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where are guns manufactured in the united states | List of modern armament manufacturers - wikipedia
The following list of modern armament manufacturers presents major companies producing modern weapons and munitions for military, paramilitary, law enforcement agency and civilian. The companies are listed by their full name followed by the short form, or common acronym, if any, in parentheses. The country the company is b sed in, if the information is available, follows that.
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most interceptions by a qb in a single game | List of National Football League records (individual) - wikipedia
This is a list of records in the National Football League (NFL) set by individual players.
All - purpose yardage (or combined net yards gained) encompasses rushing, receiving, interception returns, punt returns, kickoff returns and fumble returns.
Net average has been compiled since 1976.
Punts inside the 20 have been compiled since 1976.
Note: These records are not listed in the NFL Record and Fact Book.
Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book
Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book
NOTE: following records are compiled from Pro Football Reference 's Game Finder. Game - by - game info is available only since 1950.
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who played leo's daughter on west wing | List of the West Wing characters - wikipedia
The television series The West Wing is a political drama series which was originally broadcast on NBC.
Many actors noted for work in sitcoms, including John Goodman, Alan Alda, John Larroquette, Christopher Lloyd, Ed O'Neill, Matthew Perry, Patricia Richardson, Lily Tomlin, Wayne Wilderson, and Daniel Von Bargen appeared in dramatic roles on The West Wing.
See List of politicians in The West Wing
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who has the most saves in a mlb season | List of major League Baseball single - season records - wikipedia
Records are for post-1900 only and need to be verified by a reference source, preferably the Elias Book of Baseball Records.
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he was roman emperor from 306-337 ce becoming the first emperor to convert to christianity | Constantine the Great - wikipedia
Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February c. 272 AD -- 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine (in the Orthodox Church as Saint Constantine the Great, Equal - to - the - Apostles), was a Roman Emperor of Illyrian - Greek origin from 306 to 337 AD. He was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman Army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west, in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under Emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius raised himself to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern - day York) after his father 's death in 306 AD, and he emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against Emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD.
As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. The government was restructured, and the civil and military authorities were separated. A new gold coin was introduced to combat inflation known as the solidus. It became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years.
Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, and he played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared religious tolerance for Christianity in the Roman empire. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was adopted by Christians. In military matters, the Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers -- the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians -- even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century.
The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself (the laudatory epithet of "New Rome '' came later, and was never an official title). It became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years, and the later Eastern Empire was known as the Byzantine Empire. His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian 's tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession by leaving the empire to his sons. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries after his reign. The medieval church upheld him as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign due to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Trends in modern and recent scholarship have attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus ' tomb in Jerusalem and became the holiest place in Christendom. The Papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the supposed Donation of Constantine. He is venerated as a saint by Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholics. He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor '', and he did heavily promote the Christian Church. Some modern scholars, however, debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of the Christian faith itself.
Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and he has always been a controversial figure. The fluctuations in Constantine 's reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period, and are often one - sided. There are no surviving histories or biographies dealing with Constantine 's life and rule. The nearest replacement is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini, a work that is a mixture of eulogy and hagiography. Written between 335 AD and circa 339 AD, the Vita extols Constantine 's moral and religious virtues. The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini. A work of uncertain date, the Origo focuses on military and political events, to the neglect of cultural and religious matters.
Lactantius ' De Mortibus Persecutorum, a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine 's predecessors and early life. The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine 's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (408 -- 50 AD), a century after Constantine 's reign, these ecclesiastic historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation and deliberate obscurity. The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm.
The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (De Caesaribus), Eutropius (Breviarium), Festus (Breviarium), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favorable image of Constantine, but omit reference to Constantine 's religious policies. The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. Contemporary architecture, such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba, epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources.
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally named, was born in the city of Naissus, (today Niš, Serbia) part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 February, probably c. 272 AD. His father was Flavius Constantius, an Illyrian, and a native of Dardania province of Moesia (later Dacia Ripensis). Constantine probably spent little time with his father who was an officer in the Roman army, part of the Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian 's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285. Constantine 's mother was Helena, a Greek woman of low social standing from Helenopolis of Bithynia. It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine. His main language was Latin, and during his public speeches he needed Greek translators.
In July 285 AD, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the Empire was called "indivisible '' in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the Empire. In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian 's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289.
Diocletian divided the Empire again in 293 AD, appointing two Caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to their respective Augustus (senior emperor) but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian 's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome 's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus. In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father 's heir presumptive.
Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian 's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid and socially mobile, and Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius -- none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues -- Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius 's best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia, and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 AD, and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria (297 AD) and under Galerius in Mesopotamia (298 -- 299 AD). By late 305 AD, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi.
Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303 AD, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian 's "Great Persecution '', the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his court 's demands for universal persecution. On 23 February 303 AD, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia 's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned.
It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. In his later writings he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian 's "sanguinary edicts '' against the "worshippers of God '', but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life.
On 1 May 305 AD, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304 -- 305 AD, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius ' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian 's resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian 's son) as his successors. It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to Augusti, while Severus and Maximinus Daia, Galerius ' nephew, were appointed their Caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.
Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine 's life in the months following Diocletian 's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius ' feet. It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted.
Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius 's court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305 AD, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine 's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of 305 AD.
From Bononia they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father 's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian 's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius 's campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York). Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full Augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius ' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; Hispania, which had been in his father 's domain for less than a year, rejected it.
Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius 's death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. The portrait was wreathed in bay. He requested recognition as heir to his father 's throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him ''. Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait on fire. His advisers calmed him, and argued that outright denial of Constantine 's claims would mean certain war. Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "Caesar '' rather than "Augustus '' (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor 's traditional purple robes. Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy.
Constantine 's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. He therefore commanded one of the largest Roman armies, stationed along the important Rhine frontier. After his promotion to emperor, Constantine remained in Britain, driving back the tribes of the Picts and secured his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father 's rule, and ordered the repair of the region 's roadways. He soon left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. The Franks, after learning of Constantine 's acclamation, invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306 -- 307 AD. Constantine drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured two of their kings, Ascaric and Merogaisus. The kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier 's amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations that followed.
Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall, and a massive imperial bathhouse. Constantine sponsored many building projects across Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles). According to Lactantius, Constantine followed his father in following a tolerant policy towards Christianity. Although not yet a Christian, he probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution, and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor '', Galerius. Constantine decreed a formal end to persecution, and returned to Christians all they had lost during the persecutions.
Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him, he relied on his father 's reputation in his early propaganda: the earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father 's deeds as to those of Constantine himself. Constantine 's military skill and building projects soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father 's life and reign ''. Constantinian coinage, sculpture and oratory also shows a new tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians '' beyond the frontiers. After Constantine 's victory over the Alemanni, he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen -- "The Alemanni conquered '' -- beneath the phrase "Romans ' rejoicing ''. There was little sympathy for these enemies. As his panegyrist declared: "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe. ''
Following Galerius ' recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine 's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait 's subject as the son of a harlot, and lamented his own powerlessness. Maxentius, envious of Constantine 's authority, seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306 AD. Galerius refused to recognize him, but failed to unseat him. Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus ' armies, previously under command of Maxentius ' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son 's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307 AD. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine, and elevate him to Augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius ' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted, and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307 AD. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition.
Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 AD, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308 AD, he raided the territory of the Bructeri, and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). In 310 AD, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence, and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people, and strengthened his power base in the West. Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307 -- 308 AD, but soon fell out with his son. In early 308 AD, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius ' title, Maximian returned to Constantine 's court.
On 11 November 308 AD, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell - Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. Licinius, one of Galerius ' old military companions, was appointed Augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to style himself as Augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a Caesar on theirs. Maximinus Daia was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of Augustus, and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the Augusti '', but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310 AD, Galerius was referring to both men as Augusti.
In 310 AD, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine 's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine 's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine. At Cabillunum (Chalon - sur - Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon). Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310 AD, Maximian hanged himself.
In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father 's devoted son after his death. He began minting coins with his father 's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian 's death. Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311 AD, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image.
The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine 's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian, and needed a new source of legitimacy. In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310 AD, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a 3rd Century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine 's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine 's right to rule. Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor, '' the orator declares to Constantine.
The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world '', as the poet Virgil had once foretold. The oration 's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine 's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 AD on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo. There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine 's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul.
By the middle of 310 AD, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311 AD, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. He died soon after the edict 's proclamation, destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy. Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus. While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius.
Maxentius ' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage; and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. By 312 AD, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, even among Christian Italians. In the summer of 311 AD, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father 's "murder ''. To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311 -- 312 AD, and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine 's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support. Maxentius accepted. According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day ''.
Constantine 's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavorable omens. Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, ignored all these cautions. Early in the spring of 312 AD, Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town, and advanced with them into northern Italy.
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. In the ensuing battle Constantine 's army encircled Maxentius ' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers ' iron - tipped clubs. Constantine 's armies emerged victorious. Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius ' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312 AD, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia).
Brescia 's army was easily dispersed, and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona, where a large Maxentian force was camped. Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius ' praetorian prefect, was in a strong defensive position, since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine 's expeditionary force, but was defeated. Constantine 's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia, Mutina (Modena), and Ravenna. The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine.
Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. He still controlled Rome 's praetorian guards, was well - stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region 's support without challenge. Constantine progressed slowly along the Via Flaminia, allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. Maxentius ' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. On 28 October 312 AD, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans '' would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.
Maxentius organized his forces -- still twice the size of Constantine 's -- in long lines facing the battle plain, with their backs to the river. Constantine 's army arrived at the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or its soldiers ' shields. According to Lactantius, Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the battle, wherein he was advised "to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers... by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he marked Christ on their shields. '' Eusebius describes another version, where, while marching at midday, "he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the message, In Hoc Signo Vinces or "with this sign, you shall win ''; in Eusebius 's account, Constantine had a dream the following night, in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign, and told him to make a standard, the labarum, for his army in that form. Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, but it enters his narrative before the war against Maxentius begins. Eusebius describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ): ☧, a symbol representing the first two letters of the Greek spelling of the word Christos or Christ. In 315 AD a medallion was issued at Ticinum showing Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho, and coins issued at Siscia in 317 / 318 AD repeat the image. The figure was otherwise rare, however, and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s.
Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius ' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius ' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius ' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief: Maxentius ' troops were broken before the first charge. Maxentius ' horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them, and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed by the mass of his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber, and drowned.
Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312. He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met with popular jubilation. Maxentius ' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through the streets for all to see. After the ceremonies, Maxentius ' disembodied head was sent to Carthage; at this, Carthage would offer no further resistance. Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. He did, however, choose to honor the Senatorial Curia with a visit, where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius ' supporters. In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name '', which meant his name would be listed first in all official documents, and acclaimed him as "the greatest Augustus ''. He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius ' imprisoned opponents.
An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius ' image was systematically purged from all public places. Maxentius was written up as a "tyrant '', and set against an idealized image of the "liberator '', Constantine. Eusebius, in his later works, is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. Maxentius ' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honors Maxentius had granted to leaders of the Senate were invalidated. Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius ' influence on Rome 's urban landscape. All structures built by Maxentius were re-dedicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius. At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand was erected. Its inscription bore the message the statue had already made clear: By this sign Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant.
Where he did not overwrite Maxentius ' achievements, Constantine upstaged them: the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its total seating capacity was twenty - five times larger than that of Maxentius ' racing complex on the Via Appia. Maxentius ' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares) were disbanded. The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and put to use in a basilica on the Via Labicana. On November 9, 312 AD, barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city, the former base of the Imperial Horse Guard was chosen for redevelopment into the Lateran Basilica. The Legio II Parthica was removed from Alba (Albano Laziale), and the remainder of Maxentius ' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine.
In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine 's half - sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so - called Edict of Milan, officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire. The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian 's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere -- "Divinity '' and "Supreme Divinity '', summa divinitas. The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximin had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximin, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; Licinius, for his part, had Constantine 's statues in Emona destroyed. In either 314 or 316 AD, the two Augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine 's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius ' son Licinianus were made caesars. After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323.
In the year 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began to oppress Christians anew, generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office - holders. Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen.
This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine 's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martius Martinianus, the commander of his bodyguard, as Caesar, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius 's son (the son of Constantine 's half - sister) was also killed. Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
Licinius ' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival center of pagan and Greek - speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin - speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present - day Sofia), as he was reported saying that "Serdica is my Rome ''. Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium, which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism, during the preceding century, by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. The city was thus founded in 324, dedicated on 11 May 330 and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine 's City '' or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event. The new city was protected by the relics of the True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. The capital would often be compared to the ' old ' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the "New Rome of Constantinople ''.
Constantine was the first emperor to stop Christian persecutions and to legalise Christianity along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire.
In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan, where they developed the Edict of Milan. The edict stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith without oppression. This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously, and returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected from religious persecution not only Christians but all religions, allowing anyone to worship whichever deity they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, then senior emperor of the Tetrarchy; Galerius ' edict granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians.
Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena 's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus, a title emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion priesthood until Gratian (r. 375 -- 383) renounced the title. According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, writing to Christians to make clear that he believed he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone. Throughout his rule, Constantine supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (e.g. exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the Diocletianic persecution. His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and Old Saint Peter 's Basilica.
