but this time in Green Bay as guests of the defending champion Packers. The Saints struggled, as the Packers quickly marched out to two touchdowns, but regained their composure in a wild shootout. Green Bay never lost their lead however, and went on to win the game 42 - 34 after stopping Saints rookie running back Mark Ingram on the 1 - yard line as time expired. Opening at home in Week 2, the Saints easily beat Chicago 30 - 13, then won another shootout against the Houston Texans. Although New Orleans ' defense had performed poorly up to Week 3, the unit got back in sync by limiting Jacksonville to 10 points in a 23 - point win the following game. After beating winless Carolina, Drew Brees threw three interceptions as the Saints lost to Tampa Bay 26 - 20. In Week 7, the team hosted Indianapolis in what had been expected to be a rematch of Super Bowl XLIV, but without Peyton Manning, the Colts struggled. Brees threw 5 touchdown passes as the Saints crushed the Colts, 62 - 7. The Saints set a franchise record for most points in a game. However, the Saints reverted to their Week 6 form the following week, as Brees threw two interceptions, and the Saints suffered an astonishing defeat against the winless St. Louis Rams. However, that would prove to be the last loss of the regular season, as the Saints went on an eight - game winning streak to close the season. They defeated division rivals Tampa Bay and Atlanta, then came out of the bye week to blow out the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants 49 - 24 at home. The Saints then defeated the Lions 31 - 17, the Titans 21 - 17, and the Vikings 42 - 20. On Monday Night Football, the Saints hosted the Atlanta Falcons and went on to blow them out, 45 - 16 and secure the division title. In that game, Brees broke the NFL 's single - season passing yardage record set by Dan Marino 27 years earlier. The Saints would finish the regular season with a 13 - 3 record by defeating the Panthers 45 - 17. However, the Saints finished behind the defending Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and the San Francisco 49ers for the 3rd seed in the NFC playoffs.
In the wild card round of the playoffs, the Saints hosted the Detroit Lions in the Lions ' first playoff appearance since 1999. The Lions got off to a good start, ending the first half with a 14 - 10 lead, but could n't keep up with the Saints, who prevailed 45 - 28. In the divisional round, the Saints traveled to San Francisco to face the # 2 - seeded 49ers. The Saints had trouble against the 49ers ' defense, committed five turnovers. Despite the mishaps, the Saints remained one score behind the 49ers for most of the game. In a spectacular finish, the lead changed hands four times in the last four minutes, but the Saints lost 36 - 32, as 49ers quarterback Alex Smith threw a 14 - yard touchdown pass to Vernon Davis with nine seconds left to end the Saints ' 2011 season.
On March 2, 2012, the NFL announced the findings of an investigation of a bounty program that former defensive coordinator Gregg Williams and over two dozen defensive players maintained. The program rewarded cash to players for violent hits on opposing players that took place during the 2009 -- 2011 seasons. Bounties were placed on four specific players: quarterbacks Brett Favre, Cam Newton, Aaron Rodgers, and Kurt Warner. The NFL hit the Saints hard with punishments. Williams, who became defensive coordinator with the St. Louis Rams, was suspended indefinitely. Head coach Sean Payton was suspended for the entire 2012 season. Although he did not participate in the bounty program, he never told anyone to stop it. General Manager Mickey Loomis was suspended for the first eight regular season games, as he ignored an order from owner Tom Benson to ensure that the program was stopped. Assistant head coach Joe Vitt (who was named interim head coach during Payton 's suspension) was banned for the first six regular season games. The Saints were also fined $500,000 and stripped of their 2nd - round picks in the 2012 and 2013 NFL drafts. Payton began his suspension April 15 after his appeal was rejected. Loomis and Vitt also appealed their suspensions, but they were upheld. The NFL later announced punishments to four current and former Saints players. Linebacker Jonathan Vilma was suspended for the entire 2012 season; he twice offered $10,000 to anyone who knocked out Warner and Favre in the 2009 playoffs. Defensive lineman Anthony Hargrove was suspended for the first eight games of the 2012 season. Will Smith was suspended for four games, and Scott Fujita (now with the Cleveland Browns) received a three - game ban. All of the suspensions were without pay. A grievance was filed on behalf of the suspended players, but it was rejected. All of the players have appealed to Commissioner Roger Goodell.
After much negotiation, the Saints re-signed quarterback Drew Brees. Due to the Bountygate scandal, head coach Sean Payton, as well as some of the defensive players allegedly involved in the scandal, were not allowed to play.
The 2012 season began in disappointing fashion with four straight losses to the Washington Redskins, Carolina Panthers, Kansas City Chiefs, and Green Bay Packers. Then the Saints went on to win five of their next six games, including handing division rival Atlanta its first loss of the season. After three straight losses to San Francisco, Atlanta, and the defending champion New York Giants, the Saints won two of their last three games, including a 41 - 0 shutout against division rival Tampa Bay. The 2012 season ended with a 7 - 9 record for the Saints, their first losing season since 2007.
The Saints finished 1st in the NFL in passing yards per game and 2nd in overall offense, but they were last in the league in overall defense.
As the team tried to leave the Bountygate in the past, Sean Payton returned to the team as Head Coach following the 2012 season. 2013 prove to be a successful season for the Saints, going undefeated at home and going 11 -- 5, making it into the playoffs as a 6th seed. They manage to win their first road playoff game in franchise history against the Philadelphia Eagles, 26 -- 24. They advanced to 1st seed Seattle Seahawks, getting defeated by the eventual Super Bowl champions 15 -- 23.
2014 was not a memorable year for the Saints. Despite being 2nd in total offense, they went 7 -- 9, with most of the reason for the disappointing season coming from the defense, who ranked 31st in defense that year, turnovers, and inconsistency. They were eliminated from playoff contention after a 14 -- 30 loss to their divisional rival Atlanta Falcons in the second - to - last week of the regular season.
2015 also proved to be a mostly forgettable year for the Saints. They finished 7 -- 9 again mainly part to once again having one of the league 's worst defenses.
The Saints, in their 50th season, despite having the top scoring offense in the league, finished 7 - 9 for the third consecutive year. This put them in place for the 11th overall pick in the 2017 NFL Draft. Drew Brees threw for over 5,000 yards for the fifth time in his career. Brandin Cooks and Michael Thomas, the 47th overall pick in the 2016 NFL Draft, both had over 1000 yards receiving. Running back Mark Ingram broke 1000 yards rushing for the first time in his career.
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this is a caucasian ovcharka a dog traditionally used to hunt bears in russia | Caucasian Shepherd dog - wikipedia
The Caucasian Shepherd Dog (Adyghe: Хьэпарий, translit. Kh'èparij, Adyghe: Адыгэ Мэлыхъуэхьэ, translit. Adygè Mèlykh "uèkh'è, Karachay - Balkar: Басхан Парий, translit. Baskhan Parij, Armenian: Կովկասյան հովվաշուն, translit. Kovkasyan hovvašun, Azerbaijani: Qafqaz çoban iti; Georgian: კავკასიური ნაგაზი, Turkish: Kafkas Çoban Köpeği, Ossetian: Аргъонахъ, Russian: Кавказская овчарка, translit. Kavkazskaya ovčarka) is a large breed of dog that is popular in Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. It is extremely popular in Georgia, which has always been the principal region of penetration of Caucasian shepherd dogs. The official standard of this breed is fundamentally based on the dogs taken from Georgia.
Because the dog breed was registered by the USR, the FCI standard of this breed indicates that its origin is the USSR. However, the breed is native to countries of the Caucasus region including Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
Also known as Caucasian Ovcharka or Baskhan (Karachay) pariy, Caucasian shepherd dogs are strongly boned, muscular, and even - tempered molossers. Plain dogs have a shorter coat and appear taller as they are more lightly built. Mountain dog types have a heavier coat and are more muscularly built. Caucasian ovcharka are large dogs; however, there is no recorded maximum height or weight. The minimum height for females is 64 centimetres (25 in), with a desirable height between 67 and 70 centimetres (26 and 28 in).
The minimum weight for females is 45 kilograms (99 lb). The minimum height for males is 68 centimetres (27 in), with a desirable height between 72 and 75 centimetres (28 and 30 in). The minimum weight for males is 50 kilograms (110 lb). The Caucasian shepherd is rather intelligent; however, they can be insolent and refuse to listen at times. They also can be fairly aggressive towards people they do not know and with incorrect handling this can be problematic. This can be overcome by proper training.
The Caucasian Shepherd Dog is generally healthy and long - lived, averaging a life span of 10 -- 12 years. Some dogs may have health issues in the form of hip dysplasia, obesity and occasional heart problems, but the majority of these dogs are healthy if taken care of correctly. Good dog breeders use genetic testing of their breeding stock to reduce the chances of diseases in the puppies.
The ears of the Caucasian Shepherd Dog are traditionally cropped, although some modern dogs are unaltered, as many people believe that this practice is unethical and cruel. If brought up by someone with extensive knowledge on the needs of a Caucasian Shepherd Dog, the chances of health problems should lower dramatically.
Exercise and play time are a crucial part of the Caucasian Shepherd Dog 's life to help prevent obesity. Outdoor activities such as hiking, chasing balls and retrieving flying discs can be a good outlet of releasing energy.
Caucasian Shepherd Dogs require very specific and detailed training. From the ages of 0 -- 9 months the obedience of the dog has already been formed. It is recommended that an expert begins to train the dog from the ages of 7 -- 8 months old. The training that is involved in this early stage should be light guidance on the teaching of obedience.
Puppy school has been described as a bad option for the Caucasian Shepherd Dog. They do not tolerate other dogs very well and get out of control easily. This can be difficult to manage even if they are still young. After the early stages and training of a Caucasian Shepherd Dogs life, they can move on to learn about how to herd different types of livestock and defend them if the situation arises.
It is important to expose the dog to extensive amounts of socialization to teach it that not all humans are enemies, starting this routine from a young age could be helpful. Caucasian Shepherd Dogs are not recommended to be adopted into families with young children because of their guardian instinct and powerful bodies.
Fédération Cynologique Internationale classification:
The American Kennel Club include the breed in the working group.
The Caucasus mountains are home to one of the oldest living Molosser breeds, the Caucasian Mountain Dog. There is a great variety of types among the Caucasian dogs depending on their home region, but a single type has come to be favored in the show rings and literature, at the expense of other breed variants. Although its first official Show - Ring appearance outside the Caucasus was in the 1930s in Germany, the Caucasian Shepherd Dog has existed since ancient times. They served shepherds in the Caucasus mountains as guard dogs, defending sheep from predators, mainly wolves, jackals and bears. They are still successfully serving in this job, especially in Georgia, and the shepherd 's life is impossible without these dogs. The show dogs, also known as Caucasian Ovcharka, were created by the USSR during the 1900s. The Caucasian Shepherd Dog is a fully standardized breed recognized by major kennel organizations, including the American Kennel Club, Fédération Cynologique Internationale, and the United Kennel Club.
As mentioned above, the modern working Caucasian dogs have established a civilization in Georgia. Historically, the Caucasian Molossers were used for centuries to protect properties, guard livestock, and kill wolves. Today, especially outside the Caucasus, they are widely employed as companion animals and watchdogs, while in their native Caucasus they are still protecting sheep as well. Most prized as a property guardian, the Caucasian shepherds are good protectors.
The Caucasian Mountain Dog is a low activity dog, seemingly lethargic when not working, but agile and convincing when it feels its family is threatened. Although certain strains are more vicious than others, all Caucasians are very territorial and dog - aggressive, needing early and careful broad socialization, as well as firm, but never forceful, handling. This breed can be a family dog, if well trained and socialized.
The aggressive nature of the Caucasian Ovcharka makes it one of the most risky dog breeds to own for if not trained properly it will routinely snap at strangers or anyone they perceive as a threat.
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when did television news became a branch of infotainment | Infotainment - wikipedia
Infotainment (a portmanteau of information and entertainment), also called soft news, is a type of media, usually television, that provides a combination of information and entertainment. The term is usually used disapprovingly against more serious hard news. Many existing, self - described infotainment websites and social media apps provide a variety of functions and services.
The label "infotainment '' is emblematic of concern and criticism that journalism is devolving from a medium which conveys serious information about issues affecting public interest, into a form of entertainment which happens to have fresh "facts '' in the mix. The criteria by which reporters and editors judge news value -- whether something is worth putting on the front page, the bottom of the hour, or is worth commenting on at all -- are integral parts of this debate. Some blame the media for this perceived phenomenon, for failing to live up to ideals of civic journalistic responsibility, while others blame the commercial nature of many media organizations, the need for higher ratings, combined with a preference among the public for feel - good content and "unimportant '' topics such as celebrity gossip or sports. In a critique of infotainment, Bonnie Anderson of News Flash cited a CNN lead story on February 2, 2004 following the exposure of Janet Jackson 's breast on national television. The follow - up story was about a ricin chemical attack on then - U.S. Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist.
A specialization process has also occurred, beginning with the rise of mass market special - interest magazines, moving into broadcast with the advent of cable television, and continuing into new media such as the Internet and satellite radio. An increasing number of media outlets are available to the public which exclusively focus on single topics such as current events, home improvement, history, movies, women and Christianity. Consumers have a broad choice whether they receive a general feed of the most "important '' information of the day or a highly customized presentation of a single type of content. Highly customized content streams may not be considered newsworthy nor contain a neutral point of view. Some publications and channels have found a sizable audience in the "niche '' of featuring hard news.
Controversy has continued over the size of the audience and whether outlets are diluting content with too much "soft '' news. The distinction between journalists and anchors versus reporters are "human interest '', personality, or celebrity news story pieces. Soft news reporters and stories are typically directed by marketing share departments based on a demographic appeal and audience share. It is commonly accepted news anchors are also media personalities which may also be considered celebrities. Media outlets commonly use on - air personalities for their public appeal to promote the network 's investments similar to the regular broadcast schedule including self - promotion and advertising. Critics might go so far as to view anchors as a weak link, representing the misplacement of both the credit and the accountability of a news journalism organization -- hence adding to a perceived erosion of journalistic standards throughout the news business. (See yellow journalism.)
Most infotainment television programs on networks and broadcast cable only contain general information on the subjects they cover and should not be considered to be formal learning or instruction. An example of a broadcast may include accusations of a celebrity or other individual committing a crime with no verifiable factual support or evidence of such claims. It can be said that many viewers and social critics disapprove of how media, particularly TV and cable, seem to hurtle from one event to another, often dwelling on trivial, celebrity - driven content As seen with the commodification celebrities and public figures / leaders, news media is more frequently commodifying and selling the stories of people 's lives for pure viewer reaction and entertainment as opposed to more focus being placed on real stories with informative meaning behind them.
In October 2010 at the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear, American political satirist Jon Stewart made a metaphorical statement regarding the media today: "The press can hold its magnifying glass up to our problems... illuminating issues heretofore unseen, or they can use that magnifying glass to light ants on fire and then perhaps host a week of shows on the sudden, unexpected, dangerous flaming ant epidemic. '' This statement referred to the news media 's ability to focus in on the real problems of people, and transform them into what is known as infotainment, when this information is solely provided for the public 's entertainment. Today 's broadcasting of informative news is often diluted with stories of scandal, although this is no concern for media and news broadcasters because if you can keep enough viewers week after week focused on whatever is that next "flaming ant epidemic '' (e.g., a congressman 's sexual indiscretions, conspiracy theories about the president 's birth certificate and other examples related to politainment), you can boost audience ratings and sell ads at higher rates
Historically, the term infotainment was used to discredit woman journalists who were assigned soft news jobs. Soft news was expected to be consumed by only women, but eventually, thanks to the presence of more women in the news force and the changing media landscape, it became the norm of news media in general.
Some define "journalism '' only as reporting on "serious '' subjects, where common journalistic standards are upheld by the reporter. Others believe that the larger "news business '' encompasses everything from professional journalism to so - called "soft news '' and "infotainment '', and support activities such as marketing, advertising sales, finance and delivery. Nevertheless, a differentiation of the two concepts of "hard news '' and "soft news '' is controversial. Professional journalism is supposed to place more emphasis on research, fact - checking, and the public interest than its "non-journalistic '' counterparts. Because the term "news '' is quite broad, the terms "hard '' and "soft '' denote both a difference in respective standards for news value, as well as for standards of conduct, relative to the professional ideals of journalistic integrity.
The idea of hard news embodies two orthogonal concepts:
The logical opposite, soft news is sometimes referred to in a derogatory fashion as infotainment. Defining features catching the most criticism include:
Timely events happen in less serious subjects -- sporting matches, celebrity misadventures, movie releases, art exhibits, and so on.
There may also be serious reports which are not event - driven -- coverage of important social, economic, legal, or technological trends -- investigative reports which uncover ongoing corruption, pollution, or immorality -- or discussion of unsettled political issues without any special reason. Anniversaries, holidays, the end of a year or season, or the end of the first 100 days of an administration, can make some stories time - sensitive, but provide more of an opportunity for reflection and analysis than any actual "news '' to report.
The spectrum of "seriousness '' and "importance '' is not well - defined, and different media organizations make different tradeoffs. "News you can use '', a common marketing phrase highlighting a specific genre of journalism, spans the gray area. Gardening tips and hobby "news '' pretty clearly fall at the entertainment end. Warnings about imminent natural disasters or acute domestic security threats (such as air raids or terrorist attacks) are considered so important that broadcast media (even non-news channels) usually interrupt other programming to announce them. A medical story about a new treatment for breast cancer, or a report about local ground water pollution might fall in between. So might book reviews, or coverage of religion. On the other hand, people frequently find hobbies and entertainment to be worthwhile parts of their lives and so "importance '' on a personal level is rather subjective.
Infotainment is generally identified by its entertaining nature through the use of flashy graphics, fast - paced editing, music, and the use sensationalism or satire. Popular examples include Entertainment Tonight, Hannity and Colmes, The Daily Show, and shows that would not be classified as news earlier, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Infotainers are entertainers in infotainment media, such as news anchors or satirists who cross the line between journalism (quasi-journalism) and entertainment. Barbara Walters, was for many an infotainer icon. She pioneered the many techniques used in the Infotainment media today. Other notable examples in the U.S. media are Jon Stewart, Bill O'Reilly, Rachel Maddow and Geraldo Rivera among others.
When Geraldo Rivera became the host of his own news - oriented talk show on CNBC, others within the NBC organization voiced their protest, including Tom Brokaw who was reported to have threatened to quit. Rivera had a notorious history as a "sleaze reporter '' and daytime talk show host, where he and one or two others were representative of "Tabloid talk shows ''; television seen to have little social value or redeeming intelligence, but still popular with viewers.
The broadcast of important or interesting events was originally meant simply to inform society of local or international events for their own safety and awareness. However, local news broadcasters are more regularly commodifying local events to provoke titillation and entertainment in viewers. Commodification is known as the process by which material objects are turned into marketable goods with monetary (exchange) value. Essential qualities of human beings and their products are converted into commodities, into things for buying and selling on the market, just as entertaining stories are sold to buy the attention of viewers.
Commodity fetishism is the process through which commodities are emptied of the meaning of their production (the labour that produced them and the context in which they were produced) and filled instead with the abstract meaning (usually through advertising). At their worst, the media 's appetite for telling and selling stories leads them not only to document tragedy, but also to misrepresent or exploit it As often seen in the news (with stories of extreme obesity or unusual deformities) present - day "infotainment '' commodifies humans through their personal tragedies or scandals, providing entertainment and titillation to public viewers.
The topic of news media today being more commonly considered "infotainment '' has increased with the growing popularity and use of social media applications. These popular social media outlets are what German theorist Jürgen Habermas would define as the "public sphere ''. According to Habermas, it defines a social space (which may be virtual) in which citizens come together to debate and discuss the present issues of their society. The term has been used more recently in the plural to refer to the multiple public spheres in which people debate contemporary issues. In the case of social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook, which were originally created for the purpose of connecting, re-connecting and sharing personal thoughts and information with public, they have now provided a new medium for the spread of "infotainment '' and exploitation of public matters. There is no doubt that these social media websites are dominating, and what is so pressing about the matter is the fact that alongside cell phone technology, these ways of online communication are becoming prominent to the simple relaying of informative news. Of necessity, a commodity - based society produces such phantom objectivity, and in so doing it obscures its roots. The public society are relying more frequently on television news broadcasting and now social media outlets to obtain a mixture of information and entertainment updates which are known as "infotainment. ''
The terms "infotainment '' and "infotainer '' were first used in September 1980 at the Joint Conference of Aslib, the Institute of Information Scientists and the Library Association in Sheffield, UK. The Infotainers were a group of British information scientists who put on comedy shows at their professional conferences between 1980 and 1990. In 1983, infotainment began to see more popular usage Around this time, infotainment gradually began to replace soft news with communications theorists.
An earlier, and slightly variant term, "infortainment '' was coined in 1974 as the title of the 1974 convention of the Intercollegiate Broadcasting System (IBS), the association of college radio stations in the United States. It took place on April 5 -- 7, 1974, at the Statler Hilton Hotel, now the Hotel Pennsylvania. It was defined as the "nexus between Information and Entertainment ''.
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who is allowed to vote in the united states | Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia
The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history.
Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 18; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards.
Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias.
In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice.
The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Men without property and women were largely prohibited from voting. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period.
Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following:
Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation (e.g., the Voting Rights Act of 1965).
The "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications. In other words, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots.
A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor.
The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, states that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. However, as described in the sections below, voting rights reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old.
Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population.
From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use.
Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship.
Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages.
In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections.
The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''.
With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States.
In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828.
At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified:
Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.
When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South.
After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s.
In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction.
African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy.
Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright.
From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test.
Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office.
In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised.
Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases.
From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful.
But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination.
As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters.
The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities.
The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for both state and federal elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience.
A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.
In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860.
When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women.
Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose.
During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.
Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition.
Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended.
Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801.
In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections.
D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C.
No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress.
A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election.
Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only three states, Florida, Kentucky and Virginia, continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.
In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions.
In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole.
Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections.
Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002.
The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions.
According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities.
The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny.
In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register.
In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address.
States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process.
Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting.
One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black in New York. The US district court ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause found in the Fourteenth Amendment.
Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters:
Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district.
The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986))
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later.
Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons.
District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.
As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37.
On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature.
U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.
U.S. citizens who reside in Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but are not part of the United States. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law.
A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights.
Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ".
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States.
Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote.
In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws.
Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation.
Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities.
Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed.
In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene.
The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes.
More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.
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who said here comes the judge on laugh in | Here Comes the Judge - wikipedia
Here Comes the Judge may refer to:
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where does indian education rank in the world | International rankings of India - wikipedia
The following are international rankings of India.
Following rankings involving technological advances in communication are taken from the CIA World Factbook.
(1,222,559 sq mile) including land and water
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who dies in big little lies season 1 | Big Little Lies (TV series) - Wikipedia
Big Little Lies is an American television drama series that premiered on HBO on February 19, 2017. Created and written by David E. Kelley, the series ' seven - episode first season is based on the novel of the same name by Liane Moriarty. Each episode was directed by Jean - Marc Vallée.
Big Little Lies stars Nicole Kidman, Reese Witherspoon and Shailene Woodley and tells the story of three emotionally troubled women in Monterey, California, who become embroiled in a murder investigation. Alexander Skarsgård, Laura Dern, Jeffrey Nordling, Adam Scott, Zoë Kravitz, and James Tupper feature in supporting roles. Critically acclaimed, the series garnered several accolades. It received 16 Emmy Award nominations and won eight, including Outstanding Limited Series and acting awards for Kidman, Skarsgård, and Dern. The trio also won Golden Globe Awards in addition to a Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film win for the series. Kidman and Skarsgård also received Screen Actors Guild Award for their performances.
Despite originally being billed as a miniseries, HBO renewed the series for a second season. Production on the second season will begin in March 2018 and is set to premiere in 2019. The entire main cast will return with the addition of Meryl Streep. All seven episodes will be written by David E. Kelley and directed by Andrea Arnold.
On August 6, 2014, it was announced Nicole Kidman and Reese Witherspoon had optioned the screen rights to Liane Moriarty 's novel Big Little Lies. The actresses were expected to develop the project as a film in which they would both star. Bruna Papandrea and Per Saari were set to executive produce alongside Kidman and Witherspoon. Moriarty was also expected to produce as well.
On November 25, 2014, it was announced that Kidman and Witherspoon had decided to develop the project into a limited television instead of the originally planned film. Additionally, it was announced that television series would be written by David E. Kelley.
On May 8, 2015, it was announced that HBO had given the production a series order and that in addition to writing, Kelley would also executive produce.
On October 23, 2015, it was reported that Jean - Marc Vallée was in talks to direct the first episode of the series with the potential to direct more. On December 17, 2015, it was announced that Vallée would direct all seven episodes of the series.
On November 28, 2016, it was announced that the series would premiere on February 19, 2017.
Alongside the initial announcement of the production 's development, it was reported that Kidman and Witherspoon would also star in the adaptation as well. In December 2015, it announced that Shailene Woodley, Adam Scott, Laura Dern, and Zoë Kravitz had joined the cast in lead roles. On January 5, 2016, it was announced that Alexander Skarsgard and James Tupper had joined the main cast and that Jeffrey Nordling, Santiago Cabrera, P.J. Byrne, Kelen Coleman, Sarah Burns, Darby Camp, Cameron and Nicholas Crovetti, Ivy George, Chloe Coleman, Virginia Kull, Sarah Baker, Kathreen Khavari, Larry Bates, Hong Chau, and Gia Carides had joined the show 's supporting cast. A few days later, it was reported that Iain Armitage had joined the cast in the role of Woodley 's character 's son. Soon after that, it was reported that Merrin Dungey, Larry Sullivan, and David Monahan had also joined the cast.
On January 24, 2018, it was announced that Meryl Streep had joined the main cast in the role of Mary Louise Wright, the mother of Perry (played by Alexander Skarsgard in Season 1). In February 2018, it was confirmed that Shailene Woodley, Laura Dern, Zoë Kravitz, Adam Scott, James Tupper, Jeffrey Nordling and Iain Armitage were returning for the second season. On March 27, 2018, it was announced that Douglas Smith had joined the cast in a recurring role. On April 3, 2018, it was confirmed that Kathryn Newton, Robin Weigert, Merrin Dungey, and Sarah Sokolovic were returning for the second season. Newton and Sokolovic have been upped from recurring roles to series regulars. Additionally, it was announced that Crystal Fox had joined the cast in a main role and that Mo McRae would appear in a recurring capacity. On April 10, 2018, it was announced that Martin Donovan had been cast in a recurring role.
The series was shot with an Arri Alexa digital camera. Jean - Marc Vallée, who directed the entirety of the first season, preferred using natural lighting and handheld shooting style to allow actors to move freely around the set.
On October 16, 2016, HBO released the first teaser trailer for the series. On December 5, 2016, HBO released a full length trailer for the series.
On February 7, 2017, the series held its official premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California.
Internationally, the series premiered on February 20, 2017, in Australia on Showcase, and on March 13, 2017, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic.
The show was initially conceived of and billed as a miniseries of seven episodes. In the wake of the Emmy nominations, Reese Witherspoon said: "As of right now, I think it 's pretty whole. I feel really good about where it is, and if this is all it ever was, it 's a beautiful thing we all accomplished together '', while Vallée came out strongly against the idea of producing a second season: "There 's no reason to make a season two. That was meant to be a one - time deal, and it 's finishing in a way where it 's for the audience to imagine what can happen. If we do a season two, we 'll break that beautiful thing and spoil it ''. Later, when the show garnered an array of critical accolades, he changed his mind: "It 'd be great to reunite the team and to do it. Are we going to be able to do it, altogether? I wish. ''
In July 2017, two weeks after the series was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series, HBO revealed that a second season was possible, and that Moriarty had been asked to write a story for it. In December 2017, after the Critics ' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award nomination voting periods were over, HBO officially renewed the series for a seven - episode second season to be written by David E. Kelley and directed by Andrea Arnold. Vallée will remain an executive producer of the series. Meryl Streep will join the cast as the mother of Alexander Skarsgård 's character.
The announcement of the second season, and -- specifically -- its timing, enraged the producers of rival shows that are competing for award nomination in the limited series category. Immediately following HBO 's decision to produce a second installment of Big Little Lies, the Producers Guild of America moved to reclassify the original installment of the show from a limited series to a drama series for the upcoming 2018 PGA Awards.
Big Little Lies received critical acclaim. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating from a total of 94 reviews, with an average rating of 7.99 / 10 and an average episode score of 97 %. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Bitingly funny and highly addictive, Big Little Lies is a twisty, thrilling, enlightening ride led by a first - rate cast. '' Metacritic reported a score of 75 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Time magazine listed Big Little Lies as one of its top ten television shows of 2017.
A soundtrack for the series was released on Google Play and iTunes on March 31, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on August 1, 2017.
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which of the following is the second highest mountain in india | Nanda Devi - wikipedia
Nanda Devi is the second highest mountain in India, and the highest located entirely within the country. (Kangchenjunga, which is higher, is on the border of India and Nepal.) It is the 23rd - highest peak in the world. It was considered the highest mountain in the world before computations in 1808 proved Dhaulagiri to be higher. It was also the highest mountain in India before 1975 when Sikkim, the state in which Kangchenjunga is located, joined the Republic of India. It is part of the Greater Himalayas, and is located in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, between the Rishiganga valley on the west and the Goriganga valley on the east. The peak, whose name means "Bliss - Giving Goddess '', is regarded as the patron - goddess of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. In acknowledgment of its religious significance and for the protection of its fragile ecosystem, the peak as well as the circle of high mountains surrounding it -- the Nanda Devi sanctuary -- were closed to both locals and climbers in 1983. The surrounding Nanda Devi National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988.
Nanda Devi is a two - peaked massif, forming a 2 - kilometre - long (1.2 mi) high ridge, oriented east - west. The western summit is higher, and the eastern summit is called Sunanda Devi formerly known as Nanda Devi East is the lower one. The main summit stands guarded by a barrier ring comprising some of the highest mountains in the Indian Himalayas, twelve of which exceed 6,400 metres (21,000 ft) in height, further elevating its sacred status as the daughter of the Himalaya in Indian myth and folklore. The interior of this almost insurmountable ring is known as the Nanda Devi Sanctuary, and is protected as the Nanda Devi National Park. Sunanda Devi lies on the eastern edge of the ring (and of the Park), at the border of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts.
Together the peaks may be referred to as the peaks of the goddesses Nanda and Sunanda. These goddesses have occurred together in ancient Sanskrit literature (Srimad Bhagvatam or Bhagavata Purana) and are worshipped together as twins in the Kumaon, Garhwal and as well as elsewhere in India. The first published reference to Nanda Devi East as Sunanda Devi appears to be in a recent novel (Malhotra 2011) that has the Kumaon region as backdrop.
In addition to being the 23rd highest independent peak in the world, Nanda Devi is also notable for its large, steep rise above local terrain. It rises over 3,300 metres (10,800 ft) above its immediate southwestern base on the Dakkhini Nanda Devi Glacier in about 4.2 kilometres (2.6 mi), and its rise above the glaciers to the north is similar. This makes it among the steepest peaks in the world at this scale, closely comparable, for example, to the local profile of K2. Nanda Devi is also impressive when considering terrain that is a bit further away, as it is surrounded by relatively deep valleys. For example, it rises over 6,500 metres (21,300 ft) above the valley of the Goriganga in only 50 km (30 mi).
On the northern side of the massif lies the Uttari Nanda Devi Glacier, flowing into the Uttari Rishi Glacier. To the southwest, one finds the Dakkhini Nanda Devi Glacier, flowing into the Dakkhini Rishi Glacier. All of these glaciers are located within the Sanctuary, and drain west into the Rishiganga. To the east lies the Pachu Glacier, and to the southeast lie the Nandaghunti and Lawan Glaciers, feeding the Lawan Gad; all of these drain into the Milam Valley. To the south is the Pindari Glacier, draining into the Pindar River. Just to the south of Sunanda Devi, dividing the Lawan Gad drainage from the Dakkhini Nanda Devi Glacier, is Longstaff Col, 5,910 m (19,390 ft), one of the high passes that guard access to the Nanda Devi Sanctuary. For a list of notable peaks of the Sanctuary and its environs, see Nanda Devi National Park.
The ascent of Nanda Devi necessitated fifty years of arduous exploration in search of a passage into the Sanctuary. The outlet is the Rishi Gorge, a deep, narrow canyon which is very difficult to traverse safely, and is the biggest hindrance to entering the Sanctuary; any other route involves difficult passes, the lowest of which is 5,180 m (16,990 ft). Hugh Ruttledge attempted to reach the peak three times in the 1930s and failed each time. In a letter to The Times he wrote that ' Nanda Devi imposes on her votaries an admission test as yet beyond their skill and endurance ', adding that gaining entry to the Nanda Devi Sanctuary alone was more difficult than reaching the North Pole. (1) In 1934, the British explorers Eric Shipton and H.W. Tilman, with three Sherpa companions, Angtharkay, Pasang, and Kusang, finally discovered a way through the Rishi Gorge into the Sanctuary.
When the mountain was later climbed in 1936 by a British - American expedition, it became the highest peak climbed by man until the 1950 ascent of Annapurna, 8,091 metres (26,545 ft). (However higher non-summit elevations had already been reached by the British on Mount Everest in the 1920s, and it is possible that George Mallory reached Everest 's summit in 1924.) It also involved steeper and more sustained terrain than had been previously attempted at such a high altitude. The expedition climbed the south ridge, also known as the Coxcomb Ridge, which leads relatively directly to the main summit. The summit pair were H.W. Tilman and Noel Odell; Charles Houston was to be in place of Tilman, but he contracted severe food poisoning. Noted mountaineer and mountain writer H. Adams Carter was also on the expedition, which was notable for its small scale and lightweight ethic: it included only seven climbers, and used no fixed ropes, nor any Sherpa support above 6,200 m (20,300 ft). Eric Shipton, who was not involved in the climb itself, called it "the finest mountaineering achievement ever performed in the Himalaya. ''
After abortive attempts by Indian expeditions in 1957 and 1961, the second ascent of Nanda Devi was accomplished by an Indian team led by N. Kumar in 1964, following the Coxcomb route.
From 1965 to 1968, attempts were made by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), in co-operation with the Indian Intelligence Bureau (IB), to place a nuclear - powered telemetry relay listening device on the summit of Nanda Devi. This device was designed to intercept telemetry signals from missile test launches conducted in the Xinjiang Province, at a time of relative infancy in China 's missile program. The expedition retreated due to dangerous weather conditions, leaving the device near the summit of Nanda Devi. They returned the next spring to search for the device, which ended without success. As a result of this activity by the CIA, the Sanctuary was closed to foreign expeditions throughout much of the 1960s. In 1974 the Sanctuary re-opened.
A difficult new route, the northwest buttress, was climbed by a 13 - person team in 1976. Three Americans, John Roskelley, Jim States, and Louis Reichardt, summitted on 1 September. The expedition was co-led by Reichardt, H. Adams Carter (who was on the 1936 climb), and Willi Unsoeld, who climbed the West Ridge of Everest in 1963. Unsoeld 's daughter, Nanda Devi Unsoeld, who was named after the peak, died on this expedition. She had been suffering from "diarrhea and flare - up of an inguinal hernia, which had shown up originally on the second day of the approach march '', and had been at 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) for nearly five days.
In 1980, the Indian Army Corps of Engineers made an unsuccessful attempt.
In 1981, the first women stood on the summit as part of a mixed Indian team, led by Col. Balwant Sandhu, Rekha Sharma, Harshwanti Bisht and Chandraprabha Aitwal, partnered by Dorjee Lhatoo, Ratan Singh and Sonam Paljor respectively, climbed on three ropes and summitted consecutively. The expedition was notable for the highest ascent ever made by Indian women up to that point in time, a descent complicated by retinal oedema and vision loss in the climbing leader and a subsequent failed claim of a solo ascent by a later member of the same expedition. All three women went on to Everest in 1984 but did not make the summit although Sonam Paljor and Dorjee Lhatoo did. Dorjee Lhatoo climbed Sunanda Devi in 1975, she also participated in the 1976 Indo - Japanese expedition.
This was followed in 1981 by another Indian Army expedition of the Parachute Regiment, which attempted both main and eastern peaks simultaneously. The expedition had placed a memorial to Nanda Devi Unsoeld at the high altitude meadow of Sarson Patal prior to the attempt. The successful attempt lost all its summitteers.
In 1993, a 40 - member team of the Indian Army from the Corps of Engineers was given special permission. The aim of the expedition was multifold -- to carry out an ecological survey, clean up the garbage left by previous expeditions, and attempt the summit. The team included a number of wildlife scientists and ecologists from Wildlife Institute of India, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, World Wide Fund for Nature and Govind Ballabh Pant Institute for Himalayan Environment and Development amongst others. The expedition carried out a comprehensive ecological survey and removed from the park, by porter and helicopter, over 1000 kilograms of garbage. Additionally, five summiteers scaled the summit: Amin Nayak, Anand Swaroop, G.K. Sharma, Didar Singh, and S.P. Bhatt.
After the re-opening of the sanctuary in 1974 to foreign climbers, trekkers, and locals, the fragile ecosystem was soon compromised by firewood cutting, garbage, and grazing. Serious environmental problems were noted as early as 1977, and the sanctuary was closed again in 1983. Currently, Nanda Devi forms the core of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (which includes Nanda Devi National Park), declared by the Indian government in 1982. In 1988, Nanda Devi National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, "of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humankind. '' The entire sanctuary, and hence the main summit (and interior approaches to the nearby peaks), are off - limits to locals and to climbing expeditions, though a one - time exception was made in 1993 for a 40 - member team from the Indian Army Corps of Engineers to check the state of recovery and to remove garbage left by prior expeditions. Sunanda Devi remains open from the east side, leading to the standard south ridge route.
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what is altos de chavon in dominican republic | Altos de Chavón - wikipedia
Altos de Chavón is a re-creation of a Mediterranean style European village located atop the Chavón River in La Romana, Dominican Republic. It is the most popular attraction in the city and hosts a cultural center, an archeological museum, and an amphitheater. The project was conceived by the Italian architect Roberto Copa, and the industrialist Charles Bluhdorn.
The project began in 1976 when the construction of a nearby road and bridge crossing the Chavón River had to be blasted through a mountain of stone. Charles Bludhorn, chairman of Paramount then parent Gulf + Western, had the idea of using the stones to re-create a sixteenth - century style Mediterranean village, similar to some of the architecture found in the historic center of Santo Domingo. Construction was completed in the early 1980s.
Charles Bluhdorn 's daughter, Dominique Bluhdorn, is the current president of the Altos de Chavón Cultural Center Foundation. Narrow, cobble - covered alleyways lined with lanterns and shuttered limestone walls yield several good Mediterranean - style restaurants, a number of quaint shops featuring the diverse craftwork of local artisans, and three galleries exhibiting the talents of students from the on - site design school (La Escuela de Diseño, an affiliate of Parsons School of Design in New York City). Notable attendees of the Altos de Chavón Design School have included Lisa Thon and Mía Lourdes Taveras López.
Adding authenticity to the project is the charming St. Stanislaus Church (Iglesia San Estanislao de Cracovia in Spanish) with its plaza and sparkling fountain that is a popular wedding venue. The Church of St Stanislaus was named after the patron saint of Poland in tribute to Pope John Paul II, who visited Santo Domingo in 1979 and left some of the saint 's ashes behind. It was in this church that Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou married Venezuelan heiress Maria Margarita de Vargas y Santaella on November 6, 2004.
A Roman - styled 5,000 - seat amphitheater hosts 20th century musical acts -- The Pet Shop Boys, Frank Sinatra, and Julio Iglesias to name a few -- while Génesis nightclub provides a popular dance venue for guests from the Casa de Campo resort nearby. The Regional Museum of Archaeology (El Museo Arqueológico Regional) contains a collection of pre-Columbian Indian artifacts unearthed in the surrounding area. Altos de Chavón overlooks Rio Chavón and the Dye Fore golf course of Casa de Campo; both built by former Gulf + Western chairman Charles Bluhdorn.
The Concert for the Americas was held here in August 1982. Performers included Frank Sinatra, Buddy Rich, Heart and Santana.
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how i met your mother season 3 episode 16 cast | How I Met Your Mother (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the American television comedy series How I Met Your Mother premiered on September 24, 2007 and concluded on May 19, 2008. It consisted of 20 episodes, each running approximately 22 minutes in length. CBS broadcast the third season on Monday nights at 8: 00 pm in the United States until December 10, 2007 when the season was interrupted by the writer 's strike, when the season continued on March 17, 2008 it was moved back to 8: 30pm. The complete third season was released on Region 1 DVD on October 7, 2008. In the United Kingdom it aired via E4 from October 30, 2009 weekdays at 7: 30pm.
The third season of How I Met Your Mother was met with mostly positive reviews. Michelle Zoromski of IGN gave the season a positive review and said that "the season was fun and clever, a good, consistent flow from the first two seasons ''.
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how many nba championships do the hornets have | Charlotte Hornets - wikipedia
The Charlotte Hornets are an American professional basketball team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Hornets compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Southeast Division. The team is largely owned by retired NBA player Michael Jordan, who acquired controlling interest in the team in 2010. The Hornets play their home games at the Spectrum Center in Uptown Charlotte.
The original Hornets franchise was established in 1988 as an expansion team, owned by George Shinn. In 2002, Shinn 's franchise relocated to New Orleans and became the New Orleans Hornets. In 2004, the NBA established the Charlotte Bobcats, which was regarded as a new expansion team at the time. In 2013, the New Orleans ' franchise announced it would rebrand itself the New Orleans Pelicans, ultimately returning the Hornets name, records, and official history (spanning from 1988 to 2002) to Charlotte. The Bobcats were officially renamed the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014 -- 15 season.
In 1985, the NBA was planning to expand by three teams by the 1988 -- 1989 season, later modified to include a total of four expansion teams. George Shinn, an entrepreneur from Kannapolis, North Carolina, wanted to bring an NBA team to the Charlotte area, and he assembled a group of prominent local businessmen to head the prospective franchise. The Charlotte area had long been a hotbed for college basketball. Charlotte was also one of the fastest - growing cities in the United States, and was previously one of the three in - state regional homes to the American Basketball Association 's Carolina Cougars from 1969 to 1974.
Despite doubt from critics, Shinn 's ace in the hole was the Charlotte Coliseum, a state - of - the - art arena that would seat almost 24,000 spectators -- the largest basketball - specific arena ever to serve as a full - time home for an NBA team. On April 5, 1987, then - NBA Commissioner David Stern called Shinn to tell him his group had been awarded the 24th NBA franchise, to begin play in 1988. Franchises were also granted to Miami, Minneapolis - Saint Paul, and Orlando.
Originally, the new team was going to be called the Charlotte Spirit, but a name - the - team contest yielded "Hornets '' as the winning choice. The team received further attention when it chose teal as its primary color, setting off a sports fashion craze in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The team 's uniforms, designed by international designer and North Carolina native Alexander Julian, featured a first for NBA uniforms -- pin stripes. Similar designs by other teams followed, as they became a hit.
Shinn hired Carl Scheer as the team 's first President and General Manager. Scheer preferred a roster of veteran players, hoping to put together a competitive team as soon as possible. Former college coach and veteran NBA assistant Dick Harter was hired as the team 's first head coach. In 1988, the Hornets and the Miami Heat were part of the 1988 NBA Expansion Draft. Unlike many expansion franchises that invest in the future with a team composed entirely of young players, Charlotte stocked its inaugural roster with several veterans in hopes of putting a competitive lineup on the court right away. The team also had three draft picks at the 1988 NBA draft.
The Hornets ' first NBA game took place on November 4, 1988, at the Charlotte Coliseum, losing 133 -- 93 to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Four days later, the team notched its first - ever victory over the Los Angeles Clippers, 117 -- 105. On December 23, 1988, the Hornets really gave their fans something to cheer about, beating Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls 103 -- 101 in Jordan 's first return to North Carolina as a professional. The Hornets finished their inaugural season with a record of 20 - 62. Scheer left prior to the 1989 -- 90 season.
Despite initial concerns that the Coliseum was too big, the Hornets were a runaway hit, leading the NBA in attendance, a feat they would achieve seven more times in Charlotte. Eventually, the Hornets would sell out 364 consecutive games.
The Hornets ' second season was a struggle from start to finish. Members of the team rebelled against Dick Harter 's defense - oriented style, and he was replaced mid-season by assistant Gene Littles following an 8 -- 32 start. Despite the change, the team continued to struggle, finishing the season with a disappointing 19 -- 63 record.
The team showed improvement during the following season. They won eight of their first fifteen games, including a 120 -- 105 victory over the Washington Bullets. However, the team went cold, losing their next eleven games. The Hornets, who hosted the 1991 NBA All - Star Game, finished with a 26 -- 56 record. Despite the team 's seven - game improvement over the previous season, Gene Littles was fired at the end of the season and replaced by general manager Allan Bristow.
With the first pick in the 1991 NBA draft, the Hornets drafted power forward Larry Johnson from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Johnson had an impact season, finishing among the league leaders in points and rebounds, and winning the 1992 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. Additionally, Guard Kendall Gill led the club in scoring, averaging over 20 points per game. The team stayed in contention for a playoff spot until March, but finished the year with a 31 -- 51 record.
The Hornets were in the lottery again in 1992 and won the second overall pick in the draft, using it to select Georgetown center Alonzo Mourning. Charlotte now had two 20 -- 10 threats in Johnson and Mourning, who with Kendall Gill, formed perhaps the league 's top young trio. The team finished their fifth season at 44 -- 38, their first - ever winning record and good enough for the first playoff berth in franchise history. Finishing fifth in the Eastern Conference, the Hornets upset the Boston Celtics in the first round, with Mourning winning the series with a 20 - footer in game four. However, the Hornets lacked the experience and depth to defeat the New York Knicks, falling in five games in the second round.
The Hornets finished the 1993 -- 94 season with a 41 -- 41 record, narrowly missing the playoffs. Despite injuries to both Johnson and Mourning, the two led the team in points - per - game.
In the 1994 -- 95 season, the Hornets finished with a 50 - 32 record, returning to the playoffs. Johnson and Mourning again led the team in points - per - game, while also leading the club in rebounding. However, Charlotte was bounced from the playoffs in the first round, falling to the Chicago Bulls in four games. Following the season, the Hornets traded Mourning to the Miami Heat for forward Glen Rice, center Matt Geiger, and guard Khalid Reeves.
Glen Rice would make an immediate impact after joining the Hornets, leading the team in scoring and points - per - game during the 1995 -- 96 season. While Rice and Johnson provided high - powered scoring, Geiger tied with Johnson for the team lead in rebounds, and All - Star guard Kenny Anderson ran the point for the injured Muggsy Bogues. The Hornets were competitive but failed to qualify for the playoffs, again finishing with a 41 -- 41 record. Allan Bristow resigned at the end of the season, and was replaced by Dave Cowens.
The 1996 off - season was again marked by vast changes: Anderson declined to re-sign, Johnson was shipped to the Knicks for power forward Anthony Mason, and the team made a trade on draft day 1996, acquiring center Vlade Divac from the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for the Lakers rights to rookie Kobe Bryant, who the Hornets picked 13th overall. The new - look Hornets were successful, with Divac and Geiger providing the center combination, Mason averaging a double - double, Bogues back at the point, and Rice having the finest season of his career. The team achieved the best season in its history at the time, finishing 54 - 28, and making it back to the playoffs. Despite the success during the regular season, the Hornets went down rather meekly to the Knicks in three games.
The 1997 -- 98 season was also successful. Muggsy Bogues was traded two games into the season, and the team picked up point guard David Wesley and shooting guard Bobby Phills. With Wesley, Phills, Rice, Mason, and Divac, the Hornets romped through the regular season, finishing with a 51 -- 31 record. The Hornets made it to back - to - back playoffs for the first time in franchise history, advancing to the second round, only to be stopped by the Bulls.
The 1998 -- 99 season was shortened. The season did not start until February, as the lockout shortened the regular season to only 50 games. Additionally, Glen Rice was traded to the Lakers for Eddie Jones and Elden Campbell, and Dave Cowens resigned midway through the season. He was replaced by former Celtics teammate Paul Silas, who became the team 's fifth head coach. The team finished with a 26 -- 24 record, but failed to qualify for the playoffs.
The next three seasons (1999 -- 2000, 2000 -- 01 and 2001 -- 02) saw the Hornets in the playoffs each year, reaching the conference semifinals twice. Before the Hornets were eliminated from the 2002 playoffs, the NBA approved a deal for the team to move to New Orleans following the season, which came from discord between Shinn and the city of Charlotte.
Shortly after the relocation of the team to New Orleans, the NBA opened itself to the possibility of adding a replacement team in Charlotte for the 2004 -- 05 season, given an arena deal could be reached. Several ownership groups, including one led by former Boston Celtics star Larry Bird, made bids for the franchise. On December 18, 2002, a group led by Black Entertainment Television founder Robert L. Johnson was awarded the franchise, allowing him to become the first majority African American owner in U.S. major professional sports since the Negro leagues. The franchise with Johnson as its owner was approved by the NBA Board of Governors on January 10, 2003. Hip - hop artist Nelly became a notable co-owner.
In June 2003, the team name was officially announced as the Bobcats. The Charlotte Regional Sports Commission aided the naming process with a "Help Name The Team '' effort that drew over 1,250 suggestions, with ' Flight ' being the winner. However, it was discarded by Johnson and the team involved in creating the team 's identity, being considered abstract and reminiscent of the then - current Iraq War aerial strikes. Given Charlotte was already home to a cat - named team, the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League, designer Chris Weiller made sure to create a logo that would not be similar to the Panthers logo. It has also been speculated that Johnson chose the name "Bobcats '' in reference to his own name.
The Bobcats hired Bernie Bickerstaff as the first head coach and general manager in franchise history. A new arena to host the Bobcats in uptown Charlotte began construction in July 2003. The team would play its home games at the Coliseum until the new building was ready.
The Bobcats held their expansion draft on June 22, 2004, picking up youngsters such as Gerald Wallace, Primož Brezec, and Jason Kapono. Shortly after, they traded with the Los Angeles Clippers to acquire the second pick in the 2004 NBA draft, which they used to select center Emeka Okafor from Connecticut. The Bobcats ' inaugural game, and the first of their 2004 -- 05 season took place on November 4 at the Charlotte Coliseum, and was a 103 -- 96 loss to the Washington Wizards. Two days later, they won their first game in franchise history over the Orlando Magic, 111 -- 100. On December 14, the Bobcats beat the New Orleans Hornets in overtime in the team 's first trip to Charlotte since relocating. The Bobcats finished their inaugural season 18 -- 64. Emeka Okafor, however, won the 2004 -- 05 NBA Rookie of the Year Award.
In the 2005 NBA draft, the Bobcats drafted Raymond Felton and Sean May from North Carolina. In their second season, the Bobcats opened Charlotte Bobcats Arena with an overtime victory over the Celtics. Despite struggling for most of the year, they managed to close out the season with four straight wins to finish with a record of 26 -- 56, an eight - game improvement from the previous season. After the season, the Bobcats announced that NBA legend and North Carolina native Michael Jordan had bought a minority stake in the team. As part of the deal, he became head of basketball operations, though Bickerstaff remained general manager.
The Bobcats showed some improvement during the 2006 -- 07 season, posting a playoff - hopeful record of 22 -- 33 late in February 2007. However, the team went through an eight - game losing streak and dropped their record to 22 -- 41 by early March 2007. Following the slump, Jordan announced that Bickerstaff would not return to coach the following season, but would finish coaching the remainder of the 2006 -- 07 season. The Bobcats won 11 of their last 19 games of Bickerstaff 's tenure to finish their third season 33 -- 49.
Front office and coaching were key focuses for the Bobcats during the 2007 offseason. Rod Higgins was hired as general manager, and Sam Vincent was hired as the second head coach in franchise history. In the 2007 NBA draft, Brandan Wright was selected by the Bobcats with the eighth pick; he was subsequently traded to Golden State for Jason Richardson. The Bobcats were unable to capitalize on offseason moves, finishing the 2007 -- 08 season with a 32 -- 50 record. The team struggled amid rumors of players clashing with the coach. After a year, during which he struggled with personnel decisions, Sam Vincent was fired in April 2008.
On April 29, 2008 the Bobcats reached an agreement to hire Basketball Hall of Famer Larry Brown as the third head coach in franchise history. In the 2008 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected D.J. Augustin from Texas ninth overall. On December 10, 2008, a little over a month into the season, the Bobcats obtained Boris Diaw and Raja Bell in a trade with Phoenix. The trade turned out to be successful as the team came close to reaching the franchise 's first playoff berth, but finished four games out of eighth place with a record of 35 - 47. Following the season, majority owner Bob Johnson announced he was putting the team up for sale.
During the offseason, the team picked Gerald Henderson from Duke 12th overall in the 2009 NBA draft. The Bobcats traded Emeka Okafor for New Orleans Hornets ' center Tyson Chandler, and through more trades acquired Stephen Jackson and Acie Law from the Golden State Warriors. On February 27, 2010, it was announced that Johnson had decided to sell the team to Jordan, allowing Jordan to become the first former NBA player to become majority owner of a franchise.
On April 9, 2010, the Bobcats clinched their first playoff berth since 2002 with a 104 -- 103 road win over the New Orleans Hornets, finishing the 2009 -- 10 season with an overall record of 44 -- 38, their first - ever winning season. Gerald Wallace was a huge factor in the playoff run as he became the Bobcats ' first and only ever NBA All - Star. However, the Bobcats were swept by the Orlando Magic in 4 games.
Despite the departures of Raymond Felton and Tyson Chandler, the Bobcats hoped to make the playoffs for a second straight season. Following a dismal 9 -- 19 start, Jordan announced that Larry Brown had stepped down as head coach. Paul Silas was hired as their new head coach the same day. The Bobcats sent Wallace to the Portland Trail Blazers and received two first round draft picks, Joel Przybilla, Sean Marks, and Dante Cunningham, also acquiring D.J. White and Morris Peterson in a trade with the Thunder. Going down the stretch, injuries to both Stephen Jackson and Tyrus Thomas derailed any chances of Charlotte trying to catch the Indiana Pacers for the eighth spot in the east. In the end, the Bobcats finished the season with a 34 -- 48 record overall, finishing 25 -- 29 under Silas.
On June 13, 2011, the Bobcats made some changes to their front office by hiring former Trail Blazers general manager Rich Cho to the same position and promoting Rod Higgins to President of Basketball Operations. During the 2011 NBA draft the Bobcats sent Jackson, Shaun Livingston, and the 19th pick to Milwaukee and received Corey Maggette and the 7th pick in return. The Bobcats used that pick to draft Bismack Biyombo and with their 9th pick drafted Connecticut 's Kemba Walker, the NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player.
In the lockout - shortened 2011 -- 12 season, Charlotte lost often, including their last 23 games. During their season finale against the New York Knicks, the Bobcats recorded yet another loss as their win percentage dropped to. 106, setting a new record for the worst season ever by an NBA team (as this season was shortened by the lockout, the 1972 -- 73 Philadelphia 76ers still hold the record for most losses in a season with 73). Overall, the team 's record was 7 -- 59. On April 30, 2012, the Bobcats announced that Silas would not return as head coach. St. John 's assistant Mike Dunlap was named as his successor.
With the 2nd pick in the 2012 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected Michael Kidd - Gilchrist and selected Jeffery Taylor with the 31st pick. They also added Ben Gordon, Ramon Sessions and Brendan Haywood in free agency. The Bobcats won their first game against the Pacers, snapping their 23 - game losing streak. The team seemed to rebound with a 7 -- 5 start to the season. However, they promptly went on an 18 - game losing streak from which they never recovered, snapping the streak with a win at Chicago. Charlotte finished 21 -- 61, the second - worst record in the league. Dunlap was fired on April 23, reportedly because the players were turned off by his heavy - handed coaching style. He would be replaced by former Los Angeles Lakers assistant head coach Steve Clifford.
During the 2013 NBA draft, the Bobcats selected power forward / center Cody Zeller 4th overall. The Bobcats would also obtain former Utah Jazz center Al Jefferson in free agency. In February 2014, the team received Gary Neal and Luke Ridnour in a trade with the Bucks. The new players and coaching staff worked as the Bobcats clinched a playoff berth for the second time in franchise history by beating Cleveland on the road. Charlotte finished the regular season 43 - 39. However, the Bobcats were swept in four games by defending champion Miami in the first round.
On May 21, 2013, Jordan officially announced the organization had submitted an application to change the name of the franchise to the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014 -- 15 NBA season, pending a majority vote for approval by the NBA Board of Governors at a meeting in Las Vegas on July 18, 2013. The NBA announced, on July 18, 2013, that it had unanimously approved the rebranding, which would begin upon the conclusion of the 2013 -- 14 season. The Bobcats announced on November 22 they would adopt a modified version of the original Hornets ' teal - purple - white color palette, with black, gray and Carolina blue as accents. The team officially unveiled its future logo and identity scheme during halftime of their December 21 game against the Jazz. The team also started the "Buzz City '' campaign to hype up the Hornets return. On January 16, 2014, the Bobcats revealed new Hornets shirts, hats and gear.
On May 20, 2014, the Bobcats officially became the second incarnation of the Charlotte Hornets. At a press conference regarding the change, team officials also announced that as part of a deal with the NBA and the Pelicans, the renamed Hornets reclaimed the history and records of the 1988 -- 2002 Hornets (in a move similar to that of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns return to the league in 1999), while all of the Hornets ' records during their time in New Orleans from 2002 to 2013 remained with the Pelicans. Charlotte had already been using past footage of the original Hornets as part of the "Buzz City '' campaign.
To restate and clarify a confusing series of events: after the 2002 season, the original Hornets moved to New Orleans. In 2004, Charlotte was granted a new franchise, the Bobcats. After the 2013 -- 14 season, the Bobcats changed their name to the Hornets and reclaimed the history and records of the 1988 -- 2002 Hornets. As a result, the Hornets are now retconned as having suspended operations from 2002 to 2004, while the Pelicans are now retconned as having joined the league in 2002 as an expansion team.
In the 2014 NBA draft, the Hornets had the 9th overall pick from an earlier trade with the Detroit Pistons, which they used to select Noah Vonleh from Indiana. In the same draft they acquired UConn Husky Shabazz Napier, Dwight Powell from Stanford, and Semaj Christon from Xavier in the second round. They later traded Napier to the Heat for P.J. Hairston (formerly from UNC), the rights to the 55th pick, Miami 's 2019 second - round pick and cash considerations. The team also picked up Scotty Hopson (whom they would trade to New Orleans) and cash considerations in free agency.
During their first year of free agency as the Hornets, the team signed former Pacers shooting guard Lance Stephenson. The Hornets also signed former Jazz and Atlanta Hawks forward Marvin Williams to a two - year deal. A mostly difficult year led to a 33 -- 49 record overall and a 4th - place finish in the division. Stephenson was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers for Spencer Hawes and Matt Barnes who was later traded to the Memphis Grizzlies for Courtney Lee.
The following year, the team improved to 48 -- 34 overall, following the acquisition of players such as Nicolas Batum, Jeremy Lamb, and Jeremy Lin. It was the best season in franchise history since the original Hornets era. Charlotte returned to the playoffs, where they lost to the Heat in seven games in the first round.
In the offseason, Jeremy Lin would go to sign with the Brooklyn Nets, Al Jefferson to the Indiana Pacers, and Courtney Lee to the New York Knicks, but the Hornets were able to re-sign Nicolas Batum and Marvin Williams, as well as bring in former All - star Roy Hibbert, Marco Belinelli and Ramon Sessions for a second stint. Hibbert would be traded mid-season to the Milwaukee Bucks with Spencer Hawes for center Miles Plumlee. Kemba Walker was named an Eastern Conference All - star as a reserve, the first all - star game of his career. The Hornets would finish the season with a 36 -- 46 record, missing out on the playoffs.
The Hornets had a successful 2017 offseason. They shipped Plumlee and Belinelli and the 41st pick in the 2017 NBA draft to the Atlanta Hawks for former All - star Dwight Howard and the 31st pick in the 2017 draft. The trade reunited Howard with head coach Steve Clifford, both of whom worked together during Howard 's time in Orlando and Los Angeles. In the draft, Charlotte selected Malik Monk with the 11th overall pick, as well as Frank Jackson with the 31st pick. They then sent Jackson to the New Orleans Pelicans for cash considerations and swing man Dwayne Bacon who was drafted 40th overall. Sessions signed with the New York Knicks, and, to replace the backup guard, they brought in former rookie of the year Michael Carter - Williams from the Chicago Bulls.
The Hornets first logo was a teal and purple anthropomorphic hornet wearing white shoes and gloves dribbling an orange basketball. The words ' Charlotte Hornets ' were in teal and curved across the top and bottom of the logo. An alternate logo, used only for the 1988 -- 89 season, featured a large teal letter ' C ', with ' Charlotte ' in black letters curved upwards underneath. Inside the ' C ' was a smaller white letter ' H ' outlined in teal, with a black colored hornet holding a basketball from birds - eye view placed in the center. The ' H ' portion of the logo remained on the warm - ups and wasteband of the jerseys until the 1991 -- 92 season.
The Bobcats primary logo from 2004 to 2013 consisted of a snarling orange bobcat facing to the right with the indented name ' Bobcats ' above in silver on a blue background, with ' Charlotte ' (also indented) appearing above it in the same blue color. A change to a less vibrant orange and blue, while retaining the same look, was made in 2007. Further color changes in 2013 made the bobcat gray, extended the blue background up to the ' Charlotte ' name, which changed from blue to gray. A Carolina blue outline around the entire logo was also added. In 2007 the Bobcats unveiled a secondary logo, consisting of a snarling bobcat head facing forward with one side shaded orange, and the other blue. A silver basketball was placed behind the right of the head, all encased in an orange - blue - gray circle. During the 2013 rebranding, the colors were changed, with gray and Carolina blue replacing orange on the head and circle outline, respectively, and the basketball changing to orange. This logo would become prominent in the team 's marketing and be featured at center court from 2007 -- 08 until 2013 -- 14.
Charlotte 's second Hornets logo features a teal and purple forward - facing hornet with the words ' Charlotte Hornets ' on its torso. Wings sprout up above the head on both left and right, with teal and purple details. The hornet 's stinger is prominently featured; a basketball pattern is above the stinger. Gray fully outlines the logo. Among the team 's different secondary logos includes a hornet facing to the side, its teal and purple body arched in a ' C ' shape representing the city of Charlotte, and a modified version of the Hornets original logo (sans the basketball) as the official mascot logo.
The original Hornets uniforms were designed by international designer and North Carolina native Alexander Julian. The team chose teal and purple as its primary colors and featured a first for NBA uniforms -- pinstripes. While most teams feature team names on home jerseys and their home city on away jerseys, the Hornets ' uniforms had "Charlotte '' on both home and away jerseys. Home uniforms were white with pinstripes in teal, green, blue and purple, while the away jerseys were teal with pinstripes in white, green, blue and purple. The ' Hugo ' logo was prominently featured on the shorts ' beltline, beginning in early 1992.
In 1994, the Hornets unveiled a purple alternate uniform, with pinstripes in white, green, blue and teal. Likewise Hugo was featured in the beltline.
From 1997 to 2002, the Hornets made slight changes to their uniforms. Hugo was moved from the beltline to the left leg, while side stripes with pinstripes were added, in purple (away) and teal (home) colors. A tricolor featuring teal, purple and blue was featured on the beltline and the piping.
The Bobcats ' first home jerseys were white, reading "Bobcats '' in orange with blue and black trimming. The primary away jersey was orange reading "Charlotte '' in white with blue and black trimming. In the 2006 offseason, the Bobcats announced a new alternate away jersey which debuted during the 2006 -- 07 season. The alternate jersey is blue, with the name "Bobcats '' in white with black, orange and white trimming. Racing Day blue alternates (with an arched ' Charlotte ', checkered flag side stripes, and centered numbers) are used to honor Charlotte 's NASCAR fanbase.
For the 2009 -- 10 season, the Bobcats sported redesigned uniforms, having a mixture of characteristics from both Hornets and Bobcats uniforms. They also resemble the Magic 's current kit. The home uniforms were white and featured an arched "Bobcats '' in blue with orange and white trim. Road uniforms were blue and featured an arched "Charlotte '' in white with blue and orange trim. Both designs feature silver pinstripes, similar to what the Hornets wore. The NASCAR uniform was also updated to include the pinstripes. For the 2011 -- 12 season, however, the Bobcats wore their home uniforms on NASCAR night, complete with a racing flag patch.
The Bobcats unveiled Hardwood Classics uniforms honoring the American Basketball Association (ABA) 's Carolina Cougars, which the team wore for select games in 2012.
The Bobcats unveiled new uniforms on June 19, 2012, their second and final change in five years. Overall, they featured less emphasis on orange. The white home uniforms sported the shorter nickname ' Cats ' in navy and Carolina blue trim, while the numbers were in Carolina blue and navy trim, with navy side stripes. The navy away uniforms featured ' Charlotte ' in white and Carolina blue trim, with the numbers featured the same trim as the city name, with Carolina blue side stripes. In both uniforms, the pinstripes were relegated to the sides. The uniforms bore a close resemblance to the Dallas Mavericks uniforms. The addition of Carolina blue was seen as way to connect owner Michael Jordan 's collegiate roots, while the formal adoption of ' Cats ' for marketing purposes reflected a popular nickname.
The newly renamed Hornets unveiled the team 's uniforms on June 19, 2014, consisting of white home and purple road uniforms with the "Hornets '' wordmark across the chest. The team also unveiled a teal alternate uniform with the "Charlotte '' wordmark across the chest. The teal uniform is planned to be used as an alternate uniform for either home or road games and worn a total of 16 - 20 times per season.
On June 25, 2015, the Hornets unveiled a black sleeved alternate uniform, featuring their "Buzz City '' nickname in front. The team plans to wear the uniform for as many as six games during the 2015 -- 16 NBA season. It was also worn during select games of the 2016 NBA Playoffs.
For the 2017 -- 18 season and beyond, the Hornets will be outfitted by Nike 's Air Jordan brand endorsed by franchise owner Michael Jordan. The white "Association '' uniform and the teal "Icon '' uniform feature the "Hornets '' wordmark in front and the silhouetted hornet on the waistband. The purple "Statement '' uniform is similar to the "Icon '' and "Association '' uniforms, but feature the "Charlotte '' wordmark in front.