Apparently Constantine did not patronize Christianity alone. After gaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), a triumphal arch -- the Arch of Constantine -- was built (315) to celebrate his triumph. The arch is decorated with images of the goddess Victoria. At the time of its dedication, sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, and Hercules were made. Absent from the Arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, as the Arch was commissioned by the Senate, the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt.
In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. In the year 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine 's attributes: the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, as well on the coin itself.
The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the emperor as having great influence and ultimate regulatory authority within the religious discussions involving the early Christian councils of that time, e.g., most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine himself disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring where possible to establish an orthodoxy. His influence over the early Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; what proper worship and doctrines and dogma consisted of was for the Church to determine, in the hands of the participating bishops.
Most notably, from 313 to 316 bishops in North Africa struggled with other Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian. The African bishops could not come to terms and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317 Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified), most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed.
Constantine enforced the prohibition of the First Council of Nicaea against celebrating the Lord 's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover (14 Nisan) (see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy). This marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on the Roman Julian Calendar, a solar calendar, was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew Calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire.
Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews, but while some of his edicts were unfavorable towards Jews, they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy.
Beginning in the mid-3rd century the emperors began to favor members of the equestrian order over senators, who had had a monopoly on the most important offices of state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships (as it was felt that they lacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs), such posts being given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues -- following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement.
In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy, and at the same time elevating the rank of already existing equestrian office - holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order -- at least as a bureaucratic rank -- in the process, so that by the end of the 4th century the title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid-low officials.
By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator, either by being elected praetor or (in most cases) by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank: from then on, holding of actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. At the same time, Constantine gained with this the support of the old nobility, as the Senate was allowed itself to elect praetors and quaestors, in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio). In one inscription in honor of city prefect (336 -- 337) Ceionius Rufus Albinus, it was written that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar 's time ''.
The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators, who had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century, could now dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianized imperial rule; however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu -- some historians suggesting that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed.
Constantine 's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration: the military chiefs, who since the Crisis of the Third Century had risen from the ranks, remained outside the senate, in which they were included only by Constantine 's children.
After the runaway inflation of the third century, associated with the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses, Diocletian had tried unsuccessfully to re establish trustworthy minting of silver and billon coins. The failure of the various Diocletianic attempts at the restoration of a functioning silver coin resided in the fact that the silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content, and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Minting of the Diocletianic "pure '' silver argenteus ceased, therefore, soon after 305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of good standard gold pieces -- the solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold. New (and highly debased) silver pieces would continue to be issued during Constantine 's later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this bullion minting eventually ceased, de jure, in 367, with the silver piece being de facto continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis. These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The anonymous author of the possibly contemporary treatise on military affairs De Rebus Bellicis held that, as a consequence of this monetary policy, the rift between classes widened: the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever - degrading bronze pieces. Later emperors like Julian the Apostate tried to present themselves as advocates of the humiles by insisting on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency.
Constantine 's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious ones, in that increased minting was associated with measures of confiscation -- taken since 331 and closed in 336 -- of all gold, silver and bronze statues from pagan temples, who were declared as imperial property and, as such, as monetary assets. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting hold of the statues and having them melted for immediate minting -- with the exception of a number of bronze statues who were used as public monuments for the beautification of the new capital in Constantinople.
On some date between 15 May and 17 June 326, Constantine had his eldest son Crispus, by Minervina, seized and put to death by "cold poison '' at Pola (Pula, Croatia). In July, Constantine had his wife, the Empress Fausta, killed in an over-heated bath. Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives in the literary record were eradicated, and the memory of both was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited praise of Crispus out of later copies of his Historia Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all. Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events; those few that do offer unconvincing rationales, are of later provenance, and are generally unreliable. At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that the Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus, or was spreading rumors to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to Hippolytus -- Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities. One source, the largely fictional Passion of Artemius, probably penned in the eighth century by John of Damascus, makes the legendary connection explicit. As an interpretation of the executions, the myth rests on only "the slimmest of evidence '': sources that allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta are late and unreliable, and the modern suggestion that Constantine 's "godly '' edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected rests on no evidence at all.
Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "Caesars '', following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine 's Caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to Empire, and entirely subordinated to their Augustus, as long as he was alive. Therefore, an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was, perhaps, Constantine 's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this -- and Fausta 's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half - brother -- being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary ''.
Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328 the emperor Constantine the Great inaugurated the Constantine 's Bridge (Danube) at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra. Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336.
In the last years of his life Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia. In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia 's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia himself. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336 -- 337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337.
Constantine had known death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting - place for himself. It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother 's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present - day Gulf of İzmit). There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became a catechumen, and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. He summoned the bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized. He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness. The bishops, Eusebius records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom ''. He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer. In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy. It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty - day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.
Although Constantine 's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius 's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill - deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war ''. Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini, an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia; the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; and the Breviarium of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia. From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius 's Vita was edited to defend Constantine 's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign.
Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there. His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine 's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of Caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian.
Although he earned his honorific of "The Great '' ("Μέγας '') from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. Besides reuniting the Empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306 -- 308, the Franks again in 313 -- 314, the Goths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, Constantine had reoccupied most of the long - lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. Serving for a total of almost 31 years (combining his years as co-ruler and sole ruler), he was also the longest serving emperor since Augustus and the second longest serving emperor in Roman history.
In the cultural sphere Constantine contributed to the revival of the clean shaven face fashion of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Trajan, which was originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus. This new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas.
The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it had become a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine ''. Ten emperors, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, carried the name. Monumental Constantinian forms were used at the court of Charlemagne to suggest that he was Constantine 's successor and equal. Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against "heathens ''. The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine '' itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine), having a feast day on 21 May, and calls him isapostolos (Ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος) -- an equal of the Apostles.
The Niš Airport is named "Constantine the Great '' in honor of him. A large Cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013.
During his life and those of his sons, Constantine was presented as a paragon of virtue. Pagans such as Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius showered him with praise. When the last of his sons died in 361, however, his nephew (and son - in - law) Julian the Apostate wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia, which denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. Following Julian, Eunapius began -- and Zosimus continued -- a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the Empire through his indulgence to the Christians.
In both medieval East and West, Constantine was presented as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of Constantine 's career. The German humanist Johann Löwenklau, discoverer of Zosimus ' writings, published a Latin translation thereof in 1576. In its preface, he argued that Zosimus ' picture of Constantine was superior to that offered by Eusebius and the Church historians, offered a more balanced view. Cardinal Caesar Baronius, a man of the Counter-Reformation, criticized Zosimus, favoring Eusebius ' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius ' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. For his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776 -- 89), Edward Gibbon, aiming to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship, offered a portrait of Constantine built on the contrasted narratives of Eusebius and Zosimus. In a form that parallels his account of the empire 's decline, Gibbon presents a noble war hero corrupted by Christian influences, who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age: "a hero... degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch ''.
Modern interpretations of Constantine 's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt 's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. Henri Grégoire, writing in the 1930s, followed Burckhardt 's evaluation of Constantine. For Grégoire, Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius ' Vita, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. Otto Seeck, in Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920 -- 23), and André Piganiol, in L'empereur Constantin (1932), wrote against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presented Constantine as a sincere war hero, whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. Piganiol 's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era 's religious syncretism. Related histories by A.H.M. Jones (Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen (Constantine, 1969) gave portraits of a less visionary, and more impulsive, Constantine.
These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Beginning with Norman H. Baynes ' Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) and reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), a historiographic tradition developed which presented Constantine as a committed Christian. T.D. Barnes 's seminal Constantine and Eusebius (1981) represents the culmination of this trend. Barnes ' Constantine experienced a radical conversion, which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. Charles Matson Odahl 's recent Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. In spite of Barnes ' work, arguments over the strength and depth of Constantine 's religious conversion continue. Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliott 's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. A similar view of Constantine is held in Paul Veyne 's recent (2007) work, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien, which does not speculate on the origins of Constantine 's Christian motivation, but presents him, in his role as Emperor, as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed himself meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity ''.
Latin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death - bed and by an unorthodox bishop, as it undermined the authority of the Papacy. Hence, by the early fourth century, a legend had emerged that Pope Sylvester I (314 -- 335) had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was soon baptized, and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Palace. In the eighth century, most likely during the pontificate of Stephen II (752 -- 757), a document called the Donation of Constantine first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions '' to Sylvester and his successors. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope 's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a forgery.
During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd. While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as Emperor in Britain, there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Saint Elen and her son, another Constantine (Welsh: Custennin). In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the emperor Constantine 's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester. Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalized Historia Regum Britanniae, an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo - Saxon invasion. According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submitted to Roman law so long as he retained his kingship. However, he died only a month later, and Constantius took the throne himself, marrying Cole 's daughter Helena. They had their son Constantine, who succeeded his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman Emperor.
Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry 's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena.
Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine are marked with a "(CC) ''.
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The New Deal was a series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1936 in response to the Great Depression. Some of these federal programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). These programs included support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly. It included new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and efforts to re-inflate the economy after prices had fallen sharply. New Deal programs included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the "3 Rs '': relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of the nine presidential terms from 1933 -- 1969) with its base in liberal ideas, the South, traditional Democrats, big city machines and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The Republicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as hostile to business and economic growth and liberals in support. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal coalition that dominated presidential elections into the 1960s while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress in domestic affairs from 1937 -- 1964.
By 1936, the term "liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal and "conservative '' for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavors by a "pro-spender '' majority in Congress (drawn from two - party, competitive, non-machine, progressive and left party districts). In the 1938 midterm election, Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal (1933 -- 1934) and a Second New Deal (1935 -- 1938), with the second one more liberal and more controversial.
The First New Deal (1933 -- 1934) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided $500 million ($9.45 billion today) for relief operations by states and cities, while the short - lived CWA gave locals money to operate make - work projects in 1933 -- 1934. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash. The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was also part of the First New Deal.
The Second New Deal in 1935 -- 1938 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and the FSA, which both occurred in 1937; and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers. The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration, which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression.
The economic downturn of 1937 -- 1938 and the bitter split between the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal conservative coalition. By 1942 -- 1943, they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and the CCC and blocked major liberal proposals. Nonetheless, Roosevelt turned his attention to the war effort and won reelection in 1940 -- 1944. Furthermore, the Supreme Court declared the NRA and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional, but the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard Nixon generally retained. However, after 1974 the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support. The New Deal regulation of banking (Glass -- Steagall Act) lasted until it was suspended in the 1990s.
Several New Deal programs remain active and those operating under the original names include the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third. Prices fell by 20 %, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the United States increased from 4 % to 25 %. Additionally, one - third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part - time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50 % of the nation 's human work - power was going unused.
Before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks. When thousands of banks closed, depositors lost their savings as at that time there was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance and no Social Security. Relief for the poor was the responsibility of families, private charity and local governments, but as conditions worsened year by year demand skyrocketed and their combined resources increasingly fell far short of demand.
The depression had devastated the nation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, all state governors had authorized bank holidays or restricted withdrawals -- many Americans had little or no access to their bank accounts. Farm income had fallen by over 50 % since 1929. An estimated 844,000 non-farm mortgages had been foreclosed between 1930 -- 1933, out of five million in all. Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "in those days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I could be sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half ''.
The phrase "New Deal '' was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase, although the term was originally used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court.
Upon accepting the 1932 Democratic nomination for president, Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people '', saying:
Throughout the nation men and women, forgotten in the political philosophy of the Government, look to us here for guidance and for more equitable opportunity to share in the distribution of national wealth... I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people. This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms.
Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the Great Depression -- so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety of voices. Among Roosevelt 's more famous advisers was an informal "Brain Trust '', a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economy positively. His choice for Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, greatly influenced his initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates: "a forty - hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker 's compensation, unemployment compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and health insurance ''.
The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20th century. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts that hearkened back to an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness '' (referring, presumably, to corporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Deal policy. Other leaders such as Hugh S. Johnson of the NRA took ideas from the Woodrow Wilson Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the economy for World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917 -- 1918. Other New Deal planners revived experiments suggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA. The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 1934) encompassed the proposals offered by a wide spectrum of groups (not included was the Socialist Party, whose influence was all but destroyed). This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscal conservatism (see Economy Act, below) and experimentation with several different, sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills.
There were dozens of new agencies created by Roosevelt through Executive Orders. They are typically known by their alphabetical initials.
The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumbling economy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Herbert Hoover 's policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932. Roosevelt entered office with enormous political capital. Americans of all political persuasions were demanding immediate action and Roosevelt responded with a remarkable series of new programs in the "first hundred days '' of the administration, in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked and passed a few programs (such as the FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have been judged against Roosevelt for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. Walter Lippmann famously noted:
At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic - stricken mobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we became again an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our own security and to control our own destiny.
The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began a steady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 (with 1935 -- 1939 = 100) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933. However, by July 1933 it reached 85.5, a dramatic rebound of 57 % in four months. Recovery was steady and strong until 1937. Except for employment, the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s. The Recession of 1937 was a temporary downturn. Private sector employment, especially in manufacturing, recovered to the level of the 1920s, but failed to advance further until the war. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, an increase of 3,984,468. The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in 1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level.