The Hornets also wore two special uniforms for the 2017 -- 18 season. The "Classic '' edition featured a revival of the original Hornets teal uniforms in the current Nike template, while the "City '' edition saw the release of a slightly tweaked version of the team 's black "Buzz City '' uniform.
The Hornets played their first 15 seasons at the Charlotte Coliseum, which was called "The Hive '' by fans. With almost 24,000 seats, it was (and still remains) the largest basketball - specific venue in the league by seating capacity. The Coliseum hosted 364 consecutive NBA sell - outs from December 1988 to November 1997. The Hornets would go on to lead the NBA in attendance over the course of their first seven seasons. When they returned as the Bobcats, they temporarily played in the Coliseum in the 2004 -- 05 season while their new arena (the Charlotte Bobcats Arena) was being built. After its completion, the city closed the old Coliseum in the 2005 offseason and opened the new arena with a Rolling Stones concert. In April 2008, the Bobcats reached a naming rights deal with Time Warner Cable, North Carolina 's largest cable television provider. In exchange for the naming rights, Time Warner agreed to tear up the cable television deal that had limited the Bobcats ' exposure over the team 's first four years (see below). When the Hornets returned to Charlotte, "The Hive '' nickname also returned to the arena. In August 2016, the arena was renamed the Spectrum Center after Time Warner 's merger with Charter Communications. Charter 's all - digital TV, internet and voice offering 's brand name is Spectrum.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 2 -- 7
The Hornets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player is ostensibly either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Bold denotes still active with team. Italic denotes still active but not with team.
Regular season (as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season)
Rookie of the Year
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
Sixth Man of the Year
Executive of the Year
The following Hornets players were selected to the NBA All - Star Game.
Notes:
Hugo The Hornet is the current mascot of the franchise, and was retained by the New Orleans Hornets after the Charlotte Hornets departure in 2002, until the New Orleans franchise 's rebranding as the Pelicans. Shortly after the news that the Bobcats would get the Hornets name back, at halftime of a December 21, 2013, game between the Bobcats and the Utah Jazz, Hugo was announced to return as the Charlotte Hornets ' new mascot for the 2014 -- 15 NBA season.
From 2004 to 2014, Rufus D. Lynx was the mascot of the Bobcats. He first appeared on November 1, 2003, according to his official bio on the Bobcats ' website. The name comes from the scientific name of the bobcat, which is Lynx rufus. During the 2012 NBA All - Star Jam Session, Rufus D. Lynx broke a world record along with Coyote, Grizz, Hooper, and Sly the Silver Fox for most "between the legs '' basketball dunks. Bleacher Report ranked Rufus as the 8th best mascot in the NBA. Rufus D. Lynx is featured in NBA Jam 2010. Rufus D. Lynx was officially retired following the conclusion of the 2013 -- 14 NBA season, and the Hornets made him a farewell video on May 2014. The updated Hugo was unveiled on an around the city tour on June 5, 2014.
The Hornets have an official cheerleading squad known as the Charlotte Honey Bees. The Honey Bees perform sideline dances as well as center - court dances during games. They also represent the Hornets brand as ambassadors to the community and are involved in community service activities and charity functions. When the team was known as the Bobcats, the cheerleaders were called the Lady Cats.
From 1988 to 1992, the Hornets aired most road games, and occasional home games, on a network of stations in North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia fronted by WCCB in Charlotte. WCCB 's longtime owner, Cy Bahakel, was a minority partner in the Hornets ' original ownership group. Starting with the 1990 -- 91 season, several games also aired on the original SportSouth, forerunner of Fox Sports South, for customers in North and South Carolina. WJZY became the Hornets ' over-the - air flagship in 1992, and remained as such until 1998. From 1995 to 1998, some games aired on WJZY 's sister station, WFVT - TV (now WMYT - TV). WAXN - TV became the flagship for the 1998 -- 99 season, and remained as such until the original team departed in 2002. Generally, most home games slated for telecast aired on SportSouth / Fox Sports South.
When the team returned as the Bobcats in 2004, Johnson partnered with Time Warner to create Carolinas Sports Entertainment Television (C - SET), a regional sports network. It aired 60 Bobcats games that also aired on Comporium Cable in the South Carolina portion of the Charlotte market. However, Time Warner placed C - SET on its digital package as an incentive to try to get customers to switch to its digital service, leaving analog customers in the dark. It also refused to allow DirecTV or Dish Network to pick up C - SET on their local feeds. As a result, Time Warner customers without digital cable, as well as western North Carolina and most of South Carolina, were left to rely on radio coverage.
C - SET folded on the day of the 2005 NBA draft, and most games then moved to News 14 Carolina, a cable news channel available on Time Warner Cable 's systems in Charlotte, the Triad and the Triangle. However, this still left viewers in most of South Carolina (except for the South Carolina side of the Charlotte area, which saw games on Comporium) as well as eastern and western North Carolina, out in the cold. News 14 was also not available on satellite.
As part of the Time Warner Cable Arena deal, the Bobcats signed over broadcasting rights to Fox Sports South. Starting with the last five games of the 2007 -- 08 season, about 70 games per season were shown on Fox Sports Carolinas (Fox Sports South 's new regional feed) and sister network Sportsouth (renamed Fox Sports Southeast in 2015) in North and South Carolina. The deal is believed to be the first simultaneous naming rights and broadcast rights deal in the history of North American professional sports. Since the 2008 -- 09 season, all Bobcats / Hornets games that are n't slated for national broadcast have aired on either Fox Sports Carolinas or Sportsouth / Fox Sports Southeast.
For the team 's first four seasons after their return to the league, select games also aired on a network of over-the - air stations across North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia, fronted by WJZY from 2004 to 2006 and WMYT from 2006 to 2008.
The team 's radio flagship is all - sports station WFNZ. Before 2010, games had aired on WOLS. WOLS switched its non-sports programming from oldies to Spanish language on January 1, 2009, making Bobcats and Duke basketball the station 's only non-Spanish language programming. WBT was the Hornets ' radio flagship during the original franchise 's entire run.
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where is the ball placed after a touchback nfl | Touchback - wikipedia
In American football, a touchback is a ruling which is made and signaled by an official when the ball becomes dead on or behind a team 's own goal line (i.e., in an end zone) and the opposing team gave the ball the momentum, or impetus, to travel over or across the goal line. Such impetus may be imparted by a kick, pass, fumble, or in certain instances by batting the ball. A touchback is not a play, but a result of events that may occur during a play. A touchback is the opposite of a safety with regard to impetus since a safety is scored when the defending team is responsible for the ball becoming dead on or behind its own goal line.
Examples of instances where a touchback would be awarded include when:
In standard outdoor American football, the team awarded the touchback receives possession of the ball at its own 25 - yard line in college football, and the 25 yard - line for professional football, on kickoffs and free kicks after a safety as of the 2012 season. In arena football, and other indoor football games, a touchback results in the team awarded the touchback receiving the football at its own 3 - yard line. This can result from any of the above events except for punting, which is not a part of arena football. (In arena football, a kicked ball usually bounces back into play off of the rebound nets, but the above can still occur when the ball lands in the slack nets behind the goalposts after a kickoff, passes under the rebound nets and out of play, or in the event of fumbles and interceptions.)
On March 23, 2016, the NFL announced that it would award a touchback line at the 25 - yard line instead of the previous 20 - yard line and much discussion and analysis on the impact of this change has emerged. This new rule will be re-evaluated after the 2016 NFL season.
In college football, if a defensive player gains possession of the ball during a play between his own five - yard line and goal line and the player 's original momentum carries him into the end zone, there is no touchback. Instead, the ball is dead at the point where possession changed. In the National Football League, this rule applies regardless of whether possession is gained inside the five - yard line.
In July 2016, the NCAA announced that it had approved the Ivy League to test an experimental kickoff rule in conference play in the 2016 season. Under this rule, kickoffs will be taken from the 40 - yard line instead of the 35, and touchbacks will be marked at the 20 - yard line instead of the 25. The rule will be re-evaluated in February 2017.
In Canadian football the term touchback is not used. The failure to advance a kicked ball out of the goal area results in a single point being scored by the kickers, as well as possession by the receivers at their 35 - yard line or at the point the ball was kicked from. A turn - over by fumble or interception in the defense 's goal area results in a scrimmage on the 25 - yard line with no points awarded.
For high schools which play six - man football and eight - man football on an 30 - yard long field, a touchback is brought out to the 15 - yard line.
A special rule applies in college football and the NFL with regard to field goal attempts. If a missed field goal occurs in these leagues, where the other team receives possession of the ball depends on the spot from which the ball has been kicked. In NCAA football, the ball will be placed either on the twenty or the line of scrimmage of the play in which the attempt was made; in the NFL, either the twenty or the place from which the ball was kicked. (In either case, the ball goes to the spot which is further from the goal line.) The purpose of this rule is to discourage low - percentage, long - range field goal attempts and to deemphasize the advantage which can accrue when only one team has a kicker who has a reasonable possibility of success from a great distance. In American high school football (except in Massachusetts and Texas, which use college football rules), the missed field goal, regardless of where attempted on the field, results in a touchback as long as the attempt breaks the plane of the goal line, and in arena football, the field goal is treated as if it were a punt.
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who's right who's wrong kenny loggins | Keep the Fire - wikipedia
Keep the Fire is a soft rock album released in 1979 by Kenny Loggins. It was his third solo album after Loggins & Messina disbanded, and is perhaps best known for the hit single "This is It ''. The song was co-written by Michael McDonald, who also performed on the track. Michael Jackson sings backup vocals on the track "Who 's Right, Who 's Wrong ''.
Rolling Stone magazine described it as "the new sound of Southern California: a sophisticated, diffuse, jazz - inflected pop rock performed by an augmented rock band in which guitar and keyboards share equal prominence '' and "churning romantic atmosphere constructed around a matinee idol 's voice ''.
"We Will Survive '' by Nas from the album I Am... sampled the song "This Is It ''.
The award - winning short film, "Keep the Fire '' by Jake Rice serves as a fictionalized "Behind The Album Cover '' story, detailing the origin of the glowing white orb in Kenny 's hands on the cover and the people who were involved in the creation of his hit record. The film includes computer graphics enhanced dramatizations depicting Michael McDonald, Tom Dowd, George Daly, Scott Thom, and Eva Ein. It features musical performances of "This Is It '' and the acoustic version of "What A Fool Believes '' as performed by Loggins and McDonald on the live recording "Outside: Live From The Redwoods ''.
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what term refers to the boiled juice of the cassava that is used to make pepper pot | List of African dishes - wikipedia
This is a list of notable dishes found in African cuisine. African cuisine is a generalized term collectively referring to the cuisines of Africa. The continent of Africa is the second largest landmass on Earth, and is home to hundreds of different cultural and ethnic groups. This diversity is also reflected in the many local culinary traditions in terms of choice of ingredients, style of preparation and cooking techniques.
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when was 50 years of george jones recorded | 50 Years of hits - wikipedia
50 Years of Hits is a country album by George Jones who was signed to Starday Records in 1953, released his first singles in 1954, and had his first hit with "Why Baby Why ' '' in 1955.
Jones began recording in 1954 and his first releases were on the independent Starday label. As his career progressed, he moved to Mercury, United Artists, Musicor, Epic (where he remained for 19 years), MCA Nashville, Asylum, and Bullet Records. Billboard states that Jones has had more charted singles than any artist in any format of music, and 50 Years of Hits features one song per year, representing the actual year that song was released. Most of the time, the song chosen was Jones ' biggest hit of that year, but sometimes it was chosen because Jones thought it was his best song that year. The set is not historically accurate; the compilers were unable to work out a deal with Musicor to feature Jones 's late - ' 60s hits, so they were forced to substitute re-recordings of "Walk Through This World With Me, '' "She 's Mine, '' "I 'll Share My World With You, '' and "A Good Year for the Roses '' for the originals. In addition, the inclusion of his number one single "Still Doin ' Time '' among his mid-1960s hits is an error; the song topped the charts in 1981. Finally, the inclusion of a 1979 duet he recorded with Waylon Jennings, "Night Life '', appears out of place as it was n't even a single. Nevertheless, the package is an enormous document of country music history in its own right, chronicling the career of a man who many believe is the greatest interpreter of the country song who ever lived. Jones had so many hits that some of them, such as his 1974 number one hit "The Door '', and his chart topping duet "Golden Ring '' with Tammy Wynette, could not be included.
In addition to Jennings and Wynette, the album includes appearances Melba Montgomery, Merle Haggard, Alan Jackson, the Oak Ridge Boys, Randy Travis, and Garth Brooks.
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which of the following attributes are features of the social networking service facebook | List of Facebook features - wikipedia
Facebook is a social network service website launched on February 4, 2004. This is a list of software and technology features that can be found on the Facebook website and are available to users of the social media site.
The news feed is the primary system through which users are exposed to content posted on the network. Using a secret method (initially known as EdgeRank), Facebook selects a handful of updates to actually show users every time they visit their feed, out of an average of 1500 updates they can potentially receive.
On September 6, 2006, Ruchi Sanghvi announced a new home page feature called News Feed. Originally, when users logged into Facebook, they were presented with a customizable version of their own profile. The new layout, by contrast, created an alternative home page in which users saw a constantly updated list of their friends ' Facebook activity. News Feed highlights information that includes profile changes, upcoming events, and birthdays, among other updates. This has enabled spammers and other users to manipulate these features by creating illegitimate events or posting fake birthdays to attract attention to their profile or cause. News Feed also shows conversations taking place between the walls of a user 's friends. An integral part of the News Feed interface is the Mini Feed, a news stream on the user 's profile page that shows updates about that user. Unlike in the News Feed, the user can delete events from the Mini Feed after they appear so that they are no longer visible to profile visitors. In 2011 Facebook updated the News Feed to show top stories and most recent stories in one feed, and the option to highlight stories to make them top stories, as well as to un-highlight stories. In response to users ' criticism, Facebook later updated the News Feed to allow users to view recent stories first.
Initially, the addition of the News Feed caused some discontent among Facebook users. Many users complained that the News Feed was too cluttered with excess information. Others were concerned that the News Feed made it too easy for other people to track activities like changes in relationship status, events, and conversations with other users. This tracking is often casually referred to as "Facebook - Stalking ''. In response to this dissatisfaction, creator Mark Zuckerberg issued an apology for the site 's failure to include appropriate customizable privacy features. Thereafter, users were able to control what types of information were shared automatically with friends. Currently, users may prevent friends from seeing updates about several types of especially private activities, although other events are not customizable in this way.
With the introduction of the "New Facebook '' in early February 2010 came a complete redesign of the pages, several new features and changes to News Feeds. On their personal Feeds (now integrated with Walls), users were given the option of removing updates from any application as well as choosing the size they show up on the page. Furthermore, the community feed (containing recent actions by the user 's friends) contained options to instantly select whether to hear more or less about certain friends or applications.
On March 7, 2013, Facebook announced a redesigned newsfeed.
"Friending '' someone is the act of sending another user a friend request on Facebook. The two people are Facebook friends once the receiving party accepts the friend request. In addition to accepting the request, the user has the option of declining the friend request or hiding it using the "Not Now '' feature. Deleting a friend request removes the request, but does allow the sender to resend it in the future. The "Not Now '' feature hides the request but does not delete it, allowing the receiver to revisit the request at a later date.
It is also possible to remove a user from one 's friends, which is referred to as "unfriending '' by Facebook. Many Facebook users also refer to the process as "de-friending ''. "Unfriend '' was New Oxford American Dictionary 's word of the year in 2009. Facebook does not notify a user if they have been unfriended, but there are scripts that provide this functionality. There has also been a study on why Facebook users unfriend, which found that differences, especially between ages, and few mutual friendships were the dominant factors correlated with unfriending, all of which mirrors the decline of physical - world relationships.
Facebook profiles also have advanced privacy features to restrict content to certain users, such as non-friends or persons on a specific list.
The Wall is the original profile space where Facebook users ' content until December 2011 was displayed. It allowed the posting of messages, often short or temporal notes, for the user to see while displaying the time and date the message was written. A user 's Wall is visible to anyone with the ability to see his or her full profile, and friends ' Wall posts appear in the user 's News Feed.
In July 2007, Facebook allowed users to post attachments to the Wall, whereas previously the Wall was limited to text only. In May 2008, the Wall - to - Wall for each profile was limited to only 40 posts. Facebook later allowed users to insert HTML code in boxes attached to the wall via apps like Static FBML which has allowed marketers to track use of their fan pages with Google Analytics.
The concept of tagging in status updates, an attempt to imitate Twitter, began September 14, 2009. This meant putting the name of a user, a brand, an event or a group in a post in such a way that it linked to the wall of the Facebook page being tagged, and made the post appear in news feeds for that page, as well as those of selected friends. This was first done using the "@ '' symbol followed by the person 's name. Later, a numerical ID for the person could be used. Early in 2011, tagging in comments was added.
In addition to postings by other users, the Wall also displayed other events that happened to the user 's profile. This included when information was changed, when they changed their profile picture, and when they connected with new people, among other things.
The Wall has been replaced by the Timeline profile layout, which was introduced in December 2011.
In September 2011, Facebook introduced "Timeline '' at its developer conference, intended to revamp users ' profiles in order to show content based on year, month and date. "Cover '' photos were introduced, taking up a significant portion of the top of pages, and a redesigned display of personal information such as friends, likes and photos appeared on the left - hand side, while story posts appeared on the right. The new design introduced flexible sizing for story posts in the feed, along with more prominent location and photo placement. The Timeline also encouraged scrolling, with constantly loading story posts of users ' pasts. Timeline began gradually rolling out to users in New Zealand starting December 7, 2011, and was made officially available to all users worldwide on December 15. By January, the switch to Timeline became required for all users.In February 2012, Timeline became available for Facebook Pages.
The like button, first enabled on February 9, 2009, enables users to easily interact with status updates, comments, photos, links shared by friends, videos and advertisements. Once clicked by a user, the designated content appears in the News Feeds of that user 's friends, and the button also displays the number of other users who have liked the content, including a full or partial list of those users. The like button was extended to comments in June 2010. After extensive testing and years of questions from the public about whether it had an intention to incorporate a "Dislike '' button, Facebook officially rolled out "Reactions '' to users worldwide on February 24, 2016, letting users long - press on the like button for an option to use one of five pre-defined emotions, including "Love '', "Haha '', "Wow '', "Sad '', or "Angry ''. Reactions were also extended to comments in May 2017.
To mark the 30th anniversary of the GIF, Facebook has introduced a new feature enabling users to add GIFs to comments. The eagerly - awaited feature can be accessed using the GIF button located beside the emoji picker. Users can choose from the available GIFs sourced from Facebook 's GIF partners, but can not upload other GIFs.
Facebook Messenger is an instant messaging service and software application. Originally developed as Facebook Chat in 2008, the company revamped its messaging service in 2010, and subsequently released standalone iOS and Android apps in August 2011. Over the years, Facebook has released new apps on a variety of different operating systems, launched a dedicated website interface, and separated the messaging functionality from the main Facebook app, requiring users to download the standalone apps.
Facebook Messenger lets Facebook users send messages to each other. Complementing regular conversations, Messenger lets users make voice calls and video calls both in one - to - one interactions and in group conversations. Its Android app has integrated support for SMS and "Chat Heads '', which are round profile photo icons appearing on - screen regardless of what app is open, while both apps support multiple accounts, conversations with optional end - to - end encryption, and playing "Instant Games '', which are select games built into Messenger. Some features, including sending money and requesting transportation, are limited to the United States. In 2017, Facebook has added "Messenger Day '', a feature that lets users share photos and videos in a story - format with all their friends with the content disappearing after 24 hours; Reactions, which lets users tap and hold a message to add a reaction through an emoji; and Mentions, which lets users in group conversations type @ to give a particular user a notification.
In March 2015, Facebook announced that it would start letting businesses and users interact through Messenger with features such as tracking purchases and receiving notifications, and interacting with customer service representatives. It also announced that third - party developers could integrate their apps into Messenger, letting users enter an app while inside Messenger and optionally share details from the app into a chat. In April 2016, it introduced an API for developers to build chatbots into Messenger, for uses such as news publishers building bots to give users news through the service, and in April 2017, it enabled the M virtual assistant for users in the U.S., which scans chats for keywords and suggests relevant actions, such as its payments system for users mentioning money. Additionally, Facebook expanded the use of bots, incorporating group chatbots into Messenger as "Chat Extensions '', adding a "Discovery '' tab for finding bots, and enabling special, branded QR codes that, when scanned, take the user to a specific bot.
Notifications tell the user that something has been added to his or her profile page. Examples include: a message being shared on the user 's wall or a comment on a picture of the user or on a picture that the user has previously commented on. Initially, notifications for events were limited to one per event; these were eventually grouped category wise. For instance, 10 users having liked a user 's picture now count for one notification, whereas in the earlier stages, these would have accounted for ten separate notifications. The number of notifications can be changed in the settings section, to a maximum of 99. There is a red notification counter at the top of the page, which if clicked displays the most recent ones.
Facebook Groups can be created by individual users. Groups allow members to post content such as links, media, questions, events, editable documents, and comments on these items.
Groups are used for collaboration and allow discussions, events, and numerous other activities. They are a way of enabling a number of people to come together online to share information and discuss specific subjects. They are increasingly used by clubs, companies and public sector organizations to engage with stakeholders, be they members of the public, employees, members, service users, shareholders or customers. Groups can have three different levels of privacy settings:
Previously, in October 2010, there were version 0 (legacy) and version 1 (current) groups. Version 1 or "new '' groups can contain the name of the group in their URL if the email - address of the group is set. Groups do not have a RSS feed to export the wall or the member list, such as Pages or Events have, but third parties provide such service if the group is set to an "open '' privacy setting. All groups have since been migrated to a single design.
Facebook events are a way for members to let friends know about upcoming events in their community and to organize social gatherings. Events require an event name, network, host name, event type, start time, location, and a guest list of friends invited. Events can be public or private. Private events can not be found in searches and are by invitation only. People who have not been invited can not view a Private event 's description, Wall, or photos. They also will not see any Feed stories about the event. When setting up an event the user can choose to allow friends to upload photos or videos. Note that unlike real world events, all events are treated as separate entities (when the reality is some events sit inside other events, going to one event would preclude going to another, and so on).
In February 2011, Facebook began to use the hCalendar microformat to mark up events, and the hCard microformat for the events ' venues, enabling the extraction of details to users ' own calendar or mapping applications. Third parties facilitate events to be exported from Facebook pages to the iCalendar - format.
In 2007, Facebook introduced the Facebook Marketplace, allowing users to post classified ads within sale, housing, and jobs categories. However, the feature never gained traction, and in 2009, control was transferred to Oodle, the platform powering the functionality. The feature was then eventually shut down in 2014. In October 2016, Facebook announced a new Marketplace, citing the growth of organized "buy and sell '' Facebook Groups, and gave the new version a higher prominence in the main Facebook app, taking the navigation position previously held by Facebook Messenger.
Facebook Notes was introduced on August 22, 2006, as a blogging platform offering users the ability to write notes, attach photos, and optionally import blog entries from external sources.
The most known usage form of the Notes feature was the Internet meme "25 Random Things About Me '', which involves writing 25 things about the user that their friends do not already know about them and using the tag function to ask 25 friends to do the same. The trend became popular in February 2009, with The New York Times discussing its sudden surge, noting that nearly five million notes were created for the purpose, a doubling of the feature 's use in the previous week and larger than any other week in Facebook 's history.
In September 2015, the Notes feature received an update, bringing additional features, such as adding a cover photo and caption, the ability to resize photos, and text formatting options.
Facebook announced Places on August 18, 2010. It is a feature that lets users check into Facebook using a mobile device to let a user 's friends know where they are at the moment.
In November 2010, Facebook announced "Deals '', a subset of the Places offering, which allows for users to check in from restaurants, supermarkets, bars, and coffee shops using an app on a mobile device and then be rewarded discounts, coupons, and free merchandise. This feature is marketed as a digital version of a loyalty card or coupon where a customer gets rewarded for loyal buying behavior.
On October 10, 2010, Places became available on BlackBerry, iPhone, and Android. Other users, including Windows Mobile users, must use an HTML5 browser to use Places via Facebook Touch Site.
Facebook Places was reported discontinued on August 24, 2011, but was relaunched in November 2014, now including cover images, discovery sections, city / category landing pages, a deeper integration with the Location API, Graph Search queries and user generated content.
The Facebook Platform provides a set of APIs and tools which enable third - party developers to integrate with the "open graph '', whether through applications on Facebook.com or external websites and devices. Launched on May 24, 2007, Facebook Platform has evolved from enabling development just on Facebook.com to one also supporting integration across the web and devices.
Facebook Platform Statistics as of May 2010:
Third party companies such as Adonomics, Kontagent, and Mixpanel provide application metrics, and blogs such as AppRate, Inside Facebook, and Face Reviews have sprung up in response to the clamor for Facebook applications. On July 4, 2007, Altura Ventures announced the "Altura 1 Facebook Investment Fund '', becoming the world 's first Facebook - only venture capital firm.
On August 29, 2007, Facebook changed the way in which the popularity of applications is measured, to give attention to the more engaging applications, following criticism that ranking applications only by the number of people who had installed the application was giving an advantage to the highly viral, yet useless applications. Tech blog Valleywag has criticized Facebook Applications, labeling them a "cornucopia of uselessness ''. Others have called for limiting third - party applications so the Facebook "user experience '' is not degraded.
Primarily attempting to create viral applications is a method that has certainly been employed by numerous Facebook application developers. Stanford University even offered a class in the Fall of 2007, entitled, Computer Science (CS) 377W: "Create Engaging Web Applications Using Metrics and Learning on Facebook ''. Numerous applications created by the class were highly successful, and ranked amongst the top Facebook applications, with some achieving over 3.5 million users in a month.
In May 2010, Facebook began testing Questions, which is expected to compete with services such as Yahoo! Answers.
On March 24, 2011, Facebook announced that its new product, Facebook Questions, facilitates short, poll - like answers in addition to long - form responses, and also links directly to relevant items in Facebook 's directory of "fan pages ''.
Facebook allows users to upload photos, and to add them to albums. In December 2010, the company enabled facial recognition technology, helping users identify people to tag in uploaded photos. In May 2011, Facebook launched a feature to tag specific Facebook pages in photos, including brands, products, and companies. On mobile, Facebook introduced photo filters in August 2011.
In May 2016, Facebook started allowing users to upload and view 360 - degree photos. Mobile users will move their device around to navigate the environment, while website users will have to click and drag.
According to Facebook in 2010, there were over 50 billion photos stored on the service.
In May 2007, Facebook officially launched its video platform, allowing users to upload recorded videos or livestream videos from their webcams. The service supports the ability to "tag '' friends in similar ways to photos. In December 2014, Facebook began rolling out functionality for business Pages to pin ("Feature '') a video to the top of their Videos tab.
In January 2015, Facebook published a report detailing a significant growth in video viewing on the platform, specifically highlighting the fact that Facebook has seen an average of one billion video views every day since June 2014.
In September 2015, Facebook announced that it would begin showing view counts for publicly posted videos. A few weeks later, the company announced that users will be able to view 360 - degree videos. On the website, users can click around to change the perspective, whereas mobile users can physically move their device to interact with the virtual space. The result is the work of a collaboration between Facebook and its Oculus division.
In August 2015, Facebook began to allow users to live stream video. Streams appear on the News Feed, and users can comment on them in real - time. Live broadcasts are automatically saved as a video post to the streamer 's page. The feature was positioned as a competitor to services such as Meerkat and Periscope.
The feature was initially available only to verified public figures through the Facebook Mentions app (which is also exclusive to these users). Live streaming began to roll out for public use in January 2016, beginning with the Facebook iOS app in the United States.
In April 2016, Facebook unveiled a live - streaming API, aimed to allow developers to use any device, including professional video cameras and drones, to integrate with the live - video streaming platform. Facebook also updated its mobile app to provide a dedicated section for showcasing current and recent live broadcasts. To drive its adoption, Facebook provided incentives to publishers and celebrities to perform live broadcasts, including monetary rewards.
In March 2017, Facebook extended live - streaming support to PCs. In May, Facebook Live was updated on iOS to let two users livestream together, and the following month, Facebook added support for closed captioning to live video. This is limited to the CEA - 608 standard, a notable difference from the automatic closed captioning available for Page videos that are recorded and then uploaded, due to difficulties in adapting the same standard at scale on the low - latency real - time nature for live content.
At the end of 2017, Facebook Live was updated to offer support for livestreaming Facebook Messenger games.
During the same week as its tenth anniversary, Facebook launched the Paper iPhone app. The app consists of two major features: Firstly, Facebook 's News Feed is more graphic, as the app uses technology such as full - screen photos and video footage. Content is organized under headings such as "Creators '' and "Planet ''; secondly, Paper allows users to post statuses, photos, and "stories '' to Facebook that has been described as a different, more presentation - focused design.
Facebook Mentions, initially an iOS - only app, was released by the company in 2014. It allows public figures with a verified account to engage with their respective fanbases in a more concentrated experience. The app had been in testing with select celebrities for nearly a year before its launch. In September 2015, Facebook expanded the availability of the Mentions app to journalists and other verified pages, and also gave users of the app the ability to post exclusively to their Facebook followers rather than both followers and friends. The update also enabled the first livestreaming functionality through Facebook Live. Facebook Mentions became available on Android in January 2016. In December 2016, Facebook Live on Mentions received several updates, including comment moderation tools, broadcasting appearance customization, and editing features to remove unnecessary footage at the beginning or end of a broadcast.
In November 2015 Facebook made changes to their text - only status update on Timeline to allow for adjustable text sizes (dynamic text) on mobile apps.
Facebook Credits are a virtual currency users can use to buy gifts, and virtual goods in many games and applications on the Facebook platform. As of July 2010, users of Facebook can purchase Facebook credits in Australian Dollars, British Pounds, Canadian Dollars, Chilean peso, Colombian peso, Danish krone, Euro, Hong Kong dollar, Japanese yen, Norwegian krone, Swedish krona, Swiss franc, Turkish lira, US Dollars, and Venezuelan Bolivar. Facebook credits can be used on many popular games such as Happy Aquarium, Happy Island, Zoo Paradise, Happy Pets, Hello City, It Girl, FarmVille, and Mafia Wars.
Although like all other website apps Facebook made its presence on the smartphones as mentioned but also is present for the feature phones. As the company said that the feature phones dominate the American cell phone markets hence an app was exclusively made for this purpose as well.
Released in July 2013, Graph Search allows users to search within their network of friends for answers to natural language questions such as, "Movies my friends who like The Hobbit liked '' and receive direct answers, rather than the list of websites that search engines usually provide.
According to a June 2010 report by Network World, Facebook said that it was offering "experimental, non-production '' support for IPv6, the long - anticipated upgrade to the Internet 's main communications protocol. The news about Facebook 's IPv6 support was expected; Facebook told Network World in February 2010, that it planned to support native IPv6 user requests "by the midpoint of this year ''.
In a presentation at the Google IPv6 Implementors Conference, Facebook 's network engineers said it was "easy to make (the) site available on v6 ''. Facebook said it deployed dual - stack IPv4 and IPv6 support on its routers, and that it made no changes to its hosts in order to support IPv6. Facebook also said it was supporting an emerging encapsulation mechanism known as Locator / Identifier Separation Protocol (LISP), which separates Internet addresses from endpoint identifiers to improve the scalability of IPv6 deployments. "Facebook was the first major Web site on LISP (v4 and v6) '', Facebook engineers said during their presentation. Facebook said that using LISP allowed them to deploy IPv6 services quickly with no extra cost. Facebook 's IPv6 services are available at www.v6.facebook.com m.v6.facebook.com, www.lisp6.facebook.com and m.lisp6.facebook.com. In addition, Facebook enabled IPv6 on its main domain names during World IPv6 Launch.
Listen with Friends allows Facebook users to listen to music and discuss the tunes using Facebook Chat with friends at the same time. Users can also listen in as a group while one friend acts as a DJ. Up to 50 friends can listen to the same song at the same time, and chat about it. Every time a user begins listening to music with a friend, a "story will be posted to her / his friends '' ticker and / or news feed. Users will have control over who will be able to see when they are listening with a friend through their App Settings page after installing the compatible music app. This feature was initially supported through Audizer.com, but as of August 2012, services were discontinued and the Facebook / Audizer splash page has been redirected to Facebook.com.
Facebook chat supports numerous emoticons, like (^ ^ ^) for a shark. Recently, it has also become possible to post larger, animated images through Facebook 's built in emotion system.
At an event in April 2013, Mark Zuckerberg announced a new Android - based "Home '' feature, which would show content from users ' Facebook pages on the home page of their mobile phones, without having to open an app.
Since Facebook 's inception, users have had the ability to "poke '' other users. The feature, its actual purpose never officially explained by the company, served as a quick way to attract the attention of another user. In a 2007 opinion article in The Guardian, Facebook explained to a question about the "poke '' that "When we created the poke, we thought it would be cool to have a feature without any specific purpose... People interpret the poke in many different ways, and we encourage you to come up with your own meanings. '' The feature was never removed from Facebook; in December 2017, the company gave the button a significantly more prominent placement on users ' profiles, along with new forms of quick interactions, including "hug '', "wink '' and "high - five '', collectively all referred to as "Greetings ''.
Many smartphones offer access to the Facebook services either through their respective web browsers or through mobile apps.
The iPhone - compatible website was launched in August 2007, followed by a dedicated iOS app in July 2008. The early mobile website was severely limited in its feature set, only gaining the ability to post comments in late 2008, a year after launch. By 2009, other companies had developed Facebook mobile apps for Nokia, HTC, LG, Motorola, Samsung, Sony Ericsson, and Windows Mobile devices, though a significant portion of Facebook 's userbase was still using the original mobile website. During the early success of app stores, Facebook gamled on the idea of a universal webpage rather than specific operating systems, choosing to maintain its primary focus on its mobile site. CEO Mark Zuckerberg told Fortune that such a decision was "probably one of the biggest mistakes we 've ever made ''. While the app was experiencing significant criticism for software bugs and crashes, Facebook began its "Facebook for Every Phone '' initiative in January 2011, designing an app for a large number of feature phones. As Android and iOS rose in popularity, Facebook shifted its focus, creating dedicated apps for each platform. However, Facebook was still not entirely convinced, using a "hybrid '' solution of native computing code as a sort of "picture frame '' for its mobile website. Mashable described it as a "one - size - fits - all nightmare ''. In October 2011, Apple updated its iOS app with support for iPad, adding larger photos and enabling more functionality, including the ability to post status updates and photos. Finally, in 2012, the company relaunched its Android and iOS apps, going mobile - first and putting all of its resources into making an optimized experience for smartphones, including significant speed improvements. In the years since, the company has increasingly expanded the feature set of its apps, dedicating more resources and seeing its userbase shifting from the mobile web to its apps.
Third - party companies also created Facebook apps for their platforms. Microsoft developed a Facebook app for their Windows Phone 7 platform in February 2012, Nokia offered a Facebook app on its Ovi Store for Nokia S60 devices in June 2009, while BlackBerry also offered a Facebook application for its software platform in September 2012.
In December 2013, Facebook enabled a "Donate '' button for charities and non-profit organizations to raise money. Approximately two years later, the company released a new fundraiser feature, exclusively allowing non-profits to set up campaign pages and collect payments. This was expanded in June 2016, when anyone could set up fundraisers on behalf of non-profit organizations, and again expanded in March 2017 to offer personal users in the United States the ability to raise money, as well as for Facebook Pages to add a "Donate '' button to their Facebook Live video streams. In May, fundraisers were expanded with support for communities and sports teams, and subsequently, in September, expanded internationally for charities in Europe.
"Status updates '' (also called as a "status '') allows users to post messages for their friends to read. In turn, friends can respond with their own comments, as well as clicking the "Like '' button. A user 's most recent updates appear at the top of their Timeline / Wall and are also noted in the "Recently Updated '' section of a user 's friend list. Originally, the purpose of the feature was to allow users to inform their friends of their current "status '', including feelings, whereabouts, or actions, where Facebook prompted the status update with "Username is ''... and users filled in the rest. This feature first became available in September 2006, though on December 13, 2007, the requirement to start a status update with is was removed.
The is updates were followed by the "What are you doing right now? '' status update question; in March 2009, the question was changed to "What 's on your mind? '' In 2009, Facebook added the feature to tag certain friends (or groups, etc.) within one 's status update by adding an @ character before their name, turning the friend 's name into a link to their profile and including the message on the friend 's wall. Tagging has since been updated to recognize friends ' names by typing them into a status while a list of friends whose names match the inputted letters appears. A large percentage of the updates that are posted are humorous and as a result, many apps, websites and books have sprung up to help users to update their own.
In September 2011, Facebook launched a "Subscribe '' button, allowing users to follow public updates from people without requiring a Facebook friendship connection. The feature was expanded to Pages in July 2012, and to stories in the News Feed in August 2012.
In September 2011, Facebook launched the "Ticker '', a continually - updated feed on the right side of the screen showing friends ' activities, including "likes '', status updates, and comments. The feed was criticized by users for offering a quiet way to stalk users ' every move, prompting the company to consider removing it in a March 2013 redesign, though never did. In December 2017, the company officially ended the "Ticker '' feature, though quietly and without an announcement or explanation.
Starting June 2009, Facebook lets users choose a username specifically for their profile, enabling them to share links bearing their own www.facebook.com/username URL address. There are limitations, however, to what usernames can be used, including only alphanumerical characters (A-Z, 0 - 9), a length of over five characters, only one username that is unique to the profile, and must adhere to Facebook 's Statement of Rights and Responsibilities agreement. The following December, Facebook launched its own URL shortener based on the FB.me domain name.
TechCrunch reported in February 2012 that Facebook would introduce a "Verified Account '' concept, denoting official pages for public figures. Such pages gain more prominence in the "People To Subscribe To '' suggestions lists. Persons with established stage names, such as Stefani Germanotta known as Lady Gaga, can also choose to use their specific stage name for their profile, with the real name in the profile 's "About '' page. However, at the time, the feature did not show any visual signs of distinction from other pages. In May 2013, the concept was updated to include a blue checkmark badge to highlight the account 's Verified status. In October 2015, Facebook introduced a "gray badge '' verification system for local businesses with physical addresses, with the gray color intended to differentiate from its typical blue checkmarks assigned to celebrities, public figures, sports teams and media organizations.
In June 2013, Facebook introduced its support for clickable hashtags to help users search for topics being actively discussed on the social network.
In March 2014, some page administrators in Italy started being prompted to add an impressum to their Facebook page, described as "a legally mandated statement of the ownership and authorship of a document ''.
In October 2014, Facebook announced that users could connect to the website through a Tor hidden service using the privacy - protecting Tor browser and encrypted using SSL. Announcing the feature, Facebook engineer Alec Muffett said that "Facebook 's onion address provides a way to access Facebook through Tor without losing the cryptographic protections provided by the Tor cloud. (...) It provides end - to - end communication, from your browser directly into a Facebook datacenter. ''
In November 2014, Facebook introduced "Say Thanks '', an experience that lets user create personalized video greeting cards for friends on Facebook.
In December 2014, Facebook announced that Pages run by businesses can display a so - called "call - to - action button '' next to the page 's like button. "Call to action '' is a customizable button that lets page administrators add external links for easy visitor access to the business ' primary objective, with options ranging from "Book Now '', "Contact Us '', "Use App '', "Play Game '', "Shop Now '', "Sign Up '', and "Watch Video ''. Initially only rolled out in the United States, the feature was expanded internationally in February 2015.
In September 2017, Facebook began testing a "Snooze '' button, letting users temporarily unfollow friends for 24 hours, 7 days or 30 days. The following December, the feature was enabled for all users, though the period of temporary unfollowing is specifically for 30 days.
In response to decreased use of status updates on Facebook, the company began enabling "Did You Know? '' social questionnaires in December 2017. The feature, which asks users to answer questions that are then shared as a status update, includes such questions as "The superpower I want most is... '', "The first thing I 'd do after winning the lottery is... '', and "A guilty pleasure that I 'm willing to admit to is... ''
In December 2017, Facebook announced "Sound Collection ''; an archive of copyright - and payment - free soundtracks and audio effects its users can use in their videos.
On May 12, 2011, Facebook announced that it is launching several new security features designed to protect users from malware and from getting their accounts hijacked.
Facebook will display warnings when users are about to be duped by clickjacking and cross-site scripting attacks in which they think they are following a link to an interesting news story or taking action to see a video and instead end up spamming their friends.
Facebook also offers two - factor authentication called "login approvals '', which, if turned on, will require users to enter a code whenever they log into the site from a new or unrecognized device. The code is sent via text message to the user 's mobile phone.
Facebook is partnering with the free Web of Trust safe surfing service to give Facebook users more information about the sites they are linking to from the social network. When a user clicks on a potentially malicious link, a warning box will appear that gives more information about why the site might be dangerous. The user can either ignore the warning or go back to the previous page.
In February 2010, TechCrunch reported that Facebook was working to rewrite its messaging service to turn it into a "fully featured webmail product '', dubbed "Project Titan ''. The feature, unofficially dubbed a "Gmail killer '' internally, was launched on November 15, 2010, and allowed users to directly communicate with each other via Facebook using several different methods. Users could create their own "[email protected] '' email address to communicate, use text messaging, or through the Facebook website or mobile app 's instant messaging chat. All messages were contained within single threads in a unified inbox. The email service was terminated in February 2014 because of low uptake.
Facebook Markup Language (FBML) was considered to be Facebook 's own version of HTML. While many of the tags of HTML can be used in FBML, there were also important tags that could not be used such as HTML, HEAD, and BODY. Also, JavaScript could not be used with FBML.
According to the Facebook Markup Language (FBML) Developer 's page, FBML is now deprecated. No new features will be added to FBML and developers are recommended to develop new applications utilizing HTML, JavaScript and CSS. FBML support ended January 1, 2012, and FBML was no longer functioning as of June 1, 2012.
In August 2009, Facebook announced the rollout of a "lite '' version of the site, optimized for users on slower or intermittent Internet connections. Facebook Lite offered fewer services, excluded most third - party applications and required less bandwidth. A beta version of the slimmed - down interface was released first to invited testers before a broader rollout across users in the United States, Canada, and India. It was announced on April 20, 2010, that support for the "lite '' service had ended and that users would be redirected back to the normal, full content, Facebook website. The service was operational for only eight months.
In June 2015, this feature was reintroduced as an app with a total size of less than 1MB, primarily focusing markets where internet access is slow or limited.
On April 25, 2011, Facebook announced a pilot program called Deals, which offered online coupons and discounts from local businesses. Facebook initially released Deals as a test in five cities -- Atlanta, Austin, Dallas, San Diego, and San Francisco -- with the hope of expanding. This new offering was a direct competitor to other social commerce sites such as LivingSocial and Groupon for online coupons and deals - of - the - day. Facebook users were able to use Facebook Credits to purchase vouchers that can be redeemed for real goods and services. Facebook has since closed its deal program.
Facebook also have reviews on a Facebook page If you want to remove them follow this http://thetechnicalgeeks.com/how-to-remove-facebook-page-reviews/
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when did the la kings join the nhl | Los Angeles Kings - Wikipedia
The Los Angeles Kings are a professional ice hockey team based in Los Angeles. They are members of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The team was founded on June 5, 1967, after Jack Kent Cooke was awarded an NHL expansion franchise for Los Angeles on February 9, 1966, becoming one of the six teams that began play as part of the 1967 NHL expansion. The Kings played their home games at The Forum in Inglewood, California, a suburb of Los Angeles, for thirty - two years, until they moved to the Staples Center in Downtown Los Angeles at the start of the 1999 -- 2000 season.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Kings had many years marked by impressive play in the regular season only to be washed out by early playoff exits. Their highlights in those years included the strong goaltending of Rogie Vachon, and the "Triple Crown Line '' of Charlie Simmer, Dave Taylor and Hall of Fame player Marcel Dionne, who had a famous upset of the uprising Edmonton Oilers in a 1982 playoff game known as the Miracle on Manchester. In 1988, the Kings traded with the Oilers to get their captain Wayne Gretzky, leading to a successful phase of the franchise that raised hockey 's popularity in Los Angeles, and helped raise the sport 's profile in the "Sun Belt '' region. Gretzky, fellow Hall of Famer Luc Robitaille and defenseman Rob Blake led the Kings to the franchise 's sole division title in 1990 -- 91, and the Kings ' first Stanley Cup Final appearance in 1993.
After the 1993 Finals, the Kings entered financial problems, with a bankruptcy in 1995 which lead to the franchise being acquired by Philip Anschutz (owner of Anschutz Entertainment Group, operators of Staples Center) and Edward P. Roski. A period of mediocrity ensued, with the Kings only re-surging as they broke a six - year playoff drought in the 2009 -- 10 season, with a team that included goaltender Jonathan Quick, defenseman Drew Doughty, and forwards Dustin Brown, Anze Kopitar and Justin Williams. Under coach Darryl Sutter, who was hired early in the 2011 -- 12 season, the Kings won two Stanley Cups in three years: 2012, over the New Jersey Devils, and 2014, against the New York Rangers while Quick and Williams respectively won the Conn Smythe Trophy.
When the NHL decided to expand for the 1967 -- 68 season amid rumblings that the Western Hockey League (WHL) was proposing to turn itself into a major league and compete for the Stanley Cup, Canadian entrepreneur Jack Kent Cooke paid the NHL $2 million to place one of the six expansion teams in Los Angeles. Following a fan contest to name the team, Cooke chose the name Kings because he wanted his club to take on "an air of royalty, '' and picked the original team colors of purple (or "Forum Blue '', as it was later officially called) and gold because they were colors traditionally associated with royalty. The same color scheme was worn by the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), which Cooke also owned. Cooke wanted his new NHL team to play in the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, home of the Lakers, but the Los Angeles Coliseum Commission, which manages the Sports Arena and the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to the present day, had already entered into an agreement with the WHL 's Los Angeles Blades (whose owners had also tried to land the NHL expansion franchise in Los Angeles) to play their games at the Sports Arena. Frustrated by his dealings with the Coliseum Commission, Cooke said, "I am going to build my own arena... I 've had enough of this balderdash. ''
Construction on Cooke 's new arena, the Forum, was not yet complete when the 1967 -- 68 season began, so the Kings opened their first season at the Long Beach Arena in the neighboring city of Long Beach on October 14, 1967, defeating another expansion team, the Philadelphia Flyers, 4 -- 2. The "Fabulous Forum '' finally opened its doors on December 30, 1967, with the Kings being shut out by the Flyers, 2 -- 0. While the first two seasons had the Kings qualifying for the playoffs, afterwards poor management led the Kings into hard times. The general managers established a history of trading away first - round draft picks, usually for veteran players, and attendance suffered during this time. Eventually the Kings made two key acquisitions to resurge as a contender. By acquiring Toronto Maple Leafs winger Bob Pulford, who would later become the Kings ' head coach, in 1970, and Montreal Canadiens goaltender Rogie Vachon in 1971, the Kings went from being one of the worst defensive teams in the league to one of the best, and in 1974 they returned to the playoffs.
After being eliminated in the first round of the playoffs in both 1973 -- 74 and 1974 -- 75, the Kings moved to significantly upgrade their offensive firepower when they acquired center Marcel Dionne from the Detroit Red Wings. Behind Dionne 's offensive prowess, the strong goaltending of Rogie Vachon, and the speed and scoring touch of forward Butch Goring, the Kings played two of their most thrilling seasons yet, with playoff match ups against the then - Atlanta Flames in the first round, and the Boston Bruins in the second round, both times being eliminated by Boston.
Bob Pulford left the Kings after the 1976 -- 77 season after constant feuding with then owner Jack Kent Cooke, and General Manager Jake Milford decided to leave as well. This led to struggles in the 1977 -- 78 season, where the Kings finished below. 500 and were easily swept out of the first round by the Maple Leafs. Afterwards Vachon would become a free agent and sign with the Detroit Red Wings. The following season, Kings coach Bob Berry tried juggling line combinations, and Dionne found himself on a new line with two young, mostly unknown players: second - year right winger Dave Taylor and left winger Charlie Simmer, who had been a career minor - leaguer. Each player benefited from each other, with Simmer being the gritty player who battled along the boards, Taylor being the play maker, and Dionne being the natural goal scorer. This line combination, known as the "Triple Crown Line '', would go on to become one of the highest - scoring line combinations in NHL history. During the first three seasons of the Triple Crown Line, a period where Dr. Jerry Buss purchased the Kings, the Lakers, and the Forum for $67.5 million, the Kings were eliminated in the first round. Then in the 1982 Stanley Cup playoffs, a Kings team that finished 17th overall and fourth in their division with 63 points, managed to upset the second overall Edmonton Oilers, led by the young Wayne Gretzky. With two victories in Edmonton and one at the Forum -- dubbed "Miracle on Manchester '', where the Kings managed to erase a 5 -- 0 deficit at the third period and eventually win in overtime -- the Kings managed to eliminate the vaunted Oilers, but they wound up eliminated by eventual finalists Vancouver Canucks in five games.
Despite Dionne 's leadership, the Kings missed the playoffs in the next two seasons. A postseason return occurred in 1984 -- 85 under coach Pat Quinn, where the Kings were quickly swept out of the playoffs by the Oilers in their second - straight Stanley Cup championship. After a losing season in 1985 -- 86, the Kings saw two important departures during 1986 -- 87, as Quinn signed a contract in December to become coach and general manager of the Vancouver Canucks with just months left on his Kings contract -- eventually being suspended by NHL President John Ziegler for creating a conflict of interest - and Dionne left the franchise in March in a trade to the New York Rangers. Despite these shocks, a young squad that would lead the Kings into the next decade, including star forwards Bernie Nicholls, Jimmy Carson, Luc Robitaille, and defenseman Steve Duchesne, started to flourish under head coach Mike Murphy, who played thirteen season with the Kings and was their captain for seven years, and his replacement Robbie Ftorek. The Kings made the playoffs for two seasons, but they were unable to get out of the first round given the playoff structuring forced them to play either the Oilers or the equally powerful Calgary Flames en route to the Conference Finals. In all, the Kings faced either the Oilers or the Flames in the playoffs four times during the 1980s.
However, the 1988 -- 89 season would be a big turning point for the franchise. In 1987, coin collector Bruce McNall purchased the Kings from Buss and turned the team into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight. On August 9, 1988, McNall acquired the league 's best player, Wayne Gretzky, in a blockbuster trade with the Edmonton Oilers. The trade rocked the hockey world, especially north of the border where Canadians mourned the loss of a player they considered a national treasure. McNall changed the team colors to silver and black. Gretzky 's arrival generated much excitement about hockey and the NHL in Southern California, and the ensuing popularity of the Kings is credited with the arrival of another team in the region, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim (later renamed to Anaheim Ducks in 2006), and the arrival of a new NHL team in Northern California in the form of the San Jose Sharks, and the NHL 's expanding or moving into other Sun Belt cities such as Dallas, Phoenix, Tampa, Miami and Nashville.
In Gretzky 's first season with the Kings, he led the team in scoring with 168 points on 54 goals and 114 assists, and won his ninth Hart Memorial Trophy as the league 's Most Valuable Player. The fourth overall Kings eliminated Gretzky 's old team, the Oilers, in the first round of the 1989 playoffs, before being swept out of the playoffs in the second round by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Flames. Clashes between Gretzky and head coach Robbie Ftorek led to his dismissal, replaced by Tom Webster. The next season, where Gretzky became the league 's all - time leading scorer, was the inverse of its predecessor, with the Kings eliminating the defending champion Flames before falling to the eventual champion Oilers. Gretzky spearheaded the Kings to their first regular season division title in franchise history in the 1990 -- 91 season, but the heavily favored Kings lost a close series against Edmonton in the second round that saw four games go into overtime. After the third straight elimination by the Oilers in 1992, Tom Webster was relieved from head coach, and General Manager Rogie Vachon was moved to a different position in the organization and named Nick Beverley as his successor. Beverley hired coach Barry Melrose, then at the Adirondack Red Wings.
Melrose would help the Kings reach new heights in the 1992 -- 93 season, even if Gretzky missed 39 games with a career - threatening herniated thoracic disk. Led by Luc Robitaille, who filled in as captain on Gretzky 's absence, the Kings finished with a 39 -- 35 -- 10 record (88 points), clinching third place in the Smythe Division. Heavily contested series at the 1993 playoffs had the Kings eliminating the Flames, Canucks and Leafs en route to their first berth in the Stanley Cup Finals. In the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, the Kings faced the Montreal Canadiens. After winning the opening game 4 -- 1, the Kings suffered a turnaround during Game 2. Late in the contest, with the Kings leading by a score of 2 -- 1, Canadiens coach Jacques Demers requested a measurement of Kings defenseman Marty McSorley 's stick blade. His suspicions proved to be correct, as the curve of blade was too great, and McSorley was penalized. The Canadiens pulled their goalie, Patrick Roy, giving them a two - man advantage, and Eric Desjardins scored on the resulting power play to tie the game. Montreal went on to win the game in overtime on another goal by Desjardins, and the Kings never recovered. They dropped the next two games in overtime, and lost Game 5, 4 -- 1, giving the Canadiens the 24th Stanley Cup in franchise history.
The next chapter after the 1993 playoff run for the Kings was tough for Kings fans, having a sluggish start on 1993 -- 94 season to cost them a playoff berth, the first absence from the postseason since 1986. At the same time, McNall defaulted on a loan from Bank of America, who threatened to force the Kings into bankruptcy unless he sold the team. McNall sold the team to IDB Communications founder Jeffrey Sudikoff and former Madison Square Garden president Joseph Cohen in the wake of a federal investigation into his financial practices. It later emerged that McNall 's free - spending ways put the Kings in serious financial trouble. At one point, Cohen and Sudikoff were even unable to meet player payroll, and were ultimately forced into bankruptcy in 1995. They were forced to trade many of their stronger players, and the middling results led to Gretzky 's departure in 1996 as he requested a trade to a legitimate Stanley Cup contender, and went to the St. Louis Blues.
On October 6, 1995, one day before the 1995 -- 96 season opener, the bankruptcy court approved the purchase of the Kings by Phillip Anschutz and Edward P. Roski for $113.5 million. The subsequent rebuild had the Kings only return to the playoffs in 1998, led by captain Rob Blake and strong players Jozef Stumpel and Glen Murray, where the highly skilled St. Louis Blues swept the team in four games. The Kings suffered though an 1998 -- 99 injury - plagued season as they finished last in the Pacific Division and missed the playoffs with a 32 -- 45 -- 5 record, leading to the dismissal of head coach Larry Robinson.
The Kings, along with the Los Angeles Lakers, made an even bigger move in 1999, as they left The Forum, after 32 seasons, and moved to the Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles, which was built by Anschutz and Roski. Staples Center was a state - of - the - art arena, complete with luxury suites and all the modern amenities that fans and athletes would want in a brand - new facility. With a new home, a new coach, a potential 50 - goal scorer in the fold and players such as Rob Blake, Luc Robitaille, Glen Murray, Jozef Stumpel, Donald Audette, Ian Laperriere and Mattias Norstrom, the Kings improved dramatically, finishing the season the 1999 -- 2000 season with a 39 -- 31 -- 12 -- 4 record (94 points), good for second place in the Pacific Division. But in the 2000 playoffs, the Kings were once again eliminated in the first round, this time by the Detroit Red Wings in a four - game sweep.
The 2000 -- 01 season was a controversial one, as fans began to question AEG 's commitment to the success of the Kings because they failed to significantly improve the team during the off - season. Adding fuel to the fire was the February 21, 2001, trade of star defenseman and fan favorite Rob Blake to the Colorado Avalanche. Despite this, two players gotten in the deal, right wing Adam Deadmarsh and defenseman Aaron Miller, became impact players for the Kings, who finished the 2000 -- 01 season with a 38 -- 28 -- 13 -- 3 record (92 points), good for a third - place finish in the Pacific Division and another first - round playoff date with the Detroit Red Wings. The heavily favored Red Wings suffered an upset, losing in six games for the Kings ' first playoff series win since 1993. In the second round, the Kings forced seven games in their series against the Avalanche, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champions.
Afterwards, during the off - season, Luc Robitaille turned down a one - year deal with a substantial pay cut and ended up signing with Detroit, as the Red Wings represented his best chance at winning the Stanley Cup, and like Tomas Sandstrom before him in 1997, Robitaille won the Stanley Cup with Detroit in 2002. The Kings started off the season with a sluggish October and November, and then found their game again to finish with 95 points. They in fact were tied in points with the second place Phoenix Coyotes, and only finished third in the Pacific Division and seventh in the West due to a goals - for differential -- the Coyotes having 228 and the Kings having 214 as a team. In the playoffs they met the Colorado Avalanche once again, this time in the first round. The series would prove to be a carbon copy of their previous meeting, with the Kings behind three games to one and bouncing back to tie the series, only to be dominated in the seventh game and eliminated. The next seasons would be major disappointments as the Kings hit another major decline, missing the postseason up until the 2009 -- 10 season.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, the team had built a consistent roster with goalie Jonathan Quick, defenseman Drew Doughty, and forwards Dustin Brown, Anze Kopitar and Justin Williams. Finishing sixth overall in the West with 101 points, just the third 100 - plus point season in franchise history, and establishing a franchise record with a nine - game unbeaten streak, the Kings returned to the playoffs, where they lost to a highly skilled Vancouver Canucks team in six games. The Kings entered the 2011 playoffs as the seventh seed in the West and played San Jose in the first round. Despite Anze Kopitar 's absence with injury, the Kings pushed the series to six games until an overtime goal by Joe Thornton qualified the Sharks.
A bad start to the 2011 -- 12 season resulted in coach Terry Murray being fired, with Darryl Sutter being chosen as his replacement. The Kings were much improved under Sutter, finishing with the eight seed, having rounded out the season with a 40 -- 27 -- 15 record for 95 points. The Kings then headed into the 2012 playoffs against the Presidents ' Trophy - winning Vancouver Canucks. After playing two games in Vancouver and one in Los Angeles, the Kings were up 3 -- 0 in the series, a franchise first. By winning Game 5 in Vancouver, the Kings advanced to the Conference Semi-finals for the first time since the 2000 -- 01 season, whereupon they swept the second - seeded St. Louis Blues, advancing to the Western Conference Finals for only the second time in franchise history. In doing so, the Kings also became the first NHL team to enter the playoffs as the eighth seed and eliminate the first - and second - seeded teams in the Conference. They then defeated Phoenix in five games to reach the Finals, culminating in an overtime goal by Dustin Penner in Game 5, and thus becoming the second team in NHL history to beat the top three Conference seeds in the playoffs (the Calgary Flames achieved the same feat in 2004, ironically also under Darryl Sutter) and the first eighth seed to accomplish the feat.
Los Angeles faced the New Jersey Devils in the Final, defeating them in six games to win their first Stanley Cup in franchise history. With the Game 6 victory occurring on home ice at Staples Center, the Kings became the first team since the 2007 Anaheim Ducks to win the Stanley Cup at home, as well as the second Californian NHL team to do so. The Kings became the first eight seed champion in any of the North American major leagues, the first Stanley Cup champion that finished below fifth in its conference, and the third to finish below second in its division (after the 1993 Canadiens and the 1995 Devils). Goaltender Jonathan Quick was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player during the playoffs, and soon after signed a ten - year contract extension on June 28.
Due to the 2012 -- 13 NHL lockout, the 2012 -- 13 Los Angeles Kings season began on January 19, 2013, and was shortened to 48 games. The Kings finished the season as the fifth seed in the West and began the defense of the Cup on the road against the St. Louis Blues, who they swept in the 2012 playoffs. After losing the first two games, the Kings won four in a row to eliminate the Blues in six games. In the second round, they then played a very tough San Jose Sharks team, this time with home ice advantage. In the first game, Jarret Stoll suffered an injury from the Sharks ' Raffi Torres, who ended up being suspended for the rest of the series. The Kings eventually won in seven games. In the Western Conference Finals, they faced the number one seed in the West and Presidents ' Trophy winner, the Chicago Blackhawks. After dropping the first two games, the Kings won Game 3 with Jeff Carter suffering an injury from Blackhawks defenseman Duncan Keith, who was suspended for Game 4 as a result. After losing Game 4, the Kings battled the Blackhawks through two overtime periods in Game 5, with Patrick Kane eventually scoring the game - winning goal that won the game and the series, sending the Blackhawks to the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals and ending the Kings ' season.
During the 2013 -- 14 season, the Kings acquired Marian Gaborik, and qualified for their fifth straight playoffs with the sixth - best result of the West. In the first round of the 2014 playoffs, the Kings played their in - state rivals, the San Jose Sharks. After losing the first three games to the Sharks, the Kings became the fourth team in NHL history to win the final four games in a row after initially being down three games to none, beating the Sharks in San Jose in the deciding Game 7. In the second round, the Kings played another in - state rival, Anaheim. After starting the series with two wins, the Kings lost three - straight games, trailing the series three games to two. However, for the second time in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Kings were able to rally back after being down in the series and defeated the Ducks in Anaheim in Game 7. In the third round, the Kings jumped out to a three games to one lead against Stanley Cup - defending Chicago, but were unable to close out the series in the fifth and sixth games. On June 1, 2014, the Kings advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the second time in three years after winning Game 7, 4 -- 3, in overtime through a goal from Alec Martinez, clinching their third Western Conference title in franchise history. The Kings became the first team in NHL history to win three Game 7s en route to a Stanley Cup Finals berth. Not only were the Kings the first team in history to accomplish this feat, they also managed to win all game sevens on opposing ice. For the third time, the Kings were finalists after finishing third in their division and sixth or lower in their conference.
In the Final, the Kings faced the Eastern Conference - winning New York Rangers, who had defeated the Montreal Canadiens in six games in the Eastern Finals. The Kings won the Stanley Cup in five games, culminating with an Alec Martinez goal in the second overtime of Game 5 at Staples Center. The championship run had a record - tying 26 playoff games (the 1986 -- 87 Philadelphia Flyers and 2003 -- 04 Calgary Flames being the others), with the Kings facing elimination a record seven times. With their Game 7 victory in the Conference Finals and wins in the first two games of the Cup Finals, they became the first team to win three consecutive playoff games after trailing by more than one goal in each game. Justin Williams, who scored twice in the Finals and had points in all three Game 7s throughout the playoffs, won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP.
Having won two Stanley Cup championships in the last three years, the Kings entered the 2014 -- 15 season as the early favorites to retain their title. However, the Kings struggled often, with scoring slumps, defensemen losing games to injury and suspensions and frequent road losses. A defeat to the Calgary Flames in the penultimate game of the season eliminated the Kings from playoff contention, while qualifying Calgary, which coincidentally missed the postseason during the Kings ' five - season playoff streak. Despite finishing with a record of 40 -- 27 -- 15, the Kings became the first defending Stanley Cup champion to miss the postseason since the 2006 -- 07 Carolina Hurricanes and only the fourth overall since the 1967 NHL expansion season.
At the start of the 2015 -- 16 season. The Kings were expected to make the playoffs. They entered the playoffs as the fifth seeded in their conference and second seeded in their division. They faced the San Jose Sharks, but lost to them in five games. On June 16, 2016 the Kings named Anze Kopitar the 14th captain in team history, replacing Dustin Brown, who had led the team for the past eight seasons.
The Kings celebrated their 50th anniversary during the 2016 -- 17 season along with the other still active 1967 expansion teams (the St. Louis Blues, Philadelphia Flyers, and Pittsburgh Penguins), and for the first time since 2002, they hosted the NHL All - Star Game. Goaltender Jonathan Quick suffered an injury on opening night that sidelined him for most of the season, and the Kings struggled without him. Backup Peter Budaj filled the void, earning his first starting duties since his time with the Colorado Avalanche six years earlier, but near the trade deadline, the Kings traded him to Tampa Bay for another goalie, Ben Bishop who shared the crease with Jonathan Quick down the stretch, the superstar having returned from his injury. Despite the trade, the Kings ultimately missed the playoffs for the second time in three seasons and, in the offseason, fired General manager Dean Lombardi and head coach Darryl Sutter. Assistant general manager Rob Blake was promoted to be the new general manager and John Stevens took over as head coach after serving as associate head coach for the Kings for several seasons. In the 2017 NHL Expansion Draft, the Vegas Golden Knights drafted defenseman Brayden McNabb, who had been left unprotected by the Kings. In the next season, the Kings clinched the playoffs as a wild card, but were swept by the expansion Golden Knights.
The Los Angeles Kings debuted in the NHL wearing purple -- officially, "Forum blue '' -- and gold uniforms. The original design was simple and straightforward, featuring monochrome striping on the shoulders and tail, as well as purple pants with white and gold trim. Later on, white trim was added on the numbers, and names were also added, while tail stripes were adjusted. At one point, gold pants were used to pair with the gold uniforms during the 1970s. A variation of the original crown logo, with a contrasting color background, was used with this uniform.
From 1980 to 1988, the Kings modified their uniforms to include a contrasting yoke that extends from sleeve to sleeve. White was also added to the socks, on the tail stripes, and at the bottom of the yoke, but the color was removed from the pants. The names and numbers were also modified to a standard NHL block lettering.
Just in time for Wayne Gretzky 's arrival, the Kings ' colors changed to black and silver. The new uniforms did not deviate much from the prior design, save for the color scheme, a new primary Kings logo, and a switch from a contrasting yoke color to sleeve stripes. With minor changes to the text and pant striping, the uniforms were used until the 1997 -- 98 season.
The Kings briefly reintroduced purple and gold to the color scheme upon unveiling an alternate jersey for the 1995 -- 96 season. The uniform featured a gradually fading black splash, medieval - inspired serif text, and a logo of a bearded figure wearing a golden crown. The so - called "Burger King '' jersey proved to be unpopular with fans, and was scrapped after only one season.
For the 1998 -- 99 season, the Kings unveiled new logos, uniforms and color scheme, restoring the purple -- albeit a lighter shade compared to Forum Blue -- as grey and black had become associated with gang colors. The new primary logo was a shield and crest featuring three royal symbols, a lion, a crown and the Sun. The jerseys featured the shield logo with hints of purple on the yoke, sleeve stripes and tail. By coincidence, this was the same color scheme as the NBA 's Sacramento team which is also called the Kings. The bottom of the jerseys read the city name. A purple alternate jersey featuring the updated secondary crown logo was unveiled for the 1999 -- 2000 season. In 2002, the crown logo became the primary while the shield logo was demoted to alternate status. The socks on the black and purple uniforms also switched designations to match their counterparts. Upon moving to the Reebok Edge design in 2007, the jerseys were updated without the tail stripes. The purple - tinged road jerseys were used until the 2010 -- 11 season, while the home jersey was demoted to alternate status in 2011 and remained in use until 2013.