The Economy Act, drafted by Budget Director Lewis Williams Douglas, was passed on March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular '' (non-emergency) federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensions to veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficit hawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Roosevelt argued there were two budgets: the "regular '' federal budget, which he balanced; and the emergency budget, which was needed to defeat the depression. It was imbalanced on a temporary basis.
Roosevelt initially favored balancing the budget, but soon found himself running spending deficits to fund his numerous programs. However, Douglas -- rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget -- resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Roosevelt strenuously opposed the Bonus Bill that would give World War I veterans a cash bonus. Congress finally passed it over his veto in 1936 and the Treasury distributed $1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the 1936 election.
New Dealers never accepted the Keynesian argument for government spending as a vehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with Henry Morgenthau of the Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balanced budgets.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, the economy was destabilized by bank failures followed by credit crunches. The initial reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers withdrew their deposits because they believed the bank might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self - fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdrew their deposits, the likelihood of default increased and this encouraged further withdrawals.
Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz have argued that the drain of money out of the banking system caused the monetary supply to shrink, forcing the economy to likewise shrink. As credit and economic activity diminished, price deflation followed, causing further economic contraction with disastrous impact on banks. Between 1929 and 1933, 40 % of all banks (9,490 out of 23,697 banks) failed. Much of the Great Depression 's economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.
Herbert Hoover had already considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. However, Roosevelt gave a radio address, held in the atmosphere of a Fireside Chat, in which he explained to the public in simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, what the government will do and how the population could help. He closed all the banks in the country and kept them all closed until he could pass new legislation.
On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act, drafted in large part by Hoover 's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. Three - quarters of the banks in the Federal Reserve System reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion: depositors lost a total of $540 million and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits -- it is a common myth that they received nothing back.
The Glass -- Steagall Act limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks. This banking reform offered unprecedented stability as while throughout the 1920s more than five hundred banks failed per year, it was less than ten banks per year after 1933.
Under the gold standard, the United States kept the dollar convertible to gold. The Federal Reserve would have had to execute an expansionary monetary policy to fight the deflation and to inject liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling -- but lower interest rates would have led to a gold outflow. Under the gold standards, price -- specie flow mechanism countries that lost gold, but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation). As long as the Federal Reserve had to defend the gold parity of the Dollar it had to sit idle while the banking system crumbled.
In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under license from the Treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of U.S. dollars. The Treasury no longer paid out gold in exchange for dollars and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for debts in private and public contracts.
The dollar was allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with no guaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934, the nominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These measures enabled the Federal Reserve to increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension in the hope that the decline in prices would finally end. In her essay "What ended the Great Depression? '' (1992), Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrial production by 25 % until 1937 and by 50 % until 1942.
Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, there was no regulation of securities at the federal level. Even firms whose securities were publicly traded published no regular reports or even worse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid another Wall Street Crash, the Securities Act of 1933 was enacted. It required the disclosure of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations of corporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally those reports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and prevent corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.
In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues of the 1920s. He signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of prohibition, for which a constitutional amendment of repeal (the 21st) was already in process. The repeal amendment was ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue and Roosevelt secured his popularity especially in the cities and ethnic areas by helping the beer start flowing.
Relief was the immediate effort to help the one - third of the population that was hardest hit by the depression. Relief was also aimed at providing temporary help to suffering and unemployed Americans. Local and state budgets were sharply reduced because of falling tax revenue, but New Deal relief programs were used not just to hire the unemployed but also to build needed schools, municipal buildings, waterworks, sewers, streets, and parks according to local specifications. While the regular Army and Navy budgets were reduced, Roosevelt juggled relief funds to help them out. All of the CCC camps were directed by army officers, who salaries came from the relief budget. The PWA built numerous warships, including two aircraft carriers; the money came from the PWA agency. PWA also built warplanes, while the WPA built military bases and airfields.
To prime the pump and cut unemployment, the NIRA created the Public Works Administration (PWA), a major program of public works, which organized and provided funds for the building of useful works such as government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges and dams. From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to build 34,599 projects, many of them quite large.
Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a wide range of government financed public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, hospitals and hundreds of thousands of miles of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one authority, Roosevelt 's New Deal "was literally stamped on the American landscape ''.
The rural U.S. was a high priority for Roosevelt and his energetic Secretary of Agriculture, Henry A. Wallace. Roosevelt believed that full economic recovery depended upon the recovery of agriculture and raising farm prices was a major tool, even though it meant higher food prices for the poor living in cities.
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, National Youth Administration (NYA), Forest Service and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale to curb flooding, generate electricity and modernize poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States. Under the Farmers ' Relief Act of 1933, the government paid compensation to farmers who reduced output, thereby raising prices. As a result of this legislation, the average income of farmers almost doubled by 1937.
In the 1920s, farm production had increased dramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use of fertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products, farmers faced a severe and chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Great Depression even worsened the agricultural crises and at the beginning of 1933 agricultural markets nearly faced collapse. Farm prices were so low that in Montana wheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. In Oregon, sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were not sufficient to warrant transportation to markets.
Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs were directed at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations (especially the Farm Bureau) and reflected debates among Roosevelt 's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L. Wilson, Rexford Tugwell and George Peek.
The AAA aimed to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of domestic allotments, setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity, '' 10 million acres (40,000 km) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot and six million piglets were killed and discarded.
The idea was to give farmers a "fair exchange value '' for their products in relation to the general economy ("parity level ''). Farm incomes and the income for the general population recovered fast since the beginning of 1933. Food prices remained still well below the 1929 peak. The AAA established an important and long - lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them.
A Gallup poll printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, (is) a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government ''. The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect today.
The Farm Tenancy Act in 1937 was the last major New Deal legislation that concerned farming. In turn, it created the Farm Security Administration (FSA), which replaced the Resettlement Administration.
The Food Stamp Plan -- a major new welfare program for urban poor -- was established in 1939 to provide stamps to poor people who could use them to purchase food at retail outlets. The program ended during wartime prosperity in 1943, but was restored in 1961. It survived into the 21st century with little controversy because it was seen to benefit the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers as well as farmers, thus it gained support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen. In 2013, Tea Party activists in the House nonetheless tried to end the program, now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, while the Senate fought to preserve it.
Recovery was the effort in numerous programs to restore the economy to normal health. By most economic indicators, this was achieved by 1937 -- except for unemployment, which remained stubbornly high until World War II began. Recovery was designed to help the economy bounce back from depression. Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929 -- 1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.
From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of deflation. Since 1931, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the voice of the nation 's organized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit trade associations to cooperate in government - instigated cartels to stabilize prices within their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices, organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.
Roosevelt 's advisers believed that excessive competition and technical progress had led to overproduction and lowered wages and prices, which they believed lowered demand and employment (deflation). He argued that government economic planning was necessary to remedy this. New Deal economists argued that cut - throat competition had hurt many businesses and that with prices having fallen 20 % and more, "deflation '' exacerbated the burden of debt and would delay recovery. They rejected a strong move in Congress to limit the workweek to 30 hours. Instead their remedy, designed in cooperation with big business, was the NIRA. It included stimulus funds for the WPA to spend and sought to raise prices, give more bargaining power for unions (so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition.
At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by former General Hugh S. Johnson, who had been a senior economic official in World War I. Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code '': a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 -- 45 hours and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code '' would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment. To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle '' publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self - government ''. The NRA brought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for that industry -- the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was 45 % higher than in March 1933.
NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson was showing signs of mental breakdown due to the extreme pressure and workload of running the National Recovery Administration. After two meetings with Roosevelt and an abortive resignation attempt, Johnson resigned on September 24, 1934 and Roosevelt replaced the position of Administrator with a new National Industrial Recovery Board, of which Donald Richberg was named Executive Director.
On May 27, 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Schechter v. United States. After the end of the NRA, quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the Railroad Commission of Texas with Tom Connally 's federal Hot Oil Act of 1935, which guaranteed that illegal "hot oil '' would not be sold. By the time NRA ended in May 1935, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standards laid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an eight - hour workday, together with abolishing child labor. These standards were reintroduced by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938.
The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followed and increased President Hoover 's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought to stimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individuals who owned homes. The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; Home Owners ' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) created national standards for home construction.
Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy and to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. Reforms targeted the causes of the depression and sought to prevent a crisis like it from happening again. In other words, financially rebuilding the U.S. while ensuring not to repeat history.
There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies, culminating in the Smoot - Hawley Act of 1930, worsened the Depression. Roosevelt already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932. In 1934, the Reciprocal Tariff Act was drafted by Cordell Hull. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around the globe and it is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that persists to this day.
A separate set of programs operated in Puerto Rico, headed by the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. It promoted land reform and helped small farms, it set up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification and helped local industry. The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by Juan Pablo Montoya Sr. from 1935 to 1937.
In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism in Congress and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, New Dealers passed important new initiatives. Historians refer to them as the "Second New Deal '' and note that it was more liberal and more controversial than the "First New Deal '' of 1933 -- 1934.
Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws, but these programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state (Wisconsin) had an insurance program. The United States was the only modern industrial country where people faced the Depression without any national system of social security. The work programs of the "First New Deal '' such as CWA and FERA were designed for immediate relief, for a year or two.
The most important program of 1935 and perhaps the New Deal as a whole was the Social Security Act. It established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children in families without a father present. It established the framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund -- he said: "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program ''.
Compared to the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative, but for the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. The Wagner Act did not compel employers to reach agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor. The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass - production sector, led by the older and larger American Federation of Labor and the new. more radical Congress of Industrial Organizations. Labor thus became a major component of the New Deal political coalition. However, the intense battle for members between the AFL and the CIO coalitions weakened labor 's power.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. Child labour of children under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbidden to work in hazardous employment. As a result, the wages of 300,000 workers, especially in the South, were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced. It was the last major New Deal legislation and it passed with support of Northern industrialists who wanted to stop the drain of jobs to the low - wage South.
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works Progress Administration (WPA), headed by close friend Harry Hopkins. Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long - term beneficial and the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises -- therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was created to return the unemployed to the work force. The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools and roads, and employed more than 8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds and so on.
Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Triborough Bridge, the LaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge. The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring electricity to rural areas, many of which still operate. The National Youth Administration was another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director, Lyndon B. Johnson, later used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society programs in the 1960s. The WPA was organized by states, but New York City had its own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists and theater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching for communist employees.
The Federal Writers ' Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guide book -- it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including Margaret Walker, Zora Neale Hurston and Anzia Yezierska, to document folklore. Other writers interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the Federal Theater Project, headed by charismatic Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors, technicians, writers and directors put on stage productions. The tickets were inexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomed to attending plays.
One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists on relief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses. Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury Department. During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for circus people, musicians, actors, artists and playwrights, together with increasing public appreciation of the arts.
In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to redistribute wealth. The bill imposed an income tax of 79 % on incomes over $5 million. Since that was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actually covered just one individual -- John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise only about $250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal. Morgenthau called it "more or less a campaign document ''. In a private conversation with Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was "stealing Huey Long 's thunder '' by making Long 's supporters his own. At the same time, it raised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt "a traitor to his class '' and the wealth tax act a "soak the rich tax ''.
A tax called the undistributed profits tax was enacted in 1936. This time the primary purpose was revenue, since Congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation Payment Act, calling for payments of $2 billion to World War I veterans. The bill established the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. Its proponents intended the bill to replace all other corporation taxes -- believing this would stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals. In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27 % and largely exempting small enterprises. Facing widespread and fierce criticism, the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.
The United States Housing Act of 1937 created the United States Housing Authority within the U.S. Department of the Interior. It was one of the last New Deal agencies created. The bill passed in 1937 with some Republican support to abolish slums.
When the Supreme Court started abolishing New Deal programs as unconstitutional, Roosevelt launched a surprise counter-attack in early 1937. He proposed adding five new justices, but conservative Democrats revolted, led by the Vice President. The Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 failed -- it never reached a vote. Momentum in Congress and public opinion shifted to the right and very little new legislation was passed expanding the New Deal. However, retirements allowed Roosevelt to put supporters on the Court and it stopped killing New Deal programs.
The Roosevelt administration was under assault during Roosevelt 's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in May 1937 to 19.0 % in June 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle, but until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.
The U.S. reached full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the gross national product (GNP). Military Keynesianism brought full employment and federal contracts were cost - plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skills -- they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school and housewives joined the labor force.
The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns started pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled -- and (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minorities -- were lowered.
In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3 % of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditures tripled, but the national debt as a percent of GNP showed little change. Spending on the war effort quickly eclipsed spending on New Deal programs. In 1944, government spending on the war effort exceeded 40 % of GNP. The U.S. economy experienced dramatic growth during the Second World War mostly due to the deemphasis of free enterprise in favor of the imposition of strict controls on prices and wages. These controls shared broad support among labor and business, resulting in cooperation between the two groups and the U.S. government. This cooperation resulted in the government subsidizing business and labor through both direct and indirect methods.
Conservative domination of Congress during the war meant that all welfare projects and reforms had to have their approval, which was given when business supported the project. For example, the Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal - mining industry, saving workers ' lives and company money. In terms of welfare, the New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. However, conservatives proposed benefits based on national service -- especially tied to military service or working in war industries -- and their approach won out.
The Community Facilities Act of 1940 (the Lanham Act) provided federal funds to defense - impacted communities where the population had soared and local facilities were overwhelmed. It provided money for the building of housing for war workers as well as recreational facilities, water and sanitation plants, hospitals, day care centers and schools.
The Servicemen 's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men. Emergency grants to states were authorized in 1942 for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran 's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded federal - state public health programs and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services.
The Emergency Maternity and Infant Care Program (EMIC), introduced in March 1943 by the Children 's Bureau, provided free maternity care and medical treatment during an infant 's first year for the wives and children of military personnel in the four lowest enlisted pay grades. One out of seven births was covered during its operation. EMIC paid $127 million to state health departments to cover the care of 1.2 million new mothers and their babies. The average cost of EMIC maternity cases completed was $92.49 for medical and hospital care. A striking effect was the sudden rapid decline in home births as most mothers now had paid hospital maternity care.
Under the 1943 Disabled Veterans Rehabilitation Act, vocational rehabilitation services were offered to wounded World War II veterans and some 621,000 veterans would go on to receive assistance under this program. The G.I. Bill (Servicemen 's Readjustment Act of 1944) was a landmark piece of legislation, providing 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational and unemployment assistance and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.
In response to the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, Roosevelt promulgated Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, which established the President 's Committee on Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) "to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination '' so that "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''.
A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime and therefore the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners and these families shot to the top one - third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44 % in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75 % to 25 % of the population.
In 1941, 40 % of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living. The median income stood at $2,000 a year, while 8 million workers earned below the legal minimum. From 1939 to 1944, wages and salaries more than doubled, with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70 % rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war. Membership in organized labor increased by 50 % between 1941 and 1945 and because the War Labor Board sought labor - management peace, new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations, thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions, better fringe benefits and higher wages. As noted by William H. Chafe, "with full employment, higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations, American workers experienced a level of well - being that, for many, had never occurred before ''.
As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50 %, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5 % of wage earners fell from 22 % to 17 % while the bottom 40 % increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half.
Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics into the 1960s. A 2013 study found that "an average increase in New Deal relief and public works spending resulted in a 5.4 percentage point increase in the 1936 Democratic voting share and a smaller amount in 1940. The estimated persistence of this shift suggests that New Deal spending increased long - term Democratic support by 2 to 2.5 percentage points. Thus, it appears that Roosevelt 's early, decisive actions created long - lasting positive benefits for the Democratic party... The New Deal did play an important role in consolidating Democratic gains for at least two decades ''.
However, there is disagreement about whether it marked a permanent change in values. Cowie and Salvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response to Depression and did not mark a commitment to a welfare state because the U.S. has always been too individualistic. MacLean rejected the idea of a definitive political culture. She says they overemphasized individualism and ignored the enormous power that big capital wields, the Constitutional restraints on radicalism and the role of racism, antifeminism and homophobia. She warns that accepting Cowie and Salvatore 's argument that conservatism 's ascendancy is inevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left. Klein responds that the New Deal did not die a natural death -- it was killed off in the 1970s by a business coalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber of Commerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks and decades of sustained legal and political attacks.
Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt 's 12 years in office there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also established the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups of citizens -- workers, farmers and others -- who suffered from the crisis and thus enabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the Roosevelt administration generated a set of political ideas -- known as New Deal liberalism -- that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980, there was the liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution of prosperity within an expanding capitalist economy. Especially Harry S. Truman 's Fair Deal and in the 1960s Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs.
The New Deal 's enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate and liberal Republicans.
As the first Republican President elected after Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) built on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost - effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self - financed program. He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing -- he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobs program). In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:
Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things (...) Their number is negligible and they are stupid.
In 1964, Barry Goldwater, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was the Republican presidential candidate on a platform that attacked the New Deal. The Democrats under Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide and Johnson 's Great Society programs extended the New Deal. However, the supporters of Goldwater formed the New Right which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election. Once an ardent supporter of the New Deal, Reagan turned against it, now viewing government as the problem rather than solution and, as president, moved the nation away from the New Deal model of government activism, shifting greater emphasis to the private sector.
A 2017 review study of the existing literature in the Journal of Economic Literature summarized the findings of the research as follows:
The studies find that public works and relief spending had state income multipliers of around one, increased consumption activity, attracted internal migration, reduced crime rates, and lowered several types of mortality. The farm programs typically aided large farm owners but eliminated opportunities for share croppers, tenants, and farm workers. The Home Owners ' Loan Corporation 's purchases and refinancing of troubled mortgages staved off drops in housing prices and home ownership rates at relatively low ex post cost to taxpayers. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation 's loans to banks and railroads appear to have had little positive impact, although the banks were aided when the RFC took ownership stakes.
Historians debating the New Deal have generally divided between liberals who support it, conservatives who oppose it and some New Left historians who complain it was too favorable to capitalism and did too little for minorities. There is consensus on only a few points, with most commentators favorable toward the CCC and hostile toward the NRA.
Consensus historians of the 1950s, such as Richard Hofstadter, according to Lary May:
Liberal historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self - respect to tens of millions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads. Historians generally agree that apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation 's power structure ''. The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed.
The most common arguments can be summarized as follows:
Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal. A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street and local investors and most of the business community -- mainstream academic economists believed in it as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservative southern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes, controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the time regarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, although they were more willing to accept short - term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinion polls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout his terms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his administration, most notably Lewis Douglas the Director of Budget in 1933 -- 1934; and Henry Morgenthau Jr., Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms of budgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or political benefits. Personally, Roosevelt embraced their fiscal conservatism, but politically he realized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters, leading Democrats and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormous pressure to act and spending money on high visibility work programs with millions of paychecks a week.
Douglas proved too inflexible and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highest priority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas 's position, like many of the Old Right, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeply ingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage and corruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of 1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas 's great achievement. It reduced federal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans ' payments and federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders that cut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12 million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries and $100 million from staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes: "The economy program was not a minor aberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delighted conservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt 's overall New Deal ''.
Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3 % paid any income tax between 1926 and 1940). Douglas therefore hated the relief programs, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government 's future credit and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants of self - respecting American citizens ''. Roosevelt was pulled toward greater spending by Hopkins and Ickes and as the 1936 election approached he decided to gain votes by attacking big business.
Morgenthau shifted with Roosevelt, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility -- he deeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau 's requirement because it strengthened the party 's political base and involved no new spending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt 's double budget as legitimate -- that is a balanced regular budget and an "emergency '' budget for agencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans ' bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt 's veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the new Social Security program as he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthau who insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way.
While many Americans suffered economically during the Great Depression, African Americans also had to deal with social ills, such as racism, discrimination and segregation. Black workers were especially vulnerable to the economic downturn since most of them worked the most marginal jobs such as unskilled or service - oriented work, therefore they were the first to be discharged and additionally many employers preferred white workers. When jobs were scarce some employers even dismissed blacks to create jobs for whites. In the end there were three times more African American workers on public assistance or relief than white workers.
The WPA, NYA and CCC relief programs allocated 10 % of their budgets to blacks (who comprised about 10 % of the total population, and 20 % of the poor). They operated separate all - black units with the same pay and conditions as white units. Some leading white New Dealers, especially Eleanor Roosevelt, Harold Ickes and Aubrey Williams, worked to ensure blacks received at least 10 % of welfare assistance payments. However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and political advantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining and enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible, especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.
The New Deal programs put millions of Americans immediately back to work or at least helped them to survive. The programs were not specifically targeted to alleviate the much higher unemployment rate of blacks. Some aspects of the programs were even unfavorable to blacks. The Agricultural Adjustment Acts for example helped farmers which were predominantly white, but reduced the need of farmers to hire tenant farmers or sharecroppers which were predominantely black. While the AAA stipulated that a farmer had to share the payments with those who worked the land this policy was never enforced. The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, created in 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raised opposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who were threatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers. Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressure FSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite. Some New Deal measures inadvertently discriminated against harmed blacks. Thousands of blacks were thrown out of work and replaced by whites on jobs where they were paid less than the NRA 's wage minimums because some white employers considered the NRA 's minimum wage "too much money for Negroes ''. By August 1933, blacks called the NRA the "Negro Removal Act ''. An NRA study found that the NIRA put 500,000 African Americans out of work.
However, since blacks felt the sting of the depression 's wrath even more severely than whites they welcomed any help. Until 1936 almost all African Americans (and many whites) shifted from the "Party of Lincoln '' to the Democratic Party. This was a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted the Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.
There was no attempt whatsoever to end segregation, or to increase black rights in the South. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to second - level positions in his administration -- these appointees were collectively called the Black Cabinet.
The wartime Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African Americans, women and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC as part of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself.
The New Deal was racially segregated as blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the WPA -- it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate the NYA. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North, but of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues that "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation ''. In its first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, practically all the camps in the United States were segregated, and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned. Kinker and Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow ''.
Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration 's most prominent supporters of blacks and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. In 1937, when Senator Josiah Bailey Democrat of North Carolina accused him of trying to break down segregation laws Ickes wrote him to deny that:
The New Deal 's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal 's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property. They detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation.
At first, the New Deal created programs primarily for men as it was assumed that the husband was the "breadwinner '' (the provider) and if they had jobs the whole family would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married -- in many states, there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regular jobs with the government. So too in the relief world, it was rare for both husband and wife to have a relief job on FERA or the WPA. This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner failed to take into account the numerous households headed by women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to help women as well.
Many women were employed on FERA projects run by the states with federal funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the Works Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. The WPA employed about 500,000 women and they were assigned mostly to unskilled jobs. 295,000 worked on sewing projects that made 300 million items of clothing and bedding to be given away to families on relief and to hospitals and orphanages. Women also were hired for the WPA 's school lunch program. Both men and women were hired for the small but highly publicized arts programs (such as music, theater, and writing).
The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers and widows but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobs most often held by blacks. However, Social Security was not a relief program and it was not designed for short - term needs, as very few people received benefits before 1942.
The New Deal expanded the role of the federal government, particularly to help the poor, the unemployed, youth, the elderly and stranded rural communities. The Hoover administration started the system of funding state relief programs, whereby the states hired people on relief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in 1935, the federal government now became involved in directly hiring people on relief in granting direct relief or benefits. Total federal, state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9 % of GNP in 1929 to 6.4 % in 1932 and 9.7 % in 1934 -- the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1 %. In 1935 -- 1940, welfare spending accounted for 49 % of the federal, state and local government budgets. In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were an appropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief, but they were employed by the WPA as statisticians. Friedman said that programs like the CCC and WPA were justified as temporary responses to an emergency. Friedman said that Roosevelt deserved considerable credit for relieving immediate distress and restoring confidence.
In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor of Economics at Wake Forest University, anonymous questionnaires were sent to members of the Economic History Association. Members were asked to disagree, agree, or agree with provisos with the statement that read: "Taken as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression ''. While only 6 % of economic historians who worked in the history department of their universities agreed with the statement, 27 % of those that work in the economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups (21 % and 22 %) agreed with the statement "with provisos '' (a conditional stipulation) while 74 % of those who worked in the history department and 51 % in the economic department disagreed with the statement outright.
From 1933 to 1941, the economy expanded at an average rate of 7.7 % per year. Despite high economic growth, unemployment rates fell slowly.
John Maynard Keynes explained that situation as an underemployment equilibrium where skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. It was seen as a form of cyclical unemployment.
There are different assumptions as well. According to Richard L. Jensen, cyclical unemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 and 1941, structural unemployment became the bigger problem. Especially the unions successes in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing new efficiency - oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor, casual unskilled work for subminimum wages and sweatshop conditions. In the long term, the shift to efficiency wages led to high productivity, high wages and a high standard of living, but it necessitated a well - educated, well - trained, hard - working labor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply of unskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending. The fear was that government spending would "crowd out '' private investment and would thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the Treasury view, but Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money -- using fiscal policy -- the government could provide the needed stimulus through the multiplier effect. Without that stimulus, business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly "untrainable '' men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwards complained that "he left a whole rigmarole of figures -- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist ''.
The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies and other devices to reduce unemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. Between 1933 and 1941, the average federal budget deficit was 3 % per year. Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public works spending were largely offset by Herbert Hoover 's large tax increase in 1932, whose full effects for the first time were felt in 1933 and it was undercut by spending cuts, especially the Economy Act. According to Keynesians like Paul Krugman, the New Deal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.
Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s), the traditional view was that federal deficit spending associated with the war brought full - employment output while monetary policy was just aiding the process. In this view, the New Deal did not end the Great Depression, but halted the economic collapse and ameliorated the worst of the crises.
More influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of Milton Friedman, which includes a full - scale monetary history of what he calls the "Great Contraction ''. Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933 and points out that between 1929 and 1932 the Federal Reserve allowed the money supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normal recession into a Great Depression. Friedman especially criticized the decisions of Hoover and the Federal Reserve not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that the banking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises. They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending.
You have to distinguish between two classes of New Deal policies. One class of New Deal policies was reform: wage and price control, the Blue Eagle, the national industrial recovery movement. I did not support those. The other part of the new deal policy was relief and recovery... providing relief for the unemployed, providing jobs for the unemployed, and motivating the economy to expand... an expansive monetary policy. Those parts of the New Deal I did support.