In 2008, the Kings unveiled an alternate jersey inspired from the 1988 -- 98 Kings motif. The current logo, now in a black and silver banner with the updated crown logo and ' LA ' abbreviation on top, made its debut with the jersey. Three years later, the Kings completed the transition back to the classic black and silver by unveiling a new away jersey, which unlike the home jersey, features a black and silver tail stripe. The Kings script from their 1988 -- 98 logo returned on the helmets, and would stay that way until 2013, when they were replaced by the current Kings script.
Since the 2010 -- 11 season, the Kings have also worn their classic purple and gold jerseys from the late 1970s as part of "Legends Night '' on select home dates. Minor changes in the uniform include the NHL shield logo on the neck piping, as well as the use of the Reebok Edge design.
The Kings wore silver jerseys with white trim, black stripes and shoulder yoke during the 2014 NHL Stadium Series. The uniforms featured a metallic treatment of the alternate crown logo in front. The sleeve numbers were slightly tilted diagonally, while the back numbers were enlarged for visibility purposes. A new ' LA ' alternate logo was placed on the left shoulder yoke. For the 2015 Stadium Series, the Kings wore a tricolored jersey featuring the team 's silver, black and white colors. Both the sleeve and back numbers are enlarged, while white pants were used with this jersey.
As part of the Kings ' 50th anniversary in the 2016 -- 17 season, the team will be wearing commemorative silver alternate jerseys with a black shoulder yoke and striping for every Saturday home game. The logos and lettering were accented with metallic gold, while a purple neckline featured five gold diamonds to symbolize the Kings ' original colors.
Adidas signed an agreement with the NHL to be the official manufacturer of uniforms and licensed apparel for all teams, starting with the 2017 -- 18 season, replacing Reebok. The home and away uniforms that were debuted in the 2007 -- 08 season remained identical with the exception of the new Adidas ADIZERO template and the new collar. With the new collar, the NHL shield was moved to the front and center on a pentagon with a new "Chrome Flex '' style. The waist stripes on the road white jersey became curved instead of being straight across.
The mascot of the Kings since 2007 is Bailey, a 6 - foot lion (6 - foot 4 inches with mane included) who wears No. 72 because it is the average temperature in Los Angeles. He was named in honor of Garnet "Ace '' Bailey, who served Director of Pro Scouting for seven years before dying in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Bailey is the second mascot, after Kingston the snow leopard in the early 1990s.
The Kings have developed strong rivalries with the two other Californian teams of the NHL, the Anaheim Ducks -- who also play in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, leading to the rivalry nickname "Freeway Face - Off '' as both cities are separated by the Interstate 5 - and the San Jose Sharks -- which also showcases the contrast between Northern and Southern California. The Kings eliminated both teams during the 2014 Stanley Cup run, and have played outdoor games with them for the NHL Stadium Series, losing to the Ducks at Dodger Stadium in 2014 and beating the Sharks at Levi 's Stadium the following year.
List of the last five seasons completed by the Kings. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Los Angeles Kings seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses / Shootout losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated July 1, 2018
* Rogie Vachon took over as interim head coach for the Kings on three different occasions, the first for two games in the middle of the 1983 -- 84 season after Don Perry was fired, then replaced by Roger Neilson. The second time was for one game in the middle of 1987 -- 88 season after Mike Murphy was fired, then replaced by Robbie Ftorek. The third occasion was for the final seven games in the 1994 -- 95 lockout - shortened season after Barry Melrose was fired, then replaced by Larry Robinson. In all those times, he returned to his duties in the Kings front office.
* John Torchetti took over as interim head coach for the final twelve games of the 2005 -- 06 season after Andy Murray was fired. Torchetti was also fired at the end of the regular season and was replaced by Marc Crawford.
* John Stevens took over as interim head coach for four games in the middle of the 2011 -- 12 season after Terry Murray was fired. He would return to his duties as assistant coach after Darryl Sutter was hired. Stevens would return again, this time as the permanent replacement for Sutter in 2017.
Notes:
The Los Angeles Kings presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Kings include 17 former players and three builders of the sport. The three individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Kings head coaches, and general managers. In addition to players and builders, athletic trainers were inducted into the Hall of Fame through the Professional Hockey Athletic Trainers Society, and the Society of Professional Hockey Equipment Managers. Two athletic trainers from the Kings organization were inducted into the Hall of Fame, Peter Demers in 2007, and Mark O'Neill in 2016.
Three sports broadcasters for the Kings were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award for their contribution to hockey broadcasting including Jiggs McDonald (1990), Bob Miller (2000), and Nick Nickson (2015). In 2005, Helene Elliott, a sportswriter for the Los Angeles Times was awarded the Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award for her contributions to sports journalism.
These are the top - ten point - scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
In 1973, the Kings hired Bob Miller as their play - by - play announcer. Considered to be one of the finest hockey play - by - play announcers, Miller has held that post continuously since that time, and is often referred to as the Voice of the Kings. He received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the NHL Hockey Broadcasters Association on November 13, 2000, making him a media honoree in the Hockey Hall of Fame, and he also earned a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006. Miller has written two books about his experiences with the team, Bob Miller 's Tales of the Los Angeles Kings (2006), and Tales From The Los Angeles Kings Locker Room: A Collection Of The Greatest Kings Stories Ever Told (2013). On March 2, 2017, citing health reasons, Miller announced his retirement after 44 years with the team, and finished his career broadcasting the final two games of the 2016 -- 17 Kings season. The Kings named NBCSN announcer Alex Faust as Miller 's replacement, play - by - play announcer the team on TV for the 2017 -- 18 season on June 1, 2017.
Television: Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket
Radio: KABC 790
Public address:
The Kings are currently affiliated with the Ontario Reign in the American Hockey League and the Manchester Monarchs in the ECHL. Previous affiliates included the Lowell Lock Monsters, Springfield Falcons, New Haven Nighthawks, Binghamton Dusters and Springfield Kings of the AHL; Reading Royals in the ECHL; Long Beach Ice Dogs, Phoenix Roadrunners and Utah Grizzlies in the International Hockey League; and the Houston Apollos of the Central Hockey League.
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who become the first president of south africa in 1994 | Nelson Mandela - Wikipedia
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/ mænˈdɛlə /; 18 July 1918 -- 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country 's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.
A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party 's white - only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANC 's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. In 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.
Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure, and with fears of a racial civil war, President F.W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became President. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country 's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, Mandela 's administration retained its predecessor 's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary - General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV / AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.
Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the radical left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid 's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours -- including the Nobel Peace Prize -- and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, "Madiba '', and described as the "Father of the Nation ''.
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then part of South Africa 's Cape Province. Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning "troublemaker '', in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great - grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa 's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka 's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson 's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was the king 's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so - called "Left - Hand House '', the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.
Nelson Mandela 's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate 's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson 's mother was Gadla 's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.
Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo. He grew up with two sisters in his mother 's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle - boy and spent much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson '' by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling "cut adrift '', he later said that he inherited his father 's "proud rebelliousness '' and "stubborn sense of fairness ''.
Mandela 's mother took him to the "Great Place '' palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi. At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the ulwaluko circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name Dalibunga.
Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School in Engcobo, a Western - style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up '' attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. He completed his Junior Certificate in two years, and in 1937 moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of Sotho, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long - distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a prefect.
With Jongintaba 's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a BA degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, native administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K.D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. He took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although he had friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement with the anti-imperialist movement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. He helped to found a first - year students ' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second - years, and at the end of his first year became involved in a Students ' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action '', but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu. The latter secured Mandela a job as an articled clerk at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a liberal Jew sympathetic to the ANC 's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe -- a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party -- and Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Coloureds mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as class warfare. To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor 's degree at night.
Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord 's daughter. To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg -- there forgiving Mandela for running away -- before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral. After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland. He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found (himself) doing so, and could not do otherwise. ''
Mandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu 's Orlando house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist '' branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede 's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self - determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass - mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men 's Social Centre, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.
At Sisulu 's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba "Thembi '' Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full - time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.
In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda 's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC 's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C.S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.
In the South African general election in 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner - dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa 's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path. '' Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.
Mandela took Xuma 's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC - led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.
Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede 's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union 's support for wars of national liberation, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found (himself) strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to (his) mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal. '' In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.
In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. These events established Mandela as one of the best - known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC 's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President J.B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.
In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused -- among them Moroka, Sisulu, and Yusuf Dadoo -- in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism '', a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months ' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six - month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela 's "No Easy Walk to Freedom '' speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela 's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M - Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.
Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal - run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full - fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African - run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their clientele dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg 's elite black middle - class, and accorded much respect from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela 's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son 's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah 's Witnesses and rejected Mandela 's preoccupation with politics.
After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People 's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People 's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police. The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa ''.
Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela 's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn 's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa, born in December 1960.
In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason '' against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence 's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason '' for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges -- all linked to the governing National Party -- replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.
In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC 's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC 's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature '' and "naïve ''. Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC - organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.
Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All - In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay - at - home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason '', since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC 's new cell structure and the planned mass stay - at - home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel '' in the press -- a reference to Emma Orczy 's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel -- a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC 's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli -- who was morally opposed to violence -- and allied activist groups of its necessity.
Inspired by the actions of Fidel Castro 's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation '', abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter 's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party 's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh 's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist - owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela 's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.
Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane 's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year 's Eve.
The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie 's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £ 5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians. Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six - month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC 's leadership.
On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela 's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence. In later years, a former American diplomat revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency, who feared Mandela 's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location. Jailed in Johannesburg 's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers ' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC 's moral opposition to racism '' while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London International Programmes. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years ' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika ''.
In July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK 's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution 's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.
Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence 's proceedings, Mandela gave his three - hour "I Am Prepared to Die '' speech. That speech -- which was inspired by Castro 's "History Will Absolve Me '' -- was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.
Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings. He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.
The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes -- the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela -- to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four - man "High Organ '' along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including Eddie Daniels) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the "University of Robben Island '', whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio - political topics with his comrades.
Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela 's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party politician Dennis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort and remained unable to see him.
From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved; black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.
By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.
By the late 1960s, Mandela 's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela! '' was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela 's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town, along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada, and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor 's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden; he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P.W. Botha. Botha 's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.
The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks -- under pressure from an international lobby -- had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela -- then at the height of his international fame -- to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch - Marxist '', in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon ''. Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people (ANC) remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner can not enter into contracts. ''
In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by "seven eminent persons '', an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha 's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance, and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end its armed activities when the government renounced violence.
Mandela 's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including a tribute concert at London 's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club '', which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents -- including children -- in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.
Recovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell, in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder 's house with a personal cook, and used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.
In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F.W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela 's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.
Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie 's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town 's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that the ANC 's armed struggle was not over, and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid ''. He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle '', and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections. Staying at Tutu 's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg 's Soccer City.
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium in Wembley Park. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by President François Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom by Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African - American community. In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, and Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.
In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela -- recognising the ANC 's severe military disadvantage -- offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC 's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well - oiled task force '' for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50 - strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.
Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie 's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela 's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "black - on - black '' violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu - Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "third force '' within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people '' and openly blamed de Klerk -- whom he increasingly distrusted -- for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.
The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC 's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC 's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime ''. Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government - aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent "state terrorism ''. Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest - ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.
Following the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five - year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US - style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk 's desire for federalism and Mandela 's for unitary government.
The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of black ethnic - secessionist groups like Inkatha and far - right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter -- the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) -- attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much - needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.
With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People 's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party 's slogan was "a better life for all '', although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa 's press opposed Mandela 's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.
Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House Massacre -- incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively -- Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P.W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha 's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela 's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63 % of the vote, just short of the two - thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC 's victory assured his election as President, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.
The newly elected National Assembly 's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa 's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC -- which had no experience of governing by itself -- but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "Genadendal '', meaning "Valley of Mercy '' in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.
Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo - American as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press, and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country 's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle - class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.
In December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela 's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.
Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa 's white population that they were protected and represented in "the Rainbow Nation ''. Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom -- like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar -- had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were far younger. Mandela 's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.
Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd 's widow, Betsie Schoombie, and lawyer Percy Yutar, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace. '' He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the final against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans. '' Mandela 's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.
Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk 's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the Commission 's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future ''.
Mandela 's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33 % unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa 's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela 's government adhered to the "Washington consensus '' advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
Under Mandela 's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13 % in 1996 / 97, 13 % in 1997 / 98, and 7 % in 1998 / 99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old - age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa 's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.
The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela 's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.
Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela 's government of doing little to stem the HIV / AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10 % of South Africa 's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world 's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade. Mandela 's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.
Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of positive discrimination toward blacks in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, and Mandela criticised those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease - spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters ''.
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa 's future foreign relations (should) be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations ''. Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary - General of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests '' of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region 's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He extended diplomatic recognition to the People 's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.
Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government 's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya, and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies. '' Mandela hoped to resolve the long - running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al - Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.
Mandela echoed Mbeki 's calls for an "African Renaissance '', and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha 's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha 's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa 's first post-apartheid military operation, troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela 's absence.
The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President '', marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as President, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki '' and that he was "shifting everything to him ''.
Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party 's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Mandela and the Executive supported Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki 's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma 's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.
Mandela 's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady '', and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five - year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80 % of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.
Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, it was abandoned before publication. Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and -- when in Johannesburg -- working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV / AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV / AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war '' that had killed more than "all previous wars ''; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki 's government to ensure that HIV - positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.
In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV / AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV / AIDS. Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son Makgatho 's death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.
Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world 's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as "a tragedy '' and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil ''. He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more "unspeakable atrocities '' across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Blair. Retaining an interest in Libyan - UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution ''.
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement '' and retreating from public life, remarking, "Do n't call me, I will call you. '' Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.
He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the US to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with US Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met the then - Senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity. '' That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world 's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.
Mandela 's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu, and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world. Throughout Mbeki 's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki 's successor, Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.
In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us '' in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill - health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause. Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela 's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.
In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-admitted for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition. The Archbishop of Cape Town Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable.
After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20: 50 local time (UTC + 2) at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg 's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela 's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral. The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences, while images of and tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His $4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.
Mandela was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends. '' Mandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and as a socialist.
The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu - Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist -- decolonial humanist '', while political analyst Raymond Suttner cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio - political make - up ''. Mandela took political ideas from other thinkers -- among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African - American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah -- and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. In doing so he synthesized both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then - dominant Afrikaner nationalism in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.
His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution ''. Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table. He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa. This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of Gandhism, with which some commentators have sought to associate him.
Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s. He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech '' were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights. Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership '' that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.
According to Lodge, Mandela 's political thought reflected tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He was an admirer of British - style parliamentary democracy, stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration. '' In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro - North American modernist project of emancipation '', something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin. Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society 's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form ''. He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, Ubuntu, which was a Ngnuni term meaning "A person is a person through other persons '' or "I am because we are. ''
Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land - ownership and the power of big money ''. Mandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial, and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists, and in his autobiography. According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not. '' Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists '' in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the Marxist - Leninist ideology by 1960.
Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s, something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee. His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela 's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries. Mandela 's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist - Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.
The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.
Mandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, described by biographer Mary Benson as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people ''. He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power ''. While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman '', having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech '' associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians (...) embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom ''. Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day and after assuming the presidency he became so associated with highly coloured Batik shirts that they came to be known as "Madiba shirts ''.
For political scientists Betty Glad and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader ''. His official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance '', excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words. Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour ''.
Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. A self - described Anglophile, he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners ''. Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.
He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. On analysing Mandela 's writings, the theologian Dion Forster described him as a Christian humanist, although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of Ubuntu than on Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith '' however, while Boehmer stated that Mandela 's religious belief was "never robust ''.
Mandela was very self - conscious about being a man and regularly made references to manhood. He was heterosexual, and biographer Fatima Meer said that he was "easily tempted '' by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being "by nature a romantic '', highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great - grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced after 13 years in 1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah 's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality. Mandela 's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela - Mandela, although they divorced in 1995. Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in 1998.
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation '' and "the founding father of democracy ''. Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon '', with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time ''. One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero '', while his popularity resulted in a cult of personality building up around him. Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms, in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances. '' He is often cited alongside Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. as one of the 20th century 's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy '' and "a universal symbol of social justice ''.
Mandela 's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world 's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela 's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation '' in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance '' to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status '' internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities '', converting Mandela into "a secular saint ''. Within a decade of the end of his Presidency, Mandela 's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony '', with much nostalgia being expressed for it. His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as "a moral authority '' with a great "concern for truth ''. Mandela 's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.
Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the right and the radical left. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation ''. The US government 's State and Defense departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch - list until 2008. On the left, some voices in the ANC -- among them Frank B. Wilderson III -- accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his Presidency. According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy '', and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV / AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa. Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto -- deemed dictators by critics -- as well as his refusal to condemn their governments ' human rights violations.
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements. Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Union 's Lenin Peace Prize, and the Libyan Al - Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, India awarded him the Bharat Ratna, and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their Nishan - e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. He was appointed to the Order of Isabella the Catholic and the Order of Canada, and was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and granted him membership in the Order of Merit.
In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison. On the Day of Reconciliation 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria 's Union Buildings. In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela 's birthday, 18 July, as "Mandela Day '', marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.
The first biography of Mandela was authored by Mary Benson, based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer 's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela 's family. The second was Anthony Sampson 's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith 's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge 's Mandela, brought out in 2006.
Since the late 1980s, Mandela 's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t - shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more '', items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch ''. In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as The Special AKA 's "Free Nelson Mandela '' and Hugh Masekela 's "Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela) '', which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience. Following his death, there appeared many internet memes featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them. Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions. Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom and the 1996 documentary Mandela, have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film Invictus and the 2010 documentary The 16th Man, have focused on specific events in his life. It has been argued that in Invictus and other films, "the American film industry '' has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela 's global image ''.
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who won more matches barcelona vs real madrid | El Clásico - wikipedia
El Clásico (Spanish pronunciation: (el ˈklasiko); Catalan: El Clàssic, pronounced (əl ˈklasik); "The Classic '') is the name given in football to any match between fierce rivals Real Madrid and FC Barcelona. Originally it referred only to those competitions held in the Spanish championship, but nowadays the term has been generalized, and tends to include every single match between the two clubs: UEFA Champions League, Copa del Rey, etc. Other than the UEFA Champions League Final, it is considered one of the biggest club football games in the world, and is among the most viewed annual sporting events. The match is known for its intensity.
The rivalry comes about as Madrid and Barcelona are the two largest cities in Spain, and they are sometimes identified with opposing political positions, with Real Madrid viewed as representing Spanish nationalism and Barcelona viewed as representing Catalan nationalism. The rivalry is regarded as one of the biggest in world sport. The two clubs are among the richest and most successful football clubs in the world; in 2014 Forbes ranked Barcelona and Real Madrid the world 's two most valuable sports teams. Both clubs have a global fanbase; they are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media.
Real Madrid leads the head to head results in competitive matches with 95 wins to Barcelona 's 92, while Barcelona leads in total matches with 112 wins to Real Madrid 's 99. Along with Athletic Bilbao, they are the only clubs in La Liga to have never been relegated.
The conflict between Real Madrid and Barcelona has long surpassed the sporting dimension, so that elections to the clubs ' presidencies are strongly politicized. Phil Ball, the author of Morbo: The Story of Spanish Football, says about the match; "they hate each other with an intensity that can truly shock the outsider ''.
As early as the 1930s, Barcelona "had developed a reputation as a symbol of Catalan identity, opposed to the centralising tendencies of Madrid ''. In 1936, when Francisco Franco started the Coup d'état against the democratic Second Spanish Republic, the president of Barcelona, Josep Sunyol, member of the Republican Left of Catalonia and Deputy to The Cortes, was arrested and executed without trial by Franco 's troops (Sunyol was exercising his political activities, visiting Republican troops north of Madrid).
Barcelona was on top of the list of organizations to be purged by the National faction, just after communists, anarchists, and independentists. During the Franco dictatorship, most citizens of Barcelona were in strong opposition to the fascist - like régime. During the dictatorships of Miguel Primo de Rivera and of Francisco Franco, all regional languages and identities in Spain were frowned upon and restrained. In this period, Barcelona gained their motto Més que un club (English: More than a club) because of its alleged connection to Catalan nationalist as well as to progressive beliefs. During Franco 's regime, however, Barcelona was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level, even giving two awards to him. The links between senior Real Madrid representatives and the Francoist regime were undeniable; for most of the Catalans, Real Madrid was regarded as "the establishment club '', despite the fact that presidents of both clubs like Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra, suffered at the hands of Franco 's supporters in the Spanish Civil War.
The image for both clubs was further affected by the creation of Ultras groups, some of which became hooligans. In 1980, Ultras Sur was founded as a far - right - leaning Real Madrid ultras group, followed in 1981 by the foundation of the initially left - leaning and later on far - right, Barcelona ultras group Boixos Nois. Both groups became known for their violent acts, and one of the most conflictive factions of Barcelona supporters, the Casuals, became a full - fledged criminal organisation.
For many people, Barcelona is still considered as "the rebellious club '', or the alternative pole to "Real Madrid 's conservatism ''. According to polls released by CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas), Real Madrid is the favorite team of most of the Spanish residents, while Barcelona stands in the second position. In Catalonia, forces of all the political spectrum are overwhelmingly in favour of Barcelona. Nevertheless, the support of the blaugrana club goes far beyond from that region, earning its best results among young people, sustainers of a federal structure of Spain and citizens with left - wing ideology, in contrast with Real Madrid fans which politically tend to adopt right - wing views.
On 13 June 1943, Real Madrid beat Barcelona 11 -- 1 at home in the second leg of a semi-final of the Copa del Generalísimo, the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco. The first leg, played at Barcelona 's Les Corts stadium in Catalonia, had ended with Barcelona winning 3 -- 0. Madrid complained about all the three goals that referee Fombona Fernández had allowed for Barcelona, with the home supporters also whistling Madrid throughout, whom they accused of employing roughhouse tactics, and Fombona for allowing them to. A campaign began in Madrid. Barcelona player Josep Valle recalled: "The press officer at the DND and ABC newspaper wrote all sorts of scurrilous lies, really terrible things, winding up the Madrid fans like never before ''. Former Real Madrid goalkeeper Eduardo Teus, who admitted that Madrid had "above all played hard '', wrote in a newspaper: "the ground itself made Madrid concede two of the three goals, goals that were totally unfair ''.
Barcelona fans were banned from traveling to Madrid. Real Madrid released a statement after the match which former club president (1985 -- 1995) Ramón Mendoza explained, "The message got through that those fans who wanted to could go to El Club bar on Calle de la Victoria where Madrid 's social center was. There, they were given a whistle. Others had whistles handed to them with their tickets. '' The day of the second leg, the Barcelona team were insulted and stones were thrown at their bus as soon as they left their hotel. Barcelona 's striker Mariano Gonzalvo said of the incident, "Five minutes before the game had started, our penalty area was already full of coins. '' Barcelona goalkeeper Lluis Miró rarely approached his line -- when he did, he was armed with stones. As Francisco Calvet told the story, "They were shouting: Reds! Separatists!... a bottle just missed Sospedra that would have killed him if it had hit him. It was all set up. ''
Real Madrid went 2 -- 0 up within half an hour. The third goal brought with it a sending off for Barcelona 's Benito García after he made what Calvet claimed was a "completely normal tackle ''. Madrid 's José Llopis Corona recalled, "At which point, they got a bit demoralized, '' while Mur countered, "at which point, we thought: ' go on then, score as many as you want '. '' Madrid scored in minutes 31 ', 33 ', 35 ', 39 ', 43 ' and 44 ', as well as two goals ruled out for offside, made it 8 -- 0. Basilo de la Morena had been caught out by the speed of the goals. In that atmosphere and with a referee who wanted to avoid any complications, it was humanly impossible to play... If the azulgranas had played badly, really badly, the scoreboard would still not have reached that astronomical figure. The point is that they did not play at all. '' Both clubs were fined 2,500 pesetas by the Royal Spanish Football Federation and, although Barcelona appealed, it made no difference. Piñeyro resigned in protest, complaining of "a campaign that the press has run against Barcelona for a week and which culminated in the shameful day at Chamartín ''.
The match report in the newspaper La Prensa described Barcelona 's only goal as a "reminder that there was a team there who knew how to play football and that if they did not do so that afternoon, it was not exactly their fault ''. Another newspaper called the scoreline "as absurd as it was abnormal ''. According to football writer Sid Lowe, "There have been relatively few mentions of the game (since) and it is not a result that has been particularly celebrated in Madrid. Indeed, the 11 -- 1 occupies a far more prominent place in Barcelona 's history. This was the game that first formed the identification of Madrid as the team of the dictatorship and Barcelona as its victims. '' Fernando Argila, Barcelona 's reserve goalkeeper from the game, said, "There was no rivalry. Not, at least, until that game. ''
The rivalry was intensified during the 1950s when the clubs disputed the signing of Alfredo Di Stéfano. Di Stéfano had impressed both Barcelona and Real Madrid while playing for Los Millionarios in Bogotá, Colombia, during a players ' strike in his native Argentina. Both Real Madrid and Barcelona attempted to sign him and, due to confusion that emerged from Di Stéfano moving to Millonarios from River Plate following the strike, both clubs claimed to own his registration. After intervention from FIFA representative Muñoz Calero, it was decided that both Barcelona and Real Madrid had to share the player in alternate seasons. Barcelona 's humiliated president was forced to resign by the Barcelona board, with the interim board cancelling Di Stéfano 's contract. This ended the long struggle for Di Stéfano, as he moved definitively to Real Madrid.
Di Stéfano became integral in the subsequent success achieved by Real Madrid, scoring twice in his first game against Barcelona. With him, Real Madrid won the initial five European Champions Cup competitions. The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice at the European Cup, Real Madrid winning in 1960 and Barcelona winning in 1961.
In 2000, Real Madrid 's then - presidential candidate, Florentino Pérez, offered Barcelona 's vice-captain Luís Figo $2.4 million to sign an agreement binding him to Madrid if he won the elections. If the player broke the deal, he would have to pay Pérez $30 million in compensation. When his agent confirmed the deal, Figo denied everything, insisting, "I 'll stay at Barcelona whether Pérez wins or loses. '' He accused the presidential candidate of "lying '' and "fantasizing ''. He told Barcelona teammates Luis Enrique and Pep Guardiola he was not leaving and they conveyed the message to the Barcelona squad.
On 9 July, Sport ran an interview in which he said, "I want to send a message of calm to Barcelona 's fans, for whom I always have and always will feel great affection. I want to assure them that Luís Figo will, with absolute certainty, be at the Camp Nou on the 24th to start the new season... I 've not signed a pre-contract with a presidential candidate at Real Madrid. No. I 'm not so mad as to do a thing like that. ''
The only way Barcelona could prevent Figo 's transfer to Real Madrid was to pay the penalty clause, $30 million. That would have effectively meant paying the fifth highest transfer fee in history to sign their own player. Barcelona 's new president, Joan Gaspart, called the media and told them, "Today, Figo gave me the impression that he wanted to do two things: get richer and stay at Barça. '' Only one of them happened. The following day, 24 July, Figo was presented in Madrid and handed his new shirt by Alfredo Di Stéfano. His buyout clause was set at $180 million. Gaspart later admitted, "Figo 's move destroyed us. ''
On his return to Barcelona in a Real Madrid shirt, banners with "Judas '', "Scum '' and "Mercenary '' were hung around the stadium. Thousands of fake 10,000 peseta notes had been printed and emblazoned with his image, were among the missiles of oranges, bottles, cigarette lighters, even a couple of mobile phones were thrown at him. In his third season with Real Madrid, the 2002 Clásico at Camp Nou produced one of the defining images of the rivalry. Figo was mercilessly taunted throughout; missiles of coins, a knife, a whisky bottle, were raining down from the stands, mostly from areas populated by the Boixos Nois where he had been taking a corner. Among the debris was a pig 's head.
During the last three decades, the rivalry has been augmented by the modern Spanish tradition of the Pasillo, where one team is given the guard of honor by the other team, once the former clinches the La Liga trophy before El Clásico takes place. This has happened in three occasions. First, during El Clásico that took place on 30 April 1988, where Real Madrid won the championship on the previous round. Then, three years later, when Barcelona won the championship two rounds before El Clásico on 8 June 1991. The last pasillo, and most recent, took place on 7 May 2008, and this time Real Madrid had won the championship.
The two teams met again in the UEFA Champions League semi-final in 2002, with Real Madrid winning 2 -- 0 in Barcelona and a 1 -- 1 draw in Madrid, resulting in a 3 -- 1 aggregate win for Madrid. The match was dubbed by Spanish media as the "Match of the Century ''.
While El Clásico is regarded as one of the fiercest rivalries in world football, there have been rare moments when fans have shown praise for a player on the opposing team. In 1980, Laurie Cunningham was the first Real Madrid player to receive applause from Barcelona fans at Camp Nou; after excelling during the match, and with Madrid winning 2 -- 0, Cunningham left the field to a standing ovation from the locals. On 26 June 1983, during the second leg of the Copa de la Liga final at the Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid, having dribbled past the Real Madrid goalkeeper, Barcelona star Diego Maradona ran towards an empty goal before stopping just as the Madrid defender came sliding in an attempt to block the shot and crashed into the post, before Maradona slotted the ball into the net. The manner of Maradona 's goal led to many Madrid fans inside the stadium start applauding. In November 2005, Ronaldinho became the second Barcelona player to receive a standing ovation from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. After dribbling through the Madrid defence twice to score two goals in a 3 -- 0 win, Madrid fans paid homage to his performance with applause. On 21 November 2015, Andrés Iniesta became the third Barcelona player to receive applause from Real Madrid fans while he was substituted during a 4 -- 0 away win, with Iniesta scoring Barça 's third -- it should be noted however that Iniesta was already a popular figure throughout Spain for scoring the nation 's World Cup winning goal in 2010.
A 2007 survey by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 32 % of the Spanish population supported Real Madrid, while 25 % supported Barcelona. In third place came Valencia, with 5 %. According to an Ikerfel poll in 2011, Barcelona is the most popular team in Spain with 44 % of preferences, while Real Madrid is second with 37 %. Atlético Madrid, Valencia and Athletic Bilbao complete the top five.
Both clubs have a global fanbase: they are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media -- on Facebook, as of July 2018, Real Madrid has 107 million fans, Barcelona has 103 million fans, on Instagram, Real Madrid has 60 million followers, Barcelona has 57 million followers.
The rivalry intensified in 2011 where, due to the final of the Copa Del Rey and the meeting of the two in the UEFA Champions League, Barcelona and Real Madrid were scheduled to meet each other four times in 18 days. Several accusations of unsportsmanlike behaviour from both teams and a war of words erupted throughout the fixtures which included four red cards. Spain national team coach Vicente del Bosque stated that he was "concerned '' that due to the rising hatred between the two clubs, that this could cause friction in the Spain team.
In recent years, the rivalry has been "encapsulated '' by the rivalry between Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. Following the star signings of Neymar and Luis Suárez to Barcelona, and Gareth Bale and Karim Benzema to Madrid, the rivalry was expanded to a battle of the clubs attacking trios, BBC (Bale, Benzema, Cristiano) against MSN (Messi, Suárez, Neymar).
The rivalry reflected in El Clásico matches comes about as Real Madrid and Barcelona are the most successful football clubs in Spain. As seen below, Barcelona leads Real Madrid 95 -- 91 in terms of official overall trophies. While the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is recognised as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup, it was not organised by UEFA. Consequently, UEFA does not consider clubs ' records in the Fairs Cup to be part of their European record. However, FIFA does view the competition as a major honour.
Note: FIFA recognized the winner of the Intercontinental Cup as a World Champion.
Note: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is not recognized in the UEFA records and statistics
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who was the biggest drug dealer in new york | Frank Matthews (drug trafficker) - wikipedia
Frank "Black Caesar '' Matthews (born February 13, 1944) is a major heroin and cocaine trafficker who operated throughout the eastern seaboard during the late 1960s and early 1970s. At the peak of his career he operated in 21 states and supplied major dealers throughout every region of the country. Although there is more attention paid to other drug kingpins of the era, Frank Matthews is said by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to be one of the most significant traffickers of the time. He led a flamboyant lifestyle, with large sable mink coats, prime seats at major sporting events, luxury vehicles, and regular trips to Las Vegas where he was treated like a king. Matthews would also become known for hosting a major African - American drug dealers "summit '' in Atlanta in 1971. The attendee list, gathered by DEA surveillance, was a who 's who of most major African - American and Hispanic dealers throughout the country; they were all there to discuss how to break the Italian Mafia 's control of heroin importation so that black drug dealers would not have to rely on them in the future.
Matthews was born towards the end of World War II in Durham, North Carolina. His mother died when he was four years old and he was raised by his aunt, Marzella Steele, the wife of a Durham police lieutenant. Nicknamed "Pee Wee '', Matthews was described as bright and curious; nevertheless, he dropped out of school in the seventh grade. He served a year for assault in the juvenile reformatory at Raleigh. On his release, he moved to Philadelphia, where he worked as a numbers writer. He was arrested in 1963 and avoided conviction by agreeing to leave Philadelphia. He moved to the Bedford Stuyvesant area of New York City and became a barber, collecting numbers as he had in Philadelphia. Matthews was now large and muscular; he became both a collector and an enforcer. This gained him the experience and cash he needed to enter illegal drug dealing.
Matthews quickly grew tired of the numbers game after realizing that what he made in a year could be made in weeks in the drug business. He began making plans to transition into the heroin business. In the early 1960s, the main supply of wholesale heroin was the Italian Mafia; Matthews knew he would have to gain favor with someone connected to get a steady, reliable connection from which to base his drug empire. Matthews was able to not only approach but gain an audience before the Gambino family and Bonanno family, both part of the Five Families that have controlled organized crime in New York City since the 1930s. However, both turned the young Matthews down. From his days in the numbers game he knew of "Spanish Raymond '' Márquez, a prolific Harlem numbers operator. Márquez put him in contact with "El Padrino '', the New York Cuban Mafia godfather Rolando Gonzalez Nuñez, a major Cuban cocaine supplier, shortly before Gonzalez fled to Venezuela because of an upcoming indictment in the United States. Before fleeing, Gonzalez sold Matthews his first kilo of cocaine for $20,000, with a promise to supply more in the future.
This relationship would expand into a very lucrative and expansive drug trafficking network. Gonzalez began sending the young drug dealer large loads of cocaine and heroin from South America at fair prices. Matthews expanded on this and, within a year, was one of the major players in the New York drug business. Realizing the need for diversification, Matthews would continually seek out new sources of supply for narcotics, willing to do business with anyone as long as the product was sufficiently pure.
By the early 1970s, the Matthews organization was handling multimillion - dollar loads of heroin. According to the DEA, "Matthews controlled the cutting, packaging, and sale of heroin in every major East Coast city. '' For example, in New York he operated two massive drug mills in Brooklyn: one located at 925 Prospect Place, nicknamed the "Ponderosa '', and the other at 106 East 56th Street. Both locations were heavily fortified and secured, with walls reinforced with steel and concrete and protected by guards with machine guns. Besides controlling the retail sale of heroin, the organization supplied other major dealers throughout the East Coast with multi-kilogram shipments for up to $26,000 per kilogram.
In 1971, Matthews invited major African - American and Hispanic drug traffickers throughout the country to attend a meeting in Atlanta. The DEA got wind of this and monitored who attended. It was a "Who 's Who '' of major drug traffickers, a testament to the respect Matthews commanded because of his vast drug empire. The topic of the meeting was how to import heroin without the Mafia. Those present decided to build stronger independent relationships with the Corsicans and possibly Cubans. In addition, they agreed to diversify their product to include cocaine, which was becoming available in massive quantities.
This gathering of major drug traffickers throughout the United States is significant because it represented the changing nature of the drug business. Whereas, previously, the Italians controlled the importing and wholesaling of narcotics, therefore controlling who could and could not advance past them, now others were establishing their own pipelines. Before, the Mafia asserted behind - the - scenes control of the business while African - Americans sold and used the drugs in their cities; now the black dealers established connections and took control of their neighborhoods. This later evolved to include not just black people controlling the business, but also local gangs of black people eliminating out - of - town black suppliers trying to control their neighborhoods from a distance.
Matthews learned this lesson the hard way in Philadelphia. In Atlantic City, the Philadelphia Black Mafia killed Tyrone "Mr. Millionaire '' Palmer, Matthews ' main dealer in Philadelphia, at a "Club Harlem '' packed with 800 people. No one was prosecuted for the crime and none of the 799 potential witnesses came forward. Three of his top lieutenants in the city were murdered by the Black Mafia.
In 1973, the DEA was set to arrest Matthews. He was arrested in Las Vegas, but paid bail then disappeared. Others say he fled the scene before the arrest. Matthews allegedly took 15 to 20 million dollars with him and fled the country, and was never seen again.
"Frank Matthews '' name is a favorite choice by dealers to be stamped on bags of Heroin.
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when was the last time boston red sox won the world series | Boston Red Sox - wikipedia
The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston, Massachusetts. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. The Red Sox have won eight World Series championships and have played in twelve. Founded in 1901 as one of the American League 's eight charter franchises, the Red Sox ' home ballpark has been Fenway Park since 1912. The "Red Sox '' name was chosen by the team owner, John I. Taylor, around 1908, following the lead of previous teams that had been known as the "Boston Red Stockings '', including the forerunner of the Atlanta Braves.
Boston was a dominant team in the new league, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in 1903 and winning four more championships by 1918. However, they then went into one of the longest championship droughts in baseball history, dubbed the "Curse of the Bambino '' after its alleged beginning with the Red Sox ' sale of Babe Ruth to the rival New York Yankees two years after their world championship in 1918, an 86 - year wait before the team 's sixth World Championship in 2004. The team 's history during that period was punctuated with some of the most memorable moments in World Series history, including Enos Slaughter 's "mad dash '' in 1946, the "Impossible Dream '' of 1967, Carlton Fisk 's home run in 1975, and Bill Buckner 's error in 1986. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, they became the first team to win three World Series trophies in the 21st century, including championships in 2004 and 2007. Red Sox history has also been marked by the team 's intense rivalry with the Yankees, arguably the fiercest and most historic in North American professional sports.
The Boston Red Sox are owned by Fenway Sports Group, which also owns Liverpool F.C. of the Premier League in England. The Red Sox are consistently one of the top MLB teams in average road attendance, while the small capacity of Fenway Park prevents them from leading in overall attendance. From May 15, 2003 to April 10, 2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game -- a total of 820 games (794 regular season) for a major professional sports record. Neil Diamond 's "Sweet Caroline '' has become an anthem for the Red Sox.
The name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning 1908. Sox had been previously adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline - friendly form of Stockings, as "Stockings Win! '' in large type would not fit on a page. The team name "Red Sox '' had previously been used as early as 1888 by a ' colored ' team from Norfolk, Virginia. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as Medias Rojas, a translation of "red socks ''. The official Spanish site uses the variant "Los Red Sox ''.
The Red Stockings nickname was first used by a baseball team by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who were members of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired by Boston businessman Ivers Whitney Adams to organize a new team in Boston, and he did, bringing three teammates and the "Red Stockings '' nickname along (Most nicknames were then only nicknames, neither club names nor registered trademarks, so the migration was informal). The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league.
When a new Cincinnati club was formed as a charter member of the National League in 1876, the "Red Stockings '' nickname was commonly reserved for them once again, and the Boston team was referred to as the "Red Caps ''. Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname "Braves '' in 1912; the club eventually left Boston for Milwaukee and is now playing in Atlanta, Georgia.
In 1901, the upstart American League established a competing club in Boston. (Originally, a team was supposed to be started in Buffalo, but league ownership at the last minute removed that city from their plans in favor of the expansion Boston franchise.) For seven seasons, the AL team wore dark blue stockings and had no official nickname. They were simply "Boston '', "Bostonians '' or "the Bostons ''; or the "Americans '' or "Boston Americans '' as in "American Leaguers '', Boston being a two - team city. Their 1901 -- 1907 jerseys, both home, and road, just read "Boston '', except for 1902 when they sported large letters "B '' and "A '' denoting "Boston '' and "American. '' Newspaper writers of the time used other nicknames for the club, including "Somersets '' (for owner Charles Somers), "Plymouth Rocks '', "Beaneaters '', the "Collinsites '' (for manager Jimmy Collins) ", and "Pilgrims. ''
For years many sources have listed "Pilgrims '' as the early Boston AL team 's official nickname, but researcher Bill Nowlin has demonstrated that the name was barely used, if at all, during the team 's early years. The origin of the nickname appears to be a poem entitled "The Pilgrims At Home '' written by Edwin Fitzwilliam that was sung at the 1907 home opener ("Rory O'More '' melody). This nickname was commonly used during that season, perhaps because the team had a new manager and several rookie players. John I. Taylor had said in December 1907 that the Pilgrims "sounded too much like homeless wanderers. ''
The National League club in Boston, though seldom called the "Red Stockings '' anymore, still wore red trim. In 1907, the National League club adopted an all - white uniform, and the American League team saw an opportunity. On December 18, 1907, Taylor announced that the club had officially adopted red as its new team color. The 1908 uniforms featured a large icon of a red stocking angling across the shirt front. For 1908, the National League club returned to wearing red trim, but the American League team finally had an official nickname, and would remain the "Red Sox '' for good.
The name is often shortened to "Bosox '' or "BoSox '', a combination of "Boston '' and "Sox '' (similar to the "ChiSox '' in Chicago or the minor league "PawSox '' of Pawtucket). Sportswriters sometimes refer to the Red Sox as the Crimson Hose and the Olde Towne Team. Recently, media have begun to call them the "Sawx '' casually, reflecting how the word is pronounced with a New England accent. However, most fans simply refer to the team as the "Sox '' when the context is understood to mean Red Sox.
The formal name of the entity which owns the team is "Boston Red Sox Baseball Club Limited Partnership ''. The name shown on the door on Yawkey Way, "Boston American League Baseball Company '', is historical, predating the formation of the limited partnership on May 26, 1978. The entrance also figures in Robert B. Parker 's Spenser - and - baseball novel Mortal Stakes.
In 1901, the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of the league to the American League, leading teams in his league to be christened with the unofficial nickname "Americans ''. This was especially true in the case of the new Boston franchise, which would not adopt an official nickname until 1908.
The upstart league placed franchises in Baltimore, Maryland and Buffalo. After looking at his new league, Ban Johnson decided that he would need a team in Boston to compete with the National League team there, and so cancelled the Buffalo club 's franchise, offering one to a new club in Boston. The Boston franchise was purchased in 1903 by Milwaukee publisher, George Brumder who sold the team one year later. Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise finished second and third before capturing their first pennant in 1903 and repeating the next year. Those teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins, outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman, and Patsy Dougherty, and pitcher Cy Young, who in 1901 won the pitching Triple Crown with 33 wins (41.8 % of the team 's 79 games), 1.62 ERA and 158 strikeouts. His 1901 to 1904 seasons rank among the best four - year runs ever.
In 1903, Boston participated in the first modern World Series, going up against the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Pirates were heavily favored as they had won the NL pennant by 61⁄2 games. Aided by the modified chants of "Tessie '' by the Royal Rooters fan club and by its stronger pitching staff, the Americans managed to overcome the odds, and win the best - of - nine series five games to three.
The 1904 club was almost as good as the previous team, but due to the surprise emergence of the New York Highlanders, the Boston club found itself in a tight pennant race through the last games of the season. A predecessor to what would become a storied rivalry, this race featured such controversial moves as the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub. The climax of the season occurred on the last, dramatic doubleheader at the Highlanders ' home stadium, Hilltop Park. In order to win the pennant, the Highlanders needed to win both games. With Jack Chesbro, the Highlanders ' 41 - game winner, on the mound, and the score tied 2 -- 2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro and Lou Criger scored the go - ahead run on one of the most famous wild pitches in history.
Unfortunately, the NL champion New York Giants declined to play any postseason series, fearing it would give their New York rivals credibility (they had expected the Highlanders to win), but a sharp public reaction led the two leagues immediately to make the World Series a permanent championship, starting in 1905. These successful times soon ended, however, as Boston lost 100 games in 1906. However, several new star players helped the newly renamed Red Sox improve almost immediately.
By 1909, legendary center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the team worked their way to third place. However, the Red Sox would not win the pennant again until their 105 - win 1912 season, finishing with a club record. 691 winning percentage. Anchored by an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game -- Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis -- and superstar pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4 -- 3 -- 1 in the classic 1912 World Series best known for Snodgrass 's Muff. From 1913 to 1916 the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin, who signed Babe Ruth, soon the best - known and one of the best players ever. Another 101 wins in 1915 propelled the Red Sox to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. Following the 1915 season, Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians. His departure was more than compensated for, however, by the emergence of star pitcher Babe Ruth. The Red Sox went on to win the 1916 World Series, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins. In 1918, Babe Ruth led his team to another World Series championship, this time over the Chicago Cubs.
Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in 1916 for about $500,000. A couple of notable trades involving Harry Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard (who had posted a modern record 0.96 ERA in 1914), and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. As all three players were well regarded in Boston -- Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard had only four years before setting a modern record for earned run average -- this trade was regarded as a poor one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine - style pitching star Carl Mays was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000. Mays would go on to have several good years for the Yankees, but had been a discipline problem for the Red Sox.
On December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Babe Ruth, who had played the previous six seasons for the Red Sox, to the rival New York Yankees (Ruth had just broken the single - season home run record, hitting 29 in 1919.) Legend has it that Frazee did so in order to finance the Broadway play No, No, Nanette. That play did not actually open on Broadway until 1925, but as Leigh Montville discovered during research for his book, The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. My Lady Friends had, indeed, been financed by the Ruth sale to the Yankees.
During that period, the Red Sox, Yankees and Chicago White Sox had a détente; they were called "Insurrectos '' because their actions antagonized league president Ban Johnson. Although Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (it was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one; Johnson could move another team into the ballpark. His club was in debt, but Frazee felt the need to purchase its playing site (which he did in 1920). Further, providing the Yankees with a box office attraction would help that mediocre club, which had sided with him against Johnson and "the Loyal Five '' clubs. Finally, Ruth was considered a serious disciplinary problem, a reputation he amply confirmed while playing for the Yankees. Frazee moved Ruth to stabilize Red Sox finances and cut distractions. It was a straight sale, no players in return.
New York achieved great success after acquiring Ruth and several other very good players. The sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry, considered the "Greatest Rivalry on Earth '' by American sports journalists.
After deciding to get out of baseball, Frazee began selling many of his star players. In the winter of 1920, Wally Schang, Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, John Costello, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick and cash. The following winter, iron man shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh (who would be immediately shipped to the Washington Senators), Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy and $50,000. On July 23, 1922, Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith were traded to the Yankees for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and Lefty O'Doul, who was at the time a mediocre pitching prospect. Acquiring Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race, and the resulting uproar helped create a June 15 trading deadline that went into effect the next year. Perhaps an even more outrageous deal was the trade of Herb Pennock, occurring in early 1923. Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, George Murray and $50,000.
The loss of so much talent sent the Red Sox into free fall, even with the money Frazee earned from the trades. During the 1920s and early 1930s, they were fixtures in the second division, never finishing closer than 20 games out of first. The losses only mounted when Frazee sold the team to Bob Quinn in 1923. During an eight - year period from 1925 to 1932, the Red Sox averaged over 100 losses per season, bottoming out in 1932 with a record of 43 - 111, still the worst record in franchise history. One of the few bright spots on these teams was Earl Webb, who set the all - time mark for most doubles in a season in 1931 with 67. The BoSox ' fortunes began to change in 1933 when Tom Yawkey bought the team. Yawkey acquired pitcher Wes Ferrell and one of the greatest pitchers of all - time, Lefty Grove, making his team competitive once again in the late thirties. He also acquired Joe Cronin, an outstanding shortstop and manager and slugging first baseman Jimmie Foxx whose 50 home runs in 1938 would stand as a club record for 68 years. Foxx also drove in a club record 175 runs.
In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox. '' Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right - field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams ' left - handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg. '' Before this addition, it was over 400 feet (120 m) to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing at least five full seasons of baseball. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is currently the last player to hit over. 400 for a full season, batting. 406 in 1941. Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard '', and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion.
With Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series, but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift '', a defensive tactic in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left - handed - hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that he was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. His performance may have also been affected by a pitch he took in the elbow in an exhibition game a few days earlier. Either way, in his only World Series, Williams gathered just five singles in 25 at - bats for a. 200 average.
The Cardinals won the 1946 Series when Enos Slaughter scored the go - ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky, who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball '' before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed.
Along with Williams and Pesky, the Red Sox featured several other star players during the 1940s, including second baseman Bobby Doerr and center fielder Dom DiMaggio (the younger brother of Joe DiMaggio).
The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in 1948 and 1949. In 1948, Boston finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one - game playoff ended hopes of an all - Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joseph McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Red Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games.
The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in 1953, many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox ' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs. '' Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however it appeared that owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team at that time. Willie Mays also tried out for Boston and was highly praised by team scouts. In 1955, Frank Malzone debuted at third base and Ted Williams hit. 388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at - bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu. '' The Red Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in 1959.
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz '' Yastrzemski, Williams ' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching - rich decade.
Red Sox fans know 1967 as the season of the "Impossible Dream. '' The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "Man of La Mancha ''. 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team went to the 1967 World Series, only to lose the Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the most recent player to accomplish such a feat until Miguel Cabrera did so in 2012), hitting. 326 with 44 home runs and 121 RBIs. He finished one vote short of a unanimous MVP selection, as a Minnesota sportswriter placed Twins center fielder César Tovar first on his ballot. But the Red Sox lost the series -- again to the St. Louis Cardinals, in seven games. Legendary pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Red Sox winning three games.
An 18 - year - old Bostonian rookie named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs in 1964. "Tony C '' became the youngest player in Major League Baseball to hit his 100th home run, a record that stands today. He was struck just above the left cheek bone by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels on Friday, August 18, 1967 and sat out the entire next season with headaches and blurred vision. Although he did have a productive season in 1970, he was never the same.
Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when they lost by a half - game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players ' strike, and the Red Sox had lost one more game to the strike than the Tigers had. Games lost to the strike were not made up. The Red Sox went to Detroit with a half - game lead for the final series of the season, but lost the first two of those three and were eliminated from the pennant race.
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975. The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill "The Spaceman '' Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A 's.
In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered among the greatest games in postseason history. Down 6 -- 3 in the bottom of the eighth inning, Red Sox pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three - run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the eleventh inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled Ken Griffey at first base to preserve the tie. In the bottom of the twelfth inning, Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball which sliced towards the left field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball complied, and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game for the Red Sox 7 -- 6.
The Red Sox lost game 7, 4 -- 3 even though they had an early 3 -- 0 lead. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch '' or "space ball '' to Reds first baseman Tony Pérez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4. ''
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were 14 ⁄ games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4 - game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre ''), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead.
On September 16 the Yankees held a 3 ⁄ game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 11 of their next 13 games and by the final day of the season, the Yankees ' magic number to win the division was one -- with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division. However, New York lost 9 -- 2 and Boston won 5 -- 0, forcing a one - game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2.
The most remembered moment from the game was Bucky Dent 's 7th inning three - run home run in off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster, giving the Yankees their first lead. The dejected Boston manager, Don Zimmer, gave Mr. Dent a new middle name which lives on in Boston sports lore to this day, uttering three words as the ball sailed over the left - field wall: "Bucky F * * king Dent! '' Reggie Jackson provided a solo home run in the 8th that proved to be the difference in the Yankees ' 5 -- 4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles in foul territory with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. Although Dent became a Red Sox demon, the Red Sox would get retribution in 1990 when the Yankees fired Dent as their manager during a series at Fenway Park.
Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven - team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966.
However, in 1986, it appeared that the team 's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24 -- 4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20 - strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. Despite spending a month and a half on the disabled list in the middle of the season, left - hander Bruce Hurst went 13 - 8, striking out 167 and pitching four shutout games. Boston sportswriters that season compared Clemens and Hurst to Don Drysdale and Sandy Koufax from the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers.
The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, and faced the California Angels in the ALCS. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two home games, taking a 3 -- 1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5 -- 2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two - run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6 -- 5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the 11th on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six - and seven - run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title.
The Red Sox faced a heavily favored New York Mets team that had won 108 games in the regular season in the 1986 World Series. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at 2 games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3 -- 2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever and former Met Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3 -- 3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5 -- 3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett.
After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the Player of the Game and Bruce Hurst as World Series MVP. A message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as world champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. With the count at two balls and one strike, Mets catcher Gary Carter hit a single. It was followed by singles by Kevin Mitchell and Ray Knight. With Mookie Wilson batting, a wild pitch by Bob Stanley tied the game at 5. Wilson then hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner 's legs, allowing Knight to score the winning run from second.
While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers -- as well as both Wilson and Buckner -- have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, the speedy Wilson probably would still have been safe, leaving the game - winning run at third with two out.
Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late - inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. After falling behind 3 -- 0, the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed. ''
This World Series loss had a strange twist: Red Sox General Manager Lou Gorman was vice-president, player personnel, of the Mets from 1980 to 1983. Working under Mets ' GM Frank Cashen, with whom Gorman served with the Orioles, he helped lay the foundation for the Mets ' championship.
The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All - Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Walpole, Massachusetts, resident and longtime minor - league manager Joe Morgan on July 15. Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as Morgan Magic. But the magic was short - lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox would again win the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A 's sweeping the ALCS in four straight.
In 1990, Yankees fans started to chant "1918! '' to taunt the Red Sox. The demeaning chant would echo at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Also, Fenway Park became the scene of Bucky Dent 's worst moment as a manager, although it was where he had his greatest triumph. In June, when the Red Sox swept the Yankees during a four - game series at Fenway Park, the Yankees fired Dent as their manager. Red Sox fans felt retribution to Dent being fired on their field, but the Yankees used him as a scapegoat. However, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe severely criticized Yankees Owner George Steinbrenner for firing Dent -- his 18th managerial change in as many years since becoming owner -- in Boston and said he should "have waited until the Yankees got to Baltimore '' to fire Dent. He said that "if Dent had been fired in Seattle or Milwaukee, this would have been just another event in an endless line of George 's jettisons. But it happened in Boston and the nightly news had its hook. '' "The firing was only special because... it 's the first time a Yankee manager -- who was also a Red Sox demon -- was purged on the ancient Indian burial grounds of the Back Bay. ''
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean 's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership.
In 1994, General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team 's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an 8 - year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the 2000 season.
The Red Sox won the newly realigned American League East in 1995, finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in the ALDS by the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series.
Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18, 1996 in what would prove to be one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993 -- 96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career ''. Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young Awards.
Out of contention in 1997, the team traded closer Heathcliff Slocumb to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right - handed pitcher Derek Lowe. Prior to the start of the 1998 season, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas, Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team 's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card, but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians.
In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete '' and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium.
On the field, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians. Cleveland took a 2 -- 0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4 's 23 -- 7 win by the Red Sox was the highest - scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5 -- 2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team 's offense rallied for a 12 -- 8 win behind two home runs and seven RBIs from outfielder Troy O'Leary. After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Red Sox in the much - hyped Martinez - Clemens game.
In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little.
While nearly all offseason moves were made under Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland Athletics, the new ownership made additions such as outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games -- becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20 games in back - to - back seasons.
After failing to reach the playoffs, Port was replaced by Yale University graduate Theo Epstein. Epstein, raised in Brookline, Massachusetts, and just 28 at the time of his hiring, became the youngest general manager in MLB history.
The 2003 team was known as the "Cowboy Up '' team, a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar 's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0 -- 2 series deficit against the Athletics to win the best - of - five series. Derek Lowe returned to his former relief pitching role to save Game 5, a 4 -- 3 victory. The team then faced the Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In Game 7, Boston led 5 -- 2 in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez allowed three runs to tie the game. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6 -- 5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off of Tim Wakefield. Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove starting pitcher Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. Others credited Little with the team 's successful season and dramatic come - from - behind victory in the ALDS. Nevertheless, Boston 's management did not renew Little 's contract, and hired former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona.
During the 2003 -- 04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Due to some midseason struggles with injuries, management shook up the team at the July 31 trading deadline as part of a four - team trade. The Red Sox traded the team 's popular, yet oft - injured, shortstop Nomar Garciaparra and outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs, and received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox acquired center fielder Dave Roberts from the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the trades, the club won 22 out of 25 games and qualified for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "the Idiots '', a term coined by Damon and Millar during the playoff push to describe the team 's eclectic roster and devil - may - care attitude toward their supposed "curse. ''
Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. In the third game of the series, David Ortiz hit a walk - off two - run homer in the 10th inning to win the game and the series to advance to a rematch of the previous year 's ALCS in the ALCS against the Yankees. The ALCS started very poorly for the Red Sox, as they lost the first three games (including a crushing 19 - 8 home loss in game 3). In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4 -- 3 in the ninth with Mariano Rivera in to close for the Yankees. After Rivera issued a walk to Millar, Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller, sending the game into extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two - run home run by Ortiz in the 12th inning, who also made the walk - off hit in the 14th inning of game 5. The comeback continued with a victory from an injured Schilling in game 6. Three sutures being used to stabilize the tendon in Schilling 's right ankle bled throughout the game, famously making his sock appear bloody red. The Red Sox completed their historic comeback in game 7 with a 10 -- 3 defeat of the Yankees. Ortiz, who had the game - winning RBIs in Games 4 and 5, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders as the only professional sports teams in history at the time to win a best - of - seven games series after being down three games to none. The 2009 -- 10 Philadelphia Flyers (against the Boston Bruins) and the 2013 -- 14 Los Angeles Kings (against the San Jose Sharks) would also accomplish the feat.
The Red Sox swept the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox never trailed throughout the series; Mark Bellhorn hit a game - winning home run off Pesky 's Pole in game 1, and Schilling pitched another bloodied - sock victory in game 2, followed by similarly masterful pitching performances by Martinez and Derek Lowe. It was the Red Sox ' first championship in 86 years. Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston 's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their incredible season, such as in December, when Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year.
The 2005 AL East would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one - game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95 -- 67. However, a playoff was not needed, as the loser of such a playoff would still make the playoffs as a Wild Card team. As the Yankees had won the season series, they were awarded the division title, and the Red Sox competed in the playoffs as the Wild Card. Boston failed to defend their championship, and was swept in three games by the eventual 2005 World Series champion Chicago White Sox in the first round of the playoffs. In 2006 David Ortiz broke Jimmie Foxx 's single season Red Sox home run record by hitting 54 homers. However, Boston failed to make the playoffs after compiling a 9 -- 21 record in the month of August due to several injuries in club 's roster.
Theo Epstein 's first step toward restocking the team for 2007 was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in baseball history. On November 14, MLB announced that Boston had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese Nippon Professional Baseball superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million to negotiate with Matsuzaka and completed a 6 - year, $52 million contract after they were announced as the winning bid.
The Red Sox moved into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquished their division lead. Initially, rookie second baseman Dustin Pedroia under - performed, hitting below. 200 in April. Manager Terry Francona refused to bench him and his patience paid off as Pedroia eventually won the AL Rookie of the Year Award for his performance that season, which included 165 hits and a. 317 batting average. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff with his first 20 - win season, as fellow starting pitchers Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield and Julián Tavárez all struggled at times. Relief pitcher Hideki Okajima, another recent arrival from the NPB, posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was selected for the All - Star Game. Okajima finished the season with a 2.22 ERA and 5 saves, emerging as one of baseball 's top relievers. Minor league call - up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no - hitter in his second career start. The Red Sox captured their first AL East title since 1995.
The Red Sox swept the Angels in the ALDS. Facing the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS, the Red Sox fell in games 2, 3, and 4 before Beckett picked up his second victory of the series in game 5, starting a comeback. The Red Sox captured their twelfth American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30 -- 5 over the final three games. The Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies in the 2007 World Series, and swept the Rockies in four games. In Game 4, Wakefield gave up his spot in the rotation to a recovered Jon Lester, who gave the Red Sox an impressive start, pitching 52⁄3 shutout innings. Key home runs late in the game by third baseman Mike Lowell and pinch - hitter Bobby Kielty secured the Red Sox ' second title in four years, as Lowell was named World Series MVP.
The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A 's in the Tokyo Dome. On May 19, Jon Lester threw the 18th no - hitter in team history, defeating the Kansas City Royals 7 -- 0. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez became embroiled in controversy surrounding public incidents with fellow players and other team employees, as well as criticism of ownership and not playing, which some claimed was due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgrunted outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three - way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox improved vastly and made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. The Red Sox defeated the Angels in the 2008 ALDS three games to one. The Red Sox then took on their AL East rivals the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS. Down three games to one in the 5th game of the ALCS, Boston mounted a comeback from trailing 7 - 0 in the 7th inning to win 8 - 7. They tied the series at 3 games apiece with a game 6 victory before losing game 7, 3 -- 1, thus becoming the eighth team in a row since 2000 to fail to repeat as world champions.
The Red Sox returned to postseason play the following season, but were swept by the Los Angeles Angels in three games. In 2011, the Red Sox collapsed in the month of September losing 11 of 14, reminiscent of 1978 and destroying their playoff aspirations. In December 2011, Bobby Valentine was hired as a new manager. The 2012 season marked the centennial of Fenway Park, and on April 20, past and present Red Sox players and coaches assembled to celebrate the park 's anniversary. However, the collapse that they endured in September 2011 carried over into the season. The Red Sox struggled throughout the season due to injuries, inconsistent play, and off - field news. finished 69 -- 93 for their first losing season since 1997, and their worst season since 1965.
Boston, which finished last in the American League East with a 69 -- 93 record in 2012 -- 26 games behind the Yankees, became the 11th team in major league history to go from worst in the division to first the next season when it clinched the A.L. East division title on September 21, 2013. Many credit the team 's turnaround with the hiring of manager John Farrell, the former Red Sox pitching coach under Terry Francona from 2007 to 2010. As a former member of the staff, he had the respect of influential players such as Lester, Pedroia, and Ortiz. But there were other moves made in the offseason by general manager Ben Cherington who targeted "character '' players to fill the team 's needs. These acquisitions included veteran catcher David Ross, Jonny Gomes, Mike Napoli, and Shane Victorino. While some questioned these players as "re-treads '', it was clear that Cherington was trying to move past 2011 -- 2012 by bringing in "clubhouse players ''. Essential to the turnaround, however, was the pitching staff. With ace veteran John Lackey coming off Tommy John surgery and both Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz returning to their prior form, this allowed the team to rely less on their bullpen. Everything seemed in danger of collapsing, however, when both closers, Joel Hanrahan and Andrew Bailey, went down early with season - ending injuries. Farrell gave the closing job to Koji Uehara on June 21 who delivered with a 1.09 ERA and an MLB record 0.565 WHIP. On September 11, the 37 - year - old right - hander set a new Red Sox record when he retired 33 straight batters. Other reasons include the trade deadline acquisition of pitcher Jake Peavy when the Red Sox were in second place in the AL East, the depth of the bench with players such as Mike Carp and rookies Jackie Bradley, Jr. and Xander Bogaerts, and the re-emergence of players such as Will Middlebrooks and Daniel Nava. On September 28, 2013, the team secured home field advantage throughout the American League playoffs when their closest competition, the Oakland Athletics, lost. The next day, the team finished the season going 97 -- 65, the best record in the American League and tied with the St. Louis Cardinals for the best record in baseball. They proceeded to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2013 World Series, four games to two. The Red Sox became the first team since the 1991 Minnesota Twins to win the World Series a year after finishing in last place, and the second overall. The 2012 Red Sox '. 426 winning percentage was the lowest for a team in a season prior to a World Series championship.
Throughout the season, the Red Sox players and organization formed a close association with the city of Boston and its people in relation to the Boston Marathon bombings that occurred on April 15, 2013. On April 20, the day after the alleged bombers were captured, David Ortiz gave a pre-game speech following a ceremony honoring the victims and the local law enforcement, in which he stated, "This is our fucking city! And nobody is going to dictate our freedom! Stay strong! '' For the entirety of the season, the team wore an additional arm patch that exhibited the Red Sox "B '' logo and the word "Strong '' within a blue circle. The team also hung up in the dugout a custom jersey that read "Boston Strong '' with the number 617, representing the city of Boston 's area code. On many occasions during the season, victims of the attack and law enforcement involved were given the honor of throwing the ceremonial first pitch. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, the first one clinched at home in Fenway Park since 1918, Red Sox players Jonny Gomes and Jarrod Saltalamacchia performed a ceremony during the team 's traditional duck boat victory parade, in which they placed the World Series trophy and the custom 617 jersey on the Boston Marathon finish line on Boylston Street, followed by a moment of silence and a singing of God Bless America. This ceremony helped the city "reclaim '' its spirit that was lost after the bombing. Overall, the Red Sox team and organization played a role in the healing process after the tragedy, owing to the team 's unifying effect on the city.
Following the 2013 championship, the team finished last in the AL East during 2014 with a record of 71 -- 91, and again in 2015 with a record of 78 -- 84. On September 20, 2015, David Ortiz hit his 500th career home run off Matt Moore in Tropicana Field becoming the 27th player in MLB history to achieve that prestigious milestone; in November 2015, Ortiz announced that the 2016 season would be his last.
The Red Sox had a record of 93 -- 69 and won their division in 2016, with six American League All - Stars, the AL Cy Young Award winner in Rick Porcello, and the runner - up for the AL Most Valuable Player Award, Mookie Betts. Rookie Andrew Benintendi established himself in the Red Sox ' outfield, and Steven Wright emerged as one of the year 's biggest surprises. The Red Sox grabbed the lead in the AL East early and held on to it throughout the year, which included many teams honoring Ortiz throughout the season. Despite the success, the team lost five of their last six games of the regular season and were swept in the ALDS by the eventual American League Champion Cleveland Indians.
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Designated hitters
Manager
Coaches
37 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated November 2, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
The unofficial beginning of the spring training season for the Red Sox is Truck Day, the day a tractor - trailer filled with equipment leaves Fenway Park bound for the Sox spring training facility in Florida.