Ben Bernanke and Martin Parkinson declared in "Unemployment, Inflation, and Wages in the American Depression '' (1989) that "the New Deal is better characterized as having cleared the way for a natural recovery (for example, by ending deflation and rehabilitating the financial system) rather than as being the engine of recovery itself ''.
Challenging the traditional view, monetarists and New Keynesians like J. Bradford DeLong, Lawrence Summers and Christina Romer argued that recovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the crucial source of pre-1942 recovery. The extraordinary growth in money supply beginning in 1933 lowered real interest rates and stimulated investment spending. According to Bernanke, there was also a debt - deflation effect of the depression which was clearly offset by a reflation through the growth in money supply. However, before 1992 scholars did not realize that the New Deal provided for a huge aggregate demand stimulus through a de facto easing of monetary policy. While Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argued in A Monetary History of the United States (1963) that the Federal Reserve System had made no attempt to increase the quantity in high - powered money and thus failed to foster recovery, they somehow did not investigate the impact of the monetary policy of the New Deal. In 1992, Christina Romer explained in "What Ended the Great Depression? '' that the rapid growth in money supply beginning in 1933 can be traced back to a large unsterilized gold inflow to the U.S. which was partly due to political instability in Europe, but to a larger degree to the revaluation of gold through the Gold Reserve Act. The Roosevelt administration had chosen not to sterilize the gold inflow precisely because they hoped that the growth of money supply would stimulate the economy.
Replying to DeLong et al. in the Journal of Economic History, J.R. Vernon argues that deficit spending leading up to and during World War II still played a large part in the overall recovery, according to his study "half or more of the recovery occurred during 1941 and 1942 ''.
According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer, the biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recovery and to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive just in March 1933 when Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short - term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933, people expected a further deflation and recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. However, when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With those expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free - fall in 1933 and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.
Followers of the real business - cycle theory believe that the New Deal caused the depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have. Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian say Roosevelt 's policies prolonged the depression by seven years. According to their study, the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression '', but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression ''. They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a key factor behind the weak recovery ''. They say that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s ''. The study by Cole and Ohanian is based on a real business - cycle theory model. The underlying assumptions of this theory are subject to numerous criticisms and the theory is unable to posit any convincing explanations for the initial causes of the Great Depression. Laurence Seidman noted that according to the assumptions of Cole and Ohanian, the labor market clears instantaneously, which leads to the incredible conclusion that the surge in unemployment between 1929 and 1932 (before the New Deal) was in their opinion both optimal and solely based on voluntary unemployment. Additionally, Cole and Ohanian 's argument does not count workers employed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500 hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000 miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers through programs that rebuilt the country 's entire rural school system.
Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue on the basis of libertarian theories that the Great Depression was caused by too high wages which they say had caused a loss of depositor confidence which caused the bank runs. They further conclude that the "Great Depression was very significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of New Deal programs ''. They suggest that without Social Security, work relief, unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages and without special government - granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired more workers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been 6.7 % instead of 17.2 %. Amity Shlaes wrote that "from 1929 to 1940, from Hoover to Roosevelt, government intervention helped to make the Depression Great ''. Shlaes said that the NRA was misguided because it used price setting to fix monetary problems. According to Shlaes, Roosevelt 's experimentation frightened business into inaction and prevented recovery. Eric Rauchway showed that Shlaes tried to diminish the economic growth by referring to the unrepresentative Dow Jones Industrial Average. He continued that usually a historian or economist would have referred to the gross domestic product, which according to the Historical Statistics of the United States grew impressively by 9 % annually during Roosevelt 's first term and by 11 % annually after the short recession of 1937 -- 1938.
The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system by providing a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking system was made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention of some corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting addressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place in labor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employees and government.
David M. Kennedy wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely played a role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity ''.
Paul Krugman stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrock of the United States economic stability. Against the background of the 2007 -- 2012 global financial crisis, he explained that the financial crises would have been much worse if the New Deals Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had not insured most bank deposits and older Americans would have felt much more insecure without Social Security. Libertarian economist Milton Friedman after 1960 attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency.
The New Deal banking reform was weakened since the 1980s. The repeal of the Glass - Steagall Act in 1999 allowed the shadow banking system to grow rapidly. Since it was neither regulated nor covered by a financial safety net, the shadow banking system was central to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 and the subsequent Great Recession.
While it is essentially consensus among historians and academics that the New Deal brought about a large increase in the power of the federal government, there has been some scholarly debate concerning the results of this federal expansion. Historians like Arthur M. Schlesinger and James T. Patterson have argued that the augmentation of the federal government exacerbated tensions between the federal and state governments. However, contemporaries such as Ira Katznelson have suggested that due to certain conditions on the allocation of federal funds, namely that the individual states get to control them, the federal government managed to avoid any tension with states over their rights. This is a prominent debate concerning the historiography of federalism in the United States and -- as Schlesinger and Patterson have observed -- the New Deal marked an era when the federal - state power balance shifted further in favor of the federal government, which heightened tensions between the two levels of government in the United States.
Ira Katznelson has argued that although the federal government expanded its power and began providing welfare benefits on a scale previously unknown in the United States, it often allowed individual states to control the allocation of the funds provided for such welfare. This meant that the states controlled who had access to these funds, which in turn meant many Southern states were able to racially segregate -- or in some cases, like a number of counties in Georgia, completely exclude African - Americans -- the allocation of federal funds. This enabled these states to continue to relatively exercise their rights and also to preserve the institutionalization of the racist order of their societies. While Katznelson has conceded that the expansion of the federal government had the potential to lead to federal - state tension, he has argued it was avoided as these states managed to retain some control. As Katznelson has observed, "furthermore, they (state governments in the South) had to manage the strain that potentially might be placed on local practices by investing authority in federal bureaucracies... To guard against this outcome, they key mechanism deployed was a separation of the source of funding from decisions about how to spend the new monies ''.
However, Schlesinger has disputed Katznelson 's claim and has argued that the increase in the power of the federal government was perceived to come at the cost of states ' rights, thereby aggravating state governments, which exacerbated federal - state tensions. Schlesinger has utilized quotes from the time to highlight this point, Schlesinger has observed that "the actions of the New Deal, (Ogden L.) Mills said, "abolish the sovereignty of the States. They make of a government of limited powers one of unlimited authority over the lives of us all ''.
Moreover, Schlesinger has argued that this federal - state tension was not a one - way street and that the federal government became just as aggravated with the state governments as they did with it. State governments were often guilty of inhibiting or delaying federal policies. Whether through intentional methods, like sabotage, or unintentional ones, like simple administrative overload -- either way these problems aggravated the federal government and thus heightened federal - state tensions. As Schlesinger has also noted that "students of public administration have never taken sufficient account of the capacity of lower levels of government to sabotage or defy even a masterful President ''.
James T. Patterson has reiterated this argument, though he observes that this increased tension can be accounted for not just from a political perspective, but from an economic one too. Patterson has argued that the tension between the federal and state governments at least partly also resulted from the economic strain under which the states had been put by the federal government 's various policies and agencies. Some states were either simply unable to cope with the federal government 's demand and thus refused to work with them, or admonished the economic restraints and actively decided to sabotage federal policies. This was demonstrated, Patterson has noted, with the handling of federal relief money by Ohio governor, Martin L. Davey. The case in Ohio became so detrimental to the federal government that Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, had to federalize Ohio relief. Although this argument differs somewhat from Schlesinger 's, the source of federal - state tension remained the growth of the federal government. As Patterson has asserted, "though the record of the FERA was remarkably good -- almost revolutionary -- in these respects it was inevitable, given the financial requirements imposed on deficit - ridden states, that friction would develop between governors and federal officials ''.
In this dispute it can be inferred that Katznelson and Schlesinger and Patterson have only disagreed on their inference of the historical evidence. While both parties have agreed that the federal government expanded and even that states had a degree of control over the allocation of federal funds, they have disputed the consequences of these claims. Katznelson has asserted that it created mutual acquiescence between the levels of government, while Schlesinger and Patterson have suggested that it provoked contempt for the state governments on the part of the federal government and vice versa, thus exacerbating their relations. In short, irrespective of the interpretation this era marked an important time in the historiography of federalism and also nevertheless provided some narrative on the legacy of federal - state relations.
Worldwide, the Great Depression had the most profound impact in the German Reich and the United States. In both countries the pressure to reform and the perception of the economic crisis were strikingly similar. When Hitler came to power he was faced with exactly the same task that faced Roosevelt, overcoming mass unemployment and the global Depression. The political responses to the crises were essentially different: while American democracy remained strong, Germany replaced democracy with fascism, a Nazi dictatorship.
The initial perception of the New Deal was mixed. On the one hand, the eyes of the world were upon the United States because many democrats in Europe and the United States saw in Roosevelt _́ s reform program a positive counterweight to the seductive powers of the two great alternative systems, communism and fascism. As the historian Isaiah Berlin wrote in 1955: "The only light in the darkness was the administration of Mr. Roosevelt and the New Deal in the United States ''.
By contrast, enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist '', but they meant very different things. Communists denounced the New Deal in 1933 and 1934 as fascist in the sense that it was under the control of big business. They dropped that line of thought when Stalin switched to the "Popular Front '' plan of cooperation with liberals.
In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against those critics in a "fireside chat '':
(Some) will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing. Sometimes they will call it ' Fascism ', sometimes ' Communism ', sometimes ' Regimentation ', sometimes ' Socialism '. But, in so doing, they are trying to make very complex and theoretical something that is really very simple and very practical... Plausible self - seekers and theoretical die - hards will tell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty or constitutional freedom of action and choice?
After 1945, only few observers continued to see similarities and later on some scholars such as Kiran Klaus Patel, Heinrich August Winkler and John Garraty came to the conclusion that comparisons of the alternative systems do not have to end in an apology for Nazism since comparisons rely on the examination of both similarities and differences. Their preliminary studies on the origins of the fascist dictatorships and the American (reformed) democracy came to the conclusion that besides essential differences "the crises led to a limited degree of convergence '' on the level of economic and social policy. The most important cause was the growth of state interventionism since in the face of the catastrophic economic situation both societies no longer counted on the power of the market to heal itself.
John Garraty wrote that the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was based on economic experiments in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, without establishing a totalitarian dictatorship. Contrary to that, historians such as Hawley have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators Hugo Black and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the Chamber of Commerce. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson 's War Industries Board, in which Johnson had been involved too. Historians argue that direct comparisons between Fascism and New Deal are invalid since there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization. Gerald Feldman wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason _́ s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power can not be explained within a logical economic framework. In economic terms, both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez - faire character, "to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self - regulation ''.
Stanley Payne, a historian of fascism, examined possible fascist influences in the United States by looking at the KKK and its offshoots and movements led by Father Coughlin and Huey Long. He concluded that "the various populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism ''. According to Kevin Passmore, lecturer in History at Cardiff University, the failure of fascism in the United States was due to the social policies of the New Deal that channelled anti-establishment populism into the left rather than the extreme right.
For decades, the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarship and the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when New Left historians began a revisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that needed radical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place and lift up workers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracy and therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big city Democratic organizations.
In the 1960s, New Left historians have been among the New Deal 's harsh critics. In a 1968 essay, Barton J. Bernstein compiled a chronicle of missed opportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have saved capitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help -- and in many cases actually harmed -- those groups most in need of assistance. In The New Deal (1967), Paul K. Conkin similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressive tax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. In 1966, Howard Zinn criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve the worst evils of capitalism.
By the 1970s, liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Deal based on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused on Eleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than her husband. Since then, research on the New Deal has been less interested in the question of whether the New Deal was a "conservative '', "liberal '', or "revolutionary '' phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating.
In a series of articles, political sociologist Theda Skocpol has emphasized the issue of "state capacity '' as an often - crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas often failed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy with significant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works have stressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservative skepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and among many citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just a product of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservative opponents.
During the New Deal the communists established a network of a dozen or so members working for the government. They were low level and had a minor influence on policies. Harold Ware led the largest group which worked in the Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA). Secretary of Agriculture Wallace got rid of them all in a famous purge in 1935. Ware died in 1935 and some individuals such as Alger Hiss moved to other government jobs. Other communists worked for the National Labor Relations Board, the National Youth Administration, the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theater Project, the Treasury and the Department of State.
Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal '' regarding an object -- that is, they demand a completely new, large - scale approach to a project. As Arthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated utopianism in American political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada, Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal '' of regulation, taxation and social insurance that was a copy of the American program, but Bennett 's proposals were not enacted and he was defeated for reelection in October 1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain, the Labour government of Tony Blair termed some of its employment programs "new deal '', in contrast to the Conservative Party 's promise of the "British Dream ''.
The Works Progress Administration subsidized artists, musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group of projects called Federal One. While the WPA program was by far the most widespread, it was preceded by three programs administered by the US Treasury which hired commercial artists at usual commissions to add murals and sculptures to federal buildings. The first of these efforts was the short - lived Public Works of Art Project, organized by Edward Bruce, an American businessman and artist. Bruce also led the Treasury Department 's Section of Painting and Sculpture (later renamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). The Resettlement Administration (RA) and Farm Security Administration (FSA) had major photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized regionalism, social realism, class conflict, proletarian interpretations and audience participation. The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure of individualism, was a favorite theme.
Post Office murals and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still be found at many locations around the U.S. The New Deal particularly helped American novelists. For journalists and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the New Deal provided, allowed these writers to describe about what they really saw around the country.
Many writers chose to write about the New Deal and whether they were for or against it and if it was helping the country out. Some of these writers were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson and Scott Fitzgerald. Another subject that was very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjects on social protest to strikes.
Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatre productions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors and directors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.
The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out. Director Roy Stryker 's agenda focused on his faith in social engineering, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers -- above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people 's lives. Stryker demanded photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa '' because these photographs reinforced the RA 's position that poverty could be controlled by "changing land practices ''. Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as "church '', "court day '', "barns ''.
Films of the late New Deal era such as Citizen Kane (1941) ridiculed so - called "great men '' while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940). Thus in Frank Capra 's famous films, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who are corrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.
By contrast, there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. Gutzon Borglum 's sculptures on Mount Rushmore emphasized great men in history (his designs had the approval of Calvin Coolidge). Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway disliked the New Deal and celebrated the autonomy of perfected written work as opposed to the New Deal idea of writing as performative labor. The Southern Agrarians celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA as a modernizing, disruptive force. Cass Gilbert, a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order, designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small size contrasted sharply with the gargantuan modernistic federal buildings going up in the Washington Mall that he detested. Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal and conservative streams as in Busby Berkeley 's Gold Digger musicals, where the storylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers show abstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patterns beyond their control.
The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II while others remain in operation today. They included the following:
"Most indexes worsened until the summer of 1932, which may be called the low point of the depression economically and psychologically ''. Economic indicators show the American economy reached nadir in summer 1932 to February 1933, then began recovering until the recession of 1937 -- 1938. Thus the Federal Reserve Industrial Production Index hit its low of 52.8 on July 1, 1932 and was practically unchanged at 54.3 on March 1, 1933, but by July 1, 1933 it reached 85.5 (with 1935 -- 39 = 100 and for comparison 2005 = 1,342). In Roosevelt 's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5 % compound annual growth of GDP, the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country, but recovery was slow and by 1939 the gross domestic product (GDP) per adult was still 27 % below trend.
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who played tom riddle in harry potter 2 | Christian Coulson - wikipedia
Christian Peter Coulson (born 3 October 1978) is an English actor best known for playing the 16 - year old Tom Marvolo Riddle in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets.
Coulson was born in Manchester, and attended Westminster School in London on an academic scholarship. He was a member of the UK 's National Youth Music Theatre from 1990 -- 1997, and went on to the University of Cambridge, where he received a degree in English from Clare College in 2000. While at university, he played the M.C. (Master of Ceremonies) in Cabaret, Arturo Ui in The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui and Claire in The Maids, as well as appearing in film and television.
Coulson gained worldwide attention and popularity for his role in 2002 's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, in which he portrayed a 16 - year - old Tom Riddle, even though Coulson was 24 years old at the time. However, in 2007, director David Yates indicated on MTV that Coulson would not reprise his role in Half - Blood Prince, since, at 29, he was now too old.
He also wrote the lyrics and book for a rock musical called The Fallen which was performed at Bedford Modern School in 1998.
As of 2010, Coulson currently resides and works in New York City as an actor and director.
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who sings with robert plant on the battle of evermore | The Battle of Evermore - wikipedia
"The Battle of Evermore '' is a folk duet sung by Robert Plant and Sandy Denny, featured on Led Zeppelin 's untitled 1971 album, commonly known as Led Zeppelin IV. The song 's instrumentation features acoustic guitar and mandolin playing.
The song was written by Jimmy Page at Headley Grange while he was experimenting on the mandolin owned by John Paul Jones. Page explained in 1977 that ' "Battle of Evermore '' was made up on the spot by Robert (Plant) and myself. I just picked up John Paul Jones 's mandolin, never having played a mandolin before, and just wrote up the chords and the whole thing in one sitting. "'
The song, like some others by the group, makes references to The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. Plant felt he needed another voice to tell the story, and for the recording of the song, folk singer Sandy Denny was invited to duet with Plant. Denny was a former member of British folk group Fairport Convention, with whom Led Zeppelin had shared a bill in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music. Plant played the role of the narrator and Denny represented the town crier. Page elaborated that "(The song) sounded like an old English instrumental first off. Then it became a vocal and Robert did his bit. Finally we figured we 'd bring Sandy by and do a question - and - answer - type thing. ''
To thank her for her involvement, Denny was given the symbol on the album sleeve of three pyramids (the four members of Led Zeppelin each chose their own symbols for the album). This is the only song Led Zeppelin ever recorded with a guest vocalist. In an interview he gave in 1995 to Uncut magazine, Plant stated that ' (F) or me to sing with Sandy Denny was great. We were always good friends with that period of Fairport Convention. Richard Thompson is a superlative guitarist. Sandy and I were friends, and it was the most obvious thing to ask her to sing on "The Battle of Evermore ''. If it suffered from naivete and tweeness -- I was only 23 -- it makes up for it in the cohesion of the voices and the playing. '
"The Battle of Evermore '' was played live at Led Zeppelin concerts during the band 's 1977 North American Tour. For these live performances, Jones sang Denny 's vocals and played acoustic guitar whilst Page played mandolin. Sometimes John Bonham sang Denny 's vocals along with Jones.
Page and Plant also recorded a version of the song in 1994, released on their album No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded. Singer Najma Akhtar sang Denny 's vocal part.
Fairport Convention performed "The Battle of Evermore '' with guest vocalists Plant and Kristina Donahue at Fairport 's Cropredy Convention on 9 August 2008. Plant and Alison Krauss regularly performed "The Battle of Evermore '' on their tour of US and Europe in spring and summer 2008 in promotion of their 2007 collaboration album Raising Sand.
An instrumental version of the song is featured on the companion audio CD on the remastered deluxe 2CD version of Led Zeppelin IV, titled The Battle Of Evermore (Mandolin / Guitar Mix From Headley Grange), recorded on 29 January 1971, at the Rolling Stones Mobile at Headley Grange with engineer Andy Johns. It is much shorter than the original, with a running time of 4: 13 rather than 5: 51.
(*) designates unordered lists.
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who was the first physician responsible for developing the prefrontal lobotomy | Lobotomy - wikipedia
A lobotomy, or leucotomy, is a form of psychosurgery, a neurosurgical treatment of a mental disorder that involves severing connections in the brain 's prefrontal cortex. Most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain are severed. It was used for psychiatric and occasionally other conditions as a mainstream procedure in some Western countries for more than two decades. This was despite general recognition of frequent and serious side effects. While some people experienced symptomatic improvement with the operation, the improvements were achieved at the cost of creating other impairments. The procedure was controversial from its initial use in part due to the balance between benefits and risks.
The originator of the procedure, Portuguese neurologist António Egas Moniz, shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine of 1949 for the "discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses '', although the awarding of the prize has been subject to controversy.
The use of the procedure increased dramatically from the early 1940s and into the 1950s; by 1951, almost 20,000 lobotomies had been performed in the United States alone and proportionally more in the United Kingdom. The majority of lobotomies were performed on women; A 1951 study of American hospitals found nearly 60 % of lobotomy patients were women; data shows 74 % of lobotomies in Ontario from 1948 -- 1952 were performed on women. From the 1950s onward lobotomy began to be abandoned, first in the Soviet Union and Europe. The term is derived from Greek: λοβός lobos "lobe '' and τομή tomē "cut, slice ''.
Comments added to the consent form for a lobotomy operation on "Helaine Strauss '', "a patient at an elite private hospital ''.
The purpose of the operation was to reduce the symptoms of mental disorder, and it was recognized that this was accomplished at the expense of a person 's personality and intellect. British psychiatrist Maurice Partridge, who conducted a follow - up study of 300 patients, said that the treatment achieved its effects by "reducing the complexity of psychic life ''. Following the operation, spontaneity, responsiveness, self - awareness and self - control were reduced. Activity was replaced by inertia, and people were left emotionally blunted and restricted in their intellectual range.
The consequences of the operation have been described as "mixed ''. Some patients died as a result of the operation and others later committed suicide. Some were left severely brain - damaged. Others were able to leave the hospital, or became more manageable within the hospital. A few people managed to return to responsible work, while at the other extreme people were left with severe and disabling impairments. Most people fell into an intermediate group, left with some improvement of their symptoms but also with emotional and intellectual deficits to which they made a better or worse adjustment. On average, there was a mortality rate of approximately 5 percent during the 1940s.
The lobotomy procedure could have severe negative effects on a patient 's personality and ability to function independently. Lobotomy patients often show a marked reduction in initiative and inhibition. They may also exhibit difficulty putting themselves in the position of others because of decreased cognition and detachment from society.
Immediately following surgery, patients were often stuporous, confused, and incontinent. Some developed an enormous appetite and gained considerable weight. Seizures were another common complication of surgery. Emphasis was put on the training of patients in the weeks and months following surgery.
Walter Freeman coined the term "surgically induced childhood '' and used it constantly to refer to the results of lobotomy. The operation left people with an "infantile personality ''; a period of maturation would then, according to Freeman, lead to recovery. In an unpublished memoir he described how the "personality of the patient was changed in some way in the hope of rendering him more amenable to the social pressures under which he is supposed to exist. '' He described one 29 - year - old woman as being, following lobotomy, a "smiling, lazy and satisfactory patient with the personality of an oyster '' who could n't remember Freeman 's name and endlessly poured coffee from an empty pot. When her parents had difficulty dealing with her behaviour, Freeman advised a system of rewards (ice - cream) and punishment (smacks).
In the early 20th century, the number of patients residing in mental hospitals increased significantly while little in the way of effective medical treatment was available. Lobotomy was one of a series of radical and invasive physical therapies developed in Europe at this time that signaled a break with a psychiatric culture of therapeutic nihilism that had prevailed since the late nineteenth - century. The new "heroic '' physical therapies devised during this experimental era, including malarial therapy for general paresis of the insane (1917), deep sleep therapy (1920), insulin shock therapy (1933), cardiazol shock therapy (1934), and electroconvulsive therapy (1938), helped to imbue the then therapeutically moribund and demoralised psychiatric profession with a renewed sense of optimism in the curability of insanity and the potency of their craft. The success of the shock therapies, despite the considerable risk they posed to patients, also helped to accommodate psychiatrists to ever more drastic forms of medical intervention, including lobotomy.
The clinician - historian Joel Braslow argues that from malarial therapy onward to lobotomy, physical psychiatric therapies "spiral closer and closer to the interior of the brain '' with this organ increasingly taking "center stage as a source of disease and site of cure. '' For Roy Porter, once the doyen of medical history, the often violent and invasive psychiatric interventions developed during the 1930s and 1940s are indicative of both the well - intentioned desire of psychiatrists to find some medical means of alleviating the suffering of the vast number of patients then in psychiatric hospitals and also the relative lack of social power of those same patients to resist the increasingly radical and even reckless interventions of asylum doctors. Many doctors, patients and family members of the period believed that despite potentially catastrophic consequences, the results of lobotomy were seemingly positive in many instances or, at least they were deemed as such when measured next to the apparent alternative of long - term institutionalisation. Lobotomy has always been controversial, but for a period of the medical mainstream, it was even feted and regarded as a legitimate if desperate remedy for categories of patients who were otherwise regarded as hopeless. Today, lobotomy has become a disparaged procedure, a byword for medical barbarism and an exemplary instance of the medical trampling of patients ' rights.
Before the 1930s, individual doctors had infrequently experimented with novel surgical operations on the brains of those deemed insane. Most notably in 1888, the Swiss psychiatrist, Gottlieb Burckhardt, initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human psychosurgery. He operated on six chronic patients under his care at the Swiss Préfargier Asylum, removing sections of their cerebral cortex. Burckhardt 's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature, and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an associationist model comprising an input or afferent system (a sensory center), a connecting system where information processing took place (an association center), and an output or efferent system (a motor center); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt 's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating lesions in regions of the brain identified as association centers a transformation in behavior might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience "excitations abnormal in quality, quantity and intensity '' in the sensory regions of the brain and this abnormal stimulation would then be transmitted to the motor regions giving rise to mental pathology. He reasoned, however, that removing material from either of the sensory or motor zones could give rise to "grave functional disturbance ''. Instead, by targeting the association centers and creating a "ditch '' around the motor region of the temporal lobe, he hoped to break their lines of communication and thus alleviate both mental symptoms and the experience of mental distress.
Intending to ameliorate symptoms in those with violent and intractable conditions rather than effect a cure, Burckhardt began operating on patients in December 1888, but both his surgical methods and instruments were crude and the results of the procedure were mixed at best. He operated on six patients in total and, according to his own assessment, two experienced no change, two patients became quieter, one patient experienced epileptic convulsions and died a few days after the operation, and one patient improved. Complications included motor weakness, epilepsy, sensory aphasia and "word deafness ''. Claiming a success rate of 50 percent, he presented the results at the Berlin Medical Congress and published a report, but the response from his medical peers was hostile and he did no further operations.