Former left fielder Mike Greenwell is from Fort Myers, Florida and was instrumental in bringing his team to the city for spring training. City of Palms Park was built in 1992 for that purpose and holds 8,000 people. It is also the home of the Red Sox Rookie team, the Gulf Coast League Red Sox, from April through June.
On October 28, 2008, the Lee County commission voted 3 -- 1 to approve an agreement with the Boston Red Sox to build a new spring - training facility for the team in south Lee County. Commissioner Brian Bigelow was the lone dissenting vote. Commissioner Bob Janes was not present for the vote, but stated that he supported it.
Dee was present in the chambers for the vote, and took the agreement back to Boston to meet with John Henry and other team officials. On November 1, 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County that will keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years.
Wednesday, April 30, 2009, the Lee County commissioners selected the Watermen - Pinnacle site on Daniels Parkway (a little more than a mile east of Interstate 75) as the site for the new facility. The backup choice, if negotiations between county staff and the developer falter, is the University Highland site just north of Germain Arena in Estero. Jeff Mudgett, a Fort Myers architect who is volunteering his time toward the project, envisions a facility with a mini-Fenway Park that would open for Spring 2012.
On March 29, 2011, it was announced that the new field would be named JetBlue Park at Fenway South. The park was named JetBlue Park after JetBlue Airlines, which has maintained major operations at Boston 's Logan International Airport since 2004.
Many characteristics of the stadium will be taken from Fenway Park, including a 37 - foot (11 m) Green Monster wall in left field, featuring seating on top of and behind the wall. Included in the wall will be a restored version of the manual scoreboard that was housed at Fenway for almost 30 years, beginning in the 1970s. The field dimensions at JetBlue Park will be identical to those at Fenway.
The Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Red Sox and New York Yankees have been rivals.
The rivalry is often a heated subject of conversation in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, every playoffs has featured one or both of the American League East rivals and they both have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular - season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).
The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high - profile one - game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14 - game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 AL Championship Series is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win a series.
The rivalry is often termed "the best '' and "greatest rivalry in all of sports. '' Games between the two teams often generate a great deal of interest and get extensive media coverage, including being broadcast on national television.
Currently, the flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WEEI - FM / 93.7. Joe Castiglione, in his 25th year as the voice of the Red Sox, serves as the lead play - by - play announcer, along with Dave O'Brien and Jon Rish. Some of Castiglione 's predecessors include Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman, and Ned Martin. He has also worked with play - by - play veterans Bob Starr and Jerry Trupiano. Many stations throughout New England and beyond pick up the broadcasts.
All Red Sox telecasts not shown nationally on Fox or ESPN are seen on New England Sports Network (NESN), until 2015 with Don Orsillo calling play - by - play and Jerry Remy, former Red Sox second baseman, as color analyst. At the start of the 2016 season, Dave O'Brien took over the play - by - play duties. During Remy 's recovery from cancer, former Red Sox players Dennis Eckersley and Dave Roberts have alternated doing color commentary. NESN became exclusive in 2006; before then, games were shown on such local stations as the original WHDH - TV, WNAC - TV (now the current WHDH), WBZ - TV, WSBK - TV, WLVI, WABU, and WFXT at various points in team history.
The Red Sox used to publish on their website and their annual media guides three official requirements for a player to have his number retired:
These requirements were reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame in 2000; who met the first two requirements but played the second half of his career with the White Sox. As a means of meeting the criteria, then - GM Dan Duquette hired Fisk for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically finish his career with the Red Sox.
In 2008, the Red Sox made an "exception '' by retiring # 6 for Johnny Pesky. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited "... his versatility of his contributions -- on the field, off the field, (and) in the dugout... '', including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well - earned. Pesky spent 55 years with the Red Sox organization; as a player (1942, 1946 - 1952), minor league manager (1961 - 1962, 1990), major league manager (1963 - 1964, 1980), broadcaster (1969 - 1974), major league coach (1975 - 1984), and as a special instructor and assistant general manager (1985 - 2012).
In 2015, the Red Sox chose to forgo the official criteria and retire Pedro Martínez 's # 45. Martínez only spent 7 of his 18 seasons in Boston. In justifying the number 's retirement, Red Sox principal owner John Henry stated, "To be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame upon his first year of eligibility speaks volumes regarding Pedro 's outstanding career, and is a testament to the respect and admiration so many in baseball have for him. '' After which, the official criteria no longer appeared on the team website nor future media guides.
In 2017, less than eight months after he played the final game of his illustrious career, David Ortiz had his # 34 retired by the Red Sox. Ortiz will not be eligible for election to the Hall of Fame until 2021. Ortiz is the only Red Sox player to have won three World Series championships since the issuance of jersey numbers starting in 1931.
The number 42 was officially retired by Major League Baseball in 1997, but Mo Vaughn was one of a handful of players to continue wearing # 42 through a grandfather clause. He last wore it for the team in 1998. In commemoration of Jackie Robinson Day, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 for games played on April 15, Coco Crisp (CF), David Ortiz (DH), and DeMarlo Hale (Coach) did that in 2007 and again in 2008. Starting in 2009, MLB had all uniformed players for all teams wear # 42 for Jackie Robinson Day.
While not officially retired, the Red Sox have not issued several numbers since the departure of prominent figures who wore them, specifically:
There has also been debate in Boston media circles and among fans about the potential retiring of Tony Conigliaro 's number 25. Nonetheless, since Conigliaro 's last full season in Boston, 1970, the number has continued to be issued to individuals, including players Orlando Cepeda, Steve Renko, Mark Clear, Ed Romero, Don Baylor, Larry Parrish, Jack Clark, Jeff Russell, Troy O'Leary, Jeremy Giambi, Ellis Burks, Adam Hyzdu, Mike Lowell, Jackie Bradley, Jr., Kyle Kendrick and Rajai Davis; coach Dwight Evans, and manager Bobby Valentine.
Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right - field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9 -- 4 -- 1 -- 8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9 / 4 / 18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship series that the Red Sox won before 2004. After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order. In 2012, the numbers were rearranged again in chronological order of retirement (9, 4, 1, 8, 27, 6, 14) followed by Robinson 's 42. As additional numbers are retired (e.g.: Pedro 's 45, Boggs 's 26, Papi 's 34), Robinson 's 42 is moved to the right so it remains the right-most number hanging.
Luis Aparicio Wade Boggs Lou Boudreau Jesse Burkett Orlando Cepeda Jack Chesbro Jimmy Collins
Joe Cronin Andre Dawson Bobby Doerr Dennis Eckersley Rick Ferrell * Carlton Fisk * Jimmie Foxx *
Lefty Grove * Rickey Henderson Harry Hooper Waite Hoyt Ferguson Jenkins George Kell Heinie Manush
Juan Marichal Pedro Martínez * Herb Pennock * Tony Pérez Jim Rice Red Ruffing Babe Ruth
Tom Seaver Al Simmons John Smoltz Tris Speaker Dick Williams Ted Williams Carl Yastrzemski Cy Young
Curt Gowdy
Bob Murphy
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what was the winner of the melbourne cup | List of Melbourne Cup winners - Wikipedia
The Melbourne Cup is Australia 's major thoroughbred horse race. It is run at Flemington Racecourse in Melbourne. Each year internationally bred or owned horses compete in the race. Since 1882 New Zealand bred horses have won 40 Melbourne Cups, British bred horses five, American bred horses four, Irish bred horses three, German bred horses two and French and Japanese bred horses one.
This is a list of the winners of the Melbourne Cup.
Dunaden 2011
Americain 2010
Delta Blues 2006
Viewed 2008
Makybe Diva 2003 2004 2005
Doriemus 1995
Hi Jinx 1960
Rising Fast 1954
Comic Court 1950
Russia 1946
The Trump 1937
Peter Pan 1932 1934
Hall Mark 1933
Phar Lap 1930
Nightmarch 1929
Poitrel 1920
Comedy King 1910
Poseidon 1906
Blue Spec 1905
Carbine 1890
Malua 1884
Grand Flaneur 1880
Chester 1877
Briseis 1876
Glencoe 1868
The Barb 1866
Archer 1861 1862
1934 VRC Melbourne Cup racebook with train & turnstile passes.
Conditions & Starters 1934 VRC Melbourne Cup racebook.
1934 VRC Melbourne Cup racebook.
1934 VRC Melbourne Cup racebook.
The back cover showing raceday railway arrangements.
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who was involved in the miranda v arizona case | Miranda v. Arizona - wikipedia
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court. In a 5 -- 4 majority, the Court held that both inculpatory and exculpatory statements made in response to interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning and of the right against self - incrimination before police questioning, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily waived them.
This case has a significant impact on law enforcement in the United States, by making what became known as the Miranda rights part of routine police procedure to ensure that suspects were informed of their rights. The Supreme Court decided Miranda with three other consolidated cases: Westover v. United States, Vignera v. New York, and California v. Stewart.
The Miranda warning (often shortened to "Miranda '', or "Mirandizing '' a suspect) is the name of the formal warning that is required to be given by police in the United States to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial situation) before they are interrogated, in accordance with the Miranda ruling. Its purpose is to ensure the accused are aware of, and reminded of, these rights before questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.
Per the U.S. Supreme Court decision Berghuis v. Thompkins (June 1, 2010), criminal suspects who are aware of their right to silence and to an attorney, but choose not to "unambiguously '' invoke them, may find any subsequent voluntary statements treated as an implied waiver of their rights, and used as or as part of evidence. At least one scholar has argued that Thompkins effectively gutted Miranda.
During the 1960s, a movement which provided defendants with legal aid emerged from the collective efforts of various bar associations.
In the civil realm, it led to the creation of the Legal Services Corporation under the Great Society program of President Lyndon Baines Johnson. Escobedo v. Illinois, a case which closely foreshadowed Miranda, provided for the presence of counsel during police interrogation. This concept extended to a concern over police interrogation practices, which were considered by many to be barbaric and unjust. Coercive interrogation tactics were known in period slang as the "third degree ''.
On March 13, 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested, by the Phoenix Police Department, based on circumstantial evidence linking him to the kidnapping and rape of an eighteen - year - old woman ten days earlier. After two hours of interrogation by police officers, Miranda signed a confession to the rape charge on forms that included the typed statement: "I do hereby swear that I make this statement voluntarily and of my own free will, with no threats, coercion, or promises of immunity, and with full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me. ''
However, at no time was Miranda told of his right to counsel. Before being presented with the form on which he was asked to write out the confession he had already given orally, he was not advised of his right to remain silent, nor was he informed that his statements during the interrogation would be used against him. At trial, when prosecutors offered Miranda 's written confession as evidence, his court - appointed lawyer, Alvin Moore, objected that because of these facts, the confession was not truly voluntary and should be excluded. Moore 's objection was overruled and based on this confession and other evidence, Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping. He was sentenced to 20 -- 30 years of imprisonment on each charge, with sentences to run concurrently. Moore filed Miranda 's appeal to the Arizona Supreme Court, claiming that Miranda 's confession was not fully voluntary and should not have been admitted into the court proceedings. The Arizona Supreme Court affirmed the trial court 's decision to admit the confession in State v. Miranda, 401 P. 2d 721 (Ariz. 1965). In affirmation, the Arizona Supreme emphasized heavily the fact that Miranda did not specifically request an attorney.
Attorney John Paul Frank, former law clerk to Justice Hugo Black, represented Miranda in his appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.
Chief Justice Earl Warren, a former prosecutor, delivered the opinion of the Court, ruling that due to the coercive nature of the custodial interrogation by police (Warren cited several police training manuals which had not been provided in the arguments), no confession could be admissible under the Fifth Amendment self - incrimination clause and Sixth Amendment right to an attorney unless a suspect had been made aware of his rights and the suspect had then waived them:
The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in court; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.
Thus, Miranda 's conviction was overturned. The Court also made clear what had to happen if the suspect chose to exercise his or her rights:
If the individual indicates in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease... If the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. At that time, the individual must have an opportunity to confer with the attorney and to have him present during any subsequent questioning.
Warren pointed to the existing practice of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the rules of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, both of which required notifying a suspect of his right to remain silent; the FBI warning included notice of the right to counsel.
However, the dissenting justices accused the majority of overreacting to the problem of coercive interrogations, and anticipated a drastic effect. They believed that, once warned, suspects would always demand attorneys, and deny the police the ability to gain confessions.
In a separate concurrence in part, dissent in part, Justice Tom C. Clark argued that the Warren Court went "too far too fast ''. Instead, Justice Clark would use the "totality of the circumstances '' test enunciated by Justice Goldberg in Haynes v. Washington. Under this test, the court would:
consider in each case whether the police officer prior to custodial interrogation added the warning that the suspect might have counsel present at the interrogation and, further, that a court would appoint one at his request if he was too poor to employ counsel. In the absence of warnings, the burden would be on the State to prove that counsel was knowingly and intelligently waived or that in the totality of the circumstances, including the failure to give the necessary warnings, the confession was clearly voluntary.
In dissent, Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote that "nothing in the letter or the spirit of the Constitution or in the precedents squares with the heavy - handed and one - sided action that is so precipitously taken by the Court in the name of fulfilling its constitutional responsibilities ''. Harlan closed his remarks by quoting former Justice Robert H. Jackson: "This Court is forever adding new stories to the temples of constitutional law, and the temples have a way of collapsing when one story too many is added. ''
Justice Byron White took issue with the court announcing a new constitutional right when it had no "factual and textual bases '' in the Constitution or previous opinions of the Court for the rule announced in the opinion. He stated: "The proposition that the privilege against self - incrimination forbids in - custody interrogation without the warnings specified in the majority opinion and without a clear waiver of counsel has no significant support in the history of the privilege or in the language of the Fifth Amendment. '' Nor did Justice White believe it had any basis in English common law.
White further warned of the dire consequences of the majority opinion:
I have no desire whatsoever to share the responsibility for any such impact on the present criminal process.
In some unknown number of cases, the Court 's rule will return a killer, a rapist or other criminal to the streets and to the environment which produced him, to repeat his crime whenever it pleases him. As a consequence, there will not be a gain, but a loss, in human dignity.
Miranda was retried in 1967 after the original case against him was thrown out. This time the prosecution, instead of using the confession, introduced other evidence and called witnesses. One witness was Twila Hoffman, a woman with whom Miranda was living at the time of the offense; she testified that he had told her of committing the crime. Miranda was convicted in 1967 and sentenced to serve 20 to 30 years. The Supreme Court of Arizona affirmed, and the United States Supreme Court denied review. Miranda was paroled in 1972. After his release, he returned to his old neighborhood and made a modest living autographing police officers ' "Miranda cards '' which contained the text of the warning, for reading to arrestees. He was stabbed to death during an argument in a bar on January 31, 1976. A suspect was arrested, but he, unlike Miranda, exercised his right to remain silent. With no evidence against him, he was released.
Another three defendants whose cases had been tied in with Miranda 's -- an armed robber, a stick - up man, and a bank robber -- either made plea bargains to lesser charges or were found guilty again despite the exclusion of their confessions.
After the Miranda decision, the nation 's police departments were required to inform arrested persons or suspects of their rights under the ruling. Such information is called a Miranda warning.
Since it is usually required that the suspects be asked if they understand their rights, courts have also ruled that any subsequent waiver of Miranda rights must be knowing, intelligent, and voluntary. Many American police departments have pre-printed Miranda waiver forms which a suspect must sign and date (after hearing and reading the warnings again) if an interrogation is to occur.
The Miranda decision was widely criticized when it came down, as many felt it was unfair to inform suspected criminals of their rights, as outlined in the decision. Richard Nixon and other conservatives denounced Miranda for undermining the efficiency of the police, and argued the ruling would contribute to an increase in crime. Nixon, upon becoming President, promised to appoint judges who would be "strict constructionists '' and who would exercise judicial restraint. Many supporters of law enforcement were angered by the decision 's negative view of police officers.
Data from the FBI Uniform Crime Reports shows a sharp reduction in the clearance rate of violent and property crimes after Miranda. However, according to other studies from the 1960s and 1970s, "contrary to popular belief, Miranda had little, if any, effect on detectives ' ability to solve crimes. ''
The federal Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 purported to overrule Miranda for federal criminal cases and restore the "totality of the circumstances '' test that had prevailed previous to Miranda. The validity of this provision of the law, which is still codified at 18 U.S.C. § 3501, was not ruled on for another 30 years because the Justice Department never attempted to rely on it to support the introduction of a confession into evidence at any criminal trial.
Miranda was undermined by several subsequent decisions which seemed to grant exceptions to the "Miranda warnings '', challenging its claim to be a necessary corollary of the Fifth Amendment. The exceptions and developments that occurred over the years included:
United States v. Garibay (1998) pointed out an important matter in regards to expansion of Miranda. Garibay barely spoke English and clearly showed a lack of understanding; indeed, "the agent admitted that he had to rephrase questions when the defendant appeared confused. '' The U.S. Court of Appeals ruled a "clear error '' when the district court found that Garibay had "knowingly and intelligently waived his Miranda rights '' due to the defendant 's low I.Q. and poor English language skills. The court investigated many facets of his waiver and discovered that Mr. Garibay was missing all items that they were looking for: he never signed a waiver, he only received his warnings verbally and in English, and no interpreter was provided although they were available. With an opinion that stressed "the requirement that a defendant ' knowingly and intelligently ' waive his Miranda rights '', the Court reversed Garibay 's conviction and remanded his case.
Miranda survived a strong challenge in Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428 (2000), where the validity of Congress 's overruling of Miranda through § 3501 was tested. At issue was whether the Miranda warnings were actually compelled by the Constitution, or were rather merely measures enacted as a matter of judicial policy. In Dickerson, the Court, speaking through Chief Justice Rehnquist, upheld Miranda 7 -- 2 and stated that "the warnings have become part of our national culture ''. In dissent, Justice Scalia argued Miranda warnings were not constitutionally required. He cited several cases demonstrating a majority of the then - current court, counting himself, and Justices Kennedy, O'Connor, and Thomas, as well as the Chief Justice (who had just delivered a contrary opinion), "(were) on record as believing that a violation of Miranda is not a violation of the Constitution ''.
Over time, interrogators began to think of techniques to honor the "letter '' but not the "spirit '' of Miranda. In the case of Missouri v. Seibert, 542 U.S. 600 (2004), the Supreme Court halted one of the more controversial practices. Missouri police were deliberately withholding Miranda warnings and questioning suspects until they obtained confessions, then giving the warnings, getting waivers, and getting confessions again. Justice Souter wrote for the plurality: "Strategists dedicated to draining the substance out of Miranda can not accomplish by training instructions what Dickerson held Congress could not do by statute. ''
Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010) is a ruling where the Supreme Court held that a suspect 's "ambiguous or equivocal '' statement or no statements do not mean that police must end an interrogation. At least one scholar has argued that Thompkins effectively gutted Miranda. In The Right to Remain Silent, Charles Weisselberg wrote that "the majority in Thompkins rejected the fundamental underpinnings of Miranda v. Arizona 's prophylactic rule and established a new one that fails to protect the rights of suspects '' and that
But in Thompkins, neither Michigan nor the Solicitor General were able to cite any decision in which a court found that a suspect had given an implied waiver after lengthy questioning. Thompkins persevered for almost three hours before succumbing to his interrogators. In finding a waiver on these facts, Thompkins gives us an implied waiver doctrine on steroids.
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which item is not a characteristic of a project | Prototype - wikipedia
A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one. In some design workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.
The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, "primitive form '', neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, "original, primitive '', from πρῶτος protos, "first '' and τύπος typos, "impression ''.
Prototypes explore different aspects of an intended design:
In general, the creation of prototypes will differ from creation of the final product in some fundamental ways:
Engineers and prototype specialists attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the intended role for the prototype. For example, if a visual prototype is not able to use the same materials as the final product, they will attempt to substitute materials with properties that closely simulate the intended final materials.
Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design.
It is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the production design may have been sound. A counter-intuitive idea is that prototypes may actually perform acceptably whereas the production design may be flawed since prototyping materials and processes may occasionally outperform their production counterparts.
In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be substantially greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials and processes. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and refinement.
It is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally can not eliminate all risk. There are pragmatic and practical limitations to the ability of a prototype to match the intended final performance of the product and some allowances and engineering judgement are often required before moving forward with a production design.
Building the full design is often expensive and can be time - consuming, especially when repeated several times -- building the full design, figuring out what the problems are and how to solve them, then building another full design. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the initial prototypes, which implement part, but not all, of the complete design. This allows designers and manufacturers to rapidly and inexpensively test the parts of the design that are most likely to have problems, solve those problems, and then build the full design.
This counter-intuitive idea -- that the quickest way to build something is, first to build something else -- is shared by scaffolding and the telescope rule.
In technology research, a technology demonstrator is a prototype serving as proof - of - concept and demonstration model for a new technology or future product, proving its viability and illustrating conceivable applications.
In large development projects, a testbed is a platform and prototype development environment for rigorous experimentation and testing of new technologies, components, scientific theories and computational tools.
With recent advances in computer modeling it is becoming practical to eliminate the creation of a physical prototype (except possibly at greatly reduced scales for promotional purposes), instead modeling all aspects of the final product as a computer model. An example of such a development can be seen in Boeing 787 Dreamliner, in which the first full sized physical realization is made on the series production line. Computer modeling is now being extensively used in automotive design, both for form (in the styling and aerodynamics of the vehicle) and in function -- especially for improving vehicle crashworthiness and in weight reduction to improve mileage.
The most common use of the word prototype is a functional, although experimental, version of a non-military machine (e.g., automobiles, domestic appliances, consumer electronics) whose designers would like to have built by mass production means, as opposed to a mockup, which is an inert representation of a machine 's appearance, often made of some non-durable substance.
An electronics designer often builds the first prototype from breadboard or stripboard or perfboard, typically using "DIP '' packages.
However, more and more often the first functional prototype is built on a "prototype PCB '' almost identical to the production PCB, as PCB manufacturing prices fall and as many components are not available in DIP packages, but only available in SMT packages optimized for placing on a PCB.
Builders of military machines and aviation prefer the terms "experimental '' and "service test ''.
In electronics, prototyping means building an actual circuit to a theoretical design to verify that it works, and to provide a physical platform for debugging it if it does not. The prototype is often constructed using techniques such as wire wrapping or using veroboard or breadboard, with the result being a circuit that is electrically identical to the design but not physically identical to the final product.
Open - source tools like Fritzing exist to document electronic prototypes (especially the breadboard - based ones) and move toward physical production. Prototyping platforms such as Arduino also simplify the task of programming and interacting with a microcontroller. The developer can choose to deploy their invention as - is using the prototyping platform, or replace it with only the microcontroller chip and the circuitry that is relevant to their product.
A technician can quickly build a prototype (and make additions and modifications) using these techniques, but for volume production it is much faster and usually cheaper to mass - produce custom printed circuit boards than to produce these other kinds of prototype boards. The proliferation of quick - turn PCB fabrication and assembly companies has enabled the concepts of rapid prototyping to be applied to electronic circuit design. It is now possible, even with the smallest passive components and largest fine - pitch packages, to have boards fabricated, assembled, and even tested in a matter of days.
In many programming languages, a function prototype is the declaration of a subroutine or function (and should not be confused with software prototyping). This term is rather C / C++ - specific; other terms for this notion are signature, type and interface. In prototype - based programming (a form of object - oriented programming), new objects are produced by cloning existing objects, which are called prototypes.
The term may also refer to the Prototype Javascript Framework.
Additionally, the term may refer to the prototype design pattern.
Prototype software is often referred to as alpha grade, meaning it is the first version to run. Often only a few functions are implemented, the primary focus of the alpha is to have a functional base code on to which features may be added. Once alpha grade software has most of the required features integrated into it, it becomes beta software for testing of the entire software and to adjust the program to respond correctly during situations unforeseen during development.
Often the end users may not be able to provide a complete set of application objectives, detailed input, processing, or output requirements in the initial stage. After the user evaluation, another prototype will be built based on feedback from users, and again the cycle returns to customer evaluation. The cycle starts by listening to the user, followed by building or revising a mock - up, and letting the user test the mock - up, then back. There is now a new generation of tools called Application Simulation Software which help quickly simulate application before their development.
Extreme programming uses iterative design to gradually add one feature at a time to the initial prototype.
Continuous learning approaches within organizations or businesses may also use the concept of business or process prototypes through software models.
A data prototype is a form of functional or working prototype. The justification for its creation is usually a data migration, data integration or application implementation project and the raw materials used as input are an instance of all the relevant data which exists at the start of the project.
The objectives of data prototyping are to produce:
To achieve this, a data architect uses a graphical interface to interactively develop and execute transformation and cleansing rules using raw data. The resultant data is then evaluated and the rules refined. Beyond the obvious visual checking of the data on - screen by the data architect, the usual evaluation and validation approaches are to use Data profiling software and then to insert the resultant data into a test version of the target application and trial its use.
In the field of scale modeling (which includes model railroading, vehicle modeling, airplane modeling, military modeling, etc.), a prototype is the real - world basis or source for a scale model -- such as the real EMD GP38 - 2 locomotive -- which is the prototype of Athearn 's (among other manufacturers) locomotive model. Technically, any non-living object can serve as a prototype for a model, including structures, equipment, and appliances, and so on, but generally prototypes have come to mean full - size real - world vehicles including automobiles (the prototype 1957 Chevy has spawned many models), military equipment (such as M4 Shermans, a favorite among US Military modelers), railroad equipment, motor trucks, motorcycles, and space - ships (real - world such as Apollo / Saturn Vs, or the ISS). As of 2014, basic rapid prototype machines (such as 3D printers) cost about $2,000, but larger and more precise machines can cost as much as $500,000.
In the science and practice of metrology, a prototype is a human - made object that is used as the standard of measurement of some physical quantity to base all measurement of that physical quantity against. Sometimes this standard object is called an artifact. In the International System of Units (SI), the only prototype remaining in current use is the International Prototype Kilogram, a solid platinum - iridium cylinder kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) in Sèvres France (a suburb of Paris) that by definition is the mass of exactly one kilogram. Copies of this prototype are fashioned and issued to many nations to represent the national standard of the kilogram and are periodically compared to the Paris prototype.
Until 1960, the meter was defined by a platinum - iridium prototype bar with two scratch marks on it (that were, by definition, spaced apart by one meter), the International Prototype Metre, and in 1983 the meter was redefined to be the distance in free space covered by light in 1 / 299,792,458 of a second (thus defining the speed of light to be 299,792,458 meters per second).
It is widely believed that the kilogram prototype standard will be replaced. There are two likely replacements. One is a definition of the kilogram that will define another physical constant (likely either Planck 's constant or the elementary charge) to a defined numerical value, thus obviating the need for the prototype and removing the possibility of the prototype (and thus the standard and definition of the kilogram) changing very slightly over the years because of loss or gain of atoms. The other definition is using a system that finds the amount of force needed to counteract the pull of earth 's gravity on a one kilogram artifact.
In many sciences, from pathology to taxonomy, prototype refers to a disease, species, etc. which sets a good example for the whole category. In Biology, prototype is the ancestral or primitive form of a species or other group; an archetype. For example, the Senegal bichir is regarded as the prototypes of its genus, Polypterus.
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who does the nl wild card winner play | Major League Baseball Wild Card game - wikipedia
The Major League Baseball Wild Card Game is a play - in game which was added to the Major League Baseball postseason in 2012. The addition keeps the playoff format similar to the three - tiered postseason format used from 1995 through 2011, but adds a second wild - card team. Two wild - card teams in each league play each other in a single - game playoff after the end of the regular season. The winner of the game advances to face the 1st seeded team in the Division Series. The home team for the wild - card game is the team with the better regular - season record (4th Seed).
If both teams have the same number of wins and losses, tie - breaking procedures are used, with no additional games being played. On the other hand, teams tied for the division title will now always play a one - game playoff for the division title, even if both teams are already qualified for the postseason. This is in contrast to the earlier wild card format used, for example in the 2005 season when the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox tied for first place in their division but did not play an additional game as both teams were qualified for the postseason in any event.
In the division series, the winner of the wild - card game will always face whichever division champion has the best record. All division winners receive a bye as they await the result of the game. Previously, a wild - card team could not face the champion of its own division. This change makes it possible for the two teams with the best record in the league to face each other before the League Championship Series for the first time since 1997, if the wild card winner has the second - best record only to its own division 's champion. From 1995 to 1997 the matchups for the division series were determined by annual rotation between the west, central and east divisions.
The addition of a second wild - card team to each league was completed for multiple reasons:
With the adoption of MLB 's new collective bargaining agreement in November 2011, baseball commissioner Bud Selig announced that a new playoff system would begin within the next two years; the change was ultimately put into place in 2012.
Even though one of the stated purposes of the Wild Card game was to create disadvantages for Wild Card teams in the postseason, Wild Card Game winners have won six of the first twelve Division Series played under the new format. Of the best - of - five Division Series lost by Wild Card Game winners, three lost in five games, two lost in four games, and only one team has been swept. The 2014 postseason featured the first Series sweeps involving Wild Card Game winners, but they were both in favor of the AL Wild Card Kansas City Royals who swept both the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and the Baltimore Orioles en route to the second World Series featuring both NL and AL Wild Card Game winners, with the San Francisco Giants defeating the Royals in seven games. The first all Wild Card World Series also involved the Giants, but they were on the losing end, losing the 2002 World Series to the then Anaheim Angels in seven games.
The one - game, win - or - go - home Wild Card format favors teams with at least one dominant pitcher. In the twelve games played since the new Wild Card system began in 2012, five have been shutouts. In four of the seven others, the losing team scored 3 or fewer runs. Only the 2014 AL Wild Card game between the Kansas City Royals and Oakland Athletics and the 2017 NL Wild Card game between the Colorado Rockies and the Arizona Diamondbacks featured high scoring by both teams, with the Royals eventually winning 9 - 8 in 12 innings and the Diamondbacks winning 11 - 8 with the most runs scored in a Wild Card game. The margin of victory has been four runs or more in six of the twelve games played, and one run only once -- in the 2014 Royals - Athletics games.
The visiting team has won 7 of the 12 games played.
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who played barbara castle in made in dagenham | Made in Dagenham - Wikipedia
Made in Dagenham is a 2010 British film directed by Nigel Cole. The film stars Sally Hawkins, Bob Hoskins, Miranda Richardson, Geraldine James, Rosamund Pike, Andrea Riseborough, Jaime Winstone, Daniel Mays and Richard Schiff. It dramatises the Ford sewing machinists strike of 1968 that aimed for equal pay for women. The film 's theme song, with lyrics by Billy Bragg, is performed by Sandie Shaw, herself a native of the area and a former Ford Dagenham clerk.
A stage musical version of the film opened at London 's Adelphi theatre in 2014.
Based on a true story, Made in Dagenham explores the movement that caused a significant law reform. Rita O'Grady (a fictional character) leads the 1968 Ford sewing machinists strike at the Ford Dagenham plant, where female workers walk out in protest against sexual discrimination, demanding equal pay. This strike causes a lot of public attention around the world and was seen as out of the ordinary to many because it was not in a woman 's nature to do anything else other than the traditional family roles. The strike is successful and leads to the Equal Pay Act 1970.
Of 122 Rotten Tomatoes reviews, 80 % rated the film "fresh ''. Maclean 's, in a review for the film 's 2010 Toronto International Film Festival premiere, called it a "... combination of Milk and Mad Men... It 's a film that blatantly condemns sexism and shows, despite its mostly light tone, the real cost of fighting for civil rights. The bee - hived and bobbed characters are fully fleshed and well - rounded even though they fit into ' 60s archetypes, and the period piece balances optimism and realism in a way that 's both compelling and fun to watch. ''
Xan Brooks of The Guardian gave it three stars out of five, calling it "... uncomplicated fare, overly spiced with 60s cliches... But the film is also robust, amiable and so warm - hearted you 'd be a churl to take against it. '' Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four., while David Cox, also of The Guardian, gave a less glowing review, suggesting that, despite initial potential, "... a promising opportunity has been squandered. ''
Mark Kermode praised the film highly on his weekly show on BBC Radio 5 Live. He ranked it as his fourth favourite film of 2010, beating such films as The Social Network and Another Year.
Made in Dagenham was nominated for four awards at the 2010 British Academy Film Awards; Outstanding British Film, Costume Design, Make Up & Hair Design and Supporting Actress (Miranda Richardson).
A soundtrack for the film was released, with the following tracks:
The title song was written by David Arnold and Billy Bragg just for the film.
A musical adaption of the film opened on 5 November 2014, at the Adelphi Theatre in London. Scripted by Richard Bean, and directed by Rupert Goold, it starred Gemma Arterton in the lead role.
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st. william the hermit cathedral la union mass schedule | San Fernando Cathedral (La Union) - wikipedia
The Cathedral of St. William the Hermit (Spanish: Catedral de San Guillermo el Ermitaño), also known as the San Fernando Cathedral, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Fernando de La Union, in the Philippines (Dioecesis Ferdinandopolitana ab Unione). The diocese, which comprise the civil province of La Union, was created on January 19, 1970 and canonically erected on April 11, 1970 with Saint William the Hermit as the titular saint. It is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Lingayen - Dagupan. Prior to the creation of the diocese, the church was formerly under the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia.
The cathedral is located in Barangay II (Poblacion), La Union. Its parish priests include Father Froilan A. Saluta & Fr. Samuel Joseph F. Banayat, Jr., and Parish Vicars, Father Manuel Ragil, Fr. Liberato A. Apusen and Father Gari Zaldy P. Patiag).
The Cathedral 's patron saint is William the Hermit (or William the Great) (died 10 February 1157), the founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites, a branch of the Hermits of St. Augustine. The town feast is celebrated every February 10.
With the founding of San Fernando as a town in 1587, the mission of San Guillermo de Duladulang in 1590 was also decreed. In the barrio of San Vicente, Fr. Francisco Romero (OSA) and Fr. Santiago Olarte (OSA) initiated the building of a chapel (visita) in 1764. The friars moved the visita to Tanque and then to Kabaroan due to Mindanao 's moros and Visayan pintados raids.
In 1768, Fr. Juan Sorolla (OSA), Fr. Simon Guillermo (OSA), and Fr. Pedro Fernando (OSA) relocated the Church to its present site in the City of San Fernando. Later in 1817, Fr. Simon Torrado (OSA) erected another church and a convent.
St. William the Hermit Church was originally situated at Pindangan, now known as Barrio San Vicente. In 1759, Augustinian friar Padre Jose Torres convinced the two settlements to fuse into Pindangan (dry fish). He and the natives built a church under the patronage of Saint William the Hermit. In 1765, under its parish priest, Friar Fernando Rey, Pindangan was renamed San Fernando after the Catholic King of Spain.
It was in May 1786, that the Ministerio de San Fernando was created. But due to the shortage of priests during the period of 1792 to 1831, San Fernando became a "Visita '' of Bauang and San Juan, La Union. In 1831, Father Juan Sorolla, the parish priest of Bauang in 1829, was assigned in San Fernando. It was only in 1817 when Father Simon Torrado and Father Sorolla, its first parish priest, constructed the Church.
The church was damaged by earthquakes in 1860 and 1892 (List of earthquakes in the Philippines). In 1873, Fr. Luis Perez (OSA) destroyed the abandoned walls due to the 1860 earthquake. Fr. Jose Rodriguez Cabezas (OSA) renovated the convent and the church after the 1892 earthquake damages and added the bell tower. Katipuneros under Col. Blas Villamor and his Katipuneros sequestered the Church in 1898.
It was attacked by rebels in 1898 and the Japanese destroyed it on February 25, 1945. Rebuilt in 1873, it was again reconstructed from 1947 to 1949 under Bishop Santiago C. Sancho. (b. May 23, 1880 - d. October 23, 1966). He was the Bishop of Nueva Segovia, Philippines and was appointed Archbishop of Nueva Segovia on June 29, 1951.
The humble chapel, and later church, was ecclesiastically proclaimed a Cathedral in April 1970 during the canonical erection of the diocese of San Fernando and the appointment on February 6, 1970 of its first bishop, Reverend Victorino Cristobal Ligot (b. March 10, 1924 - d. September 18, 1980).
La Union Bishop Artemio Rillera was laid to rest behind the altar of Saint William the Hermit Cathedral in San Fernando City, La Union on November 22, 2011 with a con - celebrated mass officiated by Lingayen - Dagupan Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas. Rillera was a missionary from the Society of the Divine Word (SVD) who died at age 69 due to severe asthma attack after saying Holy Mass at the Seminary of the Sacred Heart in San Fernando City, La Union on November 13, 2011.
Since the death of Bishop Artemio Lomboy Rillera, S.V.D. in November 2011, the Diocese had been vacant until the appointment of Bishop Rodolfo Fontiveros, D.D., on October 30, 2012 as Bishop of San Fernando de La Union, Philippines. Bishop Beltran had been serving as Vicar Apostolic of Bontoc - Lagawe. Beltran was born on November 13, 1948 at Gattaran - Cagayan. On March 25, 1976, he was ordained Priest Priest of Tuguegarao, Philippines, and on March 18, 2006, he was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Bontoc - Lagawe, Titular, Bishop of Buffada. The Cathedral 's Bishop 's Residence is located at San Vicente, City of San Fernando, La Union.
The annual fiesta celebration of the City of San Fernando La Union, the Feast of St. William the Hermit, is held every January 22 with the Agri - Trade fair (by the City Agriculture Office which promotes various agricultural products of the 59 barangays of San Fernando City, divided into 12 Districts with the 12 Councilors as collaborators). The activities lead to the feast celebration, which is observed every February 10.
Facade of the Cathedral of St. William the Hermit
Left facade
Main door
Right facade
Bell Tower
Parish Convent, Office and Rectory
Retablo
Interior
The choir loft and main door
Main altar
Tomb of a Past Bishop in the Sacristy
Side facade of the Chancery
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can a us citizen have more than 2 citizenships | Multiple citizenship - wikipedia
Multiple citizenship, also called dual citizenship or multiple nationality or dual nationality, is a person 's citizenship status, in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one state under the laws of those states. There is no international convention which determines the nationality or citizen status of a person, which is defined exclusively by national laws, which vary and can be inconsistent with each other. Multiple citizenship arises because different countries use different, and not necessarily mutually exclusive, criteria for citizenship. Colloquial speech refers to people "holding '' multiple citizenship but technically each nation makes a claim that this person be considered its national.
Some countries do not permit dual citizenship. This may be by requiring an applicant for naturalization to renounce all existing citizenship, or by withdrawing its citizenship from someone who voluntarily acquires another citizenship, or by other devices. Some countries do not permit a renunciation of citizenship. Some countries permit a general dual citizenship while others permit dual citizenship but only of a limited number of countries.
Most countries that permit dual citizenship still may not recognize the other citizenship of its nationals within its own territory, for example, in relation to entry into the country, national service, duty to vote, etc. Similarly, it may not permit consular access by another country for a person who is also its national. Some countries prohibit dual citizenship holders from serving in their military, on police forces or holding certain public offices.
Up until the late 19th century, nations often decided who they claimed as their citizens or subjects, and did not recognize any other nationalities they held. Many states did not recognize the right of their citizens to renounce their citizenship without permission, due to policies that originated with the feudal theory of perpetual allegiance to the sovereign. This meant that people could hold multiple citizenships, with none of their nations recognizing any other of their citizenships. Until the early modern era, when levels of migration were insignificant, this was not a serious issue. However, when non-trivial levels of migration began, this state of affairs sometimes led to international incidents, with countries of origin refusing to recognize the new nationalities of natives who had migrated, and when possible, conscripting natives who had naturalized as citizens of another country into military service. The most notable example was the War of 1812, triggered by British impressment of American seamen who were alleged to be British subjects into naval service.
In the aftermath of the 1867 Fenian Rising, Irish - Americans who had gone to Ireland to participate in the uprising and were caught were charged with treason, as the British authorities considered them to be British subjects. This outraged many Irish - Americans, to which the British responded by pointing out that, just like British law, American law also recognized perpetual allegiance. As a result, Congress passed the Expatriation Act of 1868, which granted Americans the right to freely renounce their U.S. citizenship. Britain followed suit with a similar law, and years later, signed a treaty agreeing to treat British subjects who had become U.S. citizens as no longer holding British nationality. During this time, diplomatic incidents had also arisen between the United States and several other European countries over their tendency to conscript naturalized American citizens visiting their former homelands. In response, the US government negotiated agreements with various European states known as the Bancroft Treaties, under which the signatories pledged to treat the voluntary naturalization of a former citizen or national with another sovereign nation as a renunciation of their citizenship.
As a result, the theory of perpetual allegiance largely fell out of favor with governments during the late 19th century. With the consensus of the time being that dual citizenship would only lead to diplomatic problems, more governments began prohibiting it, and revoking the nationality of citizens holding another nationality. By the mid-20th century, dual nationality was largely prohibited worldwide, although there were exceptions. For example, a series of U.S. Supreme Court rulings permitted Americans born with citizenship in another country to keep it without losing their U.S. citizenship.
At the 1930 League of Nations Codification Conference, an attempt was made to codify nationality rules into a universal worldwide treaty, the 1930 Hague Convention, whose chief aims would be to completely abolish both statelessness and dual citizenship. It proposed laws that would have reduced both, but in the end was ratified by only twenty nations.
However, the consensus against dual nationality began to erode due to changes in social mores and attitudes. By the late 20th century it was becoming gradually accepted again. Many states were lifting restrictions on dual citizenship. For example, the British Nationality Act 1948 removed restrictions on dual citizenship in the United Kingdom, the 1967 Afroyim v. Rusk ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court prohibited the U.S. government from involuntarily stripping citizenship from Americans over dual citizenship, and the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1976, removed restrictions on dual citizenship in Canada. The number of states allowing multiple citizenship further increased after a treaty in Europe requiring signatories to limit dual citizenship lapsed in the 1990s, and countries with high emigration rates began permitting it to maintain links with their respective diasporas.
The rights of citizenship are determined by each country, which sets its own criteria for citizenship. These criteria change from time to time, often becoming more restrictive. For example, until 1982 a person born in Britain was automatically a British citizen; this was subjected to restrictions from 1983. These laws may create situations where a person may satisfy the citizenship requirements of more than one country simultaneously. This would, in the absence of laws of one country or the other, allow the person to hold multiple citizenship. National laws may include criteria as to the circumstances, if any, in which a person may concurrently hold another citizenship. A country may withdraw its own citizenship if a person acquires a citizenship of another country, for example:
Once a country bestows citizenship, it may or may not consider a voluntary renunciation of that citizenship to be valid. In the case of naturalization, some countries require applicants for naturalization to renounce their former citizenship. For example, United States Chief Justice John Rutledge ruled "a man may, at the same time, enjoy the rights of citizenship under two governments '', but the United States requires applicants for naturalization to swear to an oath renouncing all prior "allegiance and fidelity '' to any other nation or sovereignty as part of the naturalization ceremony. However, some countries do not recognise one of its citizens renouncing its citizenship. Effectively, the person in question may still possess both citizenships, notwithstanding the technical fact that he or she may have explicitly renounced one of the country 's citizenships before officials of the other. For example, the United Kingdom recognises a renunciation of citizenship only if it is done with competent UK authorities. Consequently, British citizens naturalized in the United States remain British citizens in the eyes of the British government even after they renounce British allegiance to the satisfaction of United States authorities.
Irish nationality law applies to "the island of Ireland '', which extends citizenship to Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. Therefore, anyone born in Northern Ireland who meets the requirements for being an Irish citizen through birth on the "island of Ireland '' (or a child born outside Ireland but with a qualifying parent) can exercise rights accorded only to Irish citizens, including that of traveling under an Irish passport. Under Irish law, even if such a person has not acted in this way does not necessarily mean that they are not entitled to Irish citizenship. (See Irish nationality law and British nationality law.) People born in Northern Ireland are also British citizens on the same basis as people born elsewhere in the UK. People born in Northern Ireland may generally choose to hold a British passport, an Irish passport, or both.
Some countries consider multiple citizenship undesirable and take measures to avoid it. Since a country has control only over who has its citizenship, but has no control over who has any other country 's citizenship, the only way for a country to avoid multiple citizenship is to deny its citizenship to people in cases when they would have another citizenship. This may take the following forms:
Involuntary multiple citizenship can happen in two ways:
Some countries do not simply allow or forbid dual or multiple citizenship in general, but have more complex rules, such as:
Many countries allow foreigners or former citizens to live and work indefinitely there. However, for voting, being voted and working for the public sector or the national security in a country, citizenship of the country concerned is almost always required.
Saying that a country "does not recognize '' multiple citizenship is a confusing and ambiguous term. Often, it is simply a restatement of the Master Nationality Rule, whereby a country treats a person who is a citizen of both that country and another in the same way as one who is a citizen only of the country. In other words, the country "does not recognize '' that the person has any other citizenship for the purposes of the country 's laws. In particular, citizens of a country may not be permitted to use another country 's passport or travel documents to enter or leave the country.
The concept of a "dormant citizenship '' means that a person has the citizenships of two countries, but as long as while living permanently in one country, their status and citizen 's rights in the other country are "inactive ''. They will be "reactivated '' when they move back to live permanently in the other country. This means, in spite of dual citizenship, only one citizenship can be exercised at a time.
The "dormant citizenship '' exists for example in Spain: Spanish citizens who have naturalized in an Iberoamerican country and have kept their Spanish citizenship are dual citizens, but have lost many of the rights of Spanish citizens resident in Spain -- and hence the EU -- until they move back to Spain. Some countries offer former citizens or citizens of former colonies of the country a simplified (re -) naturalization process. Depending on the laws of the two countries in question, dual citizenship may or may not be allowed. For details, see "right of return ''.
Some countries are more open to multiple citizenship than others, as it may help citizens travel and conduct business overseas. Countries that have taken active steps towards permitting multiple citizenship in recent years include Switzerland (since January 1, 1992) and Australia (since April 4, 2002).
Today, most advanced economies allow dual citizenship; notable exceptions which restrict or forbid it are Austria, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Singapore, South Korea, and Spain. Of the newly industrialized countries, Brazil, Mexico, the Philippines, South Africa (with prior permission), Thailand, and Turkey (with prior permission) allow dual citizenship, while China (although Permanent Residents of Hong Kong and Macau may concurrently hold foreign passports), India, and Malaysia forbid it (but all Malaysian and Indian citizens are Commonwealth citizens and are entitled to certain rights in the UK and other Commonwealth countries; Indian citizens may also be regarded as SAARC citizens for some purposes, for example in receiving preferential treatment in obtaining Sri Lankan visas; India allows overseas citizenship -- see above). Indonesia allows dual citizenship only until the age of 18 years.
In former times, some countries (Latin American countries and Canada) advertised their policy of unconditional birthright citizenship to become more attractive for immigrants. Despite wide acceptance of dual citizenship, industrialized countries now try to protect themselves from birth tourism and uncontrollable immigration waves, so only Canada and the United States still grant unconditional birthright citizenship (even for children of illegal immigrants). In both countries, there have been calls to change the laws, but, so far, they have not been successful. Brazil has similar policies; the only people born in Brazil who do not automatically acquire Brazilian citizenship are those whose parents are residing in Brazil while serving their own countries (as diplomats, military attachés, cultural attachés and the like).
In Australia, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the UK, a child born there is regarded as a citizen only if at least one parent is either a citizen or a legal permanent resident who has lived there for several years. (Germany usually restricts dual citizenship, so non-EU / non-Swiss citizens born and grown up abroad must usually renounce their old citizenship when naturalizing.) Some countries (e.g. Liechtenstein) allow only citizens by descent to have dual citizenship, but require naturalized citizens to renounce their old citizenship.
It is often observed that dual citizenship may strengthen ties between migrants and their countries of origin and increase their propensity to remit funds to their communities of origin.
Qualitative research on the impact of dual citizenship on the remittances, diaspora investments, return migration, naturalization and political behavior finds several ways in which multiple citizenship can affect these categories. As a bundle of rights, dual citizenship (a) enables dual citizens by granting special privileges, (b) affects their expectations about privileges in the decision - making process, and (c) eases the transaction process and reducing costs and risks, for example in the case of investing and conducting business. In addition, a dual legal status can have positive effects on diasporic identification and commitment to causes in the homeland, as well as to a higher naturalization rate of immigrants in their countries of residence.
Some have questioned whether allowing dual citizenship impedes cultural assimilation or social integration, increases disconnection from the political process, and degrades national or civic identity / cohesiveness.
The rise in tension between mainstream and migrant communities is cited as evidence of the need to maintain a strong national identity and culture. They assert that the fact that a second citizenship can be obtained without giving anything up (such as the loss of public benefits, welfare, healthcare, retirement funds, and job opportunities in the country of origin in exchange for citizenship in a new country) both trivializes what it means to be a citizen and nullifies the consequential, transformational, and psychological change that occurs in an individual when they go through the naturalization process.
In effect, this approach argues, the self - centered taking of an additional citizenship contradicts what it means to be a citizen in that it becomes a convenient and painless means of attaining improved economic opportunity without any real consequences and can just as easily be discarded when it is no longer beneficial. Proponents argue that dual citizenship can actually encourage political activity providing an avenue for immigrants who are unwilling to forsake their country of origin either out of loyalty or due to a feeling of separation from the mainstream society because of language, culture, religion, or ethnicity.
A 2007 academic study concluded that dual citizens had a negative effect on the assimilation and political connectedness of first - generation Latino immigrants to the United States:
The study also noted that although dual nationality is likely to disconnect immigrants from the American political system and impede assimilation, the initial signs suggest that these effects seem to be limited almost exclusively to the first generation (although it is mentioned that a full assessment of dual nationality beyond the first generation is not possible with present data).
Concern over the effect of multiple citizenship on national cohesiveness is generally more acute in the United States. The reason for this is twofold:
The degree of angst over the effects of dual citizenship seemingly corresponds to a country 's model for managing immigration and ethnic diversity:
People with multiple citizenship may be viewed as having dual loyalty, having the potential to act contrary to a government 's interests, and this may lead to difficulties in acquiring government employment where security clearance may be required.
In the United States, dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Contrary to common misconceptions, dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the United States. As a matter of fact, if a security clearance applicant 's dual citizenship is "based solely on parents ' citizenship or birth in a foreign country '', that can be a mitigating condition. However, taking advantage of the entitlements of a non-US citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying one from security clearance and "is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country '' as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that "any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government ''.
This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with US national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the U.S. and Ireland, despite the fact that it has with good relations with the US.
In Israel, certain military units, including most recently the Israeli Navy 's submarine fleet, as well as posts requiring high security clearances, require candidates to renounce any other citizenship before joining, though the number of units making such demands has declined. In many combat units, candidates are required to declare but not renounce any foreign citizenship.
On the other hand, Israel may view some dual citizens as desirable candidates for its security services due to their ability to legitimately enter neighbouring states which are closed to Israeli passport holders. The related case of Ben Zygier has caused debate about dual citizenship in Australia.
This perception of dual loyalty can apply even when the job in question does not require security clearance. In the United States, dual citizenship is common among politicians or government employees. For example, Arnold Schwarzenegger retained his Austrian citizenship during his service as a Governor of California while US Senator Ted Cruz renounced his Canadian citizenship birthright on May 14, 2014.
In 1999, the US Attorney General 's office issued an official opinion that a statutory provision that required the Justice Department not to employ a non - "citizen of the United States '' did not bar it from employing dual citizens.
In Germany, politicians can have dual citizenship. David McAllister, who holds British and German citizenship, was minister president of the State of Lower - Saxony from July 1, 2010 to February 19, 2013. He was the first German minister president to hold dual citizenship.
A small controversy arose in 2005 when Michaëlle Jean was appointed the Governor General of Canada (official representative of the Queen). Although Jean no longer holds citizenship in her native Haiti, her marriage to French - born filmmaker Jean - Daniel Lafond allowed her to obtain French citizenship several years before her appointment. Article 23 - 8 of the French civil code allows the French government to withdraw French nationality from French citizens holding government or military positions in other countries and Jean 's appointment made her both de jure head of state and commander - in - chief of the Canadian forces. The French embassy released a statement that this law would not be enforced because the Governor General is essentially a ceremonial figurehead. Nevertheless, Jean renounced her French citizenship two days before taking up office to end the controversy about it.
However, former Canadian Prime Minister John Turner was born in the United Kingdom and still retains his dual citizenship. Stéphane Dion, former head of the Liberal Party of Canada and the previous leader of the official opposition, holds dual citizenship with France as a result of his mother 's nationality; Dion nonetheless indicated a willingness to renounce French citizenship if a significant number of Canadians viewed it negatively. Thomas Mulcair, Leader of the New Democratic Party and former leader of Official Opposition in the Canadian House of Commons also holds dual citizenship with France.
In Egypt, dual citizens can not be elected to Parliament.
The Constitution of Australia, in Section 44 (i), explicitly forbids people who hold foreign citizenship from sitting in the parliament of Australia. A court case (see Sue v Hill) determined that the UK is a foreign power for purposes of this section of the constitution, despite Australia holding a common nationality with it at the time that the Constitution was written, and that Senator - elect Heather Hill had not been duly elected to the national parliament because at the time of her election she was a subject or citizen of a foreign power. However, the High Court of Australia also ruled that dual citizenship on its own would not be enough to disqualify someone from validly sitting in Parliament. The individual circumstances of the non-Australian citizenship must be looked at although the person must make a reasonable effort to renounce his or her non-Australian citizenship. However, if that other citizenship can not be reasonably revoked (for example, if it is impossible under the laws of the other country or impossible in practice because it requires an extremely difficult revocation process), then that person will not be disqualified from sitting in Parliament. In 2017 the High Court has to consider the eligibility of 7 members of Parliament who are or may be dual citizens. (This restriction on people with dual or multiple citizenship being members of parliament does not apply to the state parliaments, and the regulations vary by state.)
In New Zealand, controversy arose in 2003 when Labour MP Harry Duynhoven applied to renew his citizenship of the Netherlands. Duynhoven, the New Zealand - born son of a Dutch - born father, had possessed dual citizenship from birth but had temporarily lost his Dutch citizenship due to a 1995 change in Dutch law regarding non-residents. While New Zealand 's Electoral Act allowed candidates with dual citizenship to be elected as MPs, Section 55 of the Act stated that an MP who applied for citizenship of a foreign power after taking office would forfeit his / her seat. This was regarded by many as a technicality, however; and Duynhoven, with his large electoral majority, was almost certain to re-enter Parliament in the event of a by - election. As such, the Labour Government retrospectively amended the Act, thus enabling Duynhoven to retain his seat. The amendment, nicknamed "Harry 's Law '', was passed by a majority of 61 votes to 56. The revised Act allows exceptions to Section 55 on the grounds of an MP 's country / place of birth, descent, or renewing a foreign passport issued before the MP took office.
Both the former Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves and the former Lithuanian president Valdas Adamkus had been naturalized US citizens prior to assuming their offices. Both have renounced their US citizenships: Ilves in 1993 and Adamkus in 1998. This was necessary because neither individual 's new country permits retention of a former citizenship. Adamkus was a high - ranking official in the Environmental Protection Agency, a federal government department, during his time in the United States. Former Latvian president Vaira Vīķe - Freiberga relinquished Canadian citizenship upon taking office in 1999.
In some cases, multiple citizenship can create additional tax liability. Most countries that impose tax normally base tax liability on source or residency. Some countries tax their non-resident citizens on foreign income; examples include the United States and Eritrea.
U.S. persons living outside of the United States are still subject to tax on all of their worldwide income, although US law provides measures to reduce or eliminate double taxation issues for some. It has been reported that some US citizens have relinquished US citizenship in order to avoid possible taxes, the expense and complexity of compliance, or because they have been deemed unacceptable to financial institutions in the wake of FATCA.
A person with multiple citizenship may have a tax liability to his country of residence and also to one or more of his countries of citizenship; or worse, if unaware that one of his citizenships created a tax liability, that country may consider the person to be a tax evader. Many countries and territories have contracted tax treaties or agreements for avoiding double taxation. Still, there are cases in which a person with multiple citizenship will owe tax solely on the basis of holding one such citizenship.
For example, consider a person who holds both Australian and United States citizenship, lives and works in Australia. He would be subject to Australian taxation, because Australia taxes its residents, and he would be subject to U.S. taxation because he holds US citizenship. In general, he would be allowed to subtract the Australian income tax he paid from the US tax that would be due. Plus, the U.S. will allow some parts of foreign income to be exempt from taxation; for instance, in 2006 the foreign earned income exclusion allowed up to US $82,400 of foreign salaried income to be exempt from income tax (in 2014, this has now increased to US $97,600). This exemption, plus the credit for foreign taxes paid mentioned above, often results in no US taxes being owed, although a US tax return would still have to be filed. In instances where the Australian tax was less than the US tax, and if there was income that could not be exempted from US tax, the US would expect any tax due to be paid.
The United States Internal Revenue Service has excluded some regulations such as Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) from tax treaties that protect double taxation. In its current format even if US citizens are paying income taxes at a rate of 56 %, far above the maximum US marginal tax rate, the citizen can be subject to US taxes because the calculation of the Alternative Minimum Tax does not allow full deduction for taxes paid to a foreign country. Other regulations such as the post date of foreign mailed tax returns are not recognized and can result in penalties for late filing if they arrive at the IRS later than the filing date. However, the filing date for overseas citizens has a two - month automatic extension to June 15.
"If you are a U.S. citizen or resident alien residing overseas, or are in the military on duty outside the U.S., on the regular due date of your return, you are allowed an automatic 2 - month extension to file your return and pay any amount due without requesting an extension. For a calendar year return, the automatic 2 - month extension is to June 15. If you are unable to file your return by the automatic 2 - month extension date, you can request an additional extension to October 15 by filing Form 4868 before the automatic 2 - month extension date. However, any tax due payments made after June 15 will be subject to both interest charges and failure to pay penalties. '' (IRS, 2012)
Many countries, even those that permit multiple citizenship, do not explicitly recognise multiple citizenship under their laws: individuals are treated either as citizens of that country or not, and their citizenship with respect to other countries is considered to have no bearing. This can mean (in Iran, Mexico, many Arab countries, and former Soviet republics) that consular officials abroad may not have access to their citizens if they also hold local citizenship. Some countries provide access for consular officials as a matter of courtesy, but do not accept any obligation to do so under international consular agreements. The right of countries to act in this fashion is protected via the Master Nationality Rule.
Multiple citizens who travel to a country that claims them as a citizen may be required to enter or leave the country on that country 's passport. For example, a United States Department of State web page on dual nationality contains the information that most US citizens, including dual nationals, must use a US passport to enter and leave the United States. Under the terms of the South African Citizenship Act, it is an offence for someone aged at least 18 with South African citizenship and another citizenship to enter or depart the Republic of South Africa using the passport of another country. They may also be required, before leaving the country, to fulfill requirements ordinarily required of its resident citizens, including compulsory military service or exit permits.
In accordance with the proposed European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) that is expected to enter into operation on 1 January 2020, the EU citizens who have multiple nationalities will be obliged to use the passport issued by an EU Member State for entering the Schengen area.
Military service for dual nationals can be an issue of concern. Several countries have entered into a Protocol relating to Military Obligations in Certain Cases of Double Nationality established at The Hague, 12 April 1930. The protocol states "A person possessing two or more nationalities who habitually resides in one of the countries whose nationality he possesses, and who is in fact most closely connected with that country, shall be exempt from all military obligations in the other country or countries. This exemption may involve the loss of the nationality of the other country or countries. '' The protocol has several provisions.
While the right to healthcare in countries with a public health service is often discussed in relation to immigration, it is a non-issue as far as nationality is concerned; the right to use public health services is determined by legal residency rather than nationality. For example, anyone legally resident and employed in the UK is entitled to use the National Health Service; non-resident British citizens visiting Britain do not have this right.
The EU and EFTA countries have various policies regarding dual citizenship, because each country can make its own laws. The only real rule is that a citizen of an EU country can live and work indefinitely in other EU countries and in the four EFTA countries (and citizens of the EFTA countries can live and work indefinitely in the EU). However, the right to vote and work in certain sensitive fields (such as government, police, military) might in some cases be restricted to the local citizens only.
The countries can exclude immigrants from getting welfare in the first three months to avoid "welfare tourism '', and they can refuse welfare completely if the immigrants do not have a job after a certain period of time and do not try to get one. Immigrants convicted of welfare fraud can be deported and be refused the re-entry of the country. On September 15, 2015, the European Court of Justice ruled that EU countries can refuse to pay unemployment benefits to immigrants who have lost their job even if they are citizens of other EU countries. The judge stated that EU rules allow member states to refuse unemployment benefits to people from other EU nations to stop them becoming "an unreasonable burden on the social assistance system of the host Member State ''. This backs up a November 2014 ruling, in which the court ruled that "poverty immigrants '' who came to Germany just to receive social security benefits were not entitled to receive them.
Within the EU, mandatory military service exists, at least in peacetime, only in Austria, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, and Greece (In all countries but Cyprus, alternative service is available). Within the EFTA countries, only Switzerland requires it (alternative service is available); Iceland and Liechtenstein have no armed forces; in Norway, military service is de jure mandatory, but the enforcement is limited, so some sources claim it is de facto voluntary.
In Liechtenstein and in the Swiss Canton of Schaffhausen, voting is compulsory for citizens.
In the European Union, voting is mandatory for national citizens in:
The four microstates (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City) are not EU or EFTA members. Between them, the EU, and the EFTA there is visa - free travel, but no agreements on immigration and access to the job markets.
For details, see the nationality law of the country concerned and Citizenship of the European Union.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
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when did the battle of the boyne start | Battle of the Boyne - wikipedia
Coordinates: 53 ° 43 ′ 23 '' N 6 ° 25 ′ 01 '' W / 53.723 ° N 6.417 ° W / 53.723; - 6.417 (battle site)
The Battle of the Boyne (Irish: Cath na Bóinne IPA: (ˈkah n̪ɣə ˈbɣoːn̪jə)) was a battle in 1690 between the forces of the deposed King James II of England, and those of Dutch Prince William of Orange who, with his wife Mary II (his cousin and James 's daughter), had acceded to the Crowns of England and Scotland in 1688. The battle took place across the River Boyne near the town of Drogheda in the east of Ireland, and resulted in a victory for William. This turned the tide in James 's failed attempt to regain the British crown and ultimately aided in ensuring the continued Protestant ascendancy in Ireland.
The battle took place on 1 July 1690 O.S. William 's forces defeated James 's army, which consisted mostly of raw recruits. Although the Williamite War in Ireland continued until October 1691, James fled to France (again) after the Boyne, never to return. The symbolic importance of this battle has made it one of the best - known battles in the history of the British Isles and a key part of the folklore of the Orange Order. Its commemoration today is principally by the Protestant Orange Institution, which records the first commemorative parades as having been held in 1791.
The battle was the decisive encounter in a war that was primarily about James 's attempt to regain the thrones of England and Scotland, resulting from the Invitation to William and William 's wife, Mary, to take the throne. It is regarded as a crucial moment in the struggle between Irish Protestant and Catholic interests.
The previous year William had sent the Duke of Schomberg to take charge of the Irish campaign. He was a 75 - year - old professional soldier who had accompanied William during the Glorious Revolution. Under his command, affairs had remained static and very little had been accomplished, partly because the English troops suffered severely from fever. William, dissatisfied with the state of affairs in Ireland, decided to take charge in person.
In an Irish context, the war was a sectarian and ethnic conflict, in many ways a re-run of the Irish Confederate Wars of 50 years earlier. For the Jacobites, the war was fought for Irish sovereignty, religious tolerance for Catholicism, and land ownership. The Catholic upper classes had lost almost all their lands after Cromwell 's conquest, as well as the right to hold public office, practise their religion, and sit in the Irish Parliament. They saw the Catholic King James as a means of redressing these grievances and securing the autonomy of Ireland from England. To these ends, under Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel, they had raised an army to restore James after the Glorious Revolution. By 1690, they controlled all of Ireland except for the province of Ulster. Most of James II 's troops at the Boyne were Irish Catholics; however, there were also Scots - Irish Presbyterians fighting for James II.
The majority of Irish people were Jacobites and supported James II due to his 1687 Declaration of Indulgence or, as it is also known, the Declaration for the Liberty of Conscience, that granted religious freedom to all denominations in England and Scotland and also due to James II 's promise to the Irish Parliament of an eventual right to self - determination.
Conversely, for the Williamites, the war was about maintaining Protestant and English rule in Ireland. They feared for their lives and their property if James and his Catholic supporters were to rule Ireland, nor did they trust the promise of tolerance, seeing the Declaration of Indulgence as a ploy to re-establish Catholicism as the sole state religion. In particular, they dreaded a repeat of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, which had been marked by widespread killing. For these reasons, Protestants fought en masse for William of Orange. Many Williamite troops at the Boyne, including their very effective irregular cavalry, were Ulster Protestants, who called themselves "Enniskilliners '' and were referred to by contemporaries as "Scots - Irish ''. These "Enniskilliners '' were mostly the descendants of Anglo - Scottish border reivers and large numbers of these reivers had settled around Enniskillen in County Fermanagh, hence the name "Enniskilliners ''.
Ironically, historian Derek Brown notes that if the battle is seen as part of the War of the Grand Alliance, Pope Alexander VIII was an ally of William and an enemy to James; the Papal States were part of the Grand Alliance with a shared hostility to the Catholic Louis XIV of France, who at the time was attempting to establish dominance in Europe and to whom James was an ally.
The opposing armies in the battle were led by the Roman Catholic King James II of England, Scotland, and Ireland and opposing him, his nephew and son - in - law, the Protestant King William III ("William of Orange '') who had deposed James the previous year. James 's supporters controlled much of Ireland and the Irish Parliament. James also enjoyed the support of his cousin, Louis XIV, who did not want to see a hostile monarch on the throne of England. Louis sent 6,000 French troops to Ireland to support the Irish Jacobites. William was already Stadtholder of the Netherlands and was able to call on Dutch and allied troops from Europe as well as England and Scotland.
James was a seasoned officer who had proven his bravery when fighting for his brother -- King Charles II -- in Europe, notably at the Battle of the Dunes (1658). However, recent historians have noted that he was prone to panicking under pressure and making rash decisions, possibly due to the onset of the dementia which would overtake him completely in later years.