In 1912, two physicians based in Saint Petersburg, the leading Russian neurologist Vladimir Bekhterev and his younger Estonian colleague, the neurosurgeon Ludvig Puusepp, published a paper reviewing a range of surgical interventions that had been performed on the mentally ill. While generally treating these endeavours favorably, in their consideration of psychosurgery they reserved unremitting scorn for Burckhardt 's surgical experiments of 1888 and opined that it was extraordinary that a trained medical doctor could undertake such an unsound procedure.
"We have quoted this data to show not only how groundless but also how dangerous these operations were. We are unable to explain how their author, holder of a degree in medicine, could bring himself to carry them out... ''
The authors neglected to mention, however, that in 1910 Puusepp himself had performed surgery on the brains of three mentally ill patients, sectioning the cortex between the frontal and parietal lobes. He had abandoned these attempts because of unsatisfactory results and this experience probably inspired the invective that was directed at Burckhardt in the 1912 article. By 1937, Puusepp, despite his earlier criticism of Burckhardt, was increasingly persuaded that psychosurgery could be a valid medical intervention for the mentally disturbed. In the late 1930s he worked closely with the neurosurgical team of the Racconigi Hospital near Turin to establish it as an early and influential centre for the adoption of leucotomy in Italy.
Leucotomy was first undertaken in 1935 under the direction of the Portuguese neurologist (and inventor of the term psychosurgery) António Egas Moniz. First developing an interest in psychiatric conditions and their somatic treatment in the early 1930s, Moniz apparently conceived a new opportunity for recognition in the development of a surgical intervention on the brain as a treatment for mental illness.
The source of inspiration for Moniz 's decision to hazard psychosurgery has been clouded by contradictory statements made on the subject by Moniz and others both contemporaneously and retrospectively. The traditional narrative addresses the question of why Moniz targeted the frontal lobes by way of reference to the work of the Yale neuroscientist John Fulton and, most dramatically, to a presentation Fulton made with his junior colleague Carlyle Jacobsen at the Second International Congress of Neurology held in London in 1935. Fulton 's primary area of research was on the cortical function of primates and he had established America 's first primate neurophysiology laboratory at Yale in the early 1930s. At the 1935 Congress, with Moniz in attendance, Fulton and Jacobsen presented two chimpanzees, named Becky and Lucy who had had frontal lobectomies and subsequent changes in behaviour and intellectual function. According to Fulton 's account of the congress, they explained that before surgery, both animals, and especially Becky, the more emotional of the two, exhibited "frustrational behaviour '' -- that is, have tantrums that could include rolling on the floor and defecating -- if, because of their poor performance in a set of experimental tasks, they were not rewarded. Following the surgical removal of their frontal lobes, the behaviour of both primates changed markedly and Becky was pacified to such a degree that Jacobsen apparently stated it was as if she had joined a "happiness cult ''. During the question and answer section of the paper, Moniz, it is alleged, "startled '' Fulton by inquiring if this procedure might be extended to human subjects suffering from mental illness. Fulton stated that he replied that while possible in theory it was surely "too formidable '' an intervention for use on humans.
That Moniz began his experiments with leucotomy just three months after the congress has reinforced the apparent cause and effect relationship between the Fulton and Jacobsen 's presentation and the Portuguese neurologist 's resolve to operate on the frontal lobes. As the author of this account Fulton, who has sometimes been claimed as the father of lobotomy, was later able to record that the technique had its true origination in his laboratory. Endorsing this version of events, in 1949, the Harvard neurologist Stanley Cobb remarked during his presidential address to the American Neurological Association that, "seldom in the history of medicine has a laboratory observation been so quickly and dramatically translated into a therapeutic procedure. '' Fulton 's report, penned ten years after the events described, is, however, without corroboration in the historical record and bears little resemblance to an earlier unpublished account he wrote of the congress. In this previous narrative he mentioned an incidental, private exchange with Moniz, but it is likely that the official version of their public conversation he promulgated is without foundation. In fact, Moniz stated that he had conceived of the operation some time before his journey to London in 1935, having told in confidence his junior colleague, the young neurosurgeon Pedro Almeida Lima, as early as 1933 of his psychosurgical idea. The traditional account exaggerates the importance of Fulton and Jacobsen to Moniz 's decision to initiate frontal lobe surgery, and omits the fact that a detailed body of neurological research that emerged at this time suggested to Moniz and other neurologists and neurosurgeons that surgery on this part of the brain might yield significant personality changes in the mentally ill.
As the frontal lobes had been the object of scientific inquiry and speculation since the late 19th century, Fulton 's contribution, while it may have functioned as source of intellectual support, is of itself unnecessary and inadequate as an explanation of Moniz 's resolution to operate on this section of the brain. Under an evolutionary and hierarchical model of brain development it had been hypothesized that those regions associated with more recent development, such as the mammalian brain and, most especially, the frontal lobes, were responsible for more complex cognitive functions. However, this theoretical formulation found little laboratory support, as 19th century experimentation found no significant change in animal behaviour following surgical removal or electrical stimulation of the frontal lobes. This picture of the so - called "silent lobe '' changed in the period after World War I with the production of clinical reports of ex-servicemen who had suffered brain trauma. The refinement of neurosurgical techniques also facilitated increasing attempts to remove brain tumours, treat focal epilepsy in humans and led to more precise experimental neurosurgery in animal studies. Cases were reported where mental symptoms were alleviated following the surgical removal of diseased or damaged brain tissue. The accumulation of medical case studies on behavioural changes following damage to the frontal lobes led to the formulation of the concept of Witzelsucht, which designated a neurological condition characterised by a certain hilarity and childishness in the afflicted. The picture of frontal lobe function that emerged from these studies was complicated by the observation that neurological deficits attendant on damage to a single lobe might be compensated for if the opposite lobe remained intact. In 1922, the Italian neurologist Leonardo Bianchi published a detailed report on the results of bilateral lobectomies in animals that supported the contention that the frontal lobes were both integral to intellectual function and that their removal led to the disintegration of the subject 's personality. This work, while influential, was not without its critics due to deficiencies in experimental design.
The first bilateral lobectomy of a human subject was performed by the American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy in 1930. The neurologist Richard Brickner reported on this case in 1932, relating that the recipient, known as "Patient A '', while experiencing a flattening of affect, had suffered no apparent decrease in intellectual function and seemed, at least to the casual observer, perfectly normal. Brickner concluded from this evidence that "the frontal lobes are not ' centers ' for the intellect ''. These clinical results were replicated in a similar operation undertaken in 1934 by the neurosurgeon Roy Glenwood Spurling and reported on by the neuropsychiatrist Spafford Ackerly. By the mid-1930s, interest in the function of the frontal lobes reached a high - water mark. This was reflected in the 1935 neurological congress in London, which hosted as part of its deliberations, "a remarkable symposium... on the functions of the frontal lobes. '' The panel was chaired by Henri Claude, a French neuropsychiatrist, who commenced the session by reviewing the state of research on the frontal lobes, and concluded that, "altering the frontal lobes profoundly modifies the personality of subjects ''. This parallel symposium contained numerous papers by neurologists, neurosurgeons and psychologists; amongst these was one by Brickner, which impressed Moniz greatly, that again detailed the case of "Patient A ''. Fulton and Jacobsen 's paper, presented in another session of the conference on experimental physiology, was notable in linking animal and human studies on the function of the frontal lobes. Thus, at the time of the 1935 Congress, Moniz had available to him an increasing body of research on the role of the frontal lobes that extended well beyond the observations of Fulton and Jacobsen.
Nor was Moniz the only medical practitioner in the 1930s to have contemplated procedures directly targeting the frontal lobes. Although ultimately discounting brain surgery as carrying too much risk, physicians and neurologists such as William Mayo, Thierry de Martel, Richard Brickner, and Leo Davidoff had, before 1935, entertained the proposition. Inspired by Julius Wagner - Jauregg 's development of malarial therapy for the treatment of general paresis of the insane, the French physician Maurice Ducosté reported in 1932 that he had injected 5 ml of malarial blood directly into the frontal lobes of over 100 paretic patients through holes drilled into the skull. He claimed that the injected paretics showed signs of "uncontestable mental and physical amelioration '' and that the results for psychotic patients undergoing the procedure was also "encouraging ''. The experimental injection of fever inducing malarial blood into the frontal lobes was also replicated during the 1930s in the work of Ettore Mariotti and M. Sciutti in Italy and Ferdière Coulloudon in France. In Switzerland, almost simultaneously with the commencement of Moniz 's leucotomy programme, the neurosurgeon François Ody had removed the entire right frontal lobe of a catatonic schizophrenic patient. In Romania, Ody 's procedure was adopted by Dimitri Bagdasar and Constantinesco working out of the Central Hospital in Bucharest. Ody, who delayed publishing his own results for several years, later rebuked Moniz for claiming to have cured patients through leucotomy without waiting to determine if there had been a "lasting remission ''.
The theoretical underpinnings of Moniz 's psychosurgery were largely commensurate with the nineteenth century ones that had informed Burckhardt 's decision to excise matter from the brains of his patients. Although in his later writings Moniz referenced both the neuron theory of Ramón y Cajal and the conditioned reflex of Ivan Pavlov, in essence he simply interpreted this new neurological research in terms of the old psychological theory of associationism. He differed significantly from Burckhardt, however in that he did not think there was any organic pathology in the brains of the mentally ill, but rather that their neural pathways were caught in fixed and destructive circuits leading to "predominant, obsessive ideas. '' As Moniz wrote in 1936:
(The) mental troubles must have... a relation with the formation of cellulo - connective groupings, which become more or less fixed. The cellular bodies may remain altogether normal, their cylinders will not have any anatomical alterations; but their multiple liaisons, very variable in normal people, may have arrangements more or less fixed, which will have a relation with persistent ideas and deliria in certain morbid psychic states.
For Moniz, "to cure these patients, '' it was necessary to "destroy the more or less fixed arrangements of cellular connections that exist in the brain, and particularly those which are related to the frontal lobes, '' thus removing their fixed pathological brain circuits. Moniz believed the brain would functionally adapt to such injury. A significant advantage of this approach was that, unlike the position adopted by Burckhardt, it was unfalsifiable according to the knowledge and technology of the time as the absence of a known correlation between physical brain pathology and mental illness could not disprove his thesis.
Egas Moniz (1937)
On 12 November 1935 at the Hospital Santa Marta in Lisbon, Moniz initiated the first of a series of operations on the brains of the mentally ill. The initial patients selected for the operation were provided by the medical director of Lisbon 's Miguel Bombarda Mental Hospital, José de Matos Sobral Cid. As Moniz lacked training in neurosurgery and his hands were crippled from gout, the procedure was performed under general anaesthetic by Pedro Almeida Lima, who had previously assisted Moniz with his research on cerebral angiography. The intention was to remove some of the long fibres that connected the frontal lobes to other major brain centres. To this end, it was decided that Lima would trephine into the side of the skull and then inject ethanol into the "subcortical white matter of the prefrontal area '' so as to destroy the connecting fibres, or association tracts, and create what Moniz termed a "frontal barrier ''. After the first operation was complete, Moniz considered it a success and, observing that the patient 's depression had been relieved, he declared her "cured '' although she was never, in fact, discharged from the mental hospital. Moniz and Lima persisted with this method of injecting alcohol into the frontal lobes for the next seven patients but, after having to inject some patients on numerous occasions to elicit what they considered a favourable result, they modified the means by which they would section the frontal lobes. For the ninth patient they introduced a surgical instrument called a leucotome; this was a cannula that was 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length and 2 centimetres (0.79 in) in diameter. It had a retractable wire loop at one end that, when rotated, produced a 1 centimetre (0.39 in) diameter circular lesion in the white matter of the frontal lobe. Typically, six lesions were cut into each lobe, but, if they were dissatisfied by the results, Lima might perform several procedures, each producing multiple lesions in the left and right frontal lobes.
By the conclusion of this first run of leucotomies in February 1936, Moniz and Lima had operated on twenty patients with an average period of one week between each procedure; Moniz published his findings with great haste in March of the same year. The patients were aged between 27 and 62 years of age; twelve were female and eight were male. Nine of the patients were diagnosed as suffering from depression, six from schizophrenia, two from panic disorder, and one each from mania, catatonia and manic - depression with the most prominent symptoms being anxiety and agitation. The duration of the illness before the procedure varied from as little as four weeks to as much as 22 years, although all but four had been ill for at least one year. Patients were normally operated on the day they arrived at Moniz 's clinic and returned within ten days to the Miguel Bombarda Mental Hospital. A perfunctory post-operative follow - up assessment took place anywhere from one to ten weeks following surgery. Complications were observed in each of the leucotomy patients and included: "increased temperature, vomiting, bladder and bowel incontinence, diarrhea, and ocular affections such as ptosis and nystagmus, as well as psychological effects such as apathy, akinesia, lethargy, timing and local disorientation, kleptomania, and abnormal sensations of hunger ''. Moniz asserted that these effects were transitory and, according to his published assessment, the outcome for these first twenty patients was that 35 %, or seven cases, improved significantly, another 35 % were somewhat improved and the remaining 30 % (six cases) were unchanged. There were no deaths and he did not consider that any patients had deteriorated following leucotomy.