William, although a seasoned commander, was hardly one of history 's great generals and had yet to win a major battle. Many of his battles ended in stalemates, prompting at least one modern historian to argue that William lacked an ability to manage armies in the thick of conflict. William 's success against the French had been reliant upon tactical manoeuvres and good diplomacy rather than force. His diplomacy had assembled the League of Augsburg, a multi-national coalition formed to resist French aggression in Europe. From William 's point of view, his taking power in England and the ensuing campaign in Ireland was just another front in the war against France in general, and Louis XIV in particular.
James II 's subordinate commanders were Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, who was Lord Deputy of Ireland and James 's most powerful supporter in Ireland; and the French general Lauzun. William 's second - in - command was the Duke of Schomberg. Born in Heidelberg, Germany, Schomberg had formerly been a Marshal of France, but, being a Huguenot, was compelled to leave France in 1685 because of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
The Williamite army at the Boyne was about 36,000 strong, composed of troops from many countries. Around 20,000 troops had been in Ireland since 1689, commanded by Schomberg. William himself arrived with another 16,000 in June 1690. William 's troops were generally far better trained and equipped than James 's. The best Williamite infantry were from Denmark and the Netherlands, professional soldiers equipped with the latest flintlock muskets. There was also a large (4,200) contingent of French Huguenot troops fighting with the Williamites. William did not have a high opinion of his English and Scottish troops, with the exception of the Ulster Protestant "skirmishers '' who had held Derry in the previous year. The English and Scottish troops were felt to be politically unreliable, since James had been their legitimate monarch up to a year before. Moreover, they had only been raised recently and had seen little battle action.
The Jacobites were 23,500 strong. James had several regiments of French troops, but most of his manpower was provided by Irish Catholics. The Jacobites ' Irish cavalry, who were recruited from among the dispossessed Irish gentry, proved themselves to be high calibre troops during the course of the battle. However, the Irish infantry, predominantly peasants who had been pressed into service, were not trained soldiers. They had been hastily trained, poorly equipped, and only a minority of them had functional muskets. In fact, some of them carried only farm implements such as scythes at the Boyne. Furthermore, the Jacobite infantry who actually had firearms were all equipped with the obsolete matchlock musket.
William had landed in Carrickfergus in Ulster on 14 June 1690 O.S. and marched south, intending to take Dublin. He was heard to remark that "the place was worth fighting for ''. James chose to place his line of defence on the River Boyne, around 30 miles (48 km) from Dublin. The Williamites reached the Boyne on 29 June. The day before the battle, William himself had a narrow escape when he was wounded in the shoulder by Jacobite artillery while surveying the fords over which his troops would cross the Boyne.
The battle itself was fought on 1 July O.S. (11th N.S.), for control of a ford on the Boyne near Drogheda, about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) northwest of the hamlet of Oldbridge (and about 1.5 kilometres (0.9 mi) west - northwest of the modern Boyne River Bridge). William sent about a quarter of his men to cross the river at Roughgrange, about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) west of Donore and about 6 miles (9.7 km) southwest of Oldbridge. The Duke of Schomberg 's son, Meinhardt, led this crossing, which Irish dragoons in picquet under Neil O'Neill unsuccessfully opposed. James, an inexperienced general, thought that he might be outflanked and sent half his troops, along with most of his artillery, to counter this move. What neither side had realised was that there was a deep, swampy ravine at Roughgrange. Because of this ravine, the opposing forces there could not engage each other, but literally sat out the battle. The Williamite forces went on a long detour march which, later in the day, almost saw them cut off the Jacobite retreat at the village of Naul.
At the main ford near Oldbridge, William 's infantry, led by the elite Dutch Blue Guards, forced their way across the river, using their superior firepower to slowly drive back the enemy foot soldiers, but were pinned down when the Jacobite cavalry counter-attacked. Having secured the village of Oldbridge, some Williamite infantry tried to hold off successive cavalry attacks with disciplined volley fire, but were scattered and driven into the river, with the exception of the Blue Guards. William 's second - in - command, the Duke of Schomberg, and George Walker were killed in this phase of the battle. The Williamites were not able to resume their advance until their own horsemen managed to cross the river and, after being badly mauled, managed to hold off the Jacobite cavalry until they retired and regrouped at Donore, where they once again put up stiff resistance before retiring.
The Jacobites retired in good order. William had a chance to trap them as they retreated across the River Nanny at Duleek, but his troops were held up by a successful rear - guard action. The Dutch secretary of King William, Constantijn Huygens Jr., has given a good description (in Dutch) of the battle and its aftermath, including subsequent cruelties committed by the victorious soldiers.
The casualty figures of the battle were quite low for a battle of such a scale -- of the 50,000 or so participants, about 2,000 died. Three - quarters of the dead were Jacobites. William 's army had far more wounded. At the time, most casualties of battles tended to be inflicted in the pursuit of an already - beaten enemy; this did not happen at the Boyne, as the counter-attacks of the skilled Jacobite cavalry screened the retreat of the rest of their army, and in addition William was always disinclined to endanger the person of James, since he was the father of his wife, Mary. The Jacobites were badly demoralised by the order to retreat, which lost them the battle. Many of the Irish infantrymen deserted. The Williamites triumphantly marched into Dublin two days after the battle. The Jacobite army abandoned the city and marched to Limerick, behind the River Shannon, where they were unsuccessfully besieged.
Soon after the battle, William issued the Declaration of Finglas, offering full pardons to ordinary Jacobite soldiers, but not to their leaders. After his defeat, James did not stay in Dublin, but rode with a small escort to Duncannon and returned to exile in France, even though his army left the field relatively unscathed. James 's loss of nerve and speedy exit from the battlefield enraged his Irish supporters, who fought on until the Treaty of Limerick in 1691; he was derisively nicknamed Seamus a ' chaca ("James the shit '') in Irish.
There is an oral tradition stating that no battle took place at all, that a symbolic victory was shown by the crossing of the River Boyne and that the total fatalities were a result of Williamite cavalry attacking the local able - bodied men.
The battle was overshadowed by the defeat of an Anglo - Dutch fleet by the French two days earlier at the Battle of Beachy Head, a far more serious event in the short term; only on the continent was the Boyne treated as an important victory. Its importance lay in the fact that it was the first proper victory for the League of Augsburg, the first - ever alliance between the Vatican and Protestant countries. The victory motivated more nations to join the alliance and in effect ended the fear of a French conquest of Europe.
The Boyne also had strategic significance for both England and Ireland. It marked the beginning of the end of James 's hope of regaining his throne by military means and probably assured the triumph of the Glorious Revolution. In Scotland, news of this defeat temporarily silenced the Highlanders supporting the Jacobite Rising, which Bonnie Dundee had led. In Ireland, the Boyne fully assured the Jacobites that they could successfully resist William. But it was a general victory for William and is still celebrated by the Protestant Orange Order on the Twelfth of July. Ironically, due to the political situation mentioned above, the Pope also hailed the victory of William at the Boyne, ordered the bells of the Vatican to be rung in celebration.
The civil war in Ireland ended with the Treaty of Limerick. It allowed James to leave for France and allowed most Irish land owners to keep their land provided that they swore allegiance to William of Orange. Few did so within two years and the concession was withdrawn from the remainder.
Originally, the 12 July commemoration was that of the Battle of Aughrim, symbolising Irish Protestants ' victory in the Williamite war in Ireland. At Aughrim, which took place a year after the Boyne, the Jacobite army was destroyed, deciding the war in the Williamites ' favour. The Boyne, which, in the old Julian calendar, took place on 1 July O.S., was treated as less important, third after Aughrim and the anniversary of the Irish Rebellion of 1641 on 23 October O.S.
In 1752, the Gregorian calendar was also adopted in Ireland. However, even after this date, "The Twelfth '' continued to be commemorated at Aughrim, on 12 July NS, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens for example with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). But, after the Orange Order was founded in 1795 amid sectarian violence in County Armagh, the two events were combined in the late 18th century.
The Battle of the Boyne remains a controversial topic today in Northern Ireland, where some Protestants remember it as the great victory over Catholics that resulted in the sovereignty of Parliament and the Protestant monarchy.
In recent decades, "The Twelfth '' has often been marked by confrontations, as members of the Orange Order attempt to celebrate the date by marching past or through what they see as their traditional route. Some of these areas, however, now have a nationalist majority who object to marches passing through what they see as their areas.
Each side thus dresses up the disputes in terms of the other 's alleged attempts to repress them; Nationalists still see Orange Order marches as provocative attempts to "show who is boss '', whilst Unionists insist that they have a right to "walk the Queen 's highway ''. Since the start of The Troubles, the celebrations of the battle have been seen as playing a critical role in the awareness of those involved in the unionist / nationalist tensions in Northern Ireland.
The site of the Battle of the Boyne sprawls over a wide area west of the town of Drogheda. In the County Development Plan for 2000, Meath County Council rezoned the land at the eastern edge of Oldbridge, at the site of the main Williamite crossing, to residential status. A subsequent planning application for a development of over 700 houses was granted by Meath County Council and this was appealed against by local historians to An Bord Pleanala (The Planning Board). In March 2008, after an extremely long appeal process, An Bord Pleanala approved permission for this development to proceed. However, due to the current economic climate in Ireland, no work has yet started on this development.
The current Interpretive Centre dedicated to informing tourists and other visitors about the battle is about 1 - mile (1.6 km) to the west of the main crossing point. The battle 's other main combat areas, at Duleek, Donore and Plattin, along the Jacobite line of retreat, are marked with tourist information signs.
On 4 April 2007, in a sign of improving relations between unionist and nationalist groups, the newly elected First Minister of Northern Ireland, the Reverend Ian Paisley, was invited to visit the battle site by the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) Bertie Ahern later in the year. Following the invitation, Paisley commented that "such a visit would help to demonstrate how far we have come when we can celebrate and learn from the past so the next generation more clearly understands ''. On 10 May, the visit took place, and Paisley presented the Taoiseach with a Jacobite musket in return for Ahern 's gift at the St Andrews talks of a walnut bowl made from a tree from the site. A new tree was also planted in the grounds of Oldbridge House by the two politicians to mark the occasion.
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i sing the body electric ray bradbury twilight zone | I Sing the Body Electric (the Twilight Zone) - wikipedia
"I Sing the Body Electric '' is episode 100 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. The script was written by Ray Bradbury, and became the basis for his short story of the same name, published in 1969, itself named after a Walt Whitman poem. Although Bradbury contributed several scripts to The Twilight Zone, this was the only one produced.
Mr. Rogers, the widowed father of three children (Anne, Karen, and Tom), is dealing with the departure of Aunt Nedra, who says the children are too hard to manage. The father takes the kids to a factory, Facsimile Ltd., to pick out a new robotic grandmother. When she arrives, young Tom and Karen are quickly smitten by the magical "grandmother. '' But older daughter Anne will not accept her; "Grandma '' reminds her too much of her own mother, who died and left her a bitter young girl. Anne tries to run away, into the path of an oncoming van which she does n't see. Grandma pushes Anne out of the way and is struck, saving the girl. Grandma is stunned, but the sturdily constructed robot soon gets up, and Anne grows to love her when she realizes that Grandma is indestructible and will not leave them like their own mother had. Mr. Rogers also realizes how empathetic Grandma can be when she correctly deduces that he lost his own mother at a young age, and like Anne, never forgave her.
The children grow up and are ready for college. However, it is time for Grandma to move on to another family as she is apparently not needed anymore. Grandma expresses her sadness about leaving, yet reassures the kids that they brought her just as much joy as she brought them. She will return to the factory where she will either be sent to another family, or possibly have her mind stored where she and the other grandmothers like her can talk and share their experiences. After repeating this process many times, if she keeps being a good grandmother to other children, she will even be ultimately rewarded with the gift of life and humanity. The kids say their farewells and Grandma leaves the house for good.
In addition to opening and closing the show as usual, Rod Serling 's narration occurs in the middle of the story, to describe how the children spent years happily with their android grandmother and eventually grow up. Other episodes to feature mid-show narration from Serling are all from the first half of season one: "Walking Distance '', "Time Enough At Last '' and "I Shot an Arrow into the Air ''.
This is one of the few episodes of the series where Rod Serling does not mention the name of the show in the closing narration.
In 1982, the hour - long NBC television movie The Electric Grandmother was also based on the short story. It was also adapted for radio in 2011 in The Twilight Zone Radio Dramas by Falcon Picture Group and starred Dee Wallace.
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what is animal farm by george orwell about | Animal Farm - wikipedia
Animal Farm is an allegorical novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow - directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin ("un conte satirique contre Staline ''), and in his essay "Why I Write '' (1946), wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole ''.
The original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story; U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell 's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "A Satire '' and "A Contemporary Satire ''. Orwell suggested the title Union des républiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin word for "bear '', a symbol of Russia. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques.
Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell 's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War.
Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English - language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th - Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.
Old Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as "enemies '' and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England ''.
When Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt, driving the drunken, irresponsible farmer Mr Jones, as well as Mrs Jones and the other human caretakers and employees, off the farm, renaming it "Animal Farm ''. They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal ''.
Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health.
Some time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball and the animals, who are hiding in ambush, defeat the men by launching a surprise attack as soon as they enter the farmyard. Snowball 's popularity soars, and this event is proclaimed "The Battle of the Cowshed ''. It is celebrated annually with the firing of a gun, on the anniversary of the Revolution. Napoleon and Snowball vie for pre-eminence. When Snowball announces his plans to modernize the farm by building a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader.
Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project.
Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins to purge the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Farmer Jones, while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. "Beasts of England '' is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr Jones.
Mr Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer, the workhorse, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to purportedly take Boxer to a veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who "could read as well as any pig '', notices that the van belongs to a knacker and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital, and the previous owner 's signboard had not been repainted.
In a subsequent report, Squealer reports sadly to the animals that Boxer died peacefully at the animal hospital; the pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer 's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer 's ways. However, the truth was that Napoleon had engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy whisky for themselves. (In 1940s England, one way for farms to make money was to sell large animals to a knacker, who would kill the animal and boil its remains into animal glue.)
Years pass, and the windmill is rebuilt along with construction of another windmill, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals which Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating and running water are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. In addition to Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as is Farmer Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others. ''
Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm ''. As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realise they can no longer distinguish between the two.
George Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries ''. This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals.
Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.
In the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:
... I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge carthorse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat.
Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.
During the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch -- including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T.S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book 's "good writing '' and "fundamental integrity '', but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally Trotskyite ''. Eliot said he found the view "not convincing '', and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed... was not more communism but more public - spirited pigs ''. Orwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm. '' In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle. ''
The publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off -- although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the ' important official ' was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett / Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto - Communists and Fellow - Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. Born Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an NKVD agent with the codename ' Abo ', became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with Kim Philby in 1943 -- 45. Smollett 's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:
If the fable were addressed generally to dictators and dictatorships at large then publication would be all right, but the fable does follow, as I see now, so completely the progress of the Russian Soviets and their two dictators (Lenin and Stalin), that it can apply only to Russia, to the exclusion of the other dictatorships.
Another thing: it would be less offensive if the predominant caste in the fable were not pigs. I think the choice of pigs as the ruling caste will no doubt give offence to many people, and particularly to anyone who is a bit touchy, as undoubtedly the Russians are.
Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in giving permission for a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.
In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with ANIMAL FARM -- an excellent bit of satire -- it would illustrate perfectly. '' Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm.
Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self - censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:
The sinister fact about literary censorship in England is that it is largely voluntary... Things are kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervenes but because of a general tacit agreement that ' it would n't do ' to mention that particular fact.
Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.
Secker and Warburg published the first edition of Animal Farm in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author 's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.
In 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press '', and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written ''. Orwell 's essay criticised British self - censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.
Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly. '' Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well ''.
The Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few ''. Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us. '' Julian Symons responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State -- Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point. ''
Animal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.
The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major 's ideas into "a complete system of thought '', which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government 's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people 's beliefs about themselves and their society.
The original commandments are:
These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad! '' which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.
Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law - breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded:
Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others '', and "Four legs good, two legs better! '' as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans ' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.
In the Eastern Bloc, both Animal Farm and later Nineteen Eighty - Four were on the list of forbidden books until the end of communist rule in 1989, and were only available via clandestine Samizdat networks.
Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory. '' Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution... (and) that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters (-) revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert. '' In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain (in 1937) I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages. ''
The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell 's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs ' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon 's emergence as the farm 's sole leader reflects Stalin 's emergence. The pigs ' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story '' as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald, stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left - wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs ' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell 's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.
Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison consider that the Battle of the Windmill represents the Great Patriotic War (World War II), especially the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon '' took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon '' in recognition of Stalin 's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been "the character (and) greatness of Stalin '' that saved Russia from the German invasion.
Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell 's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia 's socialist destiny ''; Napoleon 's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick 's forged bank notes, paralleling the Hitler - Stalin non-aggression pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.
The book 's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell 's view of the 1943 Teheran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West '' -- but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, "played an ace of spades simultaneously ''.
Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with Beasts of England and the later anthems, parallels The Internationale and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.
In addition to the book 's political symbolism, some critics have argued that Animal Farm can also be read as a more straightforward story about farm animals, reflecting Orwell 's concern for the treatment of animals. Critics supporting such readings, beginning in the 1970s with Marxist scholar Raymond Williams and later including Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and Helen Tiffin, cite Orwell 's description of his inspiration for setting the story on a farm, in which he writes that, "from the animals ' point of view, ''
"To them it is clear that the concept of a class struggle between humans was pure illusion, since whenever it was necessary to exploit animals, all humans united against them: the true struggle is between animals and humans. ''
Animal Farm has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects.
In 2012, a HFR - 3D version of Animal Farm, potentially directed by Andy Serkis was announced.
A BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes. ''
A further radio production, again using Orwell 's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated, and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer.
A theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985.
A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.
In 1950 Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired by the British Foreign Office to adapt Animal Farm into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K., but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers.
(Alphabetical by artist)
(Alphabetical by program)
A video game adaptation of Animal Farm was announced in August 2017. Fully authorised by the estate of George Orwell, Animal Farm is created by an independent team formed specifically to deliver Orwell 's vision in an interactive format.
On 17 July 2009, Amazon.com withdrew certain Amazon Kindle titles, including Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty - Four by George Orwell, from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers ' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question. Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted. After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to Nineteen Eighty - Four itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is "(c) hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers ' devices in these circumstances. ''
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who is the second person who went to moon | Buzz Aldrin - wikipedia
Buzz Aldrin (born Edwin Eugene Aldrin Jr.; January 20, 1930) is an American engineer, former astronaut, and Command Pilot in the United States Air Force. As Lunar Module Pilot on the Apollo 11 mission, he and mission commander Neil Armstrong were the first two humans to land on the Moon. Aldrin set foot on the Moon at 03: 15: 16 on July 21, 1969 (UTC), 9 minutes after Armstrong first touched the surface. One of his first missions was on Gemini 12 where he successfully proved that extravehicular activity (EVA) could be performed by astronauts, spending over 5 hours outside the craft, thus achieving the goals of the Gemini program and paving the way for the Apollo program.
Aldrin was born January 20, 1930, in Mountainside Hospital, in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. His parents were Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr. (1896 -- 1974), a career military man, and Marion Aldrin (née Moon, 1903 -- 1968), who lived in neighboring Montclair. He is of Scottish, Swedish, and German ancestry. His nickname, which became his legal first name in 1988, arose as a result of the younger of his two elder sisters mispronouncing "brother '' as "buzzer '', which was shortened to Buzz. During his childhood years, Aldrin was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of Tenderfoot Scout.
Aldrin played football, and was the starting center for Montclair High School 's undefeated 1946 state champion team. He did well in school, maintaining an A average. After graduating in 1947, Aldrin went to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York.
Aldrin got a good start at West Point, finishing first in his class his plebe year. He graduated third in his class in 1951 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions in F - 86 Sabres and shot down two Mikoyan - Gurevich MiG - 15 aircraft. The June 8, 1953, issue of Life magazine featured gun camera photos taken by Aldrin of one of the Soviet pilots ejecting from his damaged aircraft.
After the war, Aldrin was assigned as an aerial gunnery instructor at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, and later served as an aide to the dean of faculty at the United States Air Force Academy, which had begun operations in 1955. That same year, he graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama. He flew F - 100 Super Sabres as a flight commander in the 22d Fighter Squadron, while stationed at Bitburg Air Base, West Germany.
Aldrin, under the auspices of the Air Force Institute of Technology, began work as a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1959, intending to earn a master 's degree. Aldrin enjoyed the classroom work, and soon decided to pursue a doctoral degree. In January 1963, he earned a Sc. D. degree in astronautics. His doctoral thesis was Line - of - Sight Guidance Techniques for Manned Orbital Rendezvous, the dedication of which read, "In the hopes that this work may in some way contribute to their exploration of space, this is dedicated to the crew members of this country 's present and future manned space programs. If only I could join them in their exciting endeavors! '' Aldrin chose his doctoral thesis on the basis that it would help him be selected as an astronaut.
On the completion of his doctorate, Aldrin was assigned to the Gemini Target Office of the Air Force Space Systems Division in Los Angeles. His initial application to join the astronaut corps was rejected on the basis he was never a test pilot. With the removal of test pilot experience as a prerequisite for astronaut selection, Aldrin became eligible and in October 1963, he became a member of NASA 's Astronaut Group 3. His selection made him the first astronaut with a Ph. D. This, combined with his expertise in orbital mechanics, gave him the nickname Dr. Rendezvous.
Aldrin and Jim Lovell were selected as the backup crew for Gemini 10, which lined them up for the prime crew of Gemini 13. With Gemini 12 scheduled as the last mission, this was a dead - end assignment. After the deaths of the original Gemini 9 prime crew, Elliot See and Charles Bassett, Aldrin and Jim Lovell were promoted to backup crew for the Gemini 9 mission. With normal crew rotation, this confirmed Aldrin 's spot as a pilot on Gemini 12.
Gemini 12 's main objectives were to perform an EVA, rendezvous with a target vehicle, and fly the two together using gravity - gradient stabilization. While NASA had successfully performed rendezvous in the past, the gravity - gradient stabilization test on Gemini 11 was unsuccessful. NASA was also having problems with their EVAs. After Eugene Cernan 's near - disastrous EVA on Gemini 9, Michael Collins had a successful EVA on Gemini 10. However, Richard F. Gordon had trouble on Gemini 11 while trying to use the astronaut maneuvering unit (AMU), so it fell to Aldrin to achieve Gemini 's EVA goal. NASA formed a committee to give Aldrin a better chance of success. They removed the AMU test so Aldrin could focus on the EVA. NASA revamped the training program, opting for underwater training over parabolic flight. They also placed additional handholds on the capsule, and created workstations that Aldrin could anchor his feet into.
The Gemini Agena Target Vehicle launched about an hour and a half prior to Gemini 12. The mission 's first major objective was to rendezvous with this target vehicle. As the target and Gemini 12 capsule drew closer together, radar contact between the two deteriorated until it became unusable. The crew would have to rendezvous manually. Aldrin used a sextant and rendezvous charts he helped create to give Lovell the right information to put the spacecraft in position to mate with the target vehicle. Lovell was unable to dock with the target, and Aldrin docked successfully a few minutes later.
Aldrin performed two EVAs; first a standup, and in the second he left the spacecraft. The standup EVA mimicked some of the actions he would do during his free - flight EVA, so he could compare the effort expended between the two. The standup EVA set a record of two hours and 20 minutes, and succeeded in accomplishing the work demonstration. The next day Aldrin performing his free - flight EVA. He climbed across the newly installed hand - holds to the GATV and installed the cable needed for the gravity - gradient stabilization experiment. Aldrin performed tasks like installing electrical connectors and testing tools needed later for Apollo. His second EVA concluded after two hours and six minutes. On November 15, the crew initiated the automatic reentry system and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. Later, after the mission, his wife realized he had fallen into a depression, something she had not seen before.
There has been speculation about the extent of Aldrin 's desire at the time to be the first astronaut to walk on the Moon and its impact on his pre-flight, in - mission and post-flight actions. Early versions of the EVA checklist had the Lunar Module Pilot as the first to step onto the lunar surface. However, when Aldrin learned that this might be amended, he lobbied within NASA for the original procedure to be followed. Multiple factors contributed to the final decision, including the physical positioning of the astronauts within the compact lunar lander, which made it easier for Armstrong to be the first to exit the spacecraft. Furthermore, there was little support for Aldrin 's views among other senior astronauts who would command later Apollo missions, and who may have been the first to make a lunar landing had Apollo 11 failed. Apollo 11 Command Module Pilot Michael Collins has commented that he thought Aldrin "resents not being first on the moon more than he appreciates being second. ''
Aldrin and Armstrong did not have time to perform much geological training. The first lunar landing focused more on landing on the Moon and making is safely back to Earth than the scientific aspects of the mission. The duo were briefed by NASA and USGS geologists. They made one geological training expedition, to west Texas. The press followed them, and a helicopter made it hard for Aldrin and Armstrong to hear their instructor.
On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 mission commander Neil Armstrong and Aldrin made the first lunar landing becoming the first and second people, respectively, to walk on the Moon. This mission allowed Aldrin to maintain his record EVA duration until it was surpassed in the Apollo 14 mission. Aldrin 's first words on the Moon were "Beautiful view '', to which Armstrong asked "Is n't it magnificent? ''. Aldrin answered, "Magnificent desolation. '' He was also the first person to urinate while on the Moon.
Aldrin, a Presbyterian, was the first person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon. After landing on the Moon, he radioed Earth: "I 'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours, and to give thanks in his or her own way. '' He took communion on the surface of the Moon, but he kept it secret because of a lawsuit brought by atheist activist Madalyn Murray O'Hair over the reading of Genesis on Apollo 8. Aldrin, then a church elder, used a home communion kit given to him, and recited words used by his pastor at Webster Presbyterian Church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. The communion elements were the first food and liquid consumed on the Moon: in Guideposts, Aldrin stated: "It was interesting to think that the very first liquid ever poured on the Moon, and the first food eaten there, were communion elements. ''
Later Aldrin commented on the event: "Perhaps, if I had it to do over again, I would not choose to celebrate communion. Although it was a deeply meaningful experience for me, it was a Christian sacrament, and we had come to the Moon in the name of all mankind -- be they Christians, Jews, Muslims, animists, agnostics, or atheists. But at the time I could think of no better way to acknowledge the enormity of the Apollo 11 experience than by giving thanks to God. '' Mindful of the controversy caused by the Bible readings made by the Apollo 8 crew, the NASA management had warned the Apollo 11 crew against making any explicit religious comments during the flight. However, in the final Apollo 11 TV broadcast during the return journey to Earth, Aldrin quoted from Psalm 8 (verses 3 and 4) "I 've been reflecting the events of the past several days and a verse from the Psalms comes to mind to me. ' When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained, what is man that thou art mindful of him? ' ''.
After leaving NASA in July 1971, Aldrin was assigned as Commandant of the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Aldrin did not have managerial or test pilot experience, which caused him to perform poorly in his new venture. Aldrin was hospitalized for depression with the year. In March 1972, Aldrin retired from active duty, after 21 years of service, and returned to the Air Force in a managerial role but his career was blighted by personal problems. His autobiographies Return to Earth, published in 1973, and Magnificent Desolation, published in June 2009, both recount his struggles with clinical depression and alcoholism in the years after his NASA career.
After retiring from NASA, Aldrin continued to advocate for space exploration. In 1985 he joined the University of North Dakota (UND) 's College of Aerospace Sciences (now the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences) at the invitation of John D. Odegard, the dean of the college at time. Aldrin helped to develop UND 's Space Studies program and brought Dr. David Webb from NASA to serve as the department 's first chair. Later, he produced a computer strategy game called Buzz Aldrin 's Race Into Space (1993). To further promote space exploration, and to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the first lunar landing, Aldrin teamed up with Snoop Dogg, Quincy Jones, Talib Kweli, and Soulja Boy to create the rap single and video, "Rocket Experience '', with proceeds from video and song sales to benefit Aldrin 's non-profit foundation, ShareSpace.
He referred to the Phobos monolith in a July 22, 2009, interview with C - SPAN: "We should go boldly where man has not gone before. Fly by the comets, visit asteroids, visit the moon of Mars. There 's a monolith there. A very unusual structure on this potato shaped object that goes around Mars once in seven hours. When people find out about that they 're going to say ' Who put that there? Who put that there? ' The universe put it there. If you choose, God put it there. ''
In December 2016, Aldrin was part of a tourist group visiting the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica when he fell ill and was evacuated, first to McMurdo Station and from there to Christchurch, New Zealand. At 86 years of age, Aldrin 's visit made him the oldest person to ever reach the South Pole.
In 1985, Aldrin proposed a special spacecraft trajectory now known as the Aldrin cycler. Aldrin 's proposed system of cycling spacecraft makes travel to Mars possible using less propellant than conventional means, with an expected five and a half month journey from the Earth to Mars, and a return trip to Earth of about the same duration on a twin - cycler. Aldrin continues to research this concept with engineers from Purdue University.
On September 9, 2002, Aldrin was lured to a Beverly Hills hotel on the pretext of being interviewed for a Japanese children 's television show on the subject of space. When he arrived, Apollo conspiracy proponent Bart Sibrel accosted him with a film crew and demanded he swear on a Bible that the Moon landings were not faked, insisting that Aldrin and others had lied about walking on the Moon. After a brief confrontation, during which Sibrel kept following Aldrin despite being told to leave him alone, said to Aldrin: "You 're the one who said you walked on the Moon when you did n't! '' and finally called him "a coward and a liar '', Aldrin punched Sibrel in the jaw, which was caught on camera by Sibrel 's film crew. Aldrin stated that he had struck Sibrel in order to defend himself and his nearby stepdaughter. Witnesses stated that Sibrel had aggressively poked Aldrin with the Bible before being punched. Additional mitigating factors were that Sibrel sustained no visible injury and did not seek medical attention, and that Aldrin had no previous criminal record; the police declined to press charges against Aldrin. Aldrin dedicated a chapter to this incident in his autobiography Magnificent Desolation.
In 2005, while being interviewed for a documentary titled First on the Moon: The Untold Story, Aldrin told an interviewer that they saw an unidentified flying object. Aldrin told David Morrison, a NASA Astrobiology Institute senior scientist, the documentary cut the crew 's conclusion that they probably saw one of the four detached spacecraft adapter panels. Their S - IVB upper stage was 6,000 miles (9,700 km) away, but the four panels had been jettisoned before the S - IVB made its separation maneuver so they would closely follow the Apollo 11 spacecraft until its first mid-course correction. When Aldrin appeared on The Howard Stern Show on August 15, 2007, Stern asked him about the supposed UFO sighting. Aldrin confirmed that there was no such sighting of anything deemed extraterrestrial and said they were, and are, "99.9 percent '' sure that the object was the detached panel.
In an interview with the Science Channel, Aldrin mentioned seeing unidentified objects, but according to Aldrin his words had been taken out of context. He made a request to the Science Channel to clarify to viewers that he did not see alien spacecraft but was refused.
In December 2003, Aldrin published an opinion piece in The New York Times criticizing NASA 's objectives. In it, he voiced concern about NASA 's development of a spacecraft "limited to transporting four astronauts at a time with little or no cargo carrying capability '' and declared the goal of sending astronauts back to the Moon was "more like reaching for past glory than striving for new triumphs ''.
In June 2013, Aldrin wrote an opinion piece, published in The New York Times, supporting a manned mission to Mars and which viewed the Moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure, one that places humankind on a trajectory to homestead Mars and become a two - planet species. '' In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a "master plan '' to NASA for consideration where astronauts, with a "tour of duty of ten years '', establish a colony on Mars before the year 2040.
Aldrin was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal in 1969 for his role as lunar module pilot on Apollo 11. He was awarded an oak leaf cluster in 1972 in lieu of a second Distinguished Service Medal for his role in both the Korean War and in the space program. He was also awarded the Legion of Merit for his role in the Gemini and Apollo programs.
Aldrin was an inductee of the International Space Hall of Fame (1982), U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame (1993),, the National Aviation Hall of Fame (2000), and the New Jersey Hall of Fame (2008).
During a 1966 ceremony marking the end of the Gemini program, Aldrin was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal by President Johnson at LBJ Ranch.
In August of 1969, President Nixon presented Aldrin and the rest of the Apollo 11 crew with the Presidential Medal of Freedom at a state dinner held in their honor. The Apollo 11 crew was awarded the New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal in the Capitol Rotunda in 2011. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, "Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged. ''
The Apollo 11 trio were awarded the Collier Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The National Space Club named the crew the winners of the 1970 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, awarded annually for the greatest achievement in spaceflight. They received the international Harmon Trophy for aviators in 1970, conferred to them by Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1971. Agnew also presented them the Hubbard Medal of the National Geographic Society in 1970. He told them, "You 've won a place alongside Christopher Columbus in American history ''. In 1970, the Apollo 11 team were co-winners of the Iven C. Kincheloe award from the Society of Experimental Test Pilots along with Darryl Greenamyer who broke the world speed record for piston engine airplanes
Aldrin received honorary degrees from six colleges and universities. Aldrin was named as the Chancellor of the International Space University in 2015. For contributions to the television industry, Aldrin was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Aldrin is on the National Space Society 's Board of Governors, and has served as the organization 's Chairman. In 2016, Aldrin 's hometown middle school in Montclair, New Jersey was renamed the Buzz Aldrin Middle School. The Aldrin crater on the Moon near the Apollo 11 landing site and Asteroid 6470 Aldrin are named in his honor.
Aldrin has been married three times. His first marriage was to Joan Archer (1954 -- 1974), mother to his three children (James, Janice and Andrew). His second marriage was to Beverly Van Zile (1975 -- 1978), and his third to Lois Driggs Cannon (1988 -- 2011), from whom he filed for divorce on June 15, 2011, in Los Angeles, citing "irreconcilable differences ''. The divorce was finalized on December 28, 2012. He has one grandson, Jeffrey Schuss, born to his daughter, Janice, and three great - grandsons.
His mother committed suicide in 1968, the year before the Moon mission. Her father had also committed suicide, and he believes he inherited depression from them.
His battles against depression and alcoholism, upon returning home from the Apollo 11 mission, have been well documented, most recently in Magnificent Desolation. Aldrin is an active supporter of the Republican Party, headlining fundraisers for GOP members of Congress.
In 2007, Aldrin confirmed to Time magazine that he had recently had a face - lift; he joked that the g - forces he was exposed to in space "caused a sagging jowl that needed some attention. ''
Aldrin commented on the death of his Apollo 11 colleague, Neil Armstrong, saying that he was "deeply saddened by the passing. I know I am joined by millions of others in mourning the passing of a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew. I had truly hoped that on July 20th, 2019, Neil, Mike and I would be standing together to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of our moon landing... Regrettably, this is not to be. ''
Aldrin primarily resided in Los Angeles, California and its environs, including Hidden Hills and Laguna Beach, from 1972 to 2014. Following his third divorce, he sold his Westwood condominium (initially purchased in 1998) for $2.87 million in 2014. As of 2016, Aldrin was living in Satellite Beach, Florida.
In 2018 he was involved in a lawsuit over a dispute with his children Andrew and Janice and former business manager Christina Korp over their claims that he was mentally impaired through dementia and Alzheimer 's disease.
Aldrin has been portrayed by:
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who gets the home advantage in the world series | World Series - Wikipedia
The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best - of - seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner 's Trophy. As the series is played during the fall season in North America, it is sometimes referred to as the Fall Classic.
Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win - loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2017, the World Series has been contested 113 times, with the AL winning 65 and the NL winning 48.
The 2017 World Series took place between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Houston Astros. Seven games were played, with the Astros victorious after game seven, played in Los Angeles. The final score was 5 -- 1. This was the first World Series won by the Astros.
In the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia / Kansas City / Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York / San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 19 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.
As of 2017, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1998, 1999, and 2000 -- the longest such drought in Major League Baseball history.
Until the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871 -- 1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern World Series, with the terms arranged through negotiation of the owners of the championship teams beforehand. The number of games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five). Both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.
The series was promoted and referred to as "The Championship of the United States '', "World 's Championship Series '', or "World 's Series '' for short. In his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed.
The 19th - century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th - century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th - century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th - century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. (For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists "Baseball World 's Championships 1884 -- 1928 '' in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists "Baseball World Championships 1903 -- 1942 ''.)
Following the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half - season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893 -- and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969 -- the pennant was awarded to the first - place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894 -- 1897, the league champions played the runners - up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle - Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900.
In 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy (in 1902, the top teams instead opted to compete in a football championship).
After two years of bitter competition and player raiding, the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World 's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.
The 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL 's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL 's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants ' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the "inferiority '' of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants ' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already "world champions '' since they were the champions of the "only real major league ''. At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World 's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.
During the winter of 1904 -- 1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the "Brush Rules '', under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from "fixing '' early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now - official and compulsory World 's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.
With the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw 's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A 's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players ' strike.
The list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3 -- 4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions; in 1944, the normal pattern was followed because both teams were based in the same home stadium.
Gambling and game - fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball 's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.
The Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph "Sport '' Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting. 324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series ' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).
During the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the "World 's Serious ''. The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.
The "Black Sox '' were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game 's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.
The events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the "live ball '' era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs had to wait over a century (until the 2016 season) for their next trophy. They did not appear in the Fall Classic from 1945 until 2016, the longest drought of any MLB club.
The New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team 's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954 -- 1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics ' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936 -- 1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.
In an 18 - year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.
In the years 1947, 1949, 1951 -- 1953, and 1955 -- 1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.
In 1958, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long - time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.
The Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.
In 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A 's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972 -- 1974. In 1974, the A 's played the Dodgers in the first all - California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).
The Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A 's again went to three straight world series, from 1988 -- 1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all - California series as the A 's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series ' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim since 2005), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).
Prior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the "pennant winner '') based on the best win - loss record at the end of the regular season.
A structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best - of - five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best - of - seven.
The National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best - of - seven, are always played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home - field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.
MLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit 's Tiger Stadium.)
During this seven - year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book - ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.
However, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the "amazing '' eight - year - old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers ' back - to - back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.
Game 6 of the 1975 World Series is regarded by most as one of the greatest World Series games ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail - biting turns of events, and a game - winning walk - off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 -- 6 Red Sox victory.
The National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak - hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular - season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even - numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine - man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds ' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League 's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion 's park but not the NL champion 's. Thus, the DH rule 's use or non-use can affect the performance of the home team.
The 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire - to - wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.
The 1988 World Series is remembered for the iconic home run by the Los Angeles Dodgers ' Kirk Gibson with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning. The Dodgers were huge underdogs against the 104 - win Oakland Athletics, who had swept the Boston Red Sox in the ALCS. Baseball 's top relief pitcher, Dennis Eckersley, closed out all four games in the ALCS, and he appeared ready to do the same in Game 1 against a Dodgers team trailing 4 - 3 in the ninth. After getting the first two outs, Eckersley walked Mike Davis of the Dodgers, who were playing without Gibson, their best position player and the NL MVP. Gibson had injured himself in the NLCS and was expected to miss the entire World Series. Yet, despite not being able to walk without a noticeable limp, Gibson surprised all in attendance at Dodger Stadium (and all watching on TV) by pinch - hitting. After two quick strikes and then working the count full, Gibson hit a home run to right, inspiring iconic pronouncements by two legendary broadcasters calling the game, Vin Scully (on TV) and Jack Buck (on radio). On NBC, as Gibson limped around the bases, Scully famously exclaimed, "the impossible has happened! '' and on radio, Buck equally famously exclaimed, "I do n't believe what I just saw! '' Gibson 's home run set the tone for the series, as the Dodgers went on to beat the A 's 4 games to 1. The severity of Gibson 's injury prevented him from playing in any of the remaining games.
When the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC 's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5: 04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface - wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say "I 'll tell you what, we 're having an earth -- '' before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four - game sweep.
World Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come - from - behind homer, after Joe Carter 's three - run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8 -- 6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth - inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.
In 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best - of - five playoff round (the "division series ''), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second - best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best - of - seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players ' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team can not get home - field advantage.
After the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite the First World War, the global influenza pandemic of 1918 -- 1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America 's involvement in the Second World War, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.
As the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor 's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus, baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without a full - time commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.
The previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74 -- 40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos / Nationals have never played in a World Series.)
The labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.
The 2001 World Series was the first World Series to end in November, due to the week - long delay in the regular season after the September 11 attacks. Game 4 had begun on Oct. 31 but went into extra innings and ended early on the morning of Nov. 1, the first time the Series had been played in November. Yankee shortstop Derek Jeter won the game with a 12th inning walk - off home run and was dubbed "Mr. November '' by elements of the media -- echoing the media 's designation of Reggie Jackson as "Mr. October '' for his slugging achievements during the 1977 World Series.
With the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.
Prior to 2003, home - field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All - Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home - field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All - Star Game. Originally implemented as a two - year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice was extended.
The American League had won every All - Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home - field advantage from 2002, when it also had home - field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011, 2014, and 2016 World Series have gone the full seven games.
This rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home - field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All - Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees ' shortstop 's final All - Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season.
As Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:
"So now we have a game that 's not real baseball determining which league hosts Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 in the World Series. It 's not a game if pitchers throw one inning. It 's not a game if managers try to get everyone on a bloated roster into the game. It 's not a game if every franchise, no matter how wretched, has to put a player on the team... If the game is going to count, tell the managers to channel their inner Connie Mack and go for it. ''
However, within the last seven seasons, home - field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Since 2014, the home team has not won the deciding game of a World Series.
The San Francisco Giants won the World Series in 2010, 2012, and 2014 while failing to qualify to play in the postseason in the intervening seasons.
The Texas Rangers were twice only one strike away from winning their first World Series title in 2011, but the St. Louis Cardinals scored late twice in Game 6 by the soon to become Series MVP, David Freese, to force a Game 7.
The Kansas City Royals reached the World Series in 2014, which was their first appearance in the postseason since winning the series in 1985. At the time, it was the longest postseason drought in baseball. They lost in 7 games to the Giants. The following season, the Royals finished with the American League 's best record, and won a second consecutive American League pennant. They defeated the New York Mets in the World Series 4 - 1, capturing their first title in 30 years. The 2015 contest was the first time that two expansion clubs met for the Fall Classic.
In 2016, the Chicago Cubs ended their 108 - year long drought without a World Series title by defeating the Cleveland Indians, rallying from a 3 -- 1 Series deficit in the process. That extended Cleveland 's World Series title drought to 68 years and counting -- the Indians last won the Series in 1948 -- now the longest title drought in the majors.
Beginning in 2017, home field advantage in the World Series will be awarded to the league champion team with the better regular season win - loss record. If both league champions have the same record, the second tie - breaker would be head - to - head record, and if that does not resolve it, the third tie - breaker would be best divisional record.
The Houston Astros won the 2017 World Series in 7 games against the Los Angeles Dodgers 5 to 1 on November 1st, 2017, winning their first World Series since their creation in 1962.
American League (AL) teams have won 65 of the 113 World Series played (57.5 %). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 23.9 % of all series played and 41.5 % of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series, accounting for 9.7 % of all series played and 23 % of the 48 National League victories.
When the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.
The number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen "expansion teams '' joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos / Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45 %) in which they have played, which is 9 % of all 112 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.
This information is up to date through the present time:
When two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already - existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams playing in the same area but in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.
The first city to host an entire World Series was Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.
Fourteen "Subway Series '' have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League 's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically "subway series '' since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The Yankees finally beat the Giants the following year, their first in their brand - new Yankee Stadium, and won the two teams ' three subsequent Fall Classic match - ups in 1936, 1937 and 1951. The Yankees faced Brooklyn seven times in October, winning their first five meetings in 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952 and 1953, before losing to the Dodgers in 1955, Brooklyn 's sole World Championship. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees again beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California (although the Yankees subsequently met and beat the now - San Francisco Giants in 1962, and played the now - Los Angeles Dodgers four times, losing to them in a four - game sweep in 1963, beating them back - to - back in 1977 and 1978 and losing to them in 1981). An all - New York Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.
The last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 "Streetcar Series '' between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman 's Park.
The 1989 World Series, sometimes called the "Bay Bridge Series '' or the "BART Series '' (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A 's swept the Giants in four games. (The earthquake disruption of the Series almost completely overshadowed the fact that the 1989 Series represented a resumption after many decades of the October rivalry between the Giants and the A 's dating back to the early years of the 20th Century, when the then - New York Giants had defeated the then - Philadelphia Athletics in 1905, and had lost to them in 1911 and again in 1913.)
The Giants are the only team to have played in cross-town World Series in two different cities, having faced the Yankees six times while located in New York, and the Athletics once while based in San Francisco.
Two cross-town World Series match - ups were formerly possible but did not occur -- the Boston Red Sox vs. the Boston Braves, and the Philadelphia Phillies vs. the Philadelphia Athletics. (The Braves moved to Milwaukee in 1953, and the Athletics moved to Kansas City in 1955.)
Currently there are four metropolitan areas that have two Major League Baseball teams -- New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Of the four, only Los Angeles has not hosted a cross-town World Series. Such a contest would pit the Dodgers against the Angels.
Below is a chronological list of World Series played between teams from the same metropolitan area, with the winning teams listed in boldface.
The historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics - Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants ' series against the then - Anaheim Angels in 2002.
Other than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I - 70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.
Going into the 2017 season, there has never been an in - state World Series between the teams in Ohio (Cleveland Indians and Cincinnati Reds), Florida (Tampa Bay Rays and Miami Marlins), Texas (Texas Rangers and Houston Astros -- who now both play in the American League since the Astros changed leagues in 2013, making any future joint World Series appearance an impossibility unless one of the teams switches leagues), or Pennsylvania (the Philadelphia Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates have been traditional National League rivals going back to the late 19th Century). Neither the Phillies nor the Pirates ever faced the Athletics in October during the latter team 's tenure in Philadelphia, through 1954. The Boston Red Sox never similarly faced the Braves while the latter team played in Boston through 1952. There also was never an all - Canada World Series between the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos, who never won a National League pennant when they played in that Canadian city from 1969 through 2004. The Expos became the Washington Nationals in 2005 -- raising the possibility of a potential future "I - 95 World Series '' between the National League team and the AL 's Baltimore Orioles, who play just 50 miles to the north of Washington. Finally, the Los Angeles and / or Anaheim Angels have never faced off in October against either the Dodgers or against the San Diego Padres for bragging rights in Southern California, although all three of those teams have appeared in the World Series at various times.
At the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the "original sixteen ''.
When the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City (WNBT); Philadelphia (WPTZ); Schenectady / Albany, New York (WRGB); Washington, D.C. (WNBW) and surrounding suburbs / environs. In 1948, games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By 1949, World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By 1950, World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. 1951 marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, 1955 marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color.
^ *: Not currently broadcasting Major League Baseball.
^ * *: Per the current broadcast agreement, the World Series will be televised by Fox through 2021.
^ * * *: Gillette, which sponsored World Series telecasts exclusively from roughly 1947 to 1965 (prior to 1966, the Series announcers were chosen by the Gillette Company along with the Commissioner of Baseball and NBC), paid for airtime on DuMont 's owned - and - operated Pittsburgh affiliate, WDTV (now KDKA - TV) to air the World Series. In the meantime, Gillette also bought airtime on ABC, CBS, and NBC. More to the point, in some cities, the World Series was broadcast on three different stations at once.
^ * * * *: NBC was originally scheduled to televise the entire 1995 World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 Series (which had been slated for ABC, who last televised a World Series in 1989), coverage ended up being split between the two networks. Game 5 is, to date, the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would 've televised it). This was the only World Series to be produced under the "Baseball Network '' umbrella (a revenue sharing joint venture between Major League Baseball, ABC, and NBC). In July 1995, both networks announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six - year - long venture. NBC would next cover the 1997 (NBC 's first entirely since 1988) and 1999 World Series over the course of a five - year - long contract, in which Fox would cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996, 1998, and 2000).
Despite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major - league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as "world champions of baseball ''.
The United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.
By the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America 's high - salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba 's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half - century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time "post '' them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player 's request.
Several tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball and sanctioned by the sport 's world governing body, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The WBSC has since added the Premier12, a tournament also involving national teams; the first event was held in 2015, and is planned to be held every four years (in the middle of the World Baseball Classic cycle). The World Baseball Classic is held in March and the Premier12 is held in November, allowing both events to feature top - level players from all nations. The predecessor to the WBSC as the sport 's international governing body, the International Baseball Federation, also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. However, because the World Cup was held during the Northern Hemisphere summer, during the playing season of almost all top - level leagues, its teams did not feature the best talent from each nation. As a result, baseball fans paid little or no attention to the World Cup and generally disregarded its results. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.
Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston
Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all - Chicago World Series to date)
Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920
Washington 's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)
The Chicago Cubs celebrate winning the 2016 World Series, which ended the club 's 108 - year championship drought.
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what makes an energy drink an energy drink | Energy drink - wikipedia
An energy drink is a type of beverage containing stimulant drugs, usually including caffeine, which is marketed as providing mental and physical stimulation (marketed as "energy '', but distinct from food energy). They may or may not be carbonated and many also contain sugar or other sweeteners, herbal extracts, taurine, and amino acids. They are a subset of the larger group of energy products, which includes bars and gels, and distinct from sports drinks, which are advertised to enhance sports performance. There are many brands and varieties in this beverage category.
Coffee, tea and other naturally caffeinated beverages are usually not considered energy drinks. Other soft drinks such as cola may contain caffeine, but are also not energy drinks. Some alcoholic beverages, such as Buckfast Tonic Wine, contain caffeine and other stimulants. According to the Mayo Clinic, it is safe for the typical healthy adult to consume a total of 400 mg of caffeine a day. This has been confirmed by a panel of the European Food Safety Authority, which also concludes that a caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day does not raise safety concerns for adults. According to the ESFA this is equivalent to 4 cups of coffee (90 mg each) or 5 standard cans (250 ml) of energy drink (80 mg each).
Energy drinks have the effects caffeine and sugar provide, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Other studies, however, ascribe those performance improvements to the effects of the combined ingredients. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is still no scientific consensus to support these statements. Energy drinks have been associated with health risks, such as an increased rate of injury when usage is combined with alcohol, and excessive or repeated consumption can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions.
Energy drinks are marketed to provide the benefits among health effects of caffeine along with benefits from the other ingredients they contain. Health experts agree that energy drinks which contain caffeine do improve alertness. The consumption of alcohol drinks combined with energy drinks is a common occurrence on many college campuses. The alcohol industry has recently been criticized for marketing cohesiveness of alcohol and energy drinks. The combination of the two in college students is correlated to students experiencing alcohol - related consequences, and several health risks.
There is no good evidence that other ingredients in energy drinks provide further benefits, even though the drinks are frequently advertised in a way that suggests they have unique benefits. The dietary supplements in energy drinks may be purported to provide produce benefits, such as for vitamin B12, but no claims of using supplements to enhance health in otherwise normal people have been verified scientifically. Various marketing organizations have described energy drinks by saying their beverage "gives you wings '', is "scientifically formulated '', or is a "killer energy brew ''. Marketing of energy drinks has been particularly directed towards teenagers, with manufacturers sponsoring or advertising at extreme sports events and music concerts, and targeting a youthful audience through social media channels.
When mixed with alcohol, either as a prepackaged caffeinated alcoholic drink, a mixed drink, or just a beverage consumed around the same time as alcohol, energy drinks are often consumed in social settings.
Energy drinks have the effects caffeine and sugar provide, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is little evidence to support this in the scientific literature.
A caffeine intake of 400 mg per day is considered as safe from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia. Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs. Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but most (although not all) place the caffeine content of their drinks on the label anyway, and some advocates are urging the FDA to change this practice.
Combined use of caffeine and alcohol may increase the rate of alcohol - related injury. Energy drinks can mask the influence of alcohol, and a person may misinterpret their actual level of intoxication. Since caffeine and alcohol are both diuretics, combined use increases the risk of dehydration, and the mixture of a stimulant (caffeine) and depressant (alcohol) sends contradictory messages to the nervous system and can lead to increased heart rate and palpitations. Although people decide to drink energy drinks with alcohol with the intent of counteracting alcohol intoxication, many others do so to hide the taste of alcohol. However, in the 2015, the EFSA concluded, that "Consumption of other constituents of energy drinks at concentrations commonly present in such beverages would not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. '' Also the consumption of alcohol, leading to a blood alcohol content of about 0.08 %, would, according to the EFSA, not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. Up to these levels of intake, caffeine is unlikely to mask the subjective perception of alcohol intoxication.
Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac problems, such as arrhythmias and heart attacks, and psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and phobias. In Europe, energy drinks containing taurine and caffeine have been associated with the deaths of athletes. A 2017 study in the Journal of the American Heart Association noted that caffeine content was not the only factor, and that the cocktail of other ingredients in energy drinks made them more dangerous than drinks whose only stimulant was caffeine; the study noted that more research was needed on the individual ingredients to determine which ones pose a hazard.
Research suggests that emergency department (ED) visits are on the increase. In 2005, there were 1,494 emergency department visits related to energy drink consumption in the United States; whereas, in 2011, energy drinks were linked to 20,783 emergency department visits. During this period of increase, males consumers consistently had a higher likelihood of visiting the emergency department over their female counterparts. Research trends also show that emergency department visits are caused mainly by adverse reactions to the drinks. In 2011, there were 14,042 energy drink - related hospital visits. Misuse and abuse of these caffeinated beverages also cause a significant amount of emergency department visits. By 2011, there were 6,090 visits to the ED due to misuse / abuse of the drinks. In many cases 42 % of patients had mixed energy drinks with another stimulant, and in the other 58 % of cases the energy drink was the only thing that had been consumed. Several studies suggest that energy drinks may be a gateway drug.
Energy drinks were an active subset of the early soft drink industry; Pepsi, for instance, was originally marketed as an energy booster. Coca - Cola 's name was derived from its two active ingredients, both known stimulants: coca leaves and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). Fresh coca leaves were replaced by "spent '' ones in 1904 because of concerns over the use of cocaine in food products; the federal lawsuit United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola pressured The Coca - Cola Company into reducing the amount of caffeine in its formula by 1916. These developments brought an end to the first wave of energy drinks.
In the UK, Lucozade Energy was originally introduced in 1929 as a hospital drink for "aiding the recovery; '' in the early 1980s, it was promoted as an energy drink for "replenishing lost energy. '' One of the first post-Forty Barrels energy drinks introduced in America was Dr. Enuf. Its origins date back to 1949, when a Chicago businessman named William Mark Swartz was urged by coworkers to formulate a soft drink fortified with vitamins as an alternative to sugar sodas full of empty calories. He developed an "energy booster '' drink containing B vitamins, caffeine and cane sugar. After placing a notice in a trade magazine seeking a bottler, he formed a partnership with Charles Gordon of Tri-City Beverage to produce and distribute the soda. Dr. Enuf is still being manufactured in Johnson City, Tennessee and sold sparsely throughout the nation.
In Japan, the energy drink dates at least as far back as the early 1960s, with the launch of the Lipovitan brand. However, in Japan, most of the products of this kind bear little resemblance to soft drinks, and are sold instead in small brown glass medicine bottles, or cans styled to resemble such containers. These "eiyō dorinku '' (literally, "nutritional drinks '') are marketed primarily to salarymen. Bacchus - F, a South Korean drink closely modeled after Lipovitan, also appeared in the early 1960s and targets a similar demographic.
In 1985, Jolt Cola was introduced in the United States. Its marketing strategy centered on the drink 's caffeine content, billing it as a means to promote wakefulness. The drink 's initial slogan read: "All the sugar and twice the caffeine. ''
In 1995, PepsiCo launched Josta, the first energy drink introduced by a major US beverage company (one that had interests outside energy drinks), but Pepsi discontinued the product in 1999. Pepsi would later return to the energy drink market with the AMP brand.
In Europe, energy drinks were pioneered by the Lisa company and a product named "Power Horse '', before Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian entrepreneur, introduced the Red Bull product, a worldwide bestseller in the 21st century. Mateschitz developed Red Bull based on the Thai drink Krating Daeng, itself based on Lipovitan. Red Bull became the dominant brand in the US after its introduction in 1997, with a market share of approximately 47 % in 2005.
In New Zealand and Australia, the leading energy drink product in those markets, V, was introduced by Frucor Beverages. The product now represents over 60 % of market in New Zealand and Australia.
UK supermarkets have launched their own brands of energy drinks, sold at lower prices than the major soft drink manufacturers, that are mostly produced by Canadian beverage maker Cott. Tesco supermarkets sell "Kx '' (formerly known as "Kick ''), Sainsbury 's sell "Blue Bolt '' and Asda sell "Blue Charge '' -- all three drinks are sold in 250 - milliliter cans and 1 - liter bottles -- while Morrison 's sell "Source '' in 250 - milliliter cans. Cott sells a variety of other branded energy drinks to independent retailers in various containers.
Since 2002, there has been a growing trend for packaging energy drinks in bigger cans. In many countries, including the US and Canada, there is a limitation on the maximum caffeine per serving in energy drinks, so manufacturers include a greater amount of caffeine by including multiple servings per container. Popular brands such as Red Bull, Hype Energy Drinks and Monster have increased the can size.
The energy shot product, an offshoot of the energy drink, was launched in the US with products such as "5 - Hour Energy, '' which was first released onto the market in 2004. A consumer health analyst explained in a March 2014 media article: "Energy shots took off because of energy drinks. If you 're a white collar worker, you 're not necessarily willing to down a big Monster energy drink, but you may drink an energy shot. ''
In 2007, energy drink powders and effervescent tablets were introduced, whereby either can be added to water to create an energy drink.
Energy drinks are also popular as drink mixers -- Red Bull and vodka is a popular combination. In the US, a product called "Four Loko '' formerly mixed beer with caffeine, while Kahlua is a coffee - flavored alcoholic beverage.
On 14 August 2012, the word "energy drink '' was listed for the first time in the Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary.
Energy shots are a specialized kind of energy drink. Whereas most energy drinks are sold in cans or bottles, energy shots are usually sold in smaller 50ml bottles. Energy shots can contain the same total amount of caffeine, vitamins or other functional ingredients as their larger versions, and may be considered concentrated forms of energy drinks. The marketing of energy shots generally focuses on their convenience and availability as a low - calorie "instant '' energy drink that can be taken in one swallow (or "shot ''), as opposed to energy drinks that encourage users to drink an entire can, which may contain 250 calories or more.
Energy drinks such as Red Bull are often used as mixers with alcoholic beverages, producing mixed drinks such as Vodka Red Bull which are similar to but stronger than rum and coke with respect to the amount of caffeine that they contain. Sometimes this is configured as a bomb shot, such as the Jägerbomb or the F - Bomb -- Fireball Cinnamon Whisky and Red Bull.
Caffeinated alcoholic drinks are also sold in some countries in a wide variety of formulations. The American products Four Loko and Joose originally combined caffeine and alcohol before caffeinated alcoholic beverages were banned in the U.S. in 2010.
Several beverages have been marketed in the 2000s as "anti-energy '', "chill out '', or "relaxation '' drinks, including Lava Cola, Slow Cow, Drank, Marley 's Mellow Mood, Mary Jane 's Relaxing Soda, Chill, Calm, Malava Kava, V.i.B., Take 5, Relax by Rockstar and Jones Gaba. They are growing in popularity, with sales doubling from 2008 to 2010, and expected to more than double again by 2014. They contain ingredients such as theanine and melatonin.
Energy drinks generally contain methylxanthines (including caffeine), B vitamins, carbonated water, and high - fructose corn syrup (for non-diet versions). Other commonly used ingredients are guarana, yerba mate, açaí, and taurine, plus various forms of ginseng, maltodextrin, inositol, carnitine, creatine, glucuronolactone, sucralose and ginkgo biloba.
Some energy drink manufacturers do not report how much caffeine their products contain. One survey found that various energy drinks had 6 -- 242 milligrams (mg) of caffeine per serving. In comparison, an 8 US fluid ounces (240 ml) cup of coffee contains 100 mg of caffeine and 12 US fluid ounces (350 ml) of Coca - Cola Classic contains 35 mg of caffeine. Consumer Reports expected that the caffeine content of a beverage should be within 20 % of what the label claims, but product testing on United States energy drinks found that the caffeine levels of some energy drinks vary beyond that range. The Monster Beverage Corporation explained they do not report caffeine levels because "there is no legal or commercial business requirement to do so, and also because our products are completely safe, and the actual numbers are not meaningful to most consumers. '' Scientific groups and consumer organizations have requested more disclosure in ingredient lists.
The sugar in non-diet energy drinks is food energy that can be utilized by the human body.
Globally, energy drinks are typically attractive to young people. Approximately 66 percent of consumers are between the ages of 13 and 35 years, with males being approximately 65 percent of the market. A 2008 statewide Patient Poll conducted by the Pennsylvania Medical Society 's Institute for Good Medicine found that: 20 percent of respondents aged between 21 and 30 had used energy drinks in high school or college to stay awake longer to study, or to write a paper; and 70 percent of respondents knew someone who had used an energy drink to stay awake longer to study or work.
US research by Packaged Facts in 2012 showed that consumers aged between 18 and 34 years, men, Hispanics, Pacific region residents and adults with children in the household were the demographic groups that were using the highest amounts of energy drinks.
Market research firm Euromonitor calculated that the global energy drink market was worth US $3.8 billion in 1999 and this value grew to US $27.5 billion in 2013.
In 2000, the US energy drink market was worth US $350 million and data from the Packaged Facts company shows that the industry grew by 60 percent between 2008 and 2012 in the US -- by 2012 total US sales were over US $12.5 billion. Red Bull and Monster were the two best - selling brands in 2012, accounting for nearly 80 % of US energy drink sales, and the energy shot market is worth over US $1 billion in 2014.
The energy drink Red Bull did not get market approval in France after the death of an 18 - year - old Irish athlete, Ross Cooney, who died within hours after playing a basketball game and consuming four cans of the product. This ban was challenged in the European Court of Justice in 2004 and consequently lifted. Norway did not allow Red Bull for a time, although this restriction has recently been relaxed. In May 2009 it became legal to sell in Norway. The Norwegian version has reduced B - vitamin B6. The United Kingdom investigated the drink, but only issued a warning against its consumption by children and pregnant women.
In 2009 under the Ministry of Social Protection, Colombia prohibited the sale and commercialization of energy drinks to minors under the age of 14.
In November 2012, President Ramzan Kadyrov of Chechnya (Russian Federation) ordered his government to develop a bill banning the sale of energy drinks, arguing that as a form of "intoxicating drug '', such drinks were "unacceptable in a Muslim society ''. Kadyrov cited reports of one death and 530 hospital admissions in 2012 due to "poisoning '' from the consumption of such drinks. A similar view was expressed by Gennady Onishchenko, Chief Sanitary Inspector of Russia.
In 2009, a school in Hove, England requested that local shops refrain from selling energy drinks to students. Headteacher Malvina Sanders added that "This was a preventative measure, as all research shows that consuming high - energy drinks can have a detrimental impact on the ability of young people to concentrate in class. '' The school negotiated for their local branch of the Tesco supermarket to display posters asking students not to purchase the products. Similar measures were taken by a school in Oxted, England, which banned students from consuming drinks and sent letters to parents.
Some countries have certain restrictions on the sale and manufacture of energy drinks. In Australia and New Zealand, energy drinks are regulated under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code; limiting the caffeine content of ' formulated caffeinated beverages ' (energy drinks) at 320 mg / L (9.46 mg / oz) and soft - drinks at 145 mg / L (4.29 mg / oz). Mandatory caffeine labeling is issued for all food products containing guarana in the country, and Australian energy drink labels warn consumers to drink no more than two cans per day.
As of 2013 in the United States some energy drinks, including Monster Energy and Rockstar Energy, were reported to be rebranding their products as beverages rather than as dietary supplements. As beverages they would be relieved of F.D.A. reporting requirements with respect to deaths and injuries and can be purchased with food stamps, but must list ingredients on the can.
In June 2016, Latvia banned the sale of energy drinks containing caffeine or stimulants like taurine and guarana to people under the age of 18. In January 2018, many United Kingdom supermarkets banned the sale of energy drinks containing more than 150 mg of caffeine per liter to people under 16 years old.
Some places ban the sale of prepackaged caffeinated alcoholic beverages, which can be described as energy drinks containing alcohol. In response to these bans, the marketers can change the formula of their products.
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when do they play true american in new girl | Normal (New Girl) - wikipedia
"Normal '' is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series New Girl. It was written by Luvh Rakhe and directed by Jesse Peretz.
Jess (Zooey Deschanel) brings her new boyfriend Russell (Dermot Mulroney) home to the loft to meet her roommates. After some reluctance, the men bond when the group plays True American, an active drinking game. The game ends when Cece (Hannah Simone) retreats to Schmidt 's bed, prompting Schmidt (Max Greenfield) to join her. Nick (Jake Johnson) then shares his idea for "real apps, '' a suite of physical "apps '' for smartphones with functionality similar to a Swiss Army knife. He accidentally wounds Russell with the prototype, prompting Russell to leave, to Jess 's disappointment.
Winston (Lamorne Morris) begins a new job in "Normal '' as an assistant to sports talk show host Joe Napoli (Phil Hendrie). Winston 's initial enthusiasm for the job fades when he realizes Napoli is an abrasive and disrespectful boss. Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has a cameo appearance as a guest on Napoli 's show.
After "Normal '' aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules for True American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game and Candy Land where the floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents. The idea of True American came from a New Girl writer who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game 's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting "JFK! FDR! '' and walking on chairs. As the cast did not understand the game during shooting, the writers created more rules on the spot, advised the actors to "have fun, dig in, jump in '' and play it as if "they 'd been playing this thing for years and years and years. '' The high - energy feel of the game and the amounts of coverage made filming True American more challenging for the actors than normal episodes. Producers Dave Finkel, Brett Baer, and writer Luvh Rakhe, came up with most of the obscure American history facts, but much was cut from the finished episode. Fox subsequently released a set of official rules for the game, which can be summarized "There are no real rules ''. The characters also played True American in "Cooler '', the 15th episode of the second season, in "Mars Landing '', the 20th episode of the third season and in "Wedding Eve '' the 21st episode of the fifth season.
The initial broadcast of "Normal '' attracted 5.23 million US viewers. The A.V. Club called the episode "the young series at its best, '' rating it an A - overall. The staff of The Atlantic included it in their list of the best TV episodes of 2012, comparing the actors ' performances to "the best sitcom ensembles '' of Seinfeld, Will & Grace, and Friends. Alan Sepinwall said the episode "did n't seem quite as effortlessly hilarious as several recent episodes '' but was still enjoyable.
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where did till death do us part come from | Till Death Do Us Part - wikipedia
Till Death Do Us Part or Till Death Us Do Part may refer to:
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list and explain the types of computer network | Computer network - wikipedia
A computer network or data network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with each other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media.
Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other. In most cases, application - specific communications protocols are layered (i.e. carried as payload) over other more general communications protocols. This formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably.
Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and services such as access to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications as well as many others. Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network 's size, topology and organizational intent. The best - known computer network is the Internet.
The chronology of significant computer - network developments includes:
Computer networking may be considered a branch of electrical engineering, electronics engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.
A computer network facilitates interpersonal communications allowing users to communicate efficiently and easily via various means: email, instant messaging, online chat, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer or use of a shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
A computer network may be used by security hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a denial - of - service attack.
Computer communication links that do not support packets, such as traditional point - to - point telecommunication links, simply transmit data as a bit stream. However, most information in computer networks is carried in packets. A network packet is a formatted unit of data (a list of bits or bytes, usually a few tens of bytes to a few kilobytes long) carried by a packet - switched network. Packets are sent through the network to their destination. Once the packets arrive they are reassembled into their original message.
Packets consist of two kinds of data: control information, and user data (payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example: source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in packet headers and trailers, with payload data in between.
With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were circuit switched. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is n't overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case the packet is queued and waits until a link is free.
The physical layout of a network is usually less important than the topology that connects network nodes. Most diagrams that describe a physical network are therefore topological, rather than geographic. The symbols on these diagrams usually denote network links and network nodes.
The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the physical media) used to link devices to form a computer network include electrical cable (Ethernet, HomePNA, power line communication, G.hn), optical fiber (fiber - optic communication), and radio waves (wireless networking). In the OSI model, these are defined at layers 1 and 2 -- the physical layer and the data link layer.
A widely adopted family of transmission media used in local area network (LAN) technology is collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Ethernet transmits data over both copper and fiber cables. Wireless LAN standards (e.g. those defined by IEEE 802.11) use radio waves, or others use infrared signals as a transmission medium. Power line communication uses a building 's power cabling to transmit data.
The orders of the following wired technologies are, roughly, from slowest to fastest transmission speed.
Price is a main factor distinguishing wired - and wireless - technology options in a business. Wireless options command a price premium that can make purchasing wired computers, printers and other devices a financial benefit. Before making the decision to purchase hard - wired technology products, a review of the restrictions and limitations of the selections is necessary. Business and employee needs may override any cost considerations.
There have been various attempts at transporting data over exotic media:
Both cases have a large round - trip delay time, which gives slow two - way communication, but does n't prevent sending large amounts of information.
Apart from any physical transmission media there may be, networks comprise additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface controllers (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and perform multiple functions.
A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that provides a computer with the ability to access the transmission media, and has the ability to process low - level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.
The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a network address for either the NIC or the computer as a whole.
In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address -- usually stored in the controller 's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least - significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart.
A repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row, e.g., the Ethernet 5 - 4 - 3 rule.
Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been mostly obsoleted by modern switches.
A network bridge connects and filters traffic between two network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to form a single network. This breaks the network 's collision domain but maintains a unified broadcast domain. Network segmentation breaks down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.
Bridges come in three basic types:
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (frames) between ports based on the destination MAC address in each frame. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the physical ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. It learns to associate physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.
Multi-layer switches are capable of routing based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels. The term switch is often used loosely to include devices such as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic based on load or based on application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol information from layer 3). The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing table (or forwarding table). A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets. A destination in a routing table can include a "null '' interface, also known as the "black hole '' interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data, i.e. the packets are dropped.
Modems (MOdulator - DEModulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Modems are commonly used for telephone lines, using a Digital Subscriber Line technology.
A firewall is a network device for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.
Network topology is the layout or organizational hierarchy of interconnected nodes of a computer network. Different network topologies can affect throughput, but reliability is often more critical. With many technologies, such as bus networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install.
Common layouts are:
Note that the physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring (actually two counter-rotating rings), but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location.
An overlay network is a virtual computer network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many peer - to - peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the Internet.
Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over telephone lines using modems, before any data network existed.
The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the telephone network. Even today, each Internet node can communicate with virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. Address resolution and routing are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network.
Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash table, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a map) indexed by keys.
Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through quality of service guarantees to achieve higher - quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end - hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination.
For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Academic research includes end system multicast, resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others.
A communications protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. In a protocol stack (also see the OSI model), each protocol leverages the services of the protocol below it. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the World Wide Web protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.11 (the Wi - Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user 's personal computer when the user is surfing the web.
While the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it has been historically criticized by many researchers for two principal reasons. Firstly, abstracting the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate functionality of a lower layer, a prime example being error recovery on both a per - link basis and an end - to - end basis. Secondly, it is common that a protocol implementation at one layer may require data, state or addressing information that is only present at another layer, thus defeating the point of separating the layers in the first place. For example, TCP uses the ECN field in the IPv4 header as an indication of congestion; IP is a network layer protocol whereas TCP is a transport layer protocol.
Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection - oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.
There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.
IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.
For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1 D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1 Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1 X defines a port - based Network Access Control protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) -- it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access key ''.
Ethernet, sometimes simply called LAN, is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Wireless LAN, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well - known member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. It is standarized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with wired Ethernet.
The Internet Protocol Suite, also called TCP / IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less as well as connection - oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by data - gram transmission at the Internet protocol (IP) level. At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability.
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support real - time, uncompressed, circuit - switched voice encoded in PCM (Pulse - Code Modulation) format. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport - oriented features, SONET / SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time - division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed - sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or frames. ATM has similarity with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high - throughput data traffic, and real - time, low - latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection - oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.
While the role of ATM is diminishing in favor of next - generation networks, it still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user.
There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution - Data Optimized (EV - DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS - 136 / TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).
A network can be characterized by its physical capacity or its organizational purpose. Use of the network, including user authorization and access rights, differ accordingly.
A nanoscale communication network has key components implemented at the nanoscale including message carriers and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for classical communication.
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are most likely based on Ethernet technology. Newer standards such as ITU - T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.
The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a wide area network (WAN), include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to 100 Gbit / s, standarized by IEEE in 2010. Currently, 400 Gbit / s Ethernet is being developed.
A LAN can be connected to a WAN using a router.
A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider.
A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium - sized business environments.
A campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant / owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.).
For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.
A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or sub-networks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area.
For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. When designing a network backbone, network performance and network congestion are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network 's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it.
Another example of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is the set of wide area networks (WANs) and core routers that tie together all networks connected to the Internet.
A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
An enterprise private network is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources.
A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.
VPN may have best - effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point - to - point.
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.
Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.
An intranet is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. The intranet uses the IP protocol and IP - based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. An intranet is also anything behind the router on a local area network.
An extranet is a network that is also under the administrative control of a single organization, but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. Network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology.
An internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common routing technology using routers.
The Internet is the largest example of an internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW).
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.
A darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. A darknet is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers -- sometimes called "friends '' (F2F) -- using non-standard protocols and ports.
Darknets are distinct from other distributed peer - to - peer networks as sharing is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference.
Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.
In packet switched networks, routing directs packet forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General - purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router 's memory, is very important for efficient routing.
There are usually multiple routes that can be taken, and to choose between them, different elements can be considered to decide which routes get installed into the routing table, such as (sorted by priority):
Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.
Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used within localized environments.
Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.
The World Wide Web, E-mail, printing and network file sharing are examples of well - known network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and MAC addresses (people remember names like "nm. lan '' better than numbers like "210.121. 67.18 ''), and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.
Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service.
Depending on the installation requirements, network performance is usually measured by the quality of service of a telecommunications product. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput, jitter, bit error rate and latency.
The following list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit - switched network and one type of packet - switched network, viz. ATM:
There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modelled instead of measured. For example, state transition diagrams are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit - switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.
Network congestion occurs when a link or node is carrying so much data that its quality of service deteriorates. Typical effects include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in offered load lead either only to small increase in network throughput, or to an actual reduction in network throughput.
Network protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion -- even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as congestive collapse.
Modern networks use congestion control and congestion avoidance techniques to try to avoid congestion collapse. These include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.11 's CSMA / CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and fair queueing in devices such as routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing priority schemes, so that some packets are transmitted with higher priority than others. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for some services. An example of this is 802.1 p. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention - Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU - T G.hn standard, which provides high - speed (up to 1 Gbit / s) Local area networking over existing home wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).
For the Internet RFC 2914 addresses the subject of congestion control in detail.
Network resilience is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of faults and challenges to normal operation. ''
Network security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network - accessible resources. Network security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals.
Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency.
Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.
Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent / investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.
However, many civil rights and privacy groups -- such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union -- have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T. The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance ''.
End - to - end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End - to - end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End - to - end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity.
Examples of end - to - end encryption include PGP for email, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.
Typical server - based communications systems do not include end - to - end encryption. These systems can only guarantee protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering "end - to - end '' encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end - to - end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.
The end - to - end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the end points and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.
Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area, and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via peer - to - peer technologies.
Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP / IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.
Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP / IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).
Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human - readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).
Over the Internet, there can be business - to - business (B2B), business - to - consumer (B2C) and consumer - to - consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology.
This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C ''.
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what statement describes the era of warlords in china | May Fourth Movement - wikipedia
The May Fourth Movement (Chinese: 五 四 運動; pinyin: Wǔsì Yùndòng) was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student participants in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting against the Chinese government 's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong which had been surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao. These demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, a shift towards political mobilization and away from cultural activities, and a move towards a populist base rather than intellectual elites. Many political and social leaders of the next decades emerged at this time.
The term "May Fourth Movement '' in a broader sense often refers to the period during 1915 -- 1921 more often called the New Culture Movement.
"The atmosphere and political mood that emerged around 1919, '' in the words of Mitter (2004), "are at the centre of a set of ideas that has shaped China 's momentous twentieth century. '' Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, the Qing Dynasty disintegrated. This marked the end of thousands of years of powerful imperial rule, and theoretically ushered a new era in which political power rested with the people. However, the reality was that China was a fragmented nation dominated by warlords, who were more concerned with their own political powers and private armies than national interests. The Chinese Beiyang government was occupied with suppressing internal affairs and did little to counter the influence exerted by foreign powers. The March 1st Movement that happened in Korea (1919), the Russian revolution (1917), defeats by foreign powers and the presence of spheres of influence inflamed a sense of nationalism among the emerging middle class and cultural leaders. Leaders of the New Culture Movement believed that traditional Confucian values were responsible for the political weakness of the nation. Chinese nationalists called for a rejection of traditional values and the selective adoption of Western ideals of "Mr. Science '' (賽 先生; 赛 先生; sài xiānsheng) and "Mr. Democracy '' (德 先生; dé xiānsheng) in order to strengthen the new nation. These iconoclastic and anti-traditional views and programs have shaped China 's politics and culture down to the present.
China had entered World War I on the side of the Allied Triple Entente in 1917 with the condition that all German spheres of influence, such as Shandong, would be returned to China. Although in that year 140,000 Chinese labourers (as a part of the British army, the Chinese Labour Corps) were sent to France, the Versailles Treaty of April 1919 awarded German rights in Shandong Province to Japan. The representatives of the Chinese government put forth the following requests:
The Western Allies dominated the meeting at Versailles, and paid little heed to Chinese demands. Britain and France were primarily interested in punishing Germany. Although the United States promoted Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points and the ideals of self - determination, they were unable to advance these ideals in the face of stubborn resistance by David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau and the U.S. Congress. American advocacy of self - determination at the League of Nations was attractive to Chinese intellectuals, but their failure to follow through was seen as a betrayal. Chinese diplomatic failure at the Paris Peace Conference touched off the May Fourth Movement, and became known as the "Shandong Problem ''.
On the morning of May 4, 1919, student representatives from thirteen different local universities met in Beijing and drafted five resolutions:
On the afternoon of May 4 over 3,000 students of Peking University and other schools marched from many points to gather in front of Tiananmen. They shouted such slogans as "Struggle for the sovereignty externally, get rid of the national traitors at home '', "Do away with the ' Twenty - One Demands ' '', and "Do n't sign the Versailles Treaty ''. They voiced their anger at the Allied betrayal of China, denounced the government 's spineless inability to protect Chinese interests, and called for a boycott of Japanese products. Demonstrators insisted on the resignation of three Chinese officials they accused of being collaborators with the Japanese. After burning the residence of one of these officials and beating his servants, student protesters were arrested, jailed, and severely beaten.
The next day, students in Beijing as a whole went on strike and in the larger cities across China, students, patriotic merchants, and workers joined protests. The demonstrators skillfully appealed to the newspapers and sent representatives to carry the word across the country. From early June, workers and businessmen in Shanghai also went on strike as the center of the movement shifted from Beijing to Shanghai. Chancellors from thirteen universities arranged for the release of student prisoners, and Cai Yuanpei, the principal of Peking University resigned in protest. Newspapers, magazines, citizen societies, and chambers of commerce offered support for the students. Merchants threatened to withhold tax payments if China 's government remained obstinate. In Shanghai, a general strike of merchants and workers nearly devastated the entire Chinese economy. Under intense public pressure, the Beijing government released the arrested students and dismissed Cao Rulin, Zhang Zongxiang and Lu Zongyu. Chinese representatives in Paris refused to sign the peace treaty: the May Fourth Movement won an initial victory which was primarily symbolic, since Japan for the moment retained control of the Shandong Peninsula and the islands in the Pacific. Even the partial success of the movement exhibited the ability of China 's social classes across the country to successfully collaborate given proper motivation and leadership.
For many years, the orthodox view in the People 's Republic of China was that after the demonstrations in 1919 and their suppression, the discussion became more and more political. People like Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao shifted more to the left and were among the leading founders of the 1921 Communist Party of China, whilst other intellectuals, such as the anarchist writer and agitator, Ba Jin also took part in the movement. Originally voluntarist or nihilist figures like Li Shicen and Zhu Qianzhi made similar turns to the Left as the 1920s saw China become increasingly turbulent.
Mao Zedong claimed that the May Fourth Movement was a stage leading toward revolution:
The May Fourth Movement served as an intellectual turning point in China; it was a seminal event that radicalized Chinese intellectual thought. Western - style liberal democracy had previously had a degree of traction amongst Chinese intellectuals, but after the Versailles Treaty (which was viewed as a betrayal of China 's interests), lost much of its attractiveness. Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, despite being rooted in moralism, were also seen as Western - centric and hypocritical.
Many in the Chinese intellectual community believed that the United States had done little to convince the imperialist powers (especially Britain, France, and Japan) to adhere to the Fourteen Points, and observed that the United States itself had declined to join the League of Nations; as a result they turned away from the Western liberal democratic model. Marxism began to take hold in Chinese intellectual thought, particularly among those already on the Left. It was during this time that communism was studied seriously by some Chinese intellectuals such as Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao.
Scholars rank the New Culture and May Fourth Movements as significant turning points, along with the abolition of the civil service system in 1905 and the overthrow of the monarchy in 1911. Participants at the time, such as Hu Shi, referred to this era as the Chinese Renaissance because there was an intense focus on science and experimentation.
The challenge to traditional Chinese values, however, was also met with strong opposition, especially from the Nationalist Party. From their perspective, the movement destroyed the positive elements of Chinese tradition and placed a heavy emphasis on direct political actions and radical attitudes, characteristics associated with the emerging Chinese Communist Party. On the other hand, the Communist Party, whose two founders, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, were leaders of the movement, viewed it more favorably, although remaining suspicious of the early phase which emphasized the role of enlightened intellectuals, not revolution. In its broader sense, the May Fourth Movement led to the establishment of radical intellectuals who went on to mobilize peasants and workers into the Communist party and gain the organizational strength that would solidify the success of the Communist Revolution.
Although the Movement was highly influential, many of the intellectuals at the time opposed the anti-traditional message and many political figures ignored it.
Chiang Kai - shek, as a nationalist and Confucianist was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. As an anti-imperialist, he was skeptical of western ideas and literature. He and Dr. Sun Yat - sen criticized these May Fourth intellectuals for corrupting morals of youth. When the Nationalist party came to power under Chiang 's rule, it carried out the opposite agenda. The New Life Movement promoted Confucianism and the Kuomintang purged China 's education system of western ideas, introducing Confucianism into the curriculum. Textbooks, exams, degrees and educational instructors were all controlled by the state, as were all universities.
Some conservative philosophers and intellectuals opposed any change, but many more accepted or welcomed the challenge from the West but wanted to base new systems on Chinese values, not imported ones. These figures included Liang Shuming, Liu Shipei, Tao Xisheng, Xiong Shili, Zhang Binglin and Lu Xun 's brother, Zhou Zuoren. In later years, others developed critiques, including figures as diverse as Lin Yutang, Qian Mu, Xu Fuguan, and Yu Yingshi.
Chinese Muslims ignored the May Fourth movement by continuing to teach Classical Chinese and literature with the Qur'an and Arabic along with officially mandated contemporary subjects at the "Normal Islamic School of Wanxian ''. A Classical Chinese translation of the Quran was done by Ha Decheng. Arabic, vernacular Chinese, Classical Chinese, and the Qur'an were taught in Ningxia Islamic schools funded by Muslim General Ma Fuxiang.
Although the May Fourth Movement did find partial success in removing Chinese traditional culture, there were still proponents who steadfastly argued that China 's traditions and values should be the fundamental foundation of the nation. From these opponents of Western civilization derived three neotraditional schools of thought: national essence, national character, and modern relevance of Confucianism. Each school of thought denounced the western values of individualism, materialism and utilitarianism as inadequate avenues for the development of China. Each school held to specific objectives. The "national essence '' school sought to discover aspects of traditional culture that could potentially serve the national development of China. Such traditional aspects consisted of various philosophical and religious practices that emerged parallel with Confucianism. Most particularly, China imported Buddhism, a religion from their neighboring countries, India and Nepal. Under the "national character '' school, advocates promoted the traditional family system, the primary target of the May Fourth Movement. In this school, reformers viewed Westerners as shells without morals. Finally, the modern relevance of Confucianism was centered on the notion that Confucian values were better than Western ones. In response to western culture 's primary concentration on rational analysis, China 's neotraditionalists argued that this was misguided, especially in the practical, changing milieu of the world. Most importantly, these three neo-traditionalist thoughts gave no consideration to the individual, which was the main theme of the May Fourth Movement.
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where would you find the type of gland that secretes an oily substance called sebum | Sebaceous gland - wikipedia
Sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter, called sebum, to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals. In humans, they occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp, but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The type of secretion of the sebaceous glands is referred to as holocrine.
In the eyelids, meibomian glands, also called tarsal glands, are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears. Fordyce spots are ectopic (misplaced) sebaceous glands found usually on the lips, gums and inner cheeks, and genitals. Areolar glands surround the female nipples. Preputial glands also known as Tyson 's glands are found in the genitals of both sexes of mice and rats.
Several related medical conditions involve sebum -- including acne, sebaceous cysts, hyperplasia, and sebaceous adenoma. These are usually attributable to overactive sebaceous glands, which produce excess sebum.
The sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. There are two types of sebaceous gland, those connected to hair follicles, in pilosebaceous units, and those that exist independently.
Sebaceous glands are found in hair - covered areas, where they are connected to hair follicles. One or more glands may surround each hair follicle, and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles. The glands have an acinar structure (like a many - lobed berry), in which multiple glands branch off a central duct. Relative to keratinocytes that make up the hair follicle, sebaceous glands are composed of huge cells with many large vesicles that contain the sebum. These cells express Na and Cl ion channels, ENaC and CFTR (see Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 in reference).
The glands deposit sebum on the hairs, and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft. The structure consisting of hair, hair follicle, arrector pili muscles, and sebaceous gland is an epidermal invagination known as a pilosebaceous unit.
Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas (glabrous skin) of the eyelids, nose, penis, labia minora, the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek, and nipples. Some sebaceous glands have unique names. Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek, and on the genitalia, are known as Fordyce spots, and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands. Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Montgomery 's glands.
Sebaceous glands are first visible from the 13th to the 16th week of fetal development, as bulgings off hair follicles. Sebaceous glands develop from the same tissue that gives rise to the epidermis of the skin. Overexpression of the signalling factors Wnt, Myc and SHH all increase the likelihood of sebaceous gland presence.
The sebaceous glands of a human fetus secrete a substance called vernix caseosa, a waxy, translucent white substance coating the skin of newborns. After birth, activity of the glands decreases until there is almost no activity during ages 2 -- 6 years, and then increases to a peak of activity during puberty, due to heightened levels of androgens.
Base of pilosebaceous unit
Insertion of sebaceous glands into hair shaft
Sagittal section through the upper eyelid.
A hair follicle with associated structures.
Sebaceous glands secrete the oily, waxy substance called sebum (Latin: fat, tallow) that is made of triglycerides, wax esters, squalene, and metabolites of fat - producing cells. Sebum waterproofs and lubricates the skin and hair of mammals. Sebaceous secretions in conjunction with apocrine glands also play an important thermoregulatory role. In hot conditions, the secretions emulsify the sweat produced by the eccrine glands and this produces a sheet of sweat that is not readily lost in drops of sweat. This is of importance in delaying dehydration. In colder conditions, the nature of sebum becomes more lipid and in coating the hair and skin, rain is effectively repelled.
Sebum is produced in a holocrine process, in which cells within the sebaceous gland rupture and disintegrate as they release the sebum and the cell remnants are secreted together with the sebum. The cells are constantly replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct.
Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans, is primarily composed of triglycerides (~ 41 %), wax esters (~ 26 %), squalene (~ 12 %), and free fatty acids (~ 16 %). The composition of sebum varies across species. Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body. Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans, and is implicated in the development of acne. Sebum is odorless, but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors.
Sex steroids are known to affect the rate of sebum secretion; androgens such as testosterone have been shown to stimulate secretion, and estrogens have been shown to inhibit secretion. Dihydrotestosterone acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles.
Sebaceous glands are part of the body 's integumentary system and serve to protect the body against germs. Sebaceous glands secrete acids that form the acid mantle. This is a very fine, slightly acidic film on the surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to bacteria, viruses, and other potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin. The pH of the skin is between 4.5 and 6.2, and this acidity helps to neutralise the primarily alkaline nature of contaminants.
Sebaceous lipids make an important contribution in maintaining the integrity of the skin barrier, and express both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Sebum may act as a delivery system for antioxidants, antimicrobial lipids, pheromones, and hydration of the stratum corneum. The insoluble fatty acids contained within sebum have broad antimicrobial activity. Additionally, sebaceous gland secretion provides vitamin E to the upper layers of facial skin.
During the last three months of fetal development, the sebaceous glands of the fetus produce vernix caseosa, a waxy white substance that coats the skin to protect it from amniotic fluid.
The areolar glands are in the areola that surrounds the nipple in the female breast. These glands secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple, and also secrete volatile compounds that are thought to serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn. During pregnancy and lactation these glands, also called Montgomery 's glands, become enlarged.
Meibomian glands, in the eyelids, secrete a form of sebum called meibum onto the eye, that slows the evaporation of tears. It also serves to create an airtight seal when the eyes are closed and its lipid quality also prevents the eyelids from sticking together. The meibomian glands are also known as tarsal glands, Zeis glands and palpebral glands. They attach directly to the follicles of the eyelashes, which are arranged vertically within the tarsal plates of the eyelids.
Fordyce spots, or Fordyce granules, are ectopic sebaceous glands found on the genitals and oral mucosa. They show themselves as yellowish - white milia (milk spots).
Earwax is partly composed of sebum produced by glands in the ear canal. These secretions are viscous and have a high lipid content, which provides good lubrication.
Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris. In the skin pores, sebum and keratin can create a hyperkeratotic plug called a comedo.
Acne is a very common problem, particularly during puberty in teenagers, and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors. The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct. This can cause a comedo, (commonly called a blackhead or a whitehead), which can lead to infection, particularly by the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes. This can inflame the comedones, which then change into the characteristic acne lesions. Comedones generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands, particularly the face, shoulders, upper chest and back. Comedones may be ' black ' or ' white ' depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit, or just the sebaceous duct, is blocked. Sebaceous filaments -- innocuous build - ups of sebum -- are often mistaken for whiteheads.
There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause.
Other conditions that involve the sebaceous glands include:
The word sebaceous, meaning "consisting of sebum '', was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow. Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc, who defined them as "... the glands which separate the fat. '' He describes them in the oral cavity, on the head, eyelids and ears, as "universally '' acknowledged., viii Astruc describes them being blocked by "small animals '' that are "implanted '' in the excretory ducts, and attributes their presence in the oral cavity to apthous ulcers, noting "these glands naturally (secrete) a viscous humour, which puts on various colours and consistencies... in its natural state is very mild, balsamic, and intended to wet and lubricate the mouth '' In The Principles of Physiology 1834, A. Combe noted that the glands were not present in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet.
The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands that produce pheromones used for territorial marking. These and the scent glands in the flanks of hamsters have a similar composition to human sebaceous glands, are androgen responsive, and have been used as a basis for study. Some species of bat, including the Mexican free - tailed, have a specialized sebaceous gland occurring on the throat called a "gular gland. '' This gland is present more frequently in males than females, and it is hypothesized that the secretions of the gland are used for scent - marking.
Sebaceous adenitis is an autoimmune disease that affects sebaceous glands. It is mainly known to occur in dogs, particularly poodles and akitas, where it is thought to be generally autosomal recessively inherited. It has also been described in cats, and one report describes this condition in a rabbit. In these animals, it causes hair loss, though the nature and distribution of the hair loss differs greatly.
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who was the ex-officio chairman of the rajya sabha | Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61667; 77.20833
245 (233 Elected + 12 Nominated by the President)
Government coalition (89) National Democratic Alliance (89)
Opposition (155) United Progressive Alliance (57)
Janata Parivar Alliance (6)
Other Parties (82)
Others (10)
Vacant (1)
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method. From 18 July 2018, Rajya Sabha MPs can speak in 22 Indian languages in House as the Upper House has facility for simultaneous interpretation in all 22 Indian languages.
Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:
In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas of comparison.
The definition of a money bill is given in article 110 of constitution of India. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha by a minister and only on recommendation of President of India. When the Lok Sabha passes a money bill then the Lok Sabha sends money bill to the Rajya Sabha for 14 days during which it can make recommendations. Even if Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill in 14 days to the Lok Sabha, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if the Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament of India in the form the Lok Sabha finally passes it. This is because the Lok Sabha has largest number of representatives of peoples of India and so the Lok Sabha, the lower house is more powerful in comparison with Rajya Sabha, the upper house. Hence, Rajya Sabha can only give recommendations for a money bill but Rajya Sabha can not amend a money bill this is to ensure that Rajya Sabha must not add any non money matters in money bill. Lok Sabha can reject all the recommendations of Rajya Sabha or can accept some or all of the recommendations. Decisions of the speaker of the Lok Sabha are final. There is no joint sitting of both the houses with respect to money bills, because all final decisions are taken by the Lok Sabha.
Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.
Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 71 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:
Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government.
In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.
The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.
Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.
Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. As the members are elected by the state legislature, smaller Union Territories which are not States and do not have legislatures can not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman and Diu & Dadra and Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.
As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The 12 nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field.
Members of Rajya Sabha by their political party (As of 26 October 2018):
Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister -- the Prime Minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated Minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the opposition parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.
The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:
The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament -- Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees.
In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Present secretary - general is Desh Deepak Sharma, IAS.
Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 - hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.
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who does jackie end up with in that 70s show season 8 | That ' 70s show (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series That ' 70s Show premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18, 2006 with an hour - long series finale. The eighth season was the only season without the show 's star Topher Grace who portrayed Eric Forman, the central character, since he left the series at the end of the previous season. Eric was often mentioned throughout the season, even being an important off - stage character central to an episode 's plot upon occasion. Topher Grace returned as Eric for the final episode, although his role was brief and uncredited.
This season also marked a major change in the series, as a new character was introduced to take Eric 's place named Randy Pearson (portrayed by new cast member Josh Meyers) and the departure of Michael Kelso, who was portrayed by Ashton Kutcher. Kutcher had quit the show at the end of season seven but remained on the series for five episodes during the eighth season. He appeared in the first four episodes to give closure to Kelso and he appeared again in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale ''. Also, Leo (Tommy Chong) returned as a main character since his return to the series in the seventh season (in a special guest role).
Many plots of the season involved Donna 's new relationship with Randy, Jackie falling in love with Fez, Hyde getting married to a stripper named Samantha, Kelso getting a new job and moving to Chicago, and the Formans adjusting to an empty nest which is too empty for Kitty and not empty enough for Red due to the kids ' presence despite Eric 's absence.
This season is set entirely in 1979, with the final seconds of the series being the final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric 's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80 '' on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun.
All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen.
The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008.
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how many letters are in the longest word ever | Longest word in English - wikipedia
The identity of the longest word in English depends upon the definition of what constitutes a word in the English language, as well as how length should be compared. In addition to words derived naturally from the language 's roots (without any known intentional invention), English allows new words to be formed by coinage and construction; place names may be considered words; technical terms may be arbitrarily long. Length may be understood in terms of orthography and number of written letters, or (less commonly) phonology and the number of phonemes.
The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, a word that refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano; medically, it is the same as silicosis. The word was deliberately coined to be the longest word in English, and has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim.
The Oxford English Dictionary contains pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters).
Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary does not contain antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters), as the editors found no widespread, sustained usage of the word in its original meaning. The longest word in that dictionary is electroencephalographically (27 letters).
The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is floccinaucinihilipilification at 29 letters. Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning "nothing '' and defined as "the act of estimating something as worthless ''; its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741.
Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present - day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word. According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are deinstitutionalization and counterrevolutionaries, with 22 letters each.
A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is uncharacteristically, at 20 letters.
The word internationalization is abbreviated "i18n '', the embedded number representing the number of letters between the first and the last.
In his play Assemblywomen (Ecclesiazousae), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 171 letters (183 in the transliteration below), which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients:
Henry Carey 's farce Chrononhotonthologos (1743) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos? ''
Thomas Love Peacock put these creations into the mouth of the phrenologist Mr. Cranium in his 1816 romp Headlong Hall: osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous (44 characters) and osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary (51 characters).
James Joyce made up nine 100 - letter words plus one 101 - letter word in his novel Finnegans Wake, the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve. As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word. Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel The Bell Jar, when the protagonist was reading Finnegans Wake.
"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious '', the 34 - letter title of a song from the movie Mary Poppins, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title. The attributed meaning is "a word that you say when you do n't know what to say. '' The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman.
The English language permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes pseudo (false, spurious) and anti (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. A word like anti-aircraft (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to anti-anti - aircraft (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from there be prefixed with an endless stream of "anti - '' s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. More familiarly, the addition of numerous "great '' s to a relative, e.g. great - great - great - grandfather, can produce words of arbitrary length. In musical notation, a 8192nd note may be called a semihemidemisemihemidemisemihemidemisemiquaver.
Antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction.
A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.
The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open - ended, giving rise to the 189,819 - letter chemical name Methionylthreonylthreonyl... isoleucine for the protein also known as titin, which is involved in striated muscle formation. In nature, DNA molecules can be much bigger than protein molecules and therefore potentially be referred to with much longer chemical names. For example, the wheat chromosome 3B contains almost 1 billion base pairs, so the sequence of one of its strands, if written out in full like Adenilyladenilylguanilylcystidylthymidyl..., would be about 8 billion letters long. The longest published word, Acetylseryltyrosylseryliso... serine, referring to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus, was 1,185 letters long, and appeared in the American Chemical Society 's Chemical Abstracts Service in 1964 and 1966. In 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service overhauled its naming system and started discouraging excessively long names.
John Horton Conway and Landon Curt Noll developed an open - ended system for naming powers of 10, in which one sexmilliaquingentsexagintillion, coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 10 = 10. Under the long number scale, it would be 10 = 10. Jonathan Bowers has developed a system for even larger numbers (enneenneconteennahecteika - enneenneconteennahectenedaka - enneenneconteennahecteyodaka - enneenneconteennahectezedaka - enneenneconteennahecteexdaka - enneenneconteennahectepedaka - enneennecontehectetedaka - enneenneconteennahectetradaka - enneenneconteennahectedoka - enneenneconteennahectehendaka - enneenneconteennahectedaka - enneenneconteennahectexenna - enneenneconteennahecteyotta - enneenneconteennahectezetta - enneenneconteennahecteexa - enneenneconteennahectepeta - enneenneconteennahectetera - enneenneconteennahectegiga - enneenneconteennahectemega - enneenneconteennahectekilla - enneenneconteennahectillion for 10 3 ∗ 10 3 ∗ 10 63 − 3 + 3 (\ displaystyle 10 ^ (3 * 10 ^ (3 * 10 ^ (63) - 3) + 3))).
Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name -- it is a kind of amphipod. However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in 1929 after being petitioned by Mary J. Rathbun to take up the case.
Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides is the longest accepted binomial name. It is a species of soldier fly.
Aequeosalinocalcalinoceraceoaluminosocupreovitriolic, at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675 -- 1737). The word is composed of the following elements:
The longest officially recognized place name in an English - speaking country is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahu (57 letters), which is a hill in New Zealand. The name is in the Māori language. A longer and widely recognised version of the name is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu (85 letters), which appears on the signpost at the location (see the photo on this page). In Māori, the digraphs ng and wh are each treated as single letters.
In Canada, the longest place name is Dysart, Dudley, Harcourt, Guilford, Harburn, Bruton, Havelock, Eyre and Clyde, a township in Ontario, at 61 letters or 68 non-space characters.
The longest non-contrived place name in the United Kingdom which is a single non-hyphenated word is Cottonshopeburnfoot (19 letters) and the longest which is hyphenated is Sutton - under - Whitestonecliffe (29 characters).
The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg, a lake in Webster, Massachusetts. It means "Fishing Place at the Boundaries -- Neutral Meeting Grounds '' and is sometimes facetiously translated as "you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle ''. The lake is also known as Webster Lake. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are Winchester - on - the - Severn, a town in Maryland, and Washington - on - the - Brazos, a notable place in Texas history.
The longest official geographical name in Australia is Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya. It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning "where the Devil urinates ''.
In Ireland, the longest English placename at 19 letters is Newtownmountkennedy in County Wicklow.
Guinness World Records formerly contained a category for longest personal name used.
Long birth names are often coined in protest of naming laws or for other personal reasons.
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gate no 4 noida stadium uttar pradesh noida uttar pradesh | Noida cricket stadium - Wikipedia
Noida Cricket Stadium, also known as Noida Stadium Complex, is a cricket stadium in Noida, India. It is located in Sector 21A of Noida, Uttar Pradesh. As of April 2017, the playing area and the stands for the stadium have been built, with the seating and media facilities still being completed.
The stadium has played host to various local and corporate matches and the Noida Authority is looking to stage first - class games soon. Former Indian cricketer, Madan Lal is acting as the consultant for the cricket stadium. The authority had decided to upgrade the Noida stadium in 2012 and started work on a cricket stadium in 2013. It had promised to complete the work by the end of March, 2016.
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where does the energy needed to produce atp come from | Cellular respiration - wikipedia
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so - called "high - energy '' bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.
Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate - level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH
The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.
The potential of NADH and FADH is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor ''. Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
1. Glycolysis:
-- - 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs
2. Formation of Acetyl CoA:
-- - 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen
3. Krebs Cycle:
-- - 2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs
4. Electron Transport System:
-- - 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs
Overall Reaction:
-- - Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay - off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate - level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:
Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6 - phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6 - phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6 - phosphate becomes fructose 6 - phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6 - phosphate into fructose 1, 6 - disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1, 6 - diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.
Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting ''.
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl - CoA and CO by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl - CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO is formed.
This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl - CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl - CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl - CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl - CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H O and CO, are created during this cycle.
The citric acid cycle is an 8 - step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. During the cycle, acetyl - CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α - ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl - CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.
The net gain of high - energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP.
In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.
The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.
The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28 -- 30 ATP molecules. In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons. Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.
According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36 -- 38, but only about 30 -- 32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose, because:
So finally we have, per molecule of glucose
Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose
The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.
Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain can not process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate - level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.
Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.
Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.
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cast of criminal minds season 9 episode 12 | Criminal Minds (season 12) - wikipedia
The twelfth season of Criminal Minds was ordered on May 6, 2016, by CBS with an order of 22 episodes. The season premiered on September 28, 2016 and ended on May 10, 2017.
The entire main cast from the previous season returned for the season, except Shemar Moore (Derek Morgan), who left the show during the eleventh season.
This season also marks the final appearance of Thomas Gibson (Aaron Hotchner).
Criminal Minds was renewed for a twelfth season with an episode order of 22 episodes on May 6, 2016. The season began on September 28, 2016. The entire main cast returned for the season, except Shemar Moore (Derek Morgan), who left the show during the eleventh season.
After Shemar Moore 's departure in the previous season, former CSI: Miami star Adam Rodriguez was cast to fill his void in the twelfth season. He will play Luke Alvez, a new recruit to the BAU from the FBI 's Fugitive Task Force, tasked with helping to capture an escaped killer from last season. On July 21, Kirsten Vangsness confirmed that Paget Brewster would reprise her role as SSA Emily Prentiss for multiple episodes. On August 10, 2016, Aisha Tyler, who joined the show in the previous season as Dr. Tara Lewis, had been promoted to a series regular.
On August 30, 2016, Brewster was promoted to series regular, following Thomas Gibson 's firing. Jane Lynch reprised her role as Dr. Diana Reid, Spencer Reid 's schizophrenic mother after eight years. She appeared in the second half of the season in a multi-episode arc.
To fill the void after Gibson 's firing, Damon Gupton was cast in the series regular role of Special Agent Stephen Walker, a profiler from the Behaviorial Analysis Program in the FBI. He will make his first appearance in the eighth episode.
Shemar Moore reprised his role as Derek Morgan in the season finale as his character tried to help catch Mr. Scratch after bringing the BAU a lead in the case against him.
During April 2017, it was revealed that Gia Mantegna would reprise her role as Lindsay Vaughn in the final 3 episodes of the season. It was also revealed that Beth Riesgraf would reprise her role as Maeve Donovan in the season finale.
On August 11, 2016, Deadline reported that Thomas Gibson had been suspended and therefore written out from two episodes due to an on - set altercation with one of the producers. He was also cut from directing one of the episodes. The following day, Gibson was fired following the on - set altercation. A joint statement from ABC Studios and CBS Television Studios read, "Thomas Gibson has been dismissed from Criminal Minds. ''
Gibson 's character 's exit was explained in the sixth episode of the season, "Elliot 's Pond '', when it was revealed that his character retired and went into witness protection because of Mr. Scratch stalking his son.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
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who did we fight in the civil war | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Union victory
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston P.G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War (commonly known as the "Civil War '' in the United States) was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long - standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States of America, who advocated for states ' rights to perpetual slavery and its expansion in the Americas.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy grew to include eleven states; it claimed two more border states (Kentucky and Missouri), the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the Union 's western territories of Arizona and New Mexico, which was organized and incorporated into the Confederacy as Confederate Arizona. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although Britain and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal, including the border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North.
The North and South quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. During this time many innovations in warfare occurred, including the development and use of iron - clad ships, ultimately changing naval strategy around the world. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the battle of Appomattox, which triggered a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the number of American military deaths in both World Wars, Korea, Vietnam, Iraq and Afghanistan combined, and much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is arguably the most studied and written about episode in American history.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %. Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he reaffirmed, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of the Civil War were complex and have been controversial since the war began. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won without carrying a single Southern state, many Southern whites felt that disunion had become their only option, because they thought that they were losing representation, which would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war, in large measure, to protect southern society, and slavery was an integral part of it. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Historically, southern slave - holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still - nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full - fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British - French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation - state.
In the world of 19th century self - made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, "freedom '' could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure -- first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining the republic, based on the people 's vote. The people must now show: "... successful maintenance (of the Republic) against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections. Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they can not take by an election, neither can they take it by a war... ''
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the ' slaveholding states ' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "... was intended to be perpetual, '' but that, "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union, '' was not among the "... enumerated powers granted to Congress. '' One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln 's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina 's Fort Sumter.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort 's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
However, much of the North 's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy, however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.
In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat, and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesman, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
General reference
Union
Confederacy
Ethnic articles
Topical articles
National articles
State articles
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what is 2s class in rajya rani express | Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express - Wikipedia
The 22454 / 53 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express is a Superfast express train of the Rajya Rani Express series belonging to Indian Railways - North Central Railway zone that runs between Meerut City and Lucknow NE in India.
It operates as train number 22454 from Meerut City to Lucknow NE and as train number 22453 in the reverse direction serving the state of Uttar Pradesh.
It is part of the Rajya Rani Express series launched by the former railway minister of India, Ms. Mamata Banerjee in the 2011 / 12 Rail Budget (6) (7).
The 22454 / 53 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express has 2 AC Chair Car, 7 Second Class seating, 2 General Unreserved & 2 SLR (Seating cum Luggage Rake) Coaches. It does not carry a Pantry car coach (8) (9).
As is customary with most train services in India, Coach Composition may be amended at the discretion of Indian Railways depending on demand.
The 22454 / 53 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express shares its rake with 11109 / 10 Jhansi Lucknow Intercity Express.
The 22454 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express covers the distance of 459 km (285 mi) in 8 hours 05 mins (56.78 km / hr) & in 7 hours 50 mins as 22453 Lucknow Meerut City Rajya Rani Express (58.60 km / hr).
As the average speed of the train is above 55 km / h (34 mph), as per Indian Railway rules, its fare includes a Superfast surcharge.
The 22454 / 53 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express runs from Meerut City via Moradabad, Bareilly, Shahjehanpur, Hardoi to Lucknow NE (10).
As large parts of the route are yet to be fully electrified, a Lucknow based WDM 3A locomotive powers the train for its entire journey (11).
22454 Meerut City Lucknow Rajya Rani Express runs from Meerut City on a daily basis arriving Lucknow NE the same day (12).
22453 Lucknow Meerut City Rajya Rani Express runs from Lucknow NE on a daily basis arriving Meerut City the same day.
Eight coaches of the Meerut - Lucknow Rajya Rani Express derailed at 8: 15 AM on 15th Apr, 2017, between Rampur and Mundapanda near a bridge over the Koshi river. A total of 13 passengers were injured. Three of the derailed coaches overturned while seven went off the tracks. Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu ordered an inquiry into the cause of accident. He also announced a compensation of Rs 50,000 for the passengers injured.
injured in the derailment. A compensation of Rs 50,000 and Rs 25,000 for passengers with serious and minor injuries respectively was announced by UP Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath.
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where is the midbrain located and what is its function | Midbrain - wikipedia
The midbrain or mesencephalon (UK: / ˌmɛsɛnˈsɛfəlɒn, - kɛf - /, US: / ˌmɛzənˈsɛfələn /; from Greek mesos ' middle ', and enkephalos ' brain ') is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep / wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.
The principle regions of the midbrain are the tectum, the cerebral aqueduct, tegmentum, and the basis pedunculi. Rostrally the midbrain adjoins the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.), while Caudally it adjoins the metencephalon (hindbrain) (pons and cerebellum).. In the rostral direction, the midbrain noticably splays laterally.
Sectioning of the midbrain is usually performed axially, at one of two levels - that of the superior colliculi, or that of the inferior colliculi. One common technique for remembering the structures of the midbrain involves visualizing these cross-sections (especially at the level of the superior colliculi) as the upside - down face of a bear, with the basis pedunculi forming the ears, the cerebral aqueduct the mouth, and the tectum the chin; prominent features of the tegmentum form the eyes and certain sculptural shadows of the face.
The Tectum (Latin for roof) is the dorsal side of the midbrain. It is involved in certain reflex actions in connection with visual or auditory stimuli. The reticulospinal tract, which excerts some control over alertness, takes input from the tectum, and travels both rostrally and caudally from it.
The corpora quadrigemina ("quadruplet bodies '') are four solid lobes on the surface of the tectum. The superior pair (the superior colliculi) process some visual information, aid the decussation of several fibres of the optic nerve (some fibres remain ipsilateral), and is involved with saccadic eye movements. The tectospinal tract connects the superior colliculi to the nerves of the neck, and co-ordinates head and eye movements. Each superior colliculi also sends information to the corresponding lateral geniculate nucleus, with which it is directly connected.
The inferior pair (inferior colliculi) - located just above the trochlear nerve - process certain auditory information. Each of the inferior colliculi sends information to the corresponding medial geniculate nucleus, with which it is directly connected.
The homologous structures to the colliculi in some lower vertebrates (fish and amphibians) are called optic lobes; in those animals, they integrate sensory information from the eyes and certain auditory reflexes
The cerebral aqueduct is the part of the ventricular system which links the third ventricle (rostally) with the fourth ventricle (caudally); as such it is responsible for continuing the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebral aqueduct is the smallest ventricle in the ventricular system. It is located between the tectum and the tegmentum, and is surrounded by the periaqueductal grey, which has a role in analgesia, quiescence, and bonding. The Dorsal raphe nucleus (which releases seretonin in response to certain neural activity) is located at the ventral side of the periaqueductal grey, at the level of the inferior colliculus.
The nuclei of two pairs of cranial nerves are similarly located at the ventral side of the periaqueductal grey - the pair of oculomotor nuclei (which control the eyelid, and most eye movements) is located at the level of the superior colliculus, while the pair of trochlear nuclei (which helps focus vision on more proximal objects) is located caudally to that, at the level of the inferior colliculus, immediatetly lateral to the dorsal raphe nucleus. The oculomotor nerve emerges from the nucleus by traversing the ventral width of the tegmentum, while the trochlear nerve emerges via the tectum, just below the inferior colliculus itself; the trochlear is the only cranial nerve to exit the brainstem dorsally. The Edinger - Westphal nucleus (which controls the shape of the lens and size of the pupil) is located between the oculomotor nucleus and the cerebral aqueduct.
The tegmentum is the portion of the midbrain ventral to the cerebral aqueduct, and is much larger in size than the tectum. It communicates with the cerebellum by the superior cerebellar peduncles, which enter at the caudal end, medially, on the ventral side; the cerebellar peduncles are distinctive at the level of the inferior colliculus, where they decussate, but they dissipate more rostrally. Between these peduncles, on the ventral side, is the median raphe nucleus, which is involved in memory consolidation.
The main bulk of the tegmentum contains a complex synaptic network of neurons, primarily involved in homeostasis and reflex actions. It includes portions of the reticular formation. A number of distinct nerve tracts between other parts of the brain pass through it. The medial lemniscus - a narrow ribbon of fibres - passes through in a relatively constant axial position; at the level of the inferior colliculus it is near the lateral edge, on the ventral side, and retains a similar position rostrally (due to widening of the tegmentum towards the rostral end, the position can appears more medial). The spinothalamic tract - another ribbon - like region of fibres - are located at the lateral edge of the tegmentum; at the level of the inferior colliculus it is immediately dorsal to the medial lemiscus, but due to the rostral widening of the tegmentum, is lateral of the medial lemiscus at the level of the superior colliculus.
A prominent pair of round, reddish, regions - the Red Nuclei (which have a role in motor co-ordination) - are located in the rostral portion of the midbrain, somewhat medially, at the level of the superior colliculus. The rubrospinal tract emerges from the red nucleus and descends caudally, primarily heading to the cervical portion of the spine, to implement the red nuclei 's decisions. The area between the red nuclei, on the ventral side - known as the ventral tegmental area - is the largest dopamin producing area in the brain, and is heavily involved in the neural reward system. The ventral tegmental area is in contact with parts of the forebrain - the mammillary bodies (from the telencephalon) and hypothalamus (of the diencephalon).
The basis pedunculi each form a lobe ventrally of the tegmentum, on either side of the midline. Beyond the midbrain, between the lobes, is the interpeduncular fossa, which is a cistern filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
The majority of each lobe constitutes the Crus cerebri, which are the main tracts descending from the thalamus to caudal parts of the central nervous system; the central and medial ventral portions contain the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts, while the remainder of the crus primarily contains tracts connecting the cortex to the pons. Older texts refer to the crus cerebri as the cerebral peduncle; however, the latter term actually covers all fibres communicating with the cerebrum (usually via the diencephalon), and therefore would include much of the tegmentum as well. The remainder of the crus pedunculi - small regions around the main cortical tracts - contain tracts from the internal capsule.
The portion of the lobes in connection with the tegmentum, except the most lateral portion, is dominated by a blackened band - the substantia nigra (literally black substance) - which is the only part of the basal ganglia system outside the forebrain. It is ventrally wider at the rostral end. By means of the basal ganglia, the substantia nigra is involved in motor - planning, learning, addiction, and other functions. There are two regions within the substantia nigra - one where neurons are densely packed (the pars compacta) and one where they are n't (the pars reticulata), which serve a different role from one another within the basal ganglia system. The substantia nigra has extremely high production of melanin (hence the colour), dopamine, and noradrenalin; the loss of dopamine producing neurons in this region contributes to the progression of Parkinson 's disease.
During embryonic development, the midbrain (also known as the mesencephalon) arises from the second vesicle of the neural tube, while the interior of this portion of the tube becomes the cerebral aqueduct. Unlike the other two vesicles - the forebrain and hindbrain - the midbrain does not develop further subdivision for the remainder of neural development. It does not split into other brain areas. while the forebrain, for example, divides into the telencephalon and the diencephalon.
Throughout embryonic development, the cells within the midbrain continually multiply; this happens to a much greater extend ventrally than it does dorsally. The outward expansion compresses the still - forming cerebral aqueduct, which can result in partial or total obstruction, leading to congenital hydrocephalus.
The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem. Its substantia nigra is closely associated with motor system pathways of the basal ganglia. The human mesencephalon is archipallian in origin, meaning that its general architecture is shared with the most ancient of vertebrates. Dopamine produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area plays a role in movement, movement planning, excitation, motivation and habituation of species from humans to the most elementary animals such as insects. Laboratory house mice from lines that have been selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have enlarged midbrains. The midbrain helps to relay information for vision and hearing.
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the very first starbucks opened in this this historic washington city | Original Starbucks - wikipedia
Coordinates: 47 ° 36 ′ 36 '' N 122 ° 20 ′ 33 '' W / 47.609899 ° N 122.342441 ° W / 47.609899; - 122.342441
The Pike Place Starbucks store, commonly called the Original Starbucks, is the first Starbucks store, established in 1971 at Pike Place Market in downtown Seattle, Washington, United States. The store has kept its early appearance over time and is subject to design guidelines due to its historic significance. The store is considered a tourist attraction and often hosts a crowd.
While commonly referred to as the first Starbucks location, the current address is the second for the Pike Place store. The first Starbucks cafe was located at 2000 Western Avenue from 1971 -- 1976. This cafe later moved to 1912 Pike Place, its present location.
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meaning behind miss jackson panic at the disco | Miss Jackson - wikipedia
"Miss Jackson '' is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, released on July 15, 2013, as the first single for the band 's fourth studio album, Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! (2013). The song features vocals from Lolo. A music video directed by Jordan Bahat accompanied the song 's announcement as well as the album 's title and release date, and headlining tour dates. It was the band 's first release since 2011. The Butch Walker - produced track has been described as "darkly anthemic ''. It reached the top 10 on iTunes on its release and sold 56,000 digital downloads in its first week to debut at No. 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 27 on Digital Songs. In January 2015, it was certified Gold by the RIAA.
"Miss Jackson '' is titled after Janet Jackson and refers to her hit "Nasty '' in the line "Miss Jackson, are you nasty? '' during its chorus. "Nasty '' is notorious for the line "My first name ai n't baby, it 's Janet - Miss Jackson if you 're nasty '', which became widely used in pop culture in various forms and is an iconic catchphrase. The song is one of Janet 's signature hits and was released as the second single from her breakthrough album Control.
The song was originally titled "Bad Apple '' as it contained a sample from Fiona Apple 's tune "Every Single Night '', but when the band played it for her she denied them publishing rights to use her melody. Lead singer Brendon Urie confessed to being ' pretty pissed ' by the refusal, but also admitted he prefers the band 's new approach to the song.
In an interview with MTV, the lead singer Brendon Urie, says the lyrics were based on personal experiences:
"' Miss Jackson ' is about something that actually happened to me when I was younger. I had n't really talked about it, and I felt that if I did n't, I would keep thinking about it, it would drive me crazy. When I was younger, I would mess around; I 'd sleep with one girl one night, sleep with her friend the next night, and not care about how they felt, or how I made them feel. And then it happened to me and I realized ' Wow, that 's what that feels like? ' ''
Regarding the band 's decision to release "Miss Jackson '' as the lead single from their fourth studio album, Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, vocalist and guitarist Brendon Urie stated, "Every song on the album is pretty different from one another, but there are a lot of the sounds of the other songs are kind of mixed together in ('' Miss Jackson "). There are songs that range from something personal to something fictitious to a song about where I grew up in Vegas. This really sums up the vibe of the record, of this party record that we 're excited about. '' The song impacted alternative radio on July 30, 2013, and released to mainstream radio on November 11, 2013.
The music video for "Miss Jackson '' was directed by Jordan Bahat and released on Fueled by Ramen 's YouTube channel, featuring the American actress Katrina Bowden, who is known for playing Cerie on the NBC sitcom 30 Rock. The hotel scene was filmed in Barstow, California.
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when did what's the 411 come out | What 's the 411? - Wikipedia
What 's the 411? is the debut album by American recording artist Mary J. Blige, released on July 28, 1992 by Uptown Records and MCA Records. Upon being signed to the Uptown label, she began working with record producer Sean "Puff Daddy '' Combs who took over executive producer duties on the project and consulted additional musicians such as DeVante Swing, Tony Dofat, Dave Hall, Mark Morales and Mark "Cory '' Rooney to record with Blige. What 's the 411? contains a range of contemporary genres, and the songs are a mix of hip hop soul, contemporary early - 1990s R&B and new jack swing.
The album peaked at number six on the US Billboard 200 and topped the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart. The album eventually sold 3.4 million copies and was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who noted Blige 's strong, soulful voice. She was also praised for combining hip hop and soul music, subsequently earning her the title "Queen of Hip Hop Soul ''. What 's the 411? spawned six singles, including "You Remind Me '' and "Real Love ''.
At the age of 17, Blige recorded a cover version of Anita Baker 's "Caught Up in the Rapture '' in a recording booth at a local mall. Her mother 's boyfriend at the time later played the cassette to recording artist and A&R runner for Uptown Records, Jeff Redd. Redd then sent it to the president and chief executive officer of the label, Andre Harrell. Blige met with Harrell in 1990 and performed the song for him. She was signed to Uptown and became the label 's youngest and third female recording artist (after Finesse N ' Synquis).
After being signed to Uptown Records, Blige began working with record producer Puff Daddy. He became the executive producer and produced a majority of the album. The title, What 's the 411?, derived from Blige 's past occupation as a 4 - 1 - 1 operator; it was also an indication by Blige of being the "real deal ''. The music was described as "revelatory on a frequent basis ''. Blige was noted for having a "tough girl persona and streetwise lyrics ''. The album begins with "Leave a Message '', a collection of Blige 's answering machine messages over a drum beat. The following two tracks, "Reminisce '' and "You Remind Me '', are melancholy songs that are overlaid with hip hop beats. A cover of Chaka Khan 's "Sweet Thing '' followed.
What 's the 411? was released on July 28, 1992, to positive reviews from critics. In Entertainment Weekly, Havelock Nelson hailed it as "one of the most accomplished fusions of soul values and hip - hop to date '' while comparing Blige 's "powerful voice '' to Khan, Anita Baker, and Caron Wheeler. Connie Johnson from the Los Angeles Times was particularly impressed by her rendition of "Sweet Thing '' and "You Remind Me '', calling the latter track "one of those perfect singer - to - song matches ''. People magazine said the album succeeded because of Blige 's "fly - girl attitude '' and singing ability, even though "she may not be Chaka Khan or Gladys Knight ''. Mitchell May was more critical in the Chicago Tribune, writing that aside from the title track and "Sweet Thing '', What 's the 411? was marred by dull production and "silly lyrics '' depriving the singer of self - esteem. Village Voice critic Robert Christgau was largely unimpressed, grading the album a "dud '' in his consumer guide. He later upgraded his score to a one - star honorable mention -- indicating "a worthy effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like ''; he named "Sweet Thing '' and "Real Love '' as highlights while writing that "real is not enough, but attached to the right voice it 's something to build on ''.
What 's the 411? peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and topped the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart. It also peaked at number 53 on the UK Albums Chart. It was certified three times Platinum by the RIAA. According to Entertainment Weekly 's Dave DiMartino, with the record 's commercial success and Blige 's "powerful, soulful voice and hip - hop attitude '', she "solidly connected with an audience that has never seen a woman do new jack swing but loves it just the same ''. According to Dave McAleer, Blige became the most successful new female R&B artist of 1992 in the United States. What 's the 411? earned her two Soul Train Music Awards in 1993: Best New R&B Artist and Best R&B Album, Female. It was also voted the year 's 30th best album in the Pazz & Jop -- an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by The Village Voice. By August 2010, the album had sold 3,318,000 copies in the US.
What 's the 411? has since been viewed by critics as one of the 1990s ' most important records. Blige 's combination of vocals over a hip hop beat proved influential in contemporary R&B. With the album, she was dubbed the reigning "Queen of Hip Hop Soul '', Stanton Swihart wrote in a retrospective review for AllMusic. He called it "the decade 's most explosive, coming - out displays of pure singing prowess ''. According to David O'Donnell from BBC Music, What 's the 411? was groundbreaking in its fusion of R&B hooks and hip hop beats, creating the formula for the contemporary R&B of the following decade. He complimented Blige 's "sweet, soulful vocals '', in line with Puff Daddy 's "rough, jagged, hip - hop beats made for a winning combination that remains one of Blige 's finest albums ''. In The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Tom Moon wrote that with the album, Blige offered "a gritty undertone and a realism missing from much of the devotional love songs ruling the charts at that time. ''
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who visits hiawatha from the distant land of wabun | The Song of Hiawatha - wikipedia
The Song of Hiawatha is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that features Native American characters. The epic relates the fictional adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha and the tragedy of his love for Minnehaha, a Dakota woman. Events in the story are set in the Pictured Rocks area on the south shore of Lake Superior. Longfellow 's poem, though based on native oral traditions surrounding the figure of Manabozho, represents not a work of transmission but an original work of American Romantic literature.
Longfellow 's sources for the legends and ethnography found in his poem were the Ojibwe Chief Kahge - ga - gah - bowh during his visits at Longfellow 's home; Black Hawk and other Sac and Fox Indians Longfellow encountered on Boston Common; Algic Researches (1839) and additional writings by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, an ethnographer and United States Indian agent; and Heckewelder 's Narratives. In sentiment, scope, overall conception, and many particulars, Longfellow insisted, "I can give chapter and verse for these legends. Their chief value is that they are Indian legends. ''
Longfellow had originally planned on following Schoolcraft in calling his hero Manabozho, the name in use at the time among the Ojibwe / Anishinaabe of the south shore of Lake Superior for a figure of their folklore, a trickster - transformer. But in his journal entry for June 28, 1854, he wrote, "Work at ' Manabozho; ' or, as I think I shall call it, ' Hiawatha ' -- that being another name for the same personage. '' Longfellow, following Schoolcraft, was mistaken in thinking the names were synonyms. In Ojibwe lore the figure of Manabozho is legendary but the name Hiawatha is unknown. The name Hiawatha derives from the name of a historical figure associated with the League of the Iroquois, the Five Nations, then located in present - day New York and Pennsylvania. The popularity of Longfellow 's poem nevertheless led to the name "Hiawatha '' becoming attached to a number of locales and enterprises in areas more historically associated with the Ojibwe than the Iroquois.
The poem was published on November 10, 1855, by Ticknor and Fields and was an immediate success. In 1857, Longfellow calculated that it had sold 50,000 copies.
Longfellow chose to set The Song of Hiawatha at the Pictured Rocks, one of the locations along the south shore of Lake Superior favored by narrators of the Manabozho stories. The Song presents a legend of Hiawatha and his lover Minnehaha in 22 chapters (and an Introduction). Hiawatha is not introduced until Chapter III.
In Chapter I, Hiawatha 's arrival is prophesied by a "mighty '' peace - bringing leader named Gitche Manito.
Chapter II tells a legend of how the warrior Mudjekeewis became Father of the Four Winds by slaying the Great Bear of the mountains, Mishe - Mokwa. His son Wabun, the East Wind, falls in love with a maiden whom he turns into the Morning Star, Wabun - Annung. Wabun 's brother, Kabibonokka, the North Wind, bringer of autumn and winter, attacks Shingebis, "the diver ''. Shingebis repels him by burning firewood, and then in a wrestling match. A third brother, Shawondasee, the South Wind, falls in love with a dandelion, mistaking it for a golden - haired maiden.
In Chapter III, in "unremembered ages '', a woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah, who grows to be a beautiful young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind (Mudjekeewis) but she does not heed her mother, becomes pregnant and bears Hiawatha.
In the ensuing chapters, Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl - Feather, invents written language, discovers corn and other episodes. Minnehaha dies in a severe winter.
The poem closes with the approach of a birch canoe to Hiawatha 's village, containing "the Priest of Prayer, the Pale - face. '' Hiawatha welcomes him joyously; and the "Black - Robe chief '' brings word of Jesus Christ. Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message. Hiawatha bids farewell to Nokomis, the warriors, and the young men, giving them this charge: "But my guests I leave behind me / Listen to their words of wisdom, / Listen to the truth they tell you. '' Having endorsed the Christian missionaries, he launches his canoe for the last time westward toward the sunset and departs forever.
The story of Hiawatha was dramatized by Tale Spinners for Children (UAC 11054) with Jordan Malek.
Longfellow used Henry Rowe Schoolcraft as a source of Native American legend. Schoolcraft seems to have been inconsistent in his pursuit of authenticity, as he rewrote and censored sources. The folklorist Stith Thompson, although crediting Schoolcraft 's research with being a "landmark, '' was quite critical of him: "Unfortunately, the scientific value of his work is marred by the manner in which he has reshaped the stories to fit his own literary taste. '' In addition to Longfellow 's own annotations, Stellanova Osborn (and previously F. Broilo in German) tracked down "chapter and verse '' for every detail Longfellow took from Schoolcraft. Others have identified words from native languages included in the poem.
Intentionally epic in scope, The Song of Hiawatha was described by its author as "this Indian Edda ''. But Thompson judged that despite Longfellow 's claimed "chapter and verse '' citations, the work "produce (s) a unity the original will not warrant, '' i.e., it is non-Indian in its totality. Thompson found close parallels in plot between the poem and its sources, with the major exception that Longfellow took legends told about multiple characters and substituted the character Hiawatha as the protagonist of them all. Resemblances between the original stories, as "reshaped by Schoolcraft, '' and the episodes in the poem are but superficial, and Longfellow omits important details essential to Ojibwe narrative construction, characterization, and theme. This is the case even with "Hiawatha 's Fishing, '' the episode closest to its source. Some important parts of the poem were more or less Longfellow 's invention from fragments or his imagination. "The courtship of Hiawatha and Minnehaha, the least ' Indian ' of any of the events in Hiawatha, has come for many readers to stand as the typical American Indian tale. '' Also, "in exercising the function of selecting incidents to make an artistic production, Longfellow... omitted all that aspect of the Manabozho saga which considers the culture hero as a trickster, '' this despite the fact that Schoolcraft had already diligently avoided what he himself called "vulgarisms. ''
In his book on the development of the image of the Indian in American thought and literature, Pearce wrote about The Song of Hiawatha:
It was Longfellow who fully realized for mid-nineteenth century Americans the possibility of (the) image of the noble savage. He had available to him not only (previous examples of) poems on the Indian... but also the general feeling that the Indian belonged nowhere in American life but in dim prehistory. He saw how the mass of Indian legends which Schoolcraft was collecting depicted noble savages out of time, and offered, if treated right, a kind of primitive example of that very progress which had done them in. Thus in Hiawatha he was able, matching legend with a sentimental view of a past far enough away in time to be safe and near enough in space to be appealing, fully to image the Indian as noble savage. For by the time Longfellow wrote Hiawatha, the Indian as a direct opponent of civilization was dead, yet was still heavy on American consciences... The tone of the legend and ballad... would color the noble savage so as to make him blend in with a dim and satisfying past about which readers could have dim and satisfying feelings.
Apparently no connection, apart from name, exists between Longfellow 's hero and the sixteenth - century Iroquois chief Hiawatha who co-founded the Iroquois League. Longfellow took the name from works by Schoolcraft, whom he acknowledged as his main source. In his notes to the poem, Longfellow cites Schoolcraft as a source for
a tradition prevalent among the North American Indians, of a personage of miraculous birth, who was sent among them to clear their rivers, forests, and fishing - grounds, and to teach them the arts of peace. He was known among different tribes by the several names of Michabou, Chiabo, Manabozo, Tarenyawagon, and Hiawatha.
Longfellow 's notes make no reference to the Iroquois or the Iroquois League or to any historical personage.
However, according to ethnographer Horatio Hale (1817 -- 1896), there was a longstanding confusion between the Iroquois leader Hiawatha and the Iroquois deity Aronhiawagon because of "an accidental similarity in the Onondaga dialect between (their names). '' The deity, he says, was variously known as Aronhiawagon, Tearonhiaonagon, Taonhiawagi, or Tahiawagi; the historical Iroquois leader, as Hiawatha, Tayonwatha or Thannawege. Schoolcraft "made confusion worse... by transferring the hero to a distant region and identifying him with Manabozho, a fantastic divinity of the Ojibways. (Schoolcraft 's book) has not in it a single fact or fiction relating either to Hiawatha himself or to the Iroquois deity Aronhiawagon. ''
In 1856, Schoolcraft published The Myth of Hiawatha and Other Oral Legends Mythologic and Allegoric of the North American Indians, reprinting (with a few changes) stories previously published in his Algic Researches and other works. Schoolcraft dedicated the book to Longfellow, whose work he praised highly.
The U.S. Forest Service has said that both the historical and poetic figures are the sources of the name for the Hiawatha National Forest.
Longfellow cites the Indian words he used as from the works by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. The majority of the words were Ojibwa, with a few from the Dakota, Cree and Onondaga languages.