Moniz rapidly disseminated his results through articles in the medical press and a monograph in 1936. Initially, however, the medical community appeared hostile to the new procedure. On 26 July 1936, one of his assistants, Diogo Furtado, gave a presentation at the Parisian meeting of the Société Médico - Psychologique on the results of the second cohort of patients leucotomised by Lima. Sobral Cid, who had supplied Moniz with the first set of patients for leucotomy from his own hospital in Lisbon, attended the meeting where he denounced frontal lobe surgery, declaring that the patients who had been returned to his care post-operatively were "diminished '' and had suffered a "degradation of personality ''. He also claimed that the changes Moniz observed in patients were more properly attributed to shock and brain trauma, and he derided the theoretical architecture that Moniz had constructed to support the new procedure as "cerebral mythology. '' At the same meeting the Parisian psychiatrist, Paul Courbon, stated he could not endorse a surgical technique that was solely supported by theoretical considerations rather than clinical observations. He also opined that the mutilation of an organ could not improve its function and that such cerebral wounds as were occasioned by leucotomy risked the later development of meningitis, epilepsy and brain abscesses. Nonetheless, Moniz 's reported successful surgical treatment of 14 out of 20 patients led to the rapid adoption of the procedure on an experimental basis by individual clinicians in countries such as Brazil, Cuba, Italy, Romania and the United States during the 1930s.
Amarro Fiamberti
Throughout the remainder of the 1930s the number of leucotomies performed in most countries where the technique was adopted remained quite low. In Britain, which was later a major centre for leucotomy, only six operations had been undertaken before 1942. Generally, medical practitioners who attempted the procedure adopted a cautious approach and few patients were leucotomised before the 1940s. Italian neuropsychiatrists, who were typically early and enthusiastic adopters of leucotomy, were exceptional in eschewing such a gradualist course.
Leucotomy was first reported in the Italian medical press in 1936 and Moniz published an article in Italian on the technique in the following year. In 1937, he was invited to Italy to demonstrate the procedure and for a two - week period in June of that year he visited medical centres in Trieste, Ferrara, and one close to Turin -- the Racconigi Hospital -- where he instructed his Italian neuropsychiatric colleagues on leucotomy and also oversaw several operations. Leucotomy was featured at two Italian psychiatric conferences in 1937 and over the next two years a score of medical articles on Moniz 's psychosurgery was published by Italian clinicians based in medical institutions located in Racconigi, Trieste, Naples, Genoa, Milan, Pisa, Catania and Rovigo. The major centre for leucotomy in Italy was the Racconigi Hospital, where the experienced neurosurgeon Ludvig Puusepp provided a guiding hand. Under the medical directorship of Emilio Rizzatti, the medical personnel at this hospital had completed at least 200 leucotomies by 1939. Reports from clinicians based at other Italian institutions detailed significantly smaller numbers of leucotomy operations.
Experimental modifications of Moniz 's operation were introduced with little delay by Italian medical practitioners. Most notably, in 1937 Amarro Fiamberti, the medical director of a psychiatric institution in Varese, first devised the transorbital procedure whereby the frontal lobes were accessed through the eye sockets. Fiamberti 's method was to puncture the thin layer of orbital bone at the top of the socket and then inject alcohol or formalin into the white matter of the frontal lobes through this aperture. Using this method, while sometimes substituting a leucotome for a hypodermic needle, it is estimated that he leucotomised about 100 patients in the period up to the outbreak of World War II. Fiamberti 's innovation of Moniz 's method would later prove inspirational for Walter Freeman 's development of transorbital lobotomy.
The first prefrontal leucotomy in the United States was performed at the George Washington University Hospital on 14 September 1936 by the neuropsychiatrist Walter Freeman and his friend and colleague, the neurosurgeon, James W. Watts. Freeman had first encountered Moniz at the London - hosted Second International Congress of Neurology in 1935 where he had presented a poster exhibit of the Portuguese neurologist 's work on cerebral angiography. Fortuitously occupying a booth next to Moniz, Freeman, delighted by their chance meeting, formed a highly favourable impression of Moniz, later remarking upon his "sheer genius ''. According to Freeman, if they had not met in person it is highly unlikely that he would have ventured into the domain of frontal lobe psychosurgery. Freeman 's interest in psychiatry was the natural outgrowth of his appointment in 1924 as the medical director of the Research Laboratories of the Government Hospital for the Insane in Washington, known colloquially as St Elizabeth 's. Ambitious and a prodigious researcher, Freeman, who favoured an organic model of mental illness causation, spent the next several years exhaustively, yet ultimately fruitlessly, investigating a neuropathological basis for insanity. Chancing upon a preliminary communication by Moniz on leucotomy in the spring of 1936, Freeman initiated a correspondence in May of that year. Writing that he had been considering psychiatric brain surgery previously, he informed Moniz that, "having your authority I expect to go ahead ''. Moniz, in return, promised to send him a copy of his forthcoming monograph on leucotomy and urged him to purchase a leucotome from a French supplier.
Upon receipt of Moniz 's monograph, Freeman reviewed it anonymously for the Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry. Praising the text as one whose "importance can scarcely be overestimated '', he summarised Moniz 's rationale for the procedure as based on the fact that while no physical abnormality of cerebral cell bodies was observable in the mentally ill, their cellular interconnections may harbour a "fixation of certain patterns of relationship among various groups of cells '' and that this resulted in obsessions, delusions and mental morbidity. While recognising that Moniz 's thesis was inadequate, for Freeman it had the advantage of circumventing the search for diseased brain tissue in the mentally ill by instead suggesting that the problem was a functional one of the brain 's internal wiring where relief might be obtained by severing problematic mental circuits.
In 1937 Freeman and Watts adapted Lima and Moniz 's surgical procedure, and created the Freeman - Watts technique, also known as the Freeman - Watts standard prefrontal lobotomy, which they styled the "precision method ''.
The Freeman - Watts prefrontal lobotomy still required drilling holes in the scalp, so surgery had to be performed in an operating room by trained neurosurgeons. Walter Freeman believed this surgery would be unavailable to those he saw as needing it most: patients in state mental hospitals that had no operating rooms, surgeons, or anesthesia and limited budgets. Freeman wanted to simplify the procedure so that it could be carried out by psychiatrists in psychiatric hospitals.
Inspired by the work of Italian psychiatrist Amarro Fiamberti, Freeman at some point conceived of approaching the frontal lobes through the eye sockets instead of through drilled holes in the skull. In 1945 he took an icepick from his own kitchen and began testing the idea on grapefruit and cadavers. This new "transorbital '' lobotomy involved lifting the upper eyelid and placing the point of a thin surgical instrument (often called an orbitoclast or leucotome, although quite different from the wire loop leucotome described above) under the eyelid and against the top of the eyesocket. A mallet was used to drive the orbitoclast through the thin layer of bone and into the brain along the plane of the bridge of the nose, around fifteen degrees toward the interhemispherical fissure. The orbitoclast was malleted five centimeters (2 in) into the frontal lobe, and then pivoted forty degrees at the orbit perforation so the tip cut toward the opposite side of the head (toward the nose). The instrument was returned to the neutral position and sent a further two centimeters ( ⁄ in) into the brain, before being pivoted around twenty - eight degrees each side, to cut outwards and again inwards. (In a more radical variation at the end of the last cut described, the butt of the orbitoclast was forced upwards so the tool cut vertically down the side of the cortex of the interhemispherical fissure; the "Deep frontal cut ''.) All cuts were designed to transect the white fibrous matter connecting the cortical tissue of the prefrontal cortex to the thalamus. The leucotome was then withdrawn and the procedure repeated on the other side.
Freeman performed the first transorbital lobotomy on a live patient in 1946. Its simplicity suggested the possibility of carrying it out in mental hospitals lacking the surgical facilities required for the earlier, more complex procedure. (Freeman suggested that, where conventional anesthesia was unavailable, electroconvulsive therapy be used to render the patient unconscious.) In 1947, the Freeman and Watts partnership ended, as the latter was disgusted by Freeman 's modification of the lobotomy from a surgical operation into a simple "office '' procedure. Between 1940 and 1944, 684 lobotomies were performed in the United States. However, because of the fervent promotion of the technique by Freeman and Watts, those numbers increased sharply towards the end of the decade. In 1949, the peak year for lobotomies in the US, 5,074 procedures were undertaken, and by 1951 over 18,608 individuals had been lobotomized in the US.
In the United States, approximately 40,000 people were lobotomized. In England, 17,000 lobotomies were performed, and the three Nordic countries of Finland, Norway, and Sweden had a combined figure of approximately 9,300 lobotomies. Scandinavian hospitals lobotomized 2.5 times as many people per capita as hospitals in the US. Sweden lobotomized at least 4,500 people between 1944 and 1966, mainly women. This figure includes young children. In Norway, there were 2,005 known lobotomies. In Denmark, there were 4,500 known lobotomies. In Japan, the majority of lobotomies were performed on children with behavior problems. The Soviet Union banned the practice in 1950 on moral grounds, and Japan and Germany soon followed suit. By the late 1970s, the practice of lobotomy had generally ceased.
As early as 1944 an author in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease remarked: "The history of prefrontal lobotomy has been brief and stormy. Its course has been dotted with both violent opposition and with slavish, unquestioning acceptance. '' Beginning in 1947 Swedish psychiatrist Snorre Wohlfahrt evaluated early trials, reporting that it is "distinctly hazardous to leucotomize schizophrenics '' and that lobotomy was "still too imperfect to enable us, with its aid, to venture on a general offensive against chronic cases of mental disorder '', stating further that "Psychosurgery has as yet failed to discover its precise indications and contraindications and the methods must unfortunately still be regarded as rather crude and hazardous in many respects. '' In 1948 Norbert Wiener, the author of Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, said: "(P) refrontal lobotomy... has recently been having a certain vogue, probably not unconnected with the fact that it makes the custodial care of many patients easier. Let me remark in passing that killing them makes their custodial care still easier. ''
Concerns about lobotomy steadily grew. Soviet psychiatrist Vasily Gilyarovsky criticized lobotomy and the mechanistic brain localization assumption used to carry out lobotomy: "It is assumed that the transection of white substance of the frontal lobes impairs their connection with the thalamus and eliminates the possibility to receive from it stimuli which lead to irritation and on the whole derange mental functions. This explanation is mechanistic and goes back to the narrow localizationism characteristic of psychiatrists of America, from where leucotomy was imported to us. '' The USSR officially banned the procedure in 1950 on the initiative of Gilyarovsky. Doctors in the Soviet Union concluded that the procedure was "contrary to the principles of humanity '' and "' through lobotomy ' an insane person is changed into an idiot. '' By the 1970s, numerous countries had banned the procedure as had several US states.
In 1977 the US Congress, during the presidency of Jimmy Carter, created the National Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to investigate allegations that psychosurgery -- including lobotomy techniques -- were used to control minorities and restrain individual rights. The committee concluded that some extremely limited and properly performed psychosurgery could have positive effects.
There have been calls in the early 21st century for the Nobel Foundation to rescind the prize it awarded to Moniz for developing lobotomy, a decision that has been called an astounding error of judgment at the time and one that psychiatry might still need to learn from, but the Foundation declined to take action and has continued to host an article defending the results of the procedure.
Lobotomies have been featured in several literary and cinematic presentations that both reflected society 's attitude towards the procedure and, at times, changed it. Writers and film - makers have played a pivotal role in forming a negative public sentiment towards the procedure.
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choose the amino acid whose function is involved in the production of carnosine | Non-proteinogenic amino acids - wikipedia
In biochemistry, non-coded or non-proteinogenic amino acids are those not naturally encoded or found in the genetic code of any organism. Despite the use of only 22 amino acids (21 in eukaryotes) by the translational machinery to assemble proteins (the proteinogenic amino acids), over 140 amino acids are known to occur naturally in proteins and thousands more may occur in nature or be synthesized in the laboratory. Many non-proteinogenic amino acids are noteworthy because they are;
Technically, any organic compound with an amine (- NH) and a carboxylic acid (- COOH) functional group is an amino acid. The proteinogenic amino acids are small subset of this group that possess central carbon atom (α - or 2 -) bearing an amino group, a carboxyl group, a side chain and an α - hydrogen levo conformation, with the exception of glycine, which is achiral, and proline, whose amine group is a secondary amine and is consequently frequently referred to as an imino acid for traditional reasons, albeit not an imino.
The genetic code encodes 20 standard amino acids for incorporation into proteins during translation. However, there are two extra proteinogenic amino acids: selenocysteine and pyrrolysine. These non-standard amino acids do not have a dedicated codon, but are added in place of a stop codon when a specific sequence is present, UGA codon and SECIS element for selenocysteine, UAG PYLIS downstream sequence for pyrrolysine. All other amino acids are termed "non-proteinogenic ''.
Selenocysteine. This amino acid contains a selenol group on its β - carbon
Pyrrolysine. This amino acid is formed by joining to the ε - amino group of lysine a carboxylated pyrroline ring
There are various groups of amino acids:
These groups overlap, but are not identical. All 22 proteinogenic amino acids are biosynthesised by organisms and some, but not all, of them also are abiotic (found in prebiotic experiments and meteorites). Some natural amino acids, such as norleucine, are misincorporated translationally into proteins due to infidelity of the protein - synthesis process. Many amino acids, such as ornithine, are metabolic intermediates produced biosynthetically, but not incorporated translationally into proteins. Post-translational modification of amino - acid residues in proteins leads to the formation of many proteinaceous, but non-proteinogenic, amino acids. Other amino acids are solely found in abiotic