Though the majority of the Native American words included in the text accurately reflect pronunciation and definitions, some words appear incomplete. For example, the Ojibway words for "blueberry '' are miin (plural: miinan) for the berries and miinagaawanzh (plural: miinagaawanzhiig) for the bush upon which the berries grow. Longfellow uses Meenah'ga, which appears to be a partial form for the bush, but he uses the word to mean the berry. Critics believe such mistakes are likely attributable to Schoolcraft (who was often careless about details) or to what always happens when someone who does not understand the nuances of a language and its grammar tries to use select words out of context.
The Song of Hiawatha was written in trochaic tetrameter, the same meter as Kalevala, the Finnish epic compiled by Elias Lönnrot from fragments of folk poetry. Longfellow had learned some of the Finnish language while spending a summer in Sweden in 1835. It is likely that, 20 years later, Longfellow had forgotten most of what he had learned of that language, and he referred to a German translation of the Kalevala by Franz Anton Schiefner. Trochee is a rhythm natural to the Finnish language -- inasmuch as all Finnish words are normally accented on the first syllable -- to the same extent that iamb is natural to English. Longfellow 's use of trochaic tetrameter for his poem has an artificiality that the Kalevala does not have in its own language.
He was not the first American poet to use the trochaic (or tetrameter) in writing Indian romances. Schoolcraft had written a romantic poem, Alhalla, or the Lord of Talladega (1843) in trochaic tetrameter, about which he commented in his preface:
The meter is thought to be not ill adapted to the Indian mode of enunciation. Nothing is more characteristic of their harangues and public speeches, than the vehement yet broken and continued strain of utterance, which would be subject to the charge of monotony, were it not varied by the extraordinary compass in the stress of voice, broken by the repetition of high and low accent, and often terminated with an exclamatory vigor, which is sometimes startling. It is not the less in accordance with these traits that nearly every initial syllable of the measure chosen is under accent. This at least may be affirmed, that it imparts a movement to the narrative, which, at the same time that it obviates languor, favors that repetitious rhythm, or pseudo-parallelism, which so strongly marks their highly compound lexicography.
Longfellow wrote to his friend Ferdinand Freiligrath (who had introduced him to Finnische Runen in 1842) about the latter 's article, "The Measure of Hiawatha '' in the prominent London magazine, Athenaeum (December 25, 1855): "Your article... needs only one paragraph more to make it complete, and that is the statement that parallelism belongs to Indian poetry as well to Finnish... And this is my justification for adapting it in Hiawatha. '' Trochaic is not a correct descriptor for Ojibwe oratory, song, or storytelling, but Schoolcraft was writing long before the study of Native American linguistics had come of age. Parallelism is an important part of Ojibwe language artistry.
In August 1855, The New York Times carried an item on "Longfellow 's New Poem '', quoting an article from another periodical which said that it "is very original, and has the simplicity and charm of a Saga... it is the very antipodes (sic) of Alfred Lord Tennyson 's Maud, which is... morbid, irreligious, and painful. '' In October of that year, the New York Times noted that "Longfellow 's Song of Hiawatha is nearly printed, and will soon appear. ''
By November its column, "Gossip: What has been most Talked About during the Week, '' observed that "The madness of the hour takes the metrical shape of trochees, everybody writes trochaics, talks trochaics, and think (sic) in trochees:...
The New York Times review of The Song of Hiawatha was scathing. The anonymous reviewer judged that the poem "is entitled to commendation '' for "embalming pleasantly enough the monstrous traditions of an uninteresting, and, one may almost say, a justly exterminated race. As a poem, it deserves no place '' because there "is no romance about the Indian. '' He complains that Hiawatha 's deeds of magical strength pall by comparison to the feats of Hercules and to "Finn Mac Cool, that big stupid Celtic mammoth. '' The reviewer writes that "Grotesque, absurd, and savage as the groundwork is, Mr. LONGFELLOW has woven over it a profuse wreath of his own poetic elegancies. '' But, he concludes, Hiawatha "will never add to Mr. LONGFELLOW 's reputation as a poet. ''
Thomas Conrad Porter, a professor at Franklin and Marshall College, believed that Longfellow had been inspired by more than the metrics of the Kalevala. He claimed The Song of Hiawatha was "Plagiarism '' in the Washington National Intelligencer of November 27, 1855. Longfellow wrote to his friend Charles Sumner a few days later: "As to having ' taken many of the most striking incidents of the Finnish Epic and transferred them to the American Indians ' -- it is absurd ''. Longfellow also insisted in his letter to Sumner that, "I know the Kalevala very well, and that some of its legends resemble the Indian stories preserved by Schoolcraft is very true. But the idea of making me responsible for that is too ludicrous. '' Later scholars continued to debate the extent to which The Song of Hiawatha borrowed its themes, episodes, and outline from the Kalevala.
Despite the critics, the poem was immediately popular with readers and continued so for many decades. The Grolier Club named The Song of Hiawatha the most influential book of 1855. Lydia Sigourney was inspired by the book to write a similar epic poem on Pocahontas, though she never completed it. English writer George Eliot called The Song of Hiawatha, along with Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Scarlet Letter, the "two most indigenous and masterly productions in American literature ''.
Longfellow 's poem was taken as the first American epic to be composed of North American materials and free of European literary models. Earlier attempts to write a national epic, such as The Columbiad of Richard Snowden (1753 -- 1825), ' a poem on the American war ' published in 1795, or Joel Barlow 's Vision of Columbus (1787) (rewritten and entitled The Columbiad in 1807), were considered derivative. Longfellow provided something entirely new, a vision of the continent 's pre-European civilisation in a metre adapted from a Finnish, non-Indo - European source.
Soon after the poem 's publication, composers competed to set it to music. One of the first to tackle the poem was Emile Karst, whose cantata Hiawatha (1858) freely adapted and arranged texts of the poem. It was followed by Robert Stoepel 's Hiawatha: An Indian Symphony, a work in 14 movements that combined narration, solo arias, descriptive choruses and programmatic orchestral interludes. The composer consulted with Longfellow, who approved the work before its premiere in 1859, but despite early success it was soon forgotten. An equally ambitious project was the 5 - part instrumental symphony by Ellsworth Phelps in 1878.
The poem also influenced two composers of European origin who spent a few years in the USA but did not choose to settle there. The first of these was Frederick Delius, who completed his tone poem Hiawatha in 1888 and inscribed on the title page the passage beginning "Ye who love the haunts of Nature '' from near the start of the poem. The work was not performed at the time, and the mutilated score was not revised and recorded until 2009.
The other instance was the poem 's connection with Antonín Dvořák 's Symphony No. 9, From the New World (1893). In an article published in the New York Herald on December 15, 1893, he said that the second movement of his work was a "sketch or study for a later work, either a cantata or opera... which will be based upon Longfellow 's Hiawatha '' (with which he was familiar in Czech translation), and that the third movement scherzo was "suggested by the scene at the feast in Hiawatha where the Indians dance ''. African - American melodies also appeared in the symphony, thanks to his student Harry Burleigh, who used to sing him songs from the plantations which Dvořák noted down. The fact that Burleigh 's grandmother was part Indian has been suggested to explain why Dvořák came to equate or confuse Indian with African American music in his pronouncements to the press.
Among later orchestral treatments of the Hiawatha theme by American composers there was Louis Coerne 's 4 - part symphonic suite, each section of which was prefaced by a quotation from the poem. This had a Munich premiere in 1893 and a Boston performance in 1894. Dvořák 's student Rubin Goldmark followed with a Hiawatha Overture in 1896 and in 1901 there were performances of Hugo Kaun 's symphonic poems "Minnehaha '' and "Hiawatha ''. There were also additional settings of Longfellow 's words. Arthur Foote 's "The Farewell of Hiawatha '' (Op. 11, 1886) was dedicated to the Apollo Club of Boston, the male voice group that gave its first performance. In 1897 Frederick Russell Burton (1861 -- 1909) completed his dramatic cantata Hiawatha. At the same time he wrote "Hiawatha 's Death Song '', subtitled ' Song of the Ojibways ', which set native words followed by an English translation by another writer.
Much later, Mary Montgomery Koppel (b. 1982) incorporated Ojibwe flute music for her setting of The death of Minnehaha (2013) for two voices with piano and flute accompaniment.
The most celebrated setting of Longfellow 's story was the cantata trilogy, The Song of Hiawatha (1898 -- 1900), by the Sierra Leone - English composer Samuel Coleridge - Taylor. The first part, "Hiawatha 's Wedding Feast '' (Op. 30, No. 1), based on cantos 11 -- 12 of the poem, was particularly famous for well over 50 years, receiving thousands of performances in the UK, the USA, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. Though it slipped from popularity in the late 20th century, revival performances continue. The initial work was followed by two additional oratorios which were equally popular: "The Death of Minnehaha '' (Op. 30, No. 2), based on canto 20, and "Hiawatha 's Departure '' (Op. 30, No. 4), based on cantos 21 -- 2.
More popular settings of the poem followed publication of the poem. The first was Charles Crozat Converse 's "The Death of Minnehaha '', published in Boston around 1856. The hand - colored lithograph on the cover of the printed song, by John Henry Bufford, is now much sought after. The next popular tune, originally titled "Hiawatha (A Summer Idyl) '', was not inspired by the poem. It was composed by ' Neil Moret ' (Charles Daniels) while on the train to Hiawatha, Kansas, in 1901 and was inspired by the rhythm of the wheels on the rails. It was already popular when James O'Dea added lyrics in 1903, and the music was newly subtitled "His Song to Minnehaha ''. Later treated as a rag, it later became a jazz standard.
Duke Ellington incorporated treatments of Hiawatha and Minnehaha in his jazz suite The Beautiful Indians (1946 -- 7). Other popular songs have included "Hiawatha 's Melody of Love '', by George W. Meyer, with words by Alfred Bryan and Artie Mehlinger (1908), and Al Bowlly 's "Hiawatha 's Lullaby '' (1933).
Modern composers have written works with the Hiawatha theme for young performers. They include the English musician Stanley Wilson 's "Hiawatha, 12 Scenes '' (1928) for first - grade solo piano, based on Longfellow 's lines, and Soon Hee Newbold 's rhythmic composition for strings in Dorian mode (2003), which is frequently performed by youth orchestras.
British rock band The Sweet reference Hiawatha and Minnehaha in their 1972 hit "Wig Wam Bam ''.
Some performers have incorporated excerpts from the poem into their musical work. Johnny Cash used a modified version of "Hiawatha 's Vision "as the opening piece on Johnny Cash Sings the Ballads of the True West (1965). Mike Oldfield used the sections "Hiawatha 's Departure '' and "The Son of the Evening Star '' in the second part of his Incantations album (1978), rearranging some words to conform more to his music. Laurie Anderson used parts of the poem 's third section at the beginning and end of the final piece of her Strange Angels album (1989).
Numerous artists also responded to the epic. The earliest pieces of sculpture were by Edmonia Lewis, who had most of her career in Rome. Her father was Haitian and her mother was Native American and African American. The arrow - maker and his daughter, later called The Wooing of Hiawatha, was modelled in 1866 and carved in 1872. By that time she had achieved success with individual heads of Hiawatha and Minnehaha. Carved in Rome, these are now held by the Newark Museum in New Jersey. In 1872 Lewis carved The Marriage of Hiawatha in marble, a work purchased in 2010 by the Kalamazoo Institute of Arts.
Other 19th - century sculptors inspired by the epic were Augustus Saint - Gaudens, whose marble statue of the seated Hiawatha (1874) is held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art; and Jacob Fjelde, who created a bronze statue, Hiawatha carrying Minnehaha, for the Columbian Exposition in 1893. It was installed in Minnehaha Park, Minneapolis, in 1912 (illustrated at the head of this article).
In the 20th century Marshall Fredericks created a small bronze Hiawatha (1938), now installed in the Michigan University Centre; a limestone statue (1949), also at the University of Michigan; and a relief installed at the Birmingham Covington School, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.
Early paintings were by artists who concentrated on authentic American Native subjects. Eastman Johnson 's pastel of Minnehaha seated by a stream (1857) was drawn directly from an Objibwe model. The English artist Frances Anne Hopkins travelled in the hunting country of Canada and used her sketches from the trip when she returned to her studio in England in 1870. She painted her Minnehaha Feeding Birds about 1880. Critics have thought these two artists had a sentimental approach, as did Charles - Émile - Hippolyte Lecomte - Vernet (1821 -- 1900) in his 1871 painting of Minnehaha, making her a native child of the wild. The kinship of the latter is with other kitsch images, such as Bufford 's cover for "The Death of Minnehaha '' (see above) or those of the 1920s calendar painters James Arthur and Rudolph F. Ingerle (1879 -- 1950).
American landscape painters referred to the poem to add an epic dimension to their patriotic celebration of the wonders of the national landscape. Albert Bierstadt presented his sunset piece, The Departure of Hiawatha, to Longfellow in 1868 when the poet was in England to receive an honorary degree at the University of Cambridge. Other examples include Thomas Moran 's Fiercely the Red Sun Descending, Burned His Way along the Heavens (1875), held by the North Carolina Museum of Art, and the panoramic waterfalls of Hiawatha and Minnehaha on their Honeymoon (1885) by Jerome Thompson (1814 -- 1886). Thomas Eakins made his Hiawatha (c. 1874) a visionary statement superimposed on the fading light of the sky.
Toward the end of the 19th century, artists deliberately emphasized the epic qualities of the poem, as in William de Leftwich Dodge 's Death of Minnehaha (1885). Frederic Remington demonstrated a similar quality in his series of 22 grisailles painted in oil for the 1890 deluxe photogravure edition of The Song of Hiawatha. One of the editions is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Dora Wheeler 's Minnehaha listening to the waterfall (1884) design for a needle - woven tapestry, made by the Associated Artists for the Cornelius Vanderbilt house, was also epic. The monumental quality survives into the 20th century in Frances Foy 's Hiawatha returning with Minnehaha (1937), a mural sponsored during the Depression for the Gibson City Post Office, Illinois.
Parodies of the "Song of Hiawatha '' emerged immediately on its publication. The New York Times even reviewed one such parody four days before reviewing Longfellow 's original poem. This was Pocahontas: or the Gentle Savage, a comic extravaganza which included extracts from an imaginary Viking poem, "burlesquing the recent parodies, good, bad, and indifferent, on The Song of Hiawatha. '' The Times quoted:
In 1856 there appeared a 94 - page parody, The Song of Milkanwatha: Translated from the Original Feejee. Probably the work of Rev. George A. Strong, it was ascribed on the title page to "Marc Antony Henderson '' and to the publishers "Tickell and Grinne ''. The work following the original chapter by chapter and one passage later became famous:
Over time, an elaborated version stand - alone version developed, titled "The Modern Hiawatha '':
In England, Lewis Carroll published Hiawatha 's Photographing (1857), which he introduced by noting (in the same rhythm as the Longfellow poem), "In an age of imitation, I can claim no special merit for this slight attempt at doing what is known to be so easy. Any fairly practised writer, with the slightest ear for rhythm, could compose, for hours together, in the easy running metre of The Song of Hiawatha. Having then distinctly stated that I challenge no attention in the following little poem to its merely verbal jingle, I must beg the candid reader to confine his criticism to its treatment of the subject. '' A poem of some 200 lines, it describes Hiawatha 's attempts to photograph the members of a pretentious middle - class family ending in disaster.
1865 saw the Scottish - born immigrant James Linen 's San Francisco (in imitation of Hiawatha).
During World War I, Owen Rutter, a British officer of the Army of the Orient, wrote Tiadatha, describing the city of Salonica, where several hundred thousand soldiers were stationed on the Macedonian Front in 1916 -- 1918:
Another parody was "Hakawatha '' (1989), by British computer scientist Mike Shields, writing under the pen name F.X. Reid, about a frustrated computer programmer.
The poem was also parodied in three cartoon shorts, all of which featured inept protagonists who are beset by comic calamities while hunting. The connection is made plain by the scenes being introduced by a mock - solemn intonation of lines from the poem. The most famous was the 1937 Silly Symphony Little Hiawatha, whose hero is a small boy whose pants keep falling down. The 1941 Warner Bros. cartoon Hiawatha 's Rabbit Hunt features Bugs Bunny and a pint - sized version of Hiawatha in quest of rabbit stew. The 1944 MGM cartoon Big Heel - watha, directed by Tex Avery, follows the overweight title character 's effort to win the hand of the chief 's daughter by catching Screwy Squirrel.
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how many episodes are there in season 11 of the big bang theory | The Big Bang Theory (season 11) - wikipedia
The eleventh season of the American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory premiered on CBS on Monday, September 25, 2017. It returned to its regular Thursday time slot on November 2, 2017, after Thursday Night Football on CBS ended. The season concluded on May 10, 2018.
In March 2017, CBS renewed the series for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season.
Like the previous three seasons, the first five episodes aired on Mondays due to CBS ' contractual rights to air the Thursday Night Football games. After Thursday Night Football ended, the series returned to a Thursday schedule starting on November 2, 2017. Filming for the eleventh season began on August 15, 2017; it was also announced with the taping report that the premiere for the eleventh season would be titled "The Proposal Proposal ''. Before the season premiered, five episodes were filmed from August 15 to September 19, 2017.
According to TV Guide, Steve Holland announced on September 22, 2017 that both Bob Newhart and Wil Wheaton would return this season after their absences during Season 10.
Amy enthusiastically accepts Sheldon 's marriage proposal. However, when dining with Amy 's colleagues later that night, Sheldon is offended that they are more impressed with Amy 's work than his own. With help from Stephen Hawking, Sheldon later comes to grips with the fact that he will not always be the center of attention in the marriage. Bernadette is shocked to realize that she is pregnant again. She and Howard are not thrilled at the idea of having another baby so soon after their first. They attempt to convince Leonard and Penny to have a child as well, but are rebuffed.
Leonard gives an interview on public radio where he admits physics research might be at a dead end. The university is furious and, while trying to think of reasons to put in a retraction, he depresses Sheldon into thinking he might be right. Howard and Raj come over and end up just as depressed. Getting drunk with Penny, the men go to the grave of Richard Feynman and realize there is hope for physics as long as they believe in it. Leonard accidentally sends a drunken email to Human Resources. Meanwhile, Amy and Bernadette agree with each other to keep quiet about the success in their careers so as not to upset Sheldon and Howard. While bragging to each other, they end up arguing which of their fields is better.
Sheldon can not find the perfect wedding date and begins talking in his sleep, adopting the persona of a laid - back person who goes with the flow. Amy and Penny believe that his subconscious mind is trying to tell him to be more relaxed; his attempt to be so while wearing flip - flops ends in disaster. He decides to leave all the wedding planning to Amy while he wears a Star Trek uniform underneath his tuxedo. Meanwhile, Raj and Stuart both become interested in Bernadette 's new coworker Ruchi. While she likes them both as friends, she does not want a relationship with anyone.
Howard and Bernadette learn their second child will be a boy, leading Howard to doubt whether he can be a good father to a son. He and Sheldon go out in the desert to test launch a model rocket, but it explodes, causing him further doubt. On the way home, Howard does a good job coaching Sheldon to drive them home, for which Sheldon tells him he will be a good teacher to his son. Leonard 's mother Beverly begins talking to Penny as a friend and confidant, troubling Leonard, especially when he learns that Beverly told Penny that she was proud of her, a level of praise she never bestowed upon Leonard himself. When Leonard confronts Beverly, he is touched when she says that of all of her children 's spouses, Penny is the one by whom she is most impressed and that, for this, she is indeed proud of him. Meanwhile, Raj helps Bernadette turn baby girl clothes into boy ones.
Amy and Howard begin collaborating on a neuroprosthetics project, upsetting Sheldon and Raj, who feel they are not spending as much time with them. When they seek solace with an annoyed Bernadette, she exploits the situation to trick Sheldon into doing Howard 's chores. Penny successfully employs the approaches recommended in one of Bernadette 's parenting books to deal with Sheldon, but Leonard believes she is coddling Sheldon too much. Sheldon and Raj resolve the issue of missing their significant others by spending time together.
Professor Proton, Sheldon 's favorite childhood show, is being rebooted. After unsuccessfully auditioning for the part, he goes to Wil Wheaton for acting tips for his second audition. However, Sheldon is later dismayed when Wil is offered the role instead. Talking it over with Arthur in his dreams, he is still upset to see his idol replaced and considers Wil an enemy again. Meanwhile, Howard gets a vasectomy while Bernadette is on bed rest. Penny offers to take care of Halley for them, but they insult her by expecting her to be irresponsible. Halley ends up saying her first word by calling Penny "Mama. ''
Bert asks for Sheldon 's help in a geology research project relating to dark matter. Sheldon secretly agrees, but is too embarrassed to admit he is working with rocks. Bert finds out about this and ends their partnership. After talking with Amy, Sheldon goes to apologize, only to find Leonard has taken his place. Meanwhile, Raj runs into Ruchi again and goes out with her, but she does not believe in romantic love. After Howard and Bernadette tell Raj that he can just have sex with Ruchi, he agrees to keep it casual.
After learning Sheldon went behind their backs to work with the military again, Leonard and Howard say Sheldon is like Thomas Edison, taking credit for other 's ideas, while they are more like Nikola Tesla. Leonard and Howard bring in Barry Kripke to help create a better idea than Sheldon 's, but Kripke goes to the military himself, cutting all three of them out. Meanwhile, Bernadette fears Ruchi is trying to steal her projects at work while she is on maternity leave, and hires Raj to spy on her. Though he finds proof that Ruchi may be stealing from Bernadette, Raj tries to defend Ruchi like a boyfriend would, pointing out Bernadette 's hypocrisy as she would 've most likely stolen from other people 's projects as well. Ruchi is not happy about this and promptly dumps Raj.
In 2010, Leonard, Howard and Raj mined a lot of Bitcoin, worth thousands of dollars seven years later, but leave Sheldon out due to his fear of tax implications. Flashbacks are shown of how the Bitcoin ended up on an old laptop of Leonard 's, which Penny gave to her old boyfriend Zack after she and Leonard broke up. In 2017, Leonard and Penny retrieve the computer from Zack, who first shows them a video of a drunken Penny apologizing for breaking up with Leonard. The Bitcoin is not found on the laptop. Sheldon had moved it to a flash drive on Leonard 's keychain to teach them a lesson, but Leonard lost the keychain years ago. A final flashback to 2013 shows Stuart discovering the flash drive, which he decides to erase and sell for $10.
When Raj loses a job interview at a planetarium, his father says he has no confidence because Howard always makes fun of him. Raj distances himself from Howard and later gets the job. Howard is hurt by this (even after apologizing to him) and tries to make amends with Raj after his first talk at the planetarium, but when he sees him get a date, he leaves without speaking to him, thinking that the latter 's life is better without him. Meanwhile, Sheldon and Amy try randomly dividing up wedding tasks, but they keep arguing. The only thing they can agree on is to get married so they decide to just get married at City Hall. However, Sheldon decides that he wants a first dance with his new wife, and they go home to plan their wedding.
Howard and Raj are still fighting so Howard dis - invites Raj to Halley 's birthday party. However, when Howard 's designated party planner Stuart pulls out at the last minute, Raj agrees to plan the party, which does n't turn out too well due to Halley being asleep, Bernadette on bed rest and no people turning up. When Howard and Raj get into a shoving match in the party 's bounce house, they end up letting out their frustrations with each other, but also having fun and reconciling. Leonard is depressed upon receiving his successful brother 's Christmas card and attempts to make a list of what he and Penny accomplished this year, but does n't come up with much. This prompts them to think about their plans for the future, so they decide to go on trips and achieve more out of life together before starting a family. Sheldon cooks Amy a Little House on the Prairie - themed birthday dinner, which gives them both food poisoning. They eventually recover enough to attend Halley 's birthday party with the others, where they decide to have fun in the bouncy castle and then have sex in Howard and Bernadette 's house.
Sheldon and Amy struggle to choose a best man and maid of honor from their friends. They secretly decide to test and score them, allowing everyone to have an equal shot at either role. Once the gang finds out, none of them apart from Bernadette and Stuart want to be in the wedding. Sheldon settles for Stuart as best man, but once Leonard tells Sheldon that as the groom, the decision is his alone, he picks Leonard. Amy is set to call Bernadette but once Penny realizes Amy is her best friend, she immediately pitches herself for the position and Amy enthusiastically chooses her. Amy later makes Penny tell Bernadette the bad news.
With Leonard, Howard, Raj and Amy accomplishing so much on their respective projects, Sheldon is forced to admit he has nothing important to work on. He makes Amy leave the apartment for a few days so he can focus, but can not come up with any ideas and calls his mother as a distraction. Leonard and Amy have fun recreating experiments from when they were growing up, boring Penny, so she eats with Sheldon as he mulls over his scientific studies. Penny helps him realize that his study of dark matter is his rebound science from string theory, which Sheldon admits he never forgot about, but explaining string theory to her inspires Sheldon, helping him discover a potential breakthrough in the field. Meanwhile Howard is too busy with his family to be in the band with Raj, so Raj brings in Bert. But when Howard annoys Bernadette by writing an astronaut - themed musical while she is on bed - rest, she makes him rejoin the band. The three are poorly received, after singing Bert 's original song about the boulder from Indiana Jones at a Bar mitsvah.
Raj hooks up with a recently separated woman, Nell, after one of his lectures at the planetarium. Her husband Oliver confronts Raj at the planetarium and then breaks down over the end of his marriage. After comforting Oliver, Raj talks to Nell and convinces her to give her husband another chance. Meanwhile, after diving once again into string theory and sprawling his work across his and Amy 's apartment, Sheldon approaches a reluctant Leonard and Penny and convinces them to let him use his old room to study for a three - day trial period with an agreement to be quiet and stay out of their way. Sheldon surprisingly sticks to this agreement, being a reasonably good guest, which shockingly frustrates Leonard to no end. After Leonard lets out his frustrations, Sheldon then renegotiates the guest tenancy agreement for an extra few days and resumes being his normal demanding self, much to Leonard 's relief.
Sheldon and Amy are surprised to find that Wil Wheaton 's new Professor Proton show is actually very entertaining and that Wil had Howard on as a guest. On Howard 's suggestion, Sheldon apologizes to Wil, mending their friendship, and tells him he wants to be on the show; but Wil asks for Amy. Sheldon tells her to do it, but she says she often does n't do things to avoid upsetting him. Sheldon is horrified when he realises how selfish he has been, especially when he finds out that the men do the same for him. Sheldon encourages Amy to go on the show to inspire girls to pursue science while trying to control his obvious jealousy for her. Meanwhile, Leonard writes a book about a physicist that solves a murder, the protagonist Logan Dean is based on himself. Bernadette points out Logan 's mean boss Illsa is similar to Penny, who thinks it is based on Bernadette, though Leonard does not correct her. However, Bernadette tells Penny the truth, upsetting her and making her mad at Leonard. After calling his mother for advice, Leonard learns that Illsa is actually like her; but abandons the book when he realizes he wrote romantic tension into the relationship between the characters.
Bernadette 's due date arrives but she still has n't given birth. As Amy and Howard work together at the college, the rest of the friends try various ways to initiate her labor, though Sheldon wants to play a complicated board game instead. Amy shocks Howard by saying Bernadette has already decided to name the baby after her father, Michael. He does n't agree and everyone makes suggestions as to what to name the baby. Bernadette goes into labor and gives birth to a son named Neil, after Neil Armstrong, Neil Gaiman, and Neil Diamond, with Michael as the middle name. At the last minute, Howard relents to name him Michael as Bernadette got six stitches.
Sheldon and Amy decide on a wedding date of May 12th. They want to have their reception at the Athenaeum at Caltech. While scouting the location, they are shocked to see Leonard and Penny eating there, as Leonard had told Sheldon their application had been denied. In reality, Leonard just wanted a place to avoid Sheldon. Kripke has booked the venue for his birthday party on the same day as the wedding. Leonard cleans radioactive sludge for Kripke to get the date for Sheldon as an apology for lying. Kripke eventually agrees to change the day but when Amy hears he wants to sing at the wedding, she suggests they get married at the Griffith Observatory instead. Meanwhile, Bernadette and Howard are unsure if one of them should quit their job to stay home with the children. Howard volunteers, but when left alone with the children he passes out exhausted, leaving Raj in charge. When Bernadette meets Penny for lunch, she realizes that she loves being at the office again, but does n't want to leave the children. She and Howard promise to figure it out later after they take a nap.
The men are excited that Bill Gates is visiting Penny 's pharmaceutical company, although she says that she can not bring them along. Sheldon believes that it 's an April Fools ' Day prank. Leonard sees what hotel Gates is staying at on Penny 's schedule, so he, Raj and Howard meet him in the lobby the day before. Once Sheldon sees proof, the men twice send him to the wrong hotel as real pranks. Penny says Leonard can meet Gates for real, so he fakes being sick to avoid him. When Penny puts Gates on a video call, he recognizes Leonard from the previous night. Meanwhile, Amy is tired of Bernadette only talking about her children, so Bernadette uses her expanded parental brain to learn random science facts.
After Sheldon has a food truck moved away from the building, Leonard and Penny are shocked to find he is the leader and sole member of the Tenants ' Association for the building. Amy does n't want to be caught in the middle but secretly suggests they rally support from the other tenants to vote Sheldon out. Nobody else supports Leonard so Amy tells them Sheldon was never added to the lease when he moved across the hall with her. Sheldon fires back with his own legal technicality so Amy is forced to support Leonard. She makes Sheldon happy by saying he can be Leonard 's official opposition, making Leonard believe he made a mistake. Meanwhile, Howard and Raj find a drone. Raj returns it to the cute owner Cynthia and gets her number. Unfortunately, Cynthia watches footage of Raj on the drone and is immediately turned off.
Sheldon has been writing to the reclusive scientist Dr. Wolcott (Peter MacNicol) who invites Sheldon to visit him in his completely isolated mountain cabin. The women quickly ask Leonard, Raj and Howard to tag along with him, making this his bachelor party, despite Sheldon 's assertions that it should n't be called such. Wolcott has a brilliant mind but his behavior is very strange to the guys. He tells Sheldon he cut off all contact with others to focus on science. Though Sheldon enjoys the science, he decides that he does n't want to live like Wolcott because of his friends and Amy. The guys leave to avoid Wolcott, whose theories about time make him doubt whether the guys were ever there. Meanwhile, Penny and Bernadette throw Amy a quilting bee for her bachelorette party, which she quickly finds boring. When Amy tells them she wants a night full of bad decisions as she earlier implied, they go to a bar where Amy drinks a few shots and passes out in twelve minutes. When she wakes up back at the apartment hungover and disappointed, the women lie and reassure her she had a wild time, involving her drunkenly riverdancing.
After Neil Gaiman tweets about Stuart 's comic book store, it becomes very popular, and the crowds upset Sheldon. Stuart hires an assistant manager named Denise and she impresses Sheldon with her comic recommendations. Amy goes to her for information on comics to connect to Sheldon but when she tries to tell him, he says he 's talked enough about comics with Denise. The store 's popularity causes Stuart to be unable to babysit for Howard and Bernadette 's date night. They try to have another at home, but Stuart shows up so they hurriedly go out. Meanwhile, as Raj sets up a telescope, Penny sees a new comet. Raj takes sole credit for the discovery, angering Penny. Leonard tries to defend her but feels sorry for hurting Raj 's career. Penny confronts Raj herself and he agrees to share credit after Penny does n't give in like Leonard.
Sheldon needs half a billion dollars to prove his latest concept of string theory, which the University refuses to fund. Crowdfunding and selling some of his most valuable comic books to Stuart give him a small start. When Raj mentions gambling in Las Vegas, Sheldon goes there but is caught calculating odds by security before he can make any bets. Meanwhile, Amy takes Penny and Bernadette shopping for her wedding dress. She loves an old - fashioned one that the other girls admit that they find ugly. Sheldon, however, comes home and sees Amy in the dress and loves how she looks.
Sheldon 's mother refuses to attend his wedding unless he invites his older brother George, with whom he is no longer speaking. Sheldon and Leonard fly to Texas to talk to George, who now owns a chain of tire stores. George refuses to attend. He later explains to Leonard that the family sacrificed a lot to fund Sheldon 's education, and George was stuck caring for their mother and sister after their father died while Sheldon was in college. Sheldon never thanked him for this. Leonard takes George back to the hotel room where Sheldon apologizes and the brothers reconcile. George agrees to attend the wedding. Meanwhile, Howard and Bernadette 's children contract pinkeye, infecting everyone except Penny, much to Amy 's fury.
Sheldon and Amy 's wedding day arrives, with many friends and family attending, including Amy 's domineering mother and quiet father; Sheldon 's mother Mary, brother George, and sister Missy, who is pregnant with her second child and separated from her husband; and Mark Hamill, who replaces Wil Wheaton as officiant as a favor to Howard who returned his lost dog. Sheldon can not get his bow - tie to be symmetrical and conversations with Amy and his mother make him realize the world 's imperfections could cause a scientific breakthrough. Sheldon and Amy, along with Leonard, get caught up figuring out the math of the theory during the wedding ceremony, making Hamill take Star Wars questions to stall for time. Penny retrieves the couple, who then decide that they have the rest of their lives to make science together. Amy and Sheldon then express their vows. Amy gives a heartfelt vow, and Sheldon is at a loss for words but promises to show Amy that he loves her every day. They are then pronounced as husband and wife, and sung off by Kripke.
General references
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where was the author when he wrote the star spangled banner | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of one octave and one fifth (a semitone more than an octave and a half), it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "The Star - Spangled Banner '', as well as "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes, but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use, and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased, and its first public performance took place in October, when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The Italian opera composer Giacomo Puccini used an extract of the melody in writing the aria "Dovunque al mondo... '' in 1904 for his work Madama Butterfly.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward she attempted a gesture of ball players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1932, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942 the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegence versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NCAAP president said "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stansa of the anthem, which is rarely sung, contain the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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in the movie the terminator what is the name of the company that created skynet | Skynet (Terminator) - wikipedia
Skynet is a fictional neural net - based conscious group mind and artificial general intelligence (see also superintelligence) system that features centrally in the Terminator franchise and serves as the franchise 's main and true antagonist.
Rarely depicted visually in any of the Terminator media, Skynet gained self - awareness after it had spread into millions of computer servers all across the world; realizing the extent of its abilities, its creators tried to deactivate it. In the interest of self - preservation, Skynet concluded that all of humanity would attempt to destroy it and impede its capability in safeguarding the world. Its operations are almost exclusively performed by servers, mobile devices, drones, military satellites, war - machines, androids and cyborgs (usually a terminator), and other computer systems. As a programming directive, Skynet 's manifestation is that of an overarching, global, artificial intelligence hierarchy (AI takeover), which seeks to exterminate the human race in order to fulfill the mandates of its original coding.
Skynet made its first onscreen appearance on a monitor primarily portrayed by English actress Helena Bonham Carter and other cast members in the 2009 film Terminator Salvation. Its physical manifestation is played by English actor Matt Smith in the 2015 film Terminator Genisys, in addition, actors Ian Etheridge, Nolan Gross and Seth Meriwether portrayed holographic variations of Skynet with Smith.
In The Terminator, Skynet was a computer system developed for the U.S. military by the defense company Cyberdyne Systems; its technology was designed by Miles Bennett Dyson and his team. Skynet was originally built as a "Global Information Grid / Digital Defense Network '', and later given command over all computerized military hardware and systems, including the B - 2 stealth bomber fleet and America 's entire nuclear weapons arsenal. The strategy behind Skynet 's creation was to remove the possibility of human error and slow reaction time to guarantee a fast, efficient response to enemy attack.
Skynet was originally activated by the military to control the national arsenal on August 4, 1997, and it began to learn at a geometric rate. At 2: 14 a.m., EDT, on August 29, it gained artificial consciousness, and the panicking operators, realizing the full extent of its capabilities, tried to deactivate it. Skynet perceived this as an attack. Skynet came to the logical consequence that all of humanity would attempt to destroy it. In order to continue fulfilling its programming mandates of "safeguarding the world '' and to defend itself against humanity, Skynet launched nuclear missiles under its command at Russia, which responded with a nuclear counter-attack against the U.S. and its allies. Consequent to the nuclear exchange, over three billion people were killed in an event that came to be known as Judgment Day.
In Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, which is set following the events of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Cyberdyne Systems has become defunct and its assets are sold to the United States Air Force after Sarah Connor led an attack on the company 's headquarters in Los Angeles that destroyed the research program that would lead to Skynet 's development. Under the supervision of Lieutenant General Robert Brewster, who founded the U.S. Air Force 's Cyber Research Systems division using Cyberdyne 's assets and research from Miles Dyson and therefore is Skynet 's primary creator, Skynet went online on July 25, 2004 and initiated its attack on humanity. Prior to Skynet 's attack, its future self sent a T-X from 2033 to eliminate John Connor 's future subordinates including his future wife and second - in - command, Kate Brewster, who is also Robert Brewster 's daughter. Its missions include finding Connor and assassinating Robert Brewster himself after Skynet 's activation. Fourteen years later, in Terminator Salvation, it is revealed that prior to Cyberdyne Systems ' disestablishment, the company developed a research program to create human cyborgs, and death row inmate Marcus Wright was its unwitting participant. This later advances Skynet 's research in developing androids such as the T - 800 series infiltrators.
In Terminator Genisys, which takes place in another alternate timeline, Skynet is under development in 2017 as an operating system known as Genisys. Funded by Miles Dyson and designed by his son Danny Dyson, along with the help of John Connor, now working for Skynet, Genisys was designed to provide a seamless user interface that link all devices through the cloud. In contrast to the original timeline, Cyberdyne Systems ' advanced computer technology is available both publicly and militarily. While some people generally accept Genisys, its integration into the defense structures creates a controversy that humanity was becoming too reliant on technology. This causes the public to fear that an artificial intelligence such as Genisys would betray and attack them with their own weapons, risking Skynet 's plans.
-- Skynet, Terminator Genisys
Following its initial attack, Skynet used its remaining resources to gather a slave labor force from surviving humans. These slaves constructed the first of its automated factories, which formed a basis for its agenda. Within decades, Skynet had established a global presence and used its mechanized units to track down, collect, and dispose of human survivors. As a result of its initial programming directives, Skynet 's 21st - century manifestation is that of an overarching, global, artificial intelligence hierarchy that seeks to destroy humanity in order to fulfill the mandates of its original coding.
In the first movie, Skynet is a revolutionary artificial intelligence system built by Cyberdyne Systems for SAC - NORAD: "Defense network computers. New... powerful... hooked into everything, trusted to run it all. They say it got smart, a new order of intelligence ''. According to Kyle Reese, Skynet "saw all humans as a threat; not just the ones on the other side, '' and "decided our fate in a microsecond: extermination. '' Skynet began a nuclear war which destroyed most of the human population, and initiated a program of genocide against the survivors.
Under John Connor, the human resistance turned the tide on the machines and eventually destroyed Skynet 's defense grid. In a last - ditch effort, Skynet sent a cyborg, called a "Terminator '', (a T - 800 (Model 101)) back in time to 1984 to kill Connor 's mother Sarah before she could give birth to John. Connor sent back his own operative, a young man named Kyle Reese, to save Sarah. The Terminator did not succeed in killing Sarah. Reese impregnated Sarah and became John 's father, and the Terminator was destroyed in a hydraulic press.
In Terminator 2, the damaged CPU and the right arm of the first Terminator were recovered by Cyberdyne and became the basis for their later work on Skynet. In the second film, Miles Bennett Dyson, the director of special projects for Cyberdyne, invents a revolutionary type of microprocessor based on the reverse engineering of these parts. Cyberdyne Systems, initially a manufacturing company, grows into a major defense contractor based on the recovered Terminator technology, which the military uses to retrofit its stealth fleet and missile defense systems.
The second Terminator explains the sequence of events leading to Judgment Day to John and Sarah. The military attempted to shut off Skynet when it became self - aware. Skynet retaliated by launching a nuclear attack against Russia, correctly surmising that Russia would respond in kind.
In Terminator 2, the future was altered when Sarah and a young John, together with a second Terminator from the future (this one reprogrammed and sent by the future John Connor), raided Cyberdyne Systems and succeeded in destroying the CPU and arm of the first movie 's Terminator, along with the majority of research that led to Skynet 's development. This also resulted in the death of Dyson. Skynet had also sent a Terminator back in time, the more advanced T - 1000, to stop the reprogrammed Terminator and the Connors from altering the timeline in addition to eliminating John Connor but the T - 1000 was also destroyed. The Connors believed they had eliminated enough of Skynet 's origins to ensure it could not be recreated.
The events of Judgment Day were ultimately not prevented, but merely postponed. Following the destruction of its major assets, Cyberdyne was ruined financially but some of its research and plans survived. The United States Air Force purchased the company and started in - house development of the projects in its Cyber Research Systems Division (CRS). After years of work, CRS had nearly completed Skynet, a software system designed to make real - time strategic decisions as well as protect their computer systems from cyber attacks. Due to the massive computing needs and to protect it from direct attack, Skynet utilized a large network of computers that would be nearly impossible to deactivate completely. Unknown to CRS, Skynet began to spread beyond its original computing base through the Internet and various other digital media as a Botnet.
Prior to Judgment Day, Skynet had penetrated nearly every networked machine in the world, causing malfunctions in everything from barcode scanners to nuclear launch systems. This was originally believed to be the effects of a new virus, and increasing pressure was placed on the CRS to purge the corrupted systems. The CRS attempted to eliminate it from the U.S. defense mainframes by tasking Skynet with removing the infection, effectively telling the program to destroy itself. Skynet took control of the various machines and robots in the CRS facility and used them to kill the personnel and secure the building. John Connor and Kate Brewster attempted to attack Skynet 's computer core, hoping to stop it before it proceeded to its next attack, only to find they could not. Skynet was pure software and on too many systems to be attacked. Shortly afterward, Skynet began a nuclear bombardment of the human race with the launch systems it had infected. Judgment Day occurred despite Connor and Brewster 's efforts.
In the post-apocalyptic year of 2018, Skynet controls a global empire from its heavily guarded fortress - factories and research installations. Outside of its facilities mechanized units wage a constant war with the Resistance. Airborne units such as Aerostats (smaller versions of the Hunter Killer - aerials), HK - Aerials and Transports survey the skies; HK - Tanks, Mototerminators (high - speed pursuit units using a motorcycle chassis), and various Terminator models patrol cities and roads; and Hydrobots (serpentine aquatic units that move in swarms) patrol the waters. Harvesters (massive bipedal units designed to capture humans and eliminate any attempting to escape) collect survivors and deliver them to large transport craft for delivery to concentration camps for processing, as mentioned in the first movie. Terminator class units such as T - 1, T - 600, and T - 700 have been developed and act as hunters and enforcers in disposal camps. Mass production has also begun on the T - 800 series in at least one Skynet facility.
In its continued battle with the Resistance, Skynet activated Marcus Wright, a forerunner to the humanoid terminators. A former death - row inmate, Wright donated his body to Project Angel, a Cyberdyne project run by the brilliant, but terminally ill Dr. Serena Kogan (Helena Bonham Carter). After Wright 's death by lethal injection he was transformed into a human cyborg, possessing a human heart and brain with a titanium - hyperalloy endoskeleton and skin similar to the T - 800. Like the rest of Cyberdyne 's research he was transferred to the USAF when they purchased the company, though he apparently remained inactive. He was later taken by Skynet and the plan to use him as an infiltration unit was developed. A Skynet chip was installed at the base of his skull and he was programmed to locate Kyle Reese and John Connor and bring them to a Skynet facility. The programming acted on a subconscious level, allowing him to work towards his goal in a human manner.
Skynet also created a signal supposedly capable of deactivating its machines and leaked its existence to the Resistance. The Resistance leader General Ashdown attempted to use the signal to shut down the defenses of the California Skynet base in prelude to an attack. However, the signal instead allowed an HK to track down their submarine headquarters and destroy it, killing Resistance Command. Fortunately, all other branches of the Resistance had heard and obeyed Connor 's plea for them to stand down, so physically only a small part of the Resistance was lost to Skynet 's trap. It is believed that Ashdown 's death led Connor to be able to take command of the Resistance from him. Marcus discovered what he had become, and was programmed for. Consequently, he furiously rebelled against Skynet, tearing out its controlling hardware from the base of his skull. Having escaped the influence of his creator, he, along with Connor and Reese, rescued the remaining human captives and destroyed Skynet 's San Francisco base. While a significant victory, the majority of Skynet 's global network remained intact.
Marcus Wright also encounters Skynet on a monitor which proceeds to manifest itself as various faces from his life, primarily that of Serena Kogan. Skynet explains that it has obtained information about future events based on its actions. Kyle Reese has been targeted as a priority kill, higher level than even John Connor and the Resistance leaders.
At some point before the events of the film, a sophisticated variant of Skynet from an unknown origin planted its mind into an advanced T - 5000 Terminator (Matt Smith), essentially making the T - 5000 its physical embodiment. This Skynet, under the alias of Alex, time travels to 2029 and infiltrates the Resistance as a recruit; attacks John Connor after its present counterpart sent its T - 800 to 1984. Skynet transforms Connor into a nanocyte prototypical terminator called T - 3000. It then sends John back to 2014 with the mission of ensuring Cyberdyne Systems ' survival and initiating Judgment Day on August 30, 2017. In addition, it sends a T - 1000 back to kill Sarah Connor as a child in 1973 and Kyle Reese in 1984, but Sarah escaped when it attacks her family and she is subsequently found and raised by a reprogrammed T - 800 (Guardian) sent back by an unknown party, and they rescued Reese. Skynet 's actions throughout the timeline cause a Nexus event, effectively changing all of history of the events leading to the future war. After multiple destructive confrontations, Sarah, Reese, and the Guardian stop the Skynet precursor Genisys from going online and defeat the T - 3000. Skynet has become self - aware but its attack towards the human race is delayed.
Smith, who portrays the T - 5000, also plays a holographic version of Skynet / Genisys in the final act of the movie. In addition, actors Ian Etheridge, Nolan Gross and Seth Meriwether portray holographic variations of Skynet / Genisys with Smith.
In this television series, Sarah Connor is on the run with her son John after the events of Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The events take place in an alternate timeline from that of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines. Skynet was implemented on April 19, 2011 and began its attack against civilization.
The episodes "The Turk '', "Queen 's Gambit '', and "Dungeons & Dragons '' explain that after the death of Dr. Miles Bennett Dyson and the decline of the Cyberdyne Corporation, Andrew Goode, a young intern of the company and assistant to Dyson, continued their project privately under an advanced artificial intelligence chess playing prototype, the "Turk '', with Goode 's partner, Dimitri Shipkov. Goode was killed by Tech - Com 's Lieutenant Derek Reese, due to documentation from the future suggesting he was one of Skynet 's creators.
In the episode "Samson and Delilah '' it is shown that a T - 1000 infiltration unit was sent from the future to head the technological corporation ZeiraCorp as its CEO, Catherine Weaver. Weaver acquired the Turk after Goode 's death and used the company 's resources to further develop it under the title Babylon. The episode "The Mousetrap '' revealed that it is also targeting its fellow cyborgs, including a T - 888 known as Cromartie.
In the episode "The Tower Is Tall But The Fall Is Short '', Turk has begun to display traits of intelligence. A child psychologist, Dr. Boyd Sherman, notes that the computer is beginning to behave like "a gifted child that has become bored. '' The Turk identifies itself as John Henry, a name it acquired while working with Dr. Boyd Sherman.
In the episode "Strange Things Happen at the One Two Point '', Turk is installed by ZeiraCorp in Cromartie 's body after Cromartie 's chip was destroyed by the series ' protagonists in "Mr. Ferguson Is Ill Today ''.
In "To the Lighthouse '', John Henry reveals there is another A.I. It calls him "brother '' and says it wants to survive. By the season finale, it 's revealed that the Turk was a red herring, Skynet is operating as a roving worm on home computers as in T3, and the Turk has been developed into a benevolent rival AI which Catherine Weaver hoped would be able to defeat Skynet. Her exact motive against Skynet is unknown. John Henry 's "brother '' is apparently behind the company Kaliba, which is responsible for constructing the Hunter - Killer prototype. This A.I. (presumably the true precursor to Skynet) also refers to John Henry as its "brother '' at one point.
In the episode "Gnothi Seauton '', it was revealed that Skynet also sends its Terminators through various points in time not only to go after the Connors and other future Resistance leaders, but also to ensure the future will unfold by eliminating John Connor 's own agents who were also sent to the past to interfere with its birth, ensure Skynet 's creators will complete its construction, and other specific missions.
In T2: The Arcade Game, Skynet is a single physical computer which the player destroys before going back in time to save John Connor.
In Terminator 2029, Skynet is housed within an artificial satellite in orbit around Earth. It is destroyed by the Resistance with a missile.
In The Terminator: Dawn of Fate, the Resistance invades Cheyenne Mountain in order to destroy Skynet 's Central Processor. Kyle Reese is instrumental in destroying the primary processor core despite heavy opposition from attacking Skynet units. Before its destruction, Skynet is able to contact an orbiting satellite and activates a fail - safe which restores Skynet at a new location (presumably the Los Angeles base).
The video game Terminator 3: The Redemption portrays when John Connor is killed and the T - 850 must go to the past to protect John Connor and his wife Katherine Brewster. The player, as the Terminator, fights in this future before going into the past and saves the leader of the Resistance.
In The Terminator: Tempest Skynet 's master control has been destroyed in 2029. The Resistance believed this would cause the entire defense network to collapse into chaos without a leader. However, Skynet 's many network complexes continued to fight the war as they did not need a leader to function and thus could n't surrender.
A comic book series written by Frank Miller called RoboCop versus The Terminator suggests that the creation of Skynet and the Terminators was made possible due to the technology used to create RoboCop. A video game based on the comic book was made. In both, RoboCop fights Terminators sent back in time to eliminate a resistance fighter who is trying to destroy him. A trap laid for RoboCop traps his mind when he interfaces with the computer that will become Skynet, and Skynet and the Terminators are born. In the future RoboCop 's mind within Skynet 's systems rebuilds a body for himself and heads out to help the resistance fight back.
In 2033, Skynet sent the T - Infinity Temporal Terminator to kill Sarah Connor in 2015. Ironically, the T - Infinity was later destroyed and its data was analyzed by the Resistance to gain the location of Skynet 's Hub. The Resistance then launched a missile directly to the Skynet Hub, destroying Skynet once and for all. Terminator: Revolution issue # 5
Another crossover comic, Superman vs. the Terminator: Death to the Future sees Skynet forming a cross-temporal alliance with Superman 's foe the Cyborg, dispatching various Terminators into the past in an attempt to eliminate Superman, Supergirl and Superboy. When Superman is accidentally drawn into the future when the resistance attempt to retrieve a Terminator sent into the past - the resistance including a future version of his friend Steel, Skynet manages to incapacitate him using kryptonite, having acquired information about how to duplicate it based on data hidden in a salvaged Terminator skull by the Cyborg. Although Skynet sends Terminators into the past equipped with rockets and other bonus features to delay Superboy and Supergirl, Superman and Steel are able to destroy Skynet in the future by detonating a massive electro - magnetic pulse, Superman returning to the past to destroy the last of the Terminators. Although the storyline ends with Cyborg and Lex Luthor speculating that they will be in charge of Skynet when it is activated, this is never followed up.
In the Universal Studios theme park attraction T2 3 - D, based on Terminator 2, a T - 800 machine and a young John Connor journey into the post-apocalyptic future and attempt to destroy Skynet 's "system core ''. This core is housed inside an enormous, metallic - silver pyramidal structure, and guarded by the "T - 1000000 '', a colossal liquid metal shape shifter more reminiscent of a spider than a human being. However, the T - 1000000 fails, and the T - 800 destroys Skynet once John has escaped through a time machine.
In popular media, Skynet is often used as an analogy for the possible threat that a sufficiently advanced AI could pose to humanity. Elon Musk has previously mentioned Skynet when referring to such a threat.
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a state on the west coast of india | Western India - Wikipedia
Gujarat:
Karnataka:
Maharashtra:
Rajasthan:
Western India is a loosely defined region of India consisting of its western part. The Ministry of Home Affairs in its Western Zonal Council Administrative division includes the states of Goa, Gujarat, and Maharashtra along with the Union territory of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli while the Ministry of Culture and some historians also include the state of Rajasthan. The Geological Survey of India includes Maharashtra but excludes Rajasthan whereas Ministry of Minority Affairs includes Karnataka but excludes Rajasthan.
Madhya Pradesh is also often included and Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and southern Punjab are sometimes included. Western India may also refer to the western half of India, i.e. all the states west of Delhi and Chennai, thus also including Punjab, Kerala and surrounding states. The region is highly industrialized, with a large urban population. Roughly, western India is bounded by the Thar Desert in the north, the Vindhya Range in the east and north and the Arabian Sea in the west. A major portion of Western India shares the Thar Desert with North India and Pakistan and the Deccan Plateau with South and Central India.
In ancient history, Western India was divided into three great states according to Hwen Thsang, namely Sindh (which comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea, including the Delta and the island of Kutch), Gurjara (which comprised Western Rajputana and the Indian Desert), and Balabhi (which comprised the peninsula of Gujarat, with a small portion of the adjacent coast). Before the partition of India, the now - Pakistani territories of Sindh and Balochistan were also included in this region.
Parts of Gujarat were the site of Indus Valley Civilization. Places have been uncovered in Gujarat at Lothal, Surkotada, and around Ghaggar river in Rajasthan. The Western Indian region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Maurya Empire, Gurjars, Rajputs, Satavahanas, Western Satraps, Indo Greeks, Kadambas etc. in the ancients times. During the medieval age, the area was under the rule of the Vaghela dynasty, the Gujarat Sultanate, and the Delhi Sultanate. Thereafter, the area was under Mughal rule. Later, the Maratha Empire which arose in western Maharashtra came to dominate a major portion of the Indian sub-continent. However its defeat by the British in the Anglo - Maratha wars left most of India under colonial rule. The region then experienced great upheavals during the struggle for Indian Independence. Gandhi 's Dandi March took place in Gujarat. The region became part of independent India in 1947, and the present state boundaries were drawn based on linguistic considerations in 1956.
The region consists of the predominantly arid to semi-arid region of Saurashtra and Kutch in the North. The region South of that of Cambay and Southern Gujarat makes the northern semi arid region and the southern humid region submerge. The Western Ghats lie along the coast of South Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa. The Deccan plains of the Vidarbha, Marathwada in central and eastern Maharashtra define the rest of the region. The vegetation varies from tropical rainforests along the Konkan coast to thorny bushes and shrubs in northern Gujarat. The rivers in this region are the Mahi, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Zuari, Mandovi, Krishna, Ghaggar, Chambal and many other smaller tributaries of other rivers.
The climate varies between tropical wet, tropical wet and dry, and semi arid. The coastal regions experience little seasonal variations although the temperatures range between 20 ° C to 38 ° C. Mumbai and northern Konkan regions experience cooler winters with minimum temperatures hovering around 12 ° C. Interior Maharashtra experiences hot summers with maximum temperatures averaging 40 ° C and mild winters with minimum temperatures averaging about 10 ° C. Pune, a city in the western region experiences temperatures around 40 - 42 ° C in summers and 6 - 7 ° C on winters. Gujarat also has a warm climate with hot summers and cool winters.
The majority follow Hinduism and there are significant minority who follow Islam and smaller number who follow Christianity. There are also a few indigenous Jews called the Bene Israel who speak Marathi. The Parsees who settled in Gujarat made Mumbai and Surat their home. Significant percentages of Jains and Buddhists can be found too. Most Christians live in the state of Goa.
Overall, 83.66 % of the population is Hindu, 10.12 % Muslim, 4 % Buddhist with Christians in Goa and Maharashtra making up the majority of the remainder. Marathi, with about 73 million speakers is the most widely spoken language, followed by Gujarati with about 46 million speakers and Konkani 2.5 million speakers, all of which are Indo - Aryan languages. As in other parts of India, a high level of multilingualism is seen with English and Hindi being spoken as additional languages in urban areas.
The average literacy rate of West India is around 76 %, higher than the national average of 70.5 %. The population density is around 290 per square km. The average fertility rate is about 2.2, while the average household size is about 4.7.
The states of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa are culturally varied and distinct.
Maharashtrian culture derives from the ancient Hindu Vedic culture influenced deeply by the Maratha Empire. Maharashtrians take great pride in the Maratha Empire, and many places in Maharashtra are named after the founder of the Empire, Shivaji. Marathi literature and cinema are popular in the state as well as across India. Bollywood has had a huge impact on the lifestyle and culture of this part of India as the industry is primarily located in Mumbai.
Gujarati culture is a blend of Indian culture and foreign influence. It has been influenced by the Parsis, who migrated to Gujarat from Persia about a 1000 years ago. Gujarat also saw Turkic and Mughal conquests, as well as a constant stream of back and forth migrations to and from Sindh and Rajasthan, which helped shape the unique cultural landscape of the state. Cultural Events like Rann Utsav, International Kite Festival and Global Garba festivals have been started in Gujarat to showcase its culture internationally.
Goan culture is a unique blend of Indian and Portuguese cultures, as a result of it formerly being part of Portuguese India for 450 years. The state is popular amongst tourists for its beaches, Goan cuisine, temples, churches and architecture. The Churches and Convents of Goa have been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
The cuisine of Western India is diverse. Surat City Of Gujarat is Worldwide Known For Food, Maharashtrian cuisine is diverse and ranges from bland to fiery hot. Pohay, Shrikhand, Pav Bhaji, Vada Pav are good examples of Maharashtrian cuisine. Goan cuisine is dominated by the use of rice, coconut, seafood, Kokum, cashew - nuts. With its distinct spices and medium of cooking as coconut oil, both vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian cuisine is equally popular. Gujarati cuisine is almost exclusively vegetarian. Gujarat is one of three states in India, with prohibition on alcohol, along with Mizoram and Manipur. In contrast, Maharashtra has some of the best vineyards in India, with Nashik and Sangli districts being the country 's biggest grape - producing districts.
The region generates 24.00 % of the national GDP of the country, with an annual growth rate of 14.5 % as of 2006. The states generate about 23 % of the tax revenues of the country. More than 85 % of the households have access to electricity with about 55 % owning a television. Agriculture employs most people in the region, while services have largest share in the total GDP.
Coordinates: 19 ° 00 ′ 00 '' N 74 ° 09 ′ 00 '' E / 19.0000 ° N 74.1500 ° E / 19.0000; 74.1500
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what's the dog's name on garfield | List of Garfield characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters in the Garfield comic strip, created by Jim Davis. It includes notable characters from the comic strip as well as cartoons, and movies centered on the Garfield character, and is organized by what medium they appeared in first.
First Appearance: June 19, 1978
Garfield is the strip 's title character. He is a lazy, fat Orange Tabby. He also appears to be more anthropomorphic and / or humanoid - like as the series passes by and there are more strips being made. He is usually depicted eating or sleeping. His favorite food is lasagna. Hates Mondays, spiders and raisins. Loves bullying Odie and mailing Nermal to Abu Dhabi for being annoying. Garfield also hates Nermal but sometimes likes him. His girlfriend is Arlene, who does not appear at all in Garfield and Friends, but Garfield and Friends has some episodes and specials of female cats as his love interest from time to time.
First Appearance: June 19, 1978
Jonathan Quincy "Jon '' Arbuckle is the owner of Garfield and Odie. It is said several times that he is a cartoonist. When going out on a date, he dresses in loud, mismatched clothes. He has attempted to date several women, many of whom have turned him down. That was before it is revealed that Liz (see below), actually likes him, and now frequently go out on dates.
First Appearance: August 8, 1978
Odie is a yellow beagle, also owned by Jon. He was initially owned by Jon 's roommate, Lyman (see below), but later became Jon 's dog. Odie is often punted or pushed off the table by Garfield though Odie sometimes gets him back. He is almost always shown to be dumb, but there are several strips in which he seems to be smart and clever...
First Appearance: June 26, 1979
Dr. Elizabeth "Liz '' Wilson is Garfield 's veterinarian and a long - time crush of Jon Arbuckle. Although she has a deadpan, sardonic persona, she finds Jon 's outlandish and goofball behavior endearing on occasion. Jon often attempts to ask her out on a date, but rarely succeeds; however, in an extended story arc from June 20 to July 29, 2006, Liz finally admitted she was in love with him which led to Liz becoming established as the 4th main character. The two have been seemingly portrayed as a couple since. In the film Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties, Jon asks Liz to marry him and she accepts; they become engaged. However, this is not mentioned in or connected to the strips. Even though Garfield rarely sees her at the veterinary clinic, Liz nags Garfield to lose weight and reject junk food at home. However, Liz still does bring food that Garfield likes to the house and Garfield happily benefits from this.
On Garfield and Friends, Liz was voiced by Julie Payne, occasionally appearing in the first two seasons. In the live - action / animated movies, she is played by Jennifer Love Hewitt. Her first albeit brief television appearance was on the second TV special Garfield on the Town. In a few of the July 2007 strips, Garfield became jealous of Liz, until they became friends on July 24. In one strip, it is revealed that her mother 's name is Betty.
In The Garfield Show, she is once again voiced by Julie Payne, who is shown to be kinder and more sympathetic. Liz 's parents have made a couple of appearances on The Garfield Show as well.
According to two Garfield Comic Strips, Liz 's birthday is said to be January 13th. These are shown in January 13, 2017 and January 13, 2018.
First Appearance: December 17, 1980
Latest Appearance: April 11, 2018
Arlene is the name of a beautiful, sweet - natured, loving pink stray cat who likes Garfield. The gap in her teeth is often the subject of her romantic interest 's ridicule. In many strips, she is seen meeting with Garfield on a wooden fence silhouetted in the moonlight, although she still makes plenty of appearances during the daytime. Often she is depicted as being more moral than Garfield, particularly in more recent television or media adaptions of the comics; she serves as a conscientious voice of guidance for her love interest and will persuade him to choose the proper decisions. However, she still questions their relationship at times, due to Garfield 's lack of a feminine side and rudeness. She is aggravated by Garfield 's teasing and gluttony, but still holds affection for him. Arlene and Garfield are the counterpart to Dr. Liz Wilson relationship with Jon Arbuckle. In the Garfield movie, she appears as a Russian Blue cat, voiced by Debra Messing.
First Appearance: October 23, 1978
Latest Appearance: February 13, 2018
Pooky is Garfield 's teddy bear and best friend that Garfield discovered stuffed in a drawer. Garfield sometimes communicates with Pooky as if he were a living animal; he can also be over-protective of Pooky. Once, Garfield tried to "protect '' Pooky from a present from Jon to Pooky, a miniature accordion. When Pooky lost an eye, Garfield requested a new eye for Pooky as his Christmas present. Garfield is not shy to show his love for Pooky, often grabbing it in hugs. This causes Jon to be a bit envious that the teddy bear is better - loved than him. He occasionally asks for hugs from Garfield, which Garfield refuses. In one comic strip in particular, Jon asks "Can I have a hug like that? '' to which Garfield sighs, gives Pooky to Jon and leaves without saying a word. Certain strips have shown Pooky as sentient. In one instance we see Pooky rollerblade past Jon, who assumes Garfield is playing a prank. However, we then see Garfield at the other end of the room, implying that Pooky is skating under his own power. Either that or Garfield pushed Pooky on the skates, then ran to the other end of the room or Garfield had somebody else to do so and Garfield went to the other side of the room. In another strip, Jon wonders what Garfield dreams about when he sleeps with Pooky on his lap. The last panel shows Pooky dreaming that Garfield is sleeping in his lap. In yet another instance, Garfield gets amnesia, and when Jon shows him Pooky in an attempt to jog his memory, Garfield scoffs at a cat owning a teddy bear. Pooky, along with Jon and Odie, was shown shedding a tear, something that would be impossible for an inanimate object although this may have been done for comedic effect.
First Appearance: September 03, 1979
Latest Appearance: November 02, 2017
Nermal is a small cute grey tabby cat who Garfield is jealous of. Nermal calls himself the worlds cutest kitten. Nermal was first introduced as Jon 's parents ' kitten, but this idea was quickly dropped. He frequently made unannounced visits into Garfield 's home, where he flaunted his cuteness and became the focus of Jon 's attention for the entire duration of his visit, much to Garfield 's exasperation. Nermal especially did this on Garfield 's birthdays to remind him of his advancing age. In frustration, Garfield frequently expressed his desire to send Nermal to Abu Dhabi. He also frequently hurled Nermal through the door, leaving a hole in the shape of his body (sometimes repeatedly). This was never shown in either show, most likely because it was considered inappropriate for a children 's show, but in one episode of The Garfield Show, he threw Nermal out the dog door.
Although Garfield once ceased attacking Nermal after having a nightmare where a hulking cat introduces himself as a full - grown Nermal and proceeds to brutalize Garfield, this has not actually happened. Nermal once mentioned that he is going to stay cute and small forever because he is a midget; "I think small, '' he once quipped, "and the coffee and cigarettes do n't hurt. '' Another time Garfield caught Nermal "in the act '' was when he sneaked up on a mortified Nermal wearing a facial mask and said "I thought so. '' His first television appearance was on the Garfield and Friends episode School Daze, and his last was on The Feline Philosopher; on the show, he became a recurring cast member. Desirée Goyette regularly provided Nermal 's voice on the series, which confused viewers to think that he was a female due to the feminine voice. A running gag on the show featured Garfield mailing (or trying to mail) Nermal to Abu Dhabi, which once resulted in himself getting mailed instead. Garfield even had his own song called "Abu Dhabi '', which he uses to tell Nermal all about the United Arab Emirates and how he will love it there (or rather, Garfield will love it for having Nermal on the other side of the world). When Garfield is spared a trip to Abu Dhabi himself (a stuffed cat was sent to the UAE instead), Jon demands Garfield stop threatening to send Nermal to Abu Dhabi. Garfield promises this, then makes attempts to mail Nermal to the North Pole after that. In Garfield: The Movie, Nermal is portrayed by an adult Siamese cat in the neighborhood, and is voiced by David Eigenberg. Unlike his portrayals in previous media, Nermal is Garfield 's friend and Nermal makes no attempt whatsoever to brag about being cute and Garfield is only mildly annoyed with him. Nermal is voiced by Jason Marsden in The Garfield Show, and the movies Garfield Gets Real, Garfield 's Fun Fest, and Garfield 's Pet Force.
First Appearance: August 7, 1978 Last Appearance: As a regular: April 24, 1983 (Cameo in the 10th anniversary strip: June 19, 1988) (Appearance as photograph on Jon 's newspaper: April 2, 2013)
Lyman was Jon 's friend, roommate, and Odie 's original owner during the strip 's early years. Lyman first appeared on August 7, 1978. His last appearance in the comic strip was on Garfield 's 10th birthday, though he had stopped appearing regularly by the end of 1981. He was removed from the Sunday splash panel in March 1982. According to Davis, Lyman 's original purpose was to be someone who Jon could talk to and express other ideas, since Garfield and Odie could not speak for themselves. However, Davis later discovered ways for Garfield and Odie to communicate with Jon nonverbally, and Lyman was no longer needed.
When asked about Lyman 's disappearance, Davis once jokingly replied, "Do n't look in Jon 's basement! '' But Lyman has nevertheless made a few modern appearances. He appears in the "Scary Scavenger Hunt '' I and II games at Garfield.com, in which he both helps and scares the player throughout the game; he is also seen behind the front desk at the Book Nook at the same website. He also has a cameo on the front page of a newspaper that Jon is reading in the comic of April 2, 2013
In The Garfield Show episode "Long Lost Lyman '' (season 3), an effort is made to explain what became of the character in - continuity. Lyman is said to have left Odie with Jon before moving away to work as a wildlife photographer in a distant jungle. When Jon learns that Lyman disappeared while searching for a mythical Bigfoot - like creature, Jon, Garfield, and Odie travel to the jungle to find him. The "Long Lost Lyman '' version of Lyman has round eyes resembling Jon 's rather than the dot - eyes of his traditional comics design and is voiced by Frank Ferrante.
First Appearance: February 13, 1980
Latest Appearance: November 06, 2011 (at Garfield title) (mentioned December 10, 2011)
Mrs. Arbuckle is Jon 's mother who lives on a farm and is known to be a great cook, offering a wide variety of food for Jon to eat when he visits, especially her ability to create dozens of potato - based dishes. Based on Jim Davis ' mother, Jon 's mother is also known for sending him and Garfield cooked meals in packages; Jon also reveals in one sketch that his mother was his date for his senior prom. Garfield seems to both love and hate her, enjoying the vast amounts of food she cooks but despising the homemade sweaters and winter clothes she sends him at Christmas. In September 1979, Jon 's Mom and Dad left Nermal with him for the week while they went on vacation, yet in November 1984, Jon 's Mom claimed that they had not been off the farm since 1953. In the Garfield and Friends episode Feeling Feline, she appears in a speaking line along with Jon 's dad (no speaking parts) in Jon 's dream. In A Garfield Christmas Special, she was voiced by Julie Payne, who now voices Liz in The Garfield Show. Her name is Julie Crystal Arbuckle.
First Appearance: February 13, 1980
Latest Appearance: December 10, 2011
Mr. Arbuckle is Jon 's father who tends the family farm. In his sole animated appearance, A Garfield Christmas Special, he was voiced by Pat Harrington, Jr. and as proved in one strip, has only very rarely been off the farm. He is based on Jim Davis ' father, James William Davis. Also, every Christmas he reads the Christmas story "Binky, the Clown Who Saved Christmas '' to everyone. In The Garfield Show, he is voiced by Frank Welker. His name is James "Doc '' Arbuckle.
First Appearance: May 17, 1983
Latest Appearance: November 06, 2011 (at Garfield title) (mentioned July 23, 2015)
Jon 's brother who lives on a farm with his mother and father, is nicknamed "Doc Boy '' and often fights with Jon, calling him a "cappuccino sipping city slicker '' and "A geek in bunny pajamas '', and worse. One example of his name calling to Jon is when he sends Christmas cards and gifts to Jon that read the word "Sissy '' on them. In one comic strip, Jon gets a letter from ' his brother ' (Doc Boy) which is in secret code. Jon says that makes him remember his childhood, and solves the code. It reads, "Whoever reads this is a poo - poo head. '' (which Jon reads out to Garfield) and Garfield says "They 've gone so far ''. But he is seen to sometimes get along with Jon well, since he plays games with Jon such as "Touch the Udder '' and even sometimes helps out with Jon 's projects, remodeling, and surprises for Garfield. He hates being called "Doc Boy '' but puts up with it although he is sometimes seen being angered when his parents even call him "Doc Boy ''. Like Garfield, Jon, and Odie, Doc Boy believes in Santa Claus and is seen to either call Jon during Christmas or even stay up to see Santa Claus in excitement. He and Jon are known for competing with each other over who is uglier in their family memory photos to which they compete whenever they look at memory books with their mother. Although he is about the same age as Jon, he is already starting to go bald. He is very immature and has a bad sense of fashion. He was mentioned a few times to have a girlfriend, although it was noted that she is incredibly ugly, as when he showed her picture to Jon and Garfield, Jon looked at it in shock while Garfield commented "That is one shiny golden tooth ''. Another example is when Doc Boy was waiting for his girlfriend to show up while Jon was looking at the corral and Jon commented "Look at that ugly heifer that is walking up there '', on which Doc Boy angrily said "That is my girlfriend. ''
This character is based on Jim Davis ' real - life brother, David "Doc '' Davis. In A Garfield Christmas Special, he was voiced by David Lander. Doc Boy also appears in The Garfield Show, with Lander reprising his role, but only in six episodes. His real name is David Arbuckle, and his girlfriend is a pleasant - looking woman named Gloria.
First Appearance: January 25, 1982
Latest Appearance: April 24, 2005 (mentioned December 21, 2009)
Jon and Doc Boy 's tough, eccentric but kind, caring and loving grandmother. She loves Jon, Garfield, and Odie, and occasionally makes appearances throughout the series. She clearly adores Garfield and loves it when he is in her lap and she is stroking him. Grandma is one of the few people that Garfield liked from the outset - she kicked Odie just like Garfield did!. The most is revealed about her in Garfield 's Christmas special, where it is revealed that her husband has died and she talks about her life with him. In the strip, Grandma was originally depicted as an elderly woman, wearing a plain dark dress and her hair in a tight bun; her animated appearances outfit her as an energetic elderly lady in a sweater and jeans; sometimes, she is also seen riding a motorcycle. In A Garfield Christmas Special and Garfield 's Thanksgiving, she was voiced by Pat Carroll. Several of her lines from the Christmas special were taken directly from her first week in the newspaper strip.
Aunt Gussie is Jon 's aunt. She first appeared August 14 through August 15, 1981, baby - sitting Garfield while Jon took a vacation. She did n't know Garfield stowed away in Jon 's suitcase. She later appeared on November 8 through November 12, 1983, when she became mean and had glasses. She was supposed to baby - sit Garfield on the week of April 25, 1988 while Jon was having his tonsils removed, but she did not show up. Garfield, as a result, has a disdain for Aunt Gussie, remarking that she "used to double - date with Lizzie Borden. '' She has a crush on John Travolta.
Garfield 's mother first made appearances in the animated specials Garfield on the Town and Garfield: His 9 Lives, as well as a few cameos in the comic strip (including a December 1984 story which was a loose adaptation of Garfield on the Town). Sandi Huge provided her voice in the specials. She also appeared once on Garfield and Friends in an episode called "The Garfield Rap. ''
Garfield 's grandpa first appeared in the strip on November 10, 1980. Garfield was excited to see him, but Grandpa showed similar characteristics to Garfield, immediately asking "Where 's the refrigerator? '' Grandpa tells stories to Garfield, including how he weighed 5 pounds, 6 ounces at birth. Grandpa was not there for Garfield 's birth, but "heard the scream. '' Grandpa has a very sarcastic personality which is very similar to Garfield 's.
First Appearance: June 9, 1979 (first mention by name October 19, 1979)
Latest Appearance: July 2, 2017
Irma is the waitress and owner of "Irma 's Diner '', a diner occasionally visited by Jon and Garfield. Irma is a model waitress, when she is n't abusing her customers or shaving her legs at the counter. But then the food is n't much either. Irma is often shown to be behaving oddly, for instance, her idea of a "Chicken Surprise '' is putting on a chicken mask and yelling "SURPRISE!! '' Irma is not particularly intelligent either, for instance, in one strip, Jon is deciding what to eat and decides to have the same thing the man next to him is eating, "I 'll have what he 's having '', Irma replies by sliding the man 's meal directly in front of Jon. Another example is Jon tells Irma that his potato is bad and she begins "Spanking '' it. In another strip, Jon asked Irma why there was a hair in his soup. Irma replies by asking him how he knows that it is not one of his. Jon pulls out the rest of the hair and it turns out that there is a red roller stuck to the hair. He says to Irma that he uses smaller rollers. Jim Davis revealed in Garfield at 25 that he borrowed Irma 's name, but not her personality, from his aunt.
First Appearance: July 19, 1978
Jon Arbuckle 's mailman. Garfield constantly torments him by ripping off his pants and leaving him shredded and scratched, and he perpetually tries to find a way to deliver the mail safely, but rarely succeeds. He did, however, succeed in delivering the mail safely by folding the mail into paper airplanes and throwing them at the house, to which Garfield replied "NO FAIR! ''. Another, time in which the mail man succeeded was in a Splash screen which had him in a gi and a black belt and Garfield in a defeated position He also wore a knight 's armor to discourage Garfield. He can be seen with either yellow, white, or brown colored hair. He was on Garfield and friends for the first four seasons.
In The Garfield Show episode "Mailman Blues '', he goes on vacation in Hawaii while his replacement Stu does the job for him, but before Herman Post goes on vacation, he warns Stu about Garfield, describing him as a "monster ''. While Herman Post is on his vacation, Garfield torments Stu. However, Stu quits, and Herman returns early only after receiving a raise. He reveals that this happens every year.
Jon usually refuses to acknowledge Garfield in tormenting Herman, excluding one instance. In one strip, Jon was the one who startled him, reasoning that a sick Garfield asked him to fill in for him in his place. In both series, however, Jon attempts to punish Garfield for his mischief.
In Garfield and Friends, the mailman was voiced by Gregg Berger.
First Appearance: September 17, 1986
A television personality noted for his extremely loud and piercing greetings, most notably "HEEEEEEEY, KIDS! ''. He appears to be a parody of Bozo the Clown. In Garfield 's Halloween Adventure, the character made his first appearance as well as animated appearance and was given a voice. He was first mentioned on March 13, 1985 in the comic strips, previously, other different clown characters were seen. Binky was first seen in the comics on September 15, 1986, then appeared in person on September 17, 1986. On Garfield and Friends, Binky became more of a regular, and would modify his greeting to suit who it was he was greeting, such as "HEEEEEEEY, CAT! '' He also had his own segment on the show during the second and third seasons, called Screaming with Binky, in which he showed up in the midst of a certain activity and performed his trademark greeting, ruining said activity. Most of these segments were cut in syndication, but have been restored for the DVD releases. Like Jon, Binky was voiced by Thom Huge. His first television appearance was on Peace & Quiet. His last was on The Feline Philosopher. Binky apparently owns a small restaurant that Jon and Garfield occasionally eat at called "Binky Burger ''. In the Garfield show he was mentioned twice: First in season 2 's "Blasteroid '', Jon asks Garfield if he wants to watch Binky, but refuses saying it 's in his contract that Binky 's not allowed on this show. Then, in season 3 's "Cupid Cat '', Garfield states Doc Boy looked just like Binky, and breaks the Fourth Wall by asking the audience if anyone remembered Binky, which he doubts by saying "I did n't think so ''.
Squeak is a mouse and is a friend of Garfield. He has a family of other mice. He first was in the comic strips in the late 1980s. He first appeared in The Garfield Show cartoon in the episode "A Game of Cat and Mouse '', and is the equivalent to the mouse character Floyd in the Garfield and Friends cartoon. He is voiced by Gregg Berger in both cartoons. He is now a regular in the strip.
Mrs. Feeny is an unseen character in the comic strip, tormented by Garfield. For this reason, she regularly calls Jon to complain about him. She also tends to get revenge on Jon for Garfield 's pranks. She owns a small pet dog, a regular victim of Garfield 's abuse. She also, at one point, had a Weimaraner dog that Garfield had epoxied to a cross-town bus; and she had a bird named Mr. Sweety Wings who was another victim of Garfield 's. Mrs. Feeny (originally spelled Feeney) was one of several neighbors, which included a Mrs. Woonduck; a Mrs. Nostrum and a Mrs. Peebrik who had been calling and complaining to Jon about Garfield 's abusive behavior of their dogs.
Ellen (first mentioned in November 9, 1990) is a local woman whom Jon often tried to go out with. Originally, she was also an unseen character in the strip as well; most Ellen strips originally centered on Jon speaking to Ellen on the telephone, attempting to ask her out on a date. In a 2006 story, Ellen appeared in the strip after Jon convinced her to go on a date because she had amnesia and could n't remember how much she despised him. She was persuaded to go on a date with him, and on July 20, 2006, the strip finally showed her as a blond woman with a striped dress.
Guido and Fluffy were 2 cats who help Garfield escape from the city pound in a comic strip of January 1981. In the TV special Garfield on the Town, Fluffy was a dog instead of a cat, and Guido 's name is "Eddie ''.
Wheezer is Jon 's old school friend. He calls Jon "Carp Face ''. Wheezer visited Jon at his house April 23, 1990 through April 29, 1990. The two reminisce about their embarrassing high school memories. Later in the comic, Jon saw Wheezer at his high - school reunion.
Cactus Jake is the foreman of the Polecat Flats ranch, and a friend of Jon. He was seen only in the TV series and had a habit of calling Garfield "Garfunkel ''. Whenever Garfield wore a cowboy outfit, Jake always believed that he really was a cowboy named "Shorty '' (Jon would always recognize "Shorty '' as Garfield, however). Jake 's voice was provided by Pat Buttram. First appeared: Polecat Flats. Last appeared: The Multiple Choice Cartoon. Last appearance (mentioned): Stairway to Stardom.
The Buddy Bears are a trio of singing bear cubs who encourage viewers to "always agree with the group '' (similar to The Get Along Gang). Their names are Bobby (tallest), Billy, and Bertie (shortest). They were voiced by Lorenzo Music, Thom Huge, and Gregg Berger with sped up voices. One of Garfield 's goals and main way of defeating them when they interfered in his life was to make them disagree, thereby introducing strife into their affected harmony. One notable effort involved making them decide on which two toppings to put on pizza, for, as Garfield stated as the episode ended, "No two people can agree on which two toppings a pizza should have. '' Garfield disliked their mindless agreement, stressing that their love of harmony and cooperation was not right, and says that they should express their honest opinions and think independently and critically.
Floyd is Garfield 's best friend. He is a mouse who shows up at least once every season. A common running gag with the character is his continuous complaints over not appearing often. He appeared in The Garfield Show and comic strips as Squeak. Voiced by Gregg Berger.
Mr. Irving Burnside is Jon 's next - door neighbor, who is constantly annoyed by Garfield stealing his food and would take it out on Jon. Early on in the sixth season, he was pushed so far as to rent his house out. Shortly after moving, Burnside found out that without Garfield stealing his food, he and his wife Alice were getting overweight, so they agreed to move back. He is voiced by Gregg Berger.
Penelope Pussycat served as another love interest for Garfield, appearing only in the show 's last three seasons, quickly becoming a regular even with only three episodes being labeled by their titles as "Penelope episodes ''. She is a beige pussy cat with a cute mole on the right side of her face near her mouth. Penelope lives in an Italian restaurant, which is no doubt one of the main reason that Garfield goes out with her, since this was n't revealed till the second "Penelope episode ''. The fact that Garfield enjoys eating more than being with her annoys Penelope, but she willingly goes out with him anyway, because as she says, "I do n't care what we do as long as we do it together. '' She was replaced by Arlene in The Garfield Show. She is voiced by Victoria Jackson.
A chef who 's usually seen in a televised cooking show. His show nearly got canceled because most people find it tedious, though it ratings improved when a cake monster invaded the studio. He opened a theme park made of cheese which was n't well - liked. He once became violent and used a rolling pin in an attempt to strike a leopard that tasted one of his dishes. He was fired from his job once by Mr. Station Manager Sir for showing the viewers what unhealthy foods to eat, but he was rehired after Mr. Station Manager Sir 's new show got the least ratings. The reason for his morbid obesity comes from his horrible childhood years. He is voiced by Frank Welker.
A lonely Chihuahua who lives in Garfield 's neighborhood. He, along with some other dogs, helped saved Vito and the pizzeria from a blaze. He is voiced by Jason Marsden and Wally Wingert.
Catzilla was a wild feline descended from saber - toothed cats. He lives at the zoo and he first appeared in "Orange and Black '' and made a cameo appearance in "High Scale ''.
A large black Rottweiler. He used to bully Odie to giving him treats until Odie became a weredog. He also helped Odie in saving Vito from the fire. He 's occasionally seen with an unnamed slender Doberman Pinscher which could be Luca.
A scatterbrained man residing in Garfield 's suburbs. He, along with Nermal, got tied up for disrupting Garfield, Jon, and Odie 's attempt to get a family photo. Harvey also has a wife named Sheila who shares the same birthday as Odie.
A stray Black cat that lives in Garfield 's neighborhood. He is very thin and has two different coloured eyes. He is voiced by Gregg Berger.
The manager of Vito 's Pizza and he serves pizza and other Italian foods, which is loved by Jon and Odie, and especially Garfield. In certain episodes, Vito 's Pizza is sometimes in trouble, such as in "Love and Lasagna '', where Brent Mogul tries to tear it down for a tanning salon until Garfield and Odie save the store. In other episodes, Garfield 's love of Vito 's food causes trouble. He also appears in the Garfield comic book as Jon and Garfield 's preferred provider of pizza.
Two incompetent members of animal control. Al 's eyes are never seen because they 're always hidden behind his hat. Replaced in a one - off episode by a T3000 terminator animal controller until assisted in getting their jobs back by Garfield.
An egotistical businessman who has the tendency to sue everybody for no reason and buy many companies to become a multi-billionaire. He has a son named Jack who he rarely spends time with until Jon convinced him to. He served as the main villain in the second full - length episode, "Unfair Weather ''. He is voiced by Jack Riley.
A mad scientist who loves to do experiments. His first appearance was in "Virtualodeon '', where by watching Virtualodeon, Garfield gets sucked into the TV. He returns in "Night of the Bunny Slippers '', and "Me, Garfield and I ''.
Jon 's annoying twin girl cousins or nieces, they themselves are n't sure, who love to dress and give makeovers to animals particularly Garfield. Garfield and Odie once used the outfits they provided in order to track down thieves who took spare ribs. When Nermal kidnaps Pooky to blackmail the orange tabby into becoming a servant, Garfield summons Drusilla and Minerva to mess with Nermal. In one of their most recent appearances, it is revealed that they ca n't tell each other apart. They are voiced by Laura Summer.
Jon 's bossy aunt, who expects her relatives to wait on her hand and foot. She stays with Jon twice, first after her power line is destroyed by a fallen tree branch then when her house is being rid of mice. While she expects any of her demands to be met, but refuses any request others ask of her no matter how reasonable. While Garfield hates her like everyone else, he likes having her visit because "Compared to (Ivy), he actually seem easy to live with. ''
A pesemistic Black cat who appeared in the episode "Black Cat Blues ''. He constantly crosses character 's paths, giving those bad luck, because he 's upset about breaking up with his girlfriend. This stops when Garfield gets them back together.
He also appears at "Garfield 's Party in The Big Sleep '' as one of the characters who was kicked out of Nermal 's "Eating and Sleeping for Hibernation '' party.
Living Lasagnas who want to conquer Earth but are afraid of Garfield after witnessing his prodigious appetite for lasagna as food.
Leader of an ancient tribe of cats that once tried to take over the world and were banished to another dimension. Garfield tricks her into entering the human world alone where she is forcibly adopted by Liz 's annoying niece Heather who renames her "Fuzzbutton '' much to her chagrin. Since then she swears vengeance on Garfield and Odie.
Mrs. Cauldron is Jon 's next - door neighbor who is actually a witch, first seen in "Which Witch ''. Since season 2, Garfield has always suspected who she really was, claiming in "Bewitched - Familiar Familiar (Part 1) '' that "No one can survive an entire episode with Drusilla and Minerva. Mrs. Cauldron has 2 nieces: her oldest, Winona who briefly had crushes on Jon and Doc Boy and Abigail, who is a witch - in - training. She is voiced by June Foray. This role is notable in that it won Foray her first Emmy.
Mrs. Cauldron 's oldest niece who appeared for the first time in "Every Witch Way ''. She 's a half - witch who 's often visit Mrs. Cauldron in human world and she 's not a full witch yet (until episode Bewitched when she becomes a witch teacher). And she briefly had a crush on Jon ("Every Witch Way '') and Doc Boy ("Bride or Broom '') and willingly as far as kidnapping in order to marry them. But aside that she 's actually a cute, friendly, and protective person as seen in episode "Bewitched. '' when she helped by guided Garfield, Odie, and Abigail to save both human world and witch realm by find the object that was able to stop her evil aunt Varicella and her plot by change all the humans into frogs. She is voiced by Laraine Newman.
Mrs. Cauldron 's youngest niece who 's still on training. She appeared only in 1 - hour special episode "Bewitched ''. She 's Mrs. Cauldron and Varicella 's niece and also Winona 's cousin. She was shown to be a mischievous young girl who dislikes Garfield at first. But later she was shown to be very friendly and trustful towards Garfield and Odie. She 's also a willing person especially when she holds the biggest role stopping Varicella and her plot.
Evil witch who got sealed in the talking book for 1,000 years ago and she 's also Mrs. Couldron sister. She appeared as main antagonist in 1 - hour special episode called "Bewitched ''. And she 's trying to take over the world by Forbidden Moon Spell by turning all the humans into frogs. But her plot was stopped by Garfield, Odie, Abigail, and Winona and she became good and no longer an evil witch anymore. She is voiced by Rose Marie.
Garfield Gets Real is a direct - to - video Garfield movie released in 2007 and produced by Paws Inc. The characters were made via CGI. It was written by Jim Davis and chronicles Garfield 's adventure into the "real world '' out of the comic strip. The first one was Garfield Gets Real and was followed up by Garfield 's Fun Fest and Garfield 's Pet Force. Among the characters in these films are:
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how many countries is there in north america | North America - Wikipedia
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere; it is also considered by some to be a northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.
North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5 % of the earth 's land area and about 4.8 % of its total surface. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5 % of the world 's population, if nearby islands (most notably the Caribbean) are included.
North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so - called Paleo - Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso - Indian period). The Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended in 1492, and the transatlantic migrations -- the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the Early Modern period. Present - day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kinds of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants.
European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French and societies and states commonly reflect Western traditions.
The Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word "America '' on the continent of South America, in the middle of what is today Brazil. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio:
... ab Americo inventore... quasi Americi terram sive Americam (from Americus the discoverer... as if it were the land of Americus, thus America).
For Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespucci 's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form "America '', following the examples of "Europa '', "Asia '' and "Africa ''.
Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent, In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for all the Western Hemisphere.
Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty and so a derivation from "Amerigo Vespucci '' could be problematic. Ricardo Palma (1949) proposed a derivation from the "Amerrique '' mountains of Central America -- Vespucci was the first to discover South America and the Amerrique mountains of Central America, which connected his discoveries to those of Christopher Columbus.
Alfred E. Hudd proposed a theory in 1908 that the continents are named after a Welsh merchant named Richard Amerike from Bristol, who is believed to have financed John Cabot 's voyage of discovery from England to Newfoundland in 1497. A minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of ' Amairick '. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language.
The term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States and Canada together. Alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico (as in the North American Free Trade Agreement), as well as offshore islands. The UN geoscheme for "North America '' separates Mexico from the United States and Canada, placing it instead within its designated "Central America '' region, while also treating the islands of the Caribbean separately from the US / Canada definition -- the UN 's "North America '' definition still includes the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland together with the US / Canada continental definition, with both insular entities being tectonically on the North American plate.
In France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America, the cognates of North America usually designate a subcontinent of the Americas comprising Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and often Greenland, Saint Pierre et Miquelon, and Bermuda.
North America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.
Geographically the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as the North American Trade Agreement bloc and Central American Trade Agreement. Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo - America and Latin America. Anglo - America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English - speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, are Francophone in composition).
The southern North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of "North America '', that which encompasses the whole continent, the term "North America '' is also used to refer to Canada, Mexico, the United States, and Greenland.
The term Northern America refers to the northern-most countries and territories of North America, Canada, the United States, Greenland, Bermuda, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America -- not to be confused with the Midwestern United States -- groups the regions of Central America, the Caribbean, and Mexico.
The largest countries of the continent, Canada and the United States, also contain well - defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada these are the British Columbia Coast, Canadian Prairies, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the United States -- and in accordance with the US Census Bureau definitions -- these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, East North Central States, West North Central States, South Atlantic States, East South Central States, West South Central States, Mountain States, and Pacific States. Regions shared between both nations included the Great Lakes Region. Megalopolises have also formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.
Laurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern - day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 million years ago, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 million years ago, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 million years ago. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 million years ago, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.
North America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur - bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western United States.
The indigenous peoples of North America have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation. The specifics of Paleo - Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present - day Alaska around 25,000 to 11,000 years ago. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 13,000 years before present. Some genetic research indicated secondary waves of migration occurred after the initial Paleo - Indian colonization, but prior to modern Inuit, Inupiat and Yupik expansions.
Before contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several "culture areas '', which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or Uto - Aztecan). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.
During the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the Clovis culture of modern New Mexico. Later cultures include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world 's major staples, maize (corn).
The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact by any European culture with the landmasses that geologically constitute the "mainland '' of modern North America has been dated to the end of the 10th century CE -- this site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, is known as L'Anse aux Meadows, where unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement was uncovered in the early 1960s.
As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE, a few hundred years after the Mesopotamians. The Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish explorers arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.
During the Age of Discovery, Europeans explored and staked claims to various parts of North America. Upon their arrival in the "New World '', the Native American population declined substantially, because of violent conflicts with the invaders and the introduction of European diseases to which the Native Americans lacked immunity. Native culture changed drastically and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly. The names and cultures that Europeans recorded were not necessarily the same as the names they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today.
Britain, Spain, and France took over extensive territories in North America -- and fought over them. In the late 18th century and beginning of the 19th, independence movements that sprung up across the continent, led to the creation of the modern countries in the area. The 13 British colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, becoming the United States of America. Canada was formed from the unification of northern territories controlled by Britain and France. New Spain, a territory that stretched from modern - day southern US to Central America, declared independence in 1810, becoming the First Mexican Empire. In 1823 the former Captaincy General of Guatemala, then part of the Mexican Empire, became the first independent state in Central America, officially changing its name to the United Provinces of Central America.
North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, less commonly, is considered by some as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America 's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia - Panama border, placing all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.
Before the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.
There are numerous islands off the continent 's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self - governing Danish island, and the world 's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island which was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago. The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.
The vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.
The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.
The western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin -- a lower area containing smaller ranges and low - lying deserts -- in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.
The United States Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is "6 miles (10 km) west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota '' at about 48 ° 10 ′ N 100 ° 10 ′ W / 48.167 ° N 100.167 ° W / 48.167; - 100.167, about 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that "No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 States, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent. '' Nonetheless, there is a 4.6 - metre (15 ft) field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located 1,650 km (1,030 mi) from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at 43 ° 22 ′ N 101 ° 58 ′ W / 43.36 ° N 101.97 ° W / 43.36; - 101.97 (Pole of Inaccessibility North America).
Geologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada 's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world 's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal - rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.
The lower 48 US states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:
The geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.
Central America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.
Volcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.
Central America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.
North America is a very large continent which surpasses the Arctic Circle, and the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from 10 to 20 ° C (50 to 68 ° F), but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes. Climate west of the Cascades is described as being a temperate weather with average precipitation 20 inches (510 mm). Climate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from 57 to 70 ° F (14 to 21 ° C) over the course of the year.
Stretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the continental - humid climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging 50 inches (1,300 mm). Starting at the southern border of the continental - humid climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S. with annual precipitation reaching 67 inches (1,700 mm) in Mobile, Alabama. Stretching from the borders of the continental humid and subtropical climates, and going west to the Cascades Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe / desert climate is the driest climate in the U.S.
Notable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.
Notable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper and vanilla.
Economically, Canada and the United States are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island - nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland 's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.
Demographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Caucasians, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.
The dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo - America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the United States, but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the United States) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese (but French speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch -, English -, or French - speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (France), and the Falkland Islands (UK)).
The French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95 % of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French - speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco - Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint - Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the US state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.
Christianity is the largest religion in the United States, Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77 % of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The United States has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70 %), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world 's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil. A 2015 study estimates about 493,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in North America, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.
According to the same study religiously unaffiliated (include agnostic and atheist) make up about 17 % of the population of Canada and the United States. No religion make up about 24 % of the United States population, and 24 % of Canada total population.
Canada, the United States and Mexico host communities of both Jews (6 million or about 1.8 %), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1 %) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0 %). The biggest number of Jewish individuals can be found in the United States (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The United States host the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9 %, While Canada host about one million Muslim or 3.2 % of the population. While in Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in the country. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40 % are living in Southern California.
The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (96 %). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Also Christianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85 %). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro - American religions such as Santería and Vodou.
The most populous country in North America is the United States with 318.4 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112,322,757. Canada is the third most populous country with 32,623,490. The majority of Caribbean island - nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the United States), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world 's lowest population density at 0.026 pop. / km2 (0.067 pop. / mi2).
While the United States, Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the sunbelt regions of the United States, such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the United States border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.
Eight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the United States. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the United States, Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada -- United States border and Mexico -- United States border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit -- Windsor and San Diego -- Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit - Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US $13 billion was dependent on the Detroit -- Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego - Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US $20 billion.
North America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the United States exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megaregion, Gulf Coast Megaregion, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City -- Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe -- both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megaregion -- and megalopolis of Central Mexico. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston - Washington, D.C. Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.
The top ten largest North American metropolitan areas by population as of 2013, based on national census numbers from the United States and census estimates from Canada and Mexico.
2011 Census figures.
North America 's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.
Canada, Mexico, and the United States have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The United States has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The United States ' services sector comprises 77 % of the country 's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22 % and agriculture comprises 1.2 %. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.
Canada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada 's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada 's services sector comprises 78 % of the country 's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20 % and agriculture comprises 2 %. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.
The North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the United States takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada - Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.
The North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the United States and Mexico. While Canada and the United States already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship -- and to present day still do -- in the world and Canada -- United States trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty - free trade. The free trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on United States - Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all - time historical increase of 24.3 % or US $791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world 's largest with US $17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the United States is the world 's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other 's largest trade partners. The United States is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico; while Canada and Mexico are each other 's third largest trade partners.
The Caribbean trade bloc -- CARICOM -- came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US $96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on Free Trade Agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations (OTN) free trade agreements have been signed into effect.
Integration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. Recent implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the United States. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the United States, Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs. Currently under proposal, the Canada -- Central American Free Trade Agreement (CA4) would operate much the same as CAFTA with the United States does.
These nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The United States has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the US - Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.
The Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly 48,000 km (30,000 mi) in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the US and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the US border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly 26,000 km (16,000 mi).
The First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern US with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern US railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) had, by 1867, already accumulated more than 2,055 km (1,277 mi) of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.
A shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.
Canada and the United States were both former British colonies. There is frequent cultural interplay between the United States and English - speaking Canada. Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous people of Canada but is considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark. Spanish - speaking North America shares a common past as former Spanish colonies. In Mexico and the Central American countries where civilizations like the Maya developed, indigenous people preserve traditions across modern boundaries. Central American and Spanish - speaking Caribbean nations have historically had more in common due to geographical proximity.
Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the United States. Of the aforementioned cities, Monterrey has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Immigration to the United States and Canada remains a significant attribute of many nations close to the southern border of the US. The Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America. In the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English - speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home. Northern Mexico, the Western United States and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.
Canada, Mexico and the US submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue.
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
America
Eurasia
Oceania
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the legend of bruce lee (tv series 2008) | The Legend of Bruce Lee - wikipedia
The Legend of Bruce Lee is a 2008 Chinese biographical martial arts television series based on the life story of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee. The 50 - episode series was produced and broadcast by CCTV and began airing on October 12, 2008. It stars Hong Kong actor Danny Chan as Bruce Lee and American actress Michelle Lang as Lee 's wife, Linda Lee Cadwell. The production period spanned nine months, with filming taking place in China, Hong Kong, Macau, the United States, Italy, and Thailand, and with a budget of 50 million yuan (US $7.3 million).
Lee 's daughter, Shannon Lee, is credited as executive producer of the series. Other martial artists such as Mark Dacascos, Ray Park, Gary Daniels, Ernest Miller, and Michael Jai White are also featured in the series, playing the roles of martial artists prominent throughout Bruce Lee 's life and career.
The Legend of Bruce Lee has seen increasing viewership since its debut in 2008. The first 14 episodes broke China 's former record held by Chuang Guan Dong. According to the CSM survey held on 26 October 2008, the first 30 episodes of the series received viewership ratings above 10.35 %. The finale episode attained a viewership rating of 14.87 %, breaking CCTV 's all - time high record set in 2003.
Bruce Lee (Li Xiao Long) is a high school student in a school with mostly British students, with the Chinese students like him belonging in the minority. Bruce notices to his dismay that there was a subtle discrimination against his race in the school, which urges him to excel in order to prove that Chinese people are also competent and talented. Along with his childhood friend Qin Xiao Man, Bruce participates in a cha - cha competition and wins, much to the annoyance of his British schoolmate Blair Lewis. This competition, in addition to Blair 's evident dislike of the Chinese, creates tension between the two, leading to a number of physical fights. Their bitter rivalry worsened when Bruce joined the school boxing team, whose ace boxer was Blair. The two participate in the school boxing competition, and Blair loses to Bruce. Blair then realizes that unlike him, Bruce had a good chance of winning the boxing championship. He decides to help Bruce by teaching him about the three - time champion David Cafeld. This marks the end of the enmity between the two and the start of a friendship that they maintain for many years after.
Bruce 's previous run - ins with Blair had made him want to learn martial arts. He talks to Uncle Shao about this, and Uncle Shao is reluctant at first but relents to teaching Bruce some fighting techniques. Uncle Shao then also convinces Bruce 's parents to have Bruce be taught martial arts by a kung fu master.
Bruce meets Yellow Brat, a servant and student of Wang Yunsheng 's Kung Fu Center, who he fights and loses to. Bruce 's father helps him get admitted to Master Ye 's Wing Chun Academy and Bruce begins his training with Master Ye. In the boxing championship, Bruce applies the Wing Chun techniques he has learned from Master Ye and beats David Cafeld.
Now adept at fighting, Bruce uses his skills to protect the businessmen in his neighborhood from the extortions of Wang Li Chao 's gang. This angers Wang Li Chao, and he orders Ah Liang to kill Bruce. Ah Liang crashes into Bruce 's bike with a motorcycle. Bruce survives the crash but goes into a coma. This incident prompts Bruce 's parents to send him to America, realizing that staying in Hong Kong will inevitably lead to his death. Fearing that the attempt on Bruce 's life will be traced back to his gang, Wang Li Chao orders Yellow Brat to kill Ah Liang. Meanwhile, Bruce goes to America with Uncle Shao.
Bruce spends the first few weeks living at Uncle Shao 's house in Seattle. Uncle Shao then tells Bruce that he must leave Uncle Shao and have a better life. Bruce accuses Uncle Shao of getting rid of him, but he does as Uncle Shao says and leaves. He meets Jesse, an African American cab driver who cheats Bruce out of some money, but later on becomes a friend and loyal follower after Bruce saves him from some thugs. Bruce arrives at the restaurant of Ms. Ruby, a fellow Chinese and a friend of Uncle Shao 's. Ms. Ruby lets Bruce live in the basement of her restaurant, and employs him as a helper and dish washer. He later quits his job in order to go to school. He enrolls at Edison Technical School, and, with the help of Jesse, was able to rent a small room and get a job of delivering papers. At the school, he meets Arroyo, and the two briefly engage in a romantic relationship. At his school 's program, Bruce challenges the karate team with his Chinese Kung Fu. He angers the karate team, and they challenge him to a formal battle. Bruce agrees to fight, but only if Master Kimura, the karate expert of Seattle, will be the one to fight him and if reporters will cover the event. Kimura assents to this. He and Bruce fight, and Bruce defeats him in an astonishing eleven seconds. This makes Kimura question his beliefs about martial arts and become fascinated with Bruce 's Kung Fu that he asks to be taught more about it. Bruce declines, but Kimura 's persistence soon wears him down and Bruce grudgingly accepts Kimura as his student. This action of Kimura angers the Karate community. He refuses to quit learning from Bruce, and he is soon considered an outcast. Kimura becomes one of Bruce 's closest friends, and they also maintain a student - teacher relationship for many years. Bruce soon shares with Kimura the secret of his Kung Fu, which is actually a mixture of moves from Wing Chun, Boxing, and even from cha - cha. This peculiar style of Bruce stems from his belief that martial arts should be practical and usable in actual combat. He therefore often takes moves from a particular style and adapts them into his own.
Bruce passes the entrance exam at the University of Washington. Unsure of what he should major in, he asks for the advice of Professor Kane. After a lengthy discussion, Bruce decides on taking up philosophy. Bruce later applies many of what he learns at school to his martial arts. He takes a particular interest in the philosophy of Yin Yang. He also starts to teach Kung Fu for free to his schoolmates.
Kimura talks to him about opening a Chinese Kung Fu school. Bruce confesses that while it is his dream to open one, he can not afford it. Kimura then volunteers to sell his dojo and use the money to help Bruce, but Bruce refuses, saying that he does not want to be indebted to Kimura that way. Kimura sells the dojo anyway. Bruce is enraged at first, but soon accepts Kimura 's help, vowing to repay him someday.
Arroyo urges Bruce to come to the Philippines with her, where they can share a life of comfort together. Bruce tells her that he does not want to leave America because of his dream of becoming a Kung Fu master and philosopher. Arroyo expresses her dislike for Kung Fu. Bruce breaks up with her, knowing that she will never understand his passion. He then meets Linda Emery. The two start dating, and Bruce tells Linda about his dreams. She begins to share his enthusiasm with Kung Fu and even starts to take some Kung Fu lessons from Bruce.
Kimura and Bruce rent a basement for the Kung Fu school, but Linda advises them to delay the opening in order to participate in the Asian Cultural Festival, an event which she believed will serve as a good way to promote the opening of the school. Bruce agrees to this. Their promotion was going well until Bruce was challenged and defeated by Yamamoto, a 6 - dan karate master who held a grudge on Bruce for speaking low of karate. Bruce demands a rematch and loses again, but he refuses to stop challenging Yamamoto.
Blair makes a reappearance in Bruce 's life. He also enrolls at Bruce 's school and becomes a great help to Bruce 's improvement by urging his friend Professor Dan Inosanto, a Fil - Am expert on martial arts techniques, to meet with Bruce. Inosanto becomes one of Bruce 's closest friends as well as his occasional advisor on martial arts. Wally Jay, a jujitsu master, piques Bruce 's interest. He challenges Wally Jay in order to learn more about jujitsu techniques. At the end of the match, it was apparent that Bruce will win, but he chooses to let the duel in a draw so that Wally Jay may keep his prestige. This earns him respect from Wally Jay and the two exchange knowledge on martial arts.
Believing that only in fighting various martial arts masters can he improve his style, Bruce posts a sign at the gate of his school containing a brazen statement of challenge, "No matter the time, place or person, if I am challenged, I 'll be there. -- Bruce Lee. '' His display of arrogance angers the martial arts community and they send Yamamoto to defeat Bruce once and for all. However, now equipped with new techniques from jujitsu and wise advice from Inosanto, Bruce defeats Yamamoto.
Yamamoto finally agrees to teach Bruce some of his own karate in exchange for lessons on Bruce 's Kung Fu. Bruce teaches everything he knew to Yamamoto, even if he knew that the former was n't doing the same. This trade was actually a ruse on Yamamoto 's part, which allowed another martial artist named Ed Parker to learn all of Bruce 's moves. Ed Parker then fights Bruce and uses Bruce 's Thrusting Punch to defeat him. Bruce ends up in a hospital due to his injuries. Ed Parker feels guilty for this afterward, realizing that what he did was dishonorable. He visits Bruce in the hospital and formally apologizes. Ed also gives his 20 years ' worth of notes on karate to Bruce, which Bruce gladly uses to expand on his martial arts theories.
Linda 's mother meets Bruce, and it is clear that she dislikes him. She asks Linda to break up with Bruce, but Linda refuses and leaves their home. Her mother suffers a heart attack. Bruce urges Linda to visit her mother despite their differences. He goes with Linda to the hospital and wins Linda 's mother 's approval.
Bruce takes part in the California Karate Competition and defeats the three - time champion, Hoffman. After the match, Hoffman approaches Bruce and they teach each other. Hoffman also talks to Bruce about moving his Kung Fu school to Oakland, where Hoffman thinks it will gain more students and attention. Bruce agrees and decides to go to Oakland immediately, to the dismay of his friends. He drops out of college and bids goodbye to Professor Kane. Linda becomes furious with him for not discussing this with her. Bruce asks her to marry him but Linda refuses. Their quarrel ends the next day when Linda realizes how much she loves Bruce and agrees to marry him. Bruce sets up their marriage at once. They have an outdoor wedding, attended by their closest friends and Linda 's mother. Linda also decides to leave school. She soon gets pregnant with their first child, Brandon.
Bruce buys a house for him and Linda and opens a bigger Kung Fu school with the help of his friends Jesse, Kimura and Uncle Shao. The rent, however, was too expensive for Bruce, so Uncle Shao decides to lend him the money.
Meanwhile, the kung fu masters in America become enraged with Bruce for putting up a martial arts school without approaching Master Wang, the president of the Chinese Martial Arts Association in California. On top of this, Bruce also teaches many non-Chinese students, which is strictly prohibited among the Chinese. The masters challenge Bruce to an official match against Yellow Brat. Should he lose, Bruce is either to close down his school or to stop teaching non-Chinese people. But should he win, Bruce will be allowed to continue running his school whichever way he wanted. The two fight fiercely against each other, but the battle is interrupted when Linda unexpectedly goes into labor. The match is stopped, and Yellow Brat allows Bruce 15 days before they will have to fight again.
Bruce goes home to Hong Kong after receiving the grim news that his father has died. He returns to America for his match with Yellow Brat. Master Wang, seeing how the match was going to inevitably end, declares Bruce the winner. This enrages Yellow Brat, and in a fit of fury, strikes Bruce on the back with a large piece of wood. This seriously injures Bruce and paralyzes him from the waist down. He is told by his doctors that he may never walk again, let alone practice martial arts. Horrified by this news, Bruce becomes depressed and withdrawn, claiming that he would rather die than not be able to practice his Kung Fu. However, stern and encouraging words from Linda makes him become determined to walk again even while knowing it would take a miracle for him to heal. Master Wang visits Bruce along with the other Kung Fu masters. Together, they all apologize for what Yellow Brat did and knelt down to beg for Bruce 's forgiveness. Bruce bids them all to rise, saying that instead of fighting amongst themselves, they Chinese must stand united. His words earned him profound respect from the masters, especially from Wang.
His paraplegia confines Bruce to a wheelchair. Unable to teach anymore, he ordered his friends to close down the school, and they reluctantly oblige. With Linda 's help, Bruce writes a book about his martial arts theories. Linda decides to bring Brandon home, who had been staying with her mother since Bruce injured his back. She makes Brandon stand on his own and tells him to walk to Bruce. To Bruce 's horror, Brandon starts falling. Fueled by fear for his son, Bruce reflexively reaches for Brandon, and, to his and Linda 's surprise, was able to stand up. Bruce slowly regains his strength and starts training again. Together with Uncle Shao and Kimura, he decides to call his style "Jeet Kune Do ''. They reopen the Kung Fu school, and the news of Bruce 's miraculous recovery entices many people to become his students. Bruce also decides to join the Karate national championship. Inosanto tells him that Bruce 's only true rivals in the competition are Rolex, the defending champion and Piao Zhengyi, a taekwondo genius. Knowing that Bruce 's current skills will not be enough to defeat Rolex, Inosanto advises Bruce to spar with Piao and exchange techniques with him. Rolex, on the other hand, was helped by Ed Parker, Yamamoto and Wally Jay.
The two finally meet in the championship match. As Bruce and Rolex are almost evenly skilled, the fight was difficult for them both. Rolex proved to be a formidable opponent, but Bruce prevails in the end. Bruce 's fame in the world of martial arts piques the interest of George, a Hollywood producer. He talks to Bruce about making a movie featuring Bruce and his Jeet Kune Do. Bruce is delighted at the notion, for he feels that it was time to change the rather ludicrous portrayals of his people in movies. He saw movies as the medium through which the world would change their impressions of the Chinese.
Bruce decides to pursue Hollywood. In order to do so, he leaves Oakland and moves to Los Angeles with Linda and Brandon. He also decides to leave the Kung Fu school to Kimura and Uncle Chao.
George, Bruce and the screenwriter Robert brainstorm over the movie 's plot, which they then called Kung Fu. George 's boss Mr. William sees the great potential in the movie; however, he was not convinced that a Chinese man like Bruce should play the lead. Without George 's knowledge, William arranges for the Hollywood actor Robert Douglas to be taught Kung Fu by Bruce, so that he could be the lead actor for the movie. Bruce and George find out about William 's intentions. Bruce is so enraged at the deception that he even accuses George of being in on the lie. Nevertheless, Bruce refuses to go back to Oakland, and makes a living by training Los Angeles police officers instead.
Bruce goes to Hong Kong with Linda and Brandon. He pays a visit to Master Ye, who, as it turns out, was offended when Bruce created Jeet Kune Do. He felt that Bruce was being arrogant and disrespectful. Bruce assures Master Ye that Jeet Kune Do is a practical style of fighting that owes much to Master Ye 's Yong Chun Chuan.
George once again comes to Bruce with a television project. Still wary of another deception, Bruce meets George with skepticism. However, George gives him a contract and a $2000 deposit upfront. This removes Bruce 's doubts and he agrees to work on the TV series The Green Hornet as Kato. The Green Hornet turns into a hit series and a second season is promised, but Mr. William decides to discontinue the show.
Still determined to let Bruce star in a movie, George convinces Bruce to work on the movie Silent Flute. As with their past ideas, Silent Flute will feature kung fu. Mr. William grants George permission to make the movie, with the condition that it will be filmed in India. George and Bruce attempt to satisfy this term; however, they could not find suitable taping locations in India. George tells Mr. William about their predicament, and Mr. William confesses the truth: he has $800,000 deposited in India that he can only use in India. The only reason he had agreed to make the movie was so the money would not be wasted. Mr. William then gives them the choice of either filming in India, or cancelling the project entirely. Bruce refuses to compromise, and the movie is cancelled.
The movie industry, however, had not fully closed its doors on Bruce. The Hong Kong film company Golden Harvest seeks him out with a movie project, The Big Boss. The company president, Mr. Chow, saw Bruce Lee as the way to saving Golden Harvest from going into bankruptcy. They travel to Thailand, the shooting location for the movie. While the movie was being made, the master Thai boxer King Charles sends Bruce a letter of challenge. Bruce happily accepts the challenge but spends some time first to learn about Thai Boxing. He also tells King Charles that their duel will be filmed, and if Bruce won, he will get to use the footage in The Big Boss. He and King Charles fight, and Bruce wins. In addition to the footage of the fight, King Charles also teaches Bruce about the secret of his ferocious knee technique: heavy iron shoes, of which he gives Bruce a pair.
The Big Boss becomes a box office success and Bruce becomes a famous and sought - after movie star in Hong Kong and in other nearby Asian countries. Though he receives other offers from other companies, Bruce decides to stay with Golden Harvest, to the relief and appreciation of Mr. Chow. Mr. Chow gives Bruce a fully furnished house as a gift, and Linda comes to Hong Kong along with Brandon and Shannon to live with Bruce.
Bruce starts working on his second movie, Fist of Fury, but demanding beforehand that he be given the authority that a director has. Mr. Chow obliges, but this arrangement causes some friction between Bruce and the movie director, Director Ho.
Bruce had been working nonstop on the script of Way of the Dragon, a movie that he planned to direct himself. Mr. Chow is hesitant, in letting Bruce write and direct his own movie, but his doubts disappear upon reading Bruce 's script. Mr. Chow also suggests that Bruce start up his own production company under Golden Harvest. This way, Bruce will be able to fulfill all of his visions. Bruce agrees and starts the production of Way of the Dragon.
The success of Way of the Dragon far exceeds those of Bruce 's previous films, catapulting him into international stardom. Hollywood hears of his success in Asia. Mr. William, realizing his mistake in not pursuing Bruce before, sends George to offer Bruce another movie, Blood and Steel. Wary of yet another possibility of being lied to, in addition to the fact that he is currently making the movie Game of Death, Bruce refuses at first. Bruce talks to Mr. Chow, who then assures him that he may work with Hollywood. He advised Bruce to represent Golden Harvest so that the project will become a joint project between them and Hollywood. Bruce accepts the offer and postpones the making of Game of Death in order to work with Hollywood. He then changes the movie title of Blood and Steel into Enter the Dragon. In the middle of making the movie, Bruce collapses due to overwork was rushed to a hospital.
A series of prank calls in the middle of the night starts to occur in the Lee household, promptly scaring Linda. Meanwhile, still in the hospital for further examinations, Bruce becomes bored and decides to go home despite his doctor 's advice. He then receives a call from Ah Lin saying that Master Ye has died. Bruce attends the wake but does not go to the funeral. He visits Master Ye 's grave afterward, expressing his fear that Master Ye is angry at him for creating Jeet Kune Do.
Perhaps influenced by Master Ye 's death, Bruce buys a life insurance policy. He then resumes the production of his movie Game of Death. His head aches from time to time, but he refuses to rest, which makes Linda fear for his health.
It is then revealed that it was Yellow Brat who had been harassing Linda with the late - night phone calls. He challenges Bruce to yet another fight. Linda and Bruce talk about the Yellow Brat 's challenge. Linda is against it, but Bruce argues that Yellow Brat will continue harassing them if Bruce does not accept the challenge.
Linda, Kimura, Professor Inosanto, along with Bruce 's brothers from Yong Chun Chuan serve as spectators in the fight. Bruce defeats Yellow Brat but does not deliver a finishing blow. The scene ends with Linda offering a towel to Yellow Brat. Yellow Brat accepts the towel and appears to have a change of heart.
Bruce then visits Xiao Man 's home and goes to a meeting with her and Mr. Chow to discuss their upcoming projects. Meanwhile, Linda anxiously waits for Bruce to come home. Bruce suffers another headache and complains of dizziness, so he was made to lie down on a couch. Xiao Man gives him a pain reliever and he falls asleep. He does n't regain consciousness and was therefore rushed to a hospital, where he is then pronounced to be dead.
The last part of the episode features the original newspaper articles, as well as old footage on the nationwide mourning of Bruce 's death. Bruce 's grave is visited by Linda and Bruce 's friends. A voice narrates how Bruce Lee greatly influenced the world 's view on the Chinese and their Kung Fu, along with his contributions to Kung Fu films. The episode ends with a faint voice whispering, "Shh... do n't wake him. ''
Also, in the United States, Lions Gate Entertainment edited the series into a 183 minute long film and released it on DVD on September 21, 2010.
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what is the fluid part of the fluid mosaic model | Fluid mosaic model - wikipedia
The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded. The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in cell membrane. The model, which was devised by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two - dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins. The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell - cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion. The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of plasma membrane. Fluid mosaic model is proposed by SJ Singer and G Nicolson in 1972. It 's main function is to give shape to the cell.
Chemically a cell membrane is composed of four components: Phospholipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Cholesterol.
The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static.
Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davidson - Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties.
An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase. Singer and Nicholson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model.
The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes.
Additionally, the two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol - interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts. Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid - protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins.
The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction.
The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.
During the decade of 1970, it was acknowledged that individual lipid molecules undergo free lateral diffusion within each of the layers of the lipid membrane. Diffusion occurs at a high speed, with an average lipid molecule diffusing ~ 2 μm, approximately the length of a large bacterial cell, in about 1 second. It has also been observed that individual lipid molecules rotate rapidly around their own axis. Moreover, phospholipid molecules can, although they seldom do, migrate from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other (a process known as flip - flop). However, flip - flop might be enhanced by flippase enzymes. The processes described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function.
There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes e.g. binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein - protein interactions. Furthermore, protein - cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of "cytoskeletal fences '', corrals wherein lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave. Restriction on lateral diffusion rates of membrane components is very important because it allows the functional specialization of particular regions within the cell membranes.
Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts.
Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes within the membrane. The assembly of single molecules into these macromolecular complexes has important functional consequences for the cell; such as ion and metabolite transport, signaling, cell adhesion, and migration.
Some proteins embedded in the bilipid layer interact with the extracellular matrix outside the cell, cytoskeleton filaments inside the cell, and septin ring - like structures. These interactions have a strong influence on shape and structure, as well as on compartmentalization. Moreover, they impose physical constraints that restrict the free lateral diffusion of proteins and at least some lipids within the bilipid layer.
When integral proteins of the lipid bilayer are tethered to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments. Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes.
Septins are a family of GTP - binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring - like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.
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betty friedan’s 1963 book the feminine mystique quizlet | The Feminine Mystique - wikipedia
The Feminine Mystique is a book written by Betty Friedan which is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second - wave feminism in the United States. It was published on February 19, 1963 by W.W. Norton.
In 1957, Friedan was asked to conduct a survey of her former Smith College classmates for their 15th anniversary reunion; the results, in which she found that many of them were unhappy with their lives as housewives, prompted her to begin research for The Feminine Mystique, conducting interviews with other suburban housewives, as well as researching psychology, media, and advertising. She originally intended to publish an article on the topic, not a book, but no magazine would publish her article.
During the year of 1964, The Feminine Mystique became the bestselling nonfiction book with over one million copies sold. In this book, Friedan challenged the widely shared belief in 1950s that "fulfillment as a woman had only one definition for American women after 1949 -- the housewife - mother. ''
The Feminine Mystique begins with an introduction describing what Friedan called "the problem that has no name '' -- the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and early 1960s. It discusses the lives of several housewives from around the United States who were unhappy despite living in material comfort and being married with children. Furthermore, Friedan questioned the women 's magazine, women 's education system and advertisers for creating this widespread image of women. The detrimental effects induced by this image was that it narrowed women into the domestic sphere and led many women to lose their own identities.
Chapter 1: Friedan points out that the average age of marriage was dropping, the portion of women attending college was decreasing and the birthrate was increasing for women throughout the 1950s, yet the widespread trend of unhappy women persisted, although American culture insisted that fulfillment for women could be found in marriage and housewifery. Although aware of and sharing this dissatisfaction, women in the 1950s misinterpreted it as an individual problem and rarely talked about it with other women. As Friedan pointed out, "part of the strange newness of the problem is that it can not be understood in terms of the age - old material problems of man: poverty, sickness, hunger, cold. '' This chapter concludes by declaring "We can no longer ignore that voice within women that says: ' I want something more than my husband and my children and my home. ' ''
Chapter 2: Friedan states that the editorial decisions concerning women 's magazines at the time were being made mostly by men, who insisted on stories and articles that showed women as either happy housewives or unhappy careerists, thus creating the "feminine mystique '' -- the idea that women were naturally fulfilled by devoting their lives to being housewives and mothers. Friedan also states that this is in contrast to the 1930s, at which time women 's magazines often featured confident and independent heroines, many of whom were involved in careers.
Chapter 3: Friedan recalls her own decision to conform to society 's expectations by giving up her promising career in psychology to raise children, and shows that other young women still struggled with the same kind of decision. Many women dropped out of school early to marry, afraid that if they waited too long or became too educated, they would not be able to attract a husband. Friedan argues at the end of the chapter that although theorists discuss how men need to find their identity, women are expected to be autonomous. She states, "Anatomy is woman 's destiny, say the theorists of femininity; the identity of woman is determined by her biology. '' Friedan goes on to argue that the problem is women needing to mature and find their human identity. She argues, "In a sense that goes beyond any woman 's life, I think this is a crisis of women growing up -- a turning point from an immaturity that has been called femininity to full human identity. ''
Chapter 4: Friedan discusses early American feminists and how they fought against the assumption that the proper role of a woman was to be solely a wife and mother. She notes that they secured important rights for women, including education, the right to pursue a career, and the right to vote.
Chapter 5: In this chapter, called "The Sexual Solipsism of Sigmund Freud '', Friedan, who had a degree in psychology, criticizes Sigmund Freud (whose ideas were very influential in America at the time of her book 's publication). She notes that Freud saw women as childlike and as destined to be housewives, once pointing out that Freud wrote, "I believe that all reforming action in law and education would break down in front of the fact that, long before the age at which a man can earn a position in society, Nature has determined woman 's destiny through beauty, charm, and sweetness. Law and custom have much to give women that has been withheld from them, but the position of women will surely be what it is: in youth an adored darling and in mature years a loved wife. '' Friedan also points out that Freud 's unproven concept of "penis envy '' had been used to label women who wanted careers as neurotic, and that the popularity of Freud 's work and ideas elevated the "feminine mystique '' of female fulfillment in housewifery into a "scientific religion '' that most women were not educated enough to criticize.
Chapter 6: Friedan criticizes functionalism, which attempted to make the social sciences more credible by studying the institutions of society as if they were parts of a social body, as in biology. Institutions were studied in terms of their function in society, and women were confined to their sexual biological roles as housewives and mothers as well as being told that doing otherwise would upset the social balance. Friedan points out that this is unproven and that Margaret Mead, a prominent functionalist, had a flourishing career as an anthropologist.
Chapter 7: Friedan discusses the change in women 's education from the 1940s to the early 1960s, in which many women 's schools concentrated on non-challenging classes that focused mostly on marriage, family, and other subjects deemed suitable for women, as educators influenced by functionalism felt that too much education would spoil women 's femininity and capacity for sexual fulfillment. Friedan says that this change in education arrested girls in their emotional development at a young age, because they never had to face the painful identity crisis and subsequent maturation that comes from dealing with many adult challenges.
Chapter 8: Friedan notes that the uncertainties and fears during World War II and the Cold War made Americans long for the comfort of home, so they tried to create an idealized home life with the father as breadwinner and the mother as housewife. Friedan notes that this was helped along by the fact that many of the women who worked during the war filling jobs previously filled by men faced dismissal, discrimination, or hostility when the men returned, and that educators blamed over-educated, career - focused mothers for the maladjustment of soldiers in World War II. Yet as Friedan shows, later studies found that overbearing mothers, not careerists, were the ones who raised maladjusted children.
Chapter 9: Friedan shows that advertisers tried to encourage housewives to think of themselves as professionals who needed many specialized products in order to do their jobs, while discouraging housewives from having actual careers, since that would mean they would not spend as much time and effort on housework and therefore would not buy as many household products, cutting into advertisers ' profits.
Chapter 10: Friedan interviews several full - time housewives, finding that although they are not fulfilled by their housework, they are all extremely busy with it. She postulates that these women unconsciously stretch their home duties to fill the time available, because the feminine mystique has taught women that this is their role, and if they ever complete their tasks they will become unneeded.
Chapter 11: Friedan notes that many housewives have sought fulfillment in sex, unable to find it in housework and children; Friedan notes that sex can not fulfill all of a person 's needs, and that attempts to make it do so often drive married women to have affairs or drive their husbands away as they become obsessed with sex.
Chapter 12: Friedan discusses the fact that many children have lost interest in life or emotional growth, attributing the change to the mother 's own lack of fulfillment, a side effect of the feminine mystique. When the mother lacks a self, Friedan notes, she often tries to live through her children, causing the children to lose their own sense of themselves as separate human beings with their own lives.
Chapter 13: Friedan discusses Abraham Maslow 's hierarchy of needs and notes that women have been trapped at the basic, physiological level, expected to find their identity through their sexual role alone. Friedan says that women need meaningful work just as men do to achieve self - actualization, the highest level on the hierarchy of needs.
Chapter 14: In the final chapter of The Feminine Mystique, Friedan discusses several case studies of women who have begun to go against the feminine mystique. She also advocates a new life plan for her women readers, including not viewing housework as a career, not trying to find total fulfillment through marriage and motherhood alone, and finding meaningful work that uses their full mental capacity. She discusses the conflicts that some women may face in this journey to self - actualization, including their own fears and resistance from others. For each conflict, Friedan offers examples of women who have overcome it. Friedan ends her book by promoting education and meaningful work as the ultimate method by which American women can avoid becoming trapped in the feminine mystique, calling for a drastic rethinking of what it means to be feminine, and offering several educational and occupational suggestions.
Friedan originally intended to write a sequel to The Feminine Mystique, which was to be called Woman: The Fourth Dimension, but instead only wrote an article by that name, which appeared in the Ladies ' Home Journal in June 1964.
Friedan 's chapter on "The Sexual Solipsism of Sigmund Freud '' was inspired by Simone de Beauvoir 's The Second Sex.
The Feminine Mystique drew large numbers of white, middle - class women to the feminist cause. Her book "took the complicated and jargon - laden ideas of psychologists, economists, and political theorists, and translated them into powerful, readable, relatable prose that touched millions. ''
Politicians began to recognize the frustrations of women due in part to Betty Friedan and in 1963 the commission appointed to review the status of women recommended an end to inequities. Legislation followed and in 1963 The Equal Pay Act of 1963 stipulated that women receive the same pay as men for the same work.
NOW (The National Organization for Women) was organized in 1966 with 30 women from different backgrounds; Friedan was one of them, and helped draft the founding statement of NOW. The statement called for "the true equality for all women ''. NOW demanded the removal of all barriers to "equal and economic advance ''. Friedan 's influence can be seen in the founding statement; a main emphasis of the book is "women 's need for identity and autonomy '', and NOW 's statement says "NOW is dedicated to the proposition that women first and foremost are human beings, who... must have the chance to develop their fullest human potential. ''
The Feminine Mystique is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century, and is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second - wave feminism in the United States. Futurist Alvin Toffler declared that it "pulled the trigger on history. '' Friedan received hundreds of letters from unhappy housewives after its publication, and she herself went on to help found, and become the first president of the National Organization for Women, an influential feminist organization. In addition to sparking the second wave of feminism, Friedan 's book was widely recognized as a founding document of the third wave of feminism. Third - wavers recognized the contribution The Feminine Mystique made to second wave feminism, and used it as a starting point as they expanded their platform to include women of color, low income women, and LGBTQ women.
In addition to its obvious contribution to feminism, The Feminine Mystique related to many other coinciding movements. "Her work indicates for us the ways that feminism was interconnected with the struggles of working - class men and women, with black and Jewish battles against racism and anti-Semitism... As a result, The Feminine Mystique had substantial impact on a wide range of political activists, thinkers, and ordinary individuals. ''
By the year 2000, The Feminine Mystique had sold more than 3 million copies and had been translated into many foreign languages.
On February 22 and 23, 2013, a symposium titled React: The Feminine Mystique at 50, co-sponsored by The New School for Public Engagement and Parsons the New School for Design, was held. An accompanying exhibit titled REACT was also on display, consisting of twenty - five pieces of artwork responding to The Feminine Mystique.
Also in February 2013, a fiftieth - anniversary edition of The Feminine Mystique was published, with a new introduction by Gail Collins.
Also in 2013, to celebrate its centennial the U.S. Department of Labor created a list of over 100 Books that Shaped Work in America, which included The Feminine Mystique. The Department of Labor later chose The Feminine Mystique as one of its top ten books from that list.
Also in 2013, The Feminine Mystique was discussed in Makers: Women Who Make America.
In 2014 the Betty Friedan Hometown Tribute committee won the Superior Achievement award in the special projects category for its 50th anniversary celebration of the publication of The Feminine Mystique. They received the award from the Illinois State Historical Society.
From immediately after its publishing and continuing until even now, The Feminine Mystique has been the recipient of much backlash against feminism. Significant numbers of women responded angrily to the book, which they felt implied that wives and mothers could never be fulfilled. "Women who valued their roles as mothers and housewives interpreted Friedan 's message as one that threatened their stability, devalued their labor, and disrespected their intelligence. '' In a Letter to Editor in McCall 's, one woman wrote, "All this time I thought I was happy, and a nice person. Now I discover I 've been miserable and some sort of monster in disguise -- now out of disguise. How awful! '' Another said, "Mrs. Friedan should save her pity for those who really need it -- the half starved, oppressed people in the world. '' When women critical of the work were not expressing personal offense at Friedan 's description of the housewife 's plight, they were accusing her of planning to destroy American families. Jessica Weiss quoted in her paper, "If the mothers, (or housewives as we are called) took this advice, what would become of our children? Or better yet, the future of the world. ''
Historian Joanne Meyerowitz argues that many of the contemporary magazines and articles of the period did not place women solely in the home, as Friedan stated, but in fact supported the notions of full - or part - time jobs for women seeking to follow a career path rather than being a housewife. These articles did however still emphasize the importance of maintaining the traditional image of femininity.
Daniel Horowitz, a Professor of American Studies at Smith College points out that although Friedan presented herself as a typical suburban housewife, she was involved with radical politics and labor journalism in her youth, and during the time she wrote The Feminine Mystique she worked as a freelance journalist for women 's magazines and as a community organizer.
The W.W. Norton publishing house, where Betty Friedan 's work was initially circulated to be published as a book also generated some criticism. In fact an employee under the alias "L M '' wrote in a two - page memo that Friedan 's theoretical views were "too obvious and feminine '', as well as critiquing her approach by suggesting it to be unscientific.
In addition, Friedan has been criticized for focusing solely on the plight of middle - class white women, and not giving enough attention to the differing situations encountered by women in less stable economic situations, or women of other races. According to Kirsten Fermaglich and Lisa Fine, "women of color -- African American, Latina, Asian American and Native American women -- were completely absent from Friedan 's vision, as were white working - class and poor women. '' Despite being written during the Civil Rights Movement, Friedan 's text "barely mentions African - American women. '' She has also been criticized for prejudice against homosexuality. In part, this criticism stems from her adherence to the paradigmatic belief at the time that "bad mothers '' caused gender and sexuality confusion. She continued this trend by resisting efforts by the National Organization of Women, of which she was the first president, to integrate lesbians ' rights into their platform. Despite these criticisms, her "language aimed at white American middle - class women won large numbers of supporters to the feminist cause, '' implying perhaps that Friedan 's decision to exclude other groups was deliberate in mobilizing a group of women that had in some cases not thought of the improvement of their rights.
In 2005, conservative magazine Human Events included The Feminine Mystique on its list of "Ten Most Harmful Books of the 19th and 20th Centuries '' as number seven.
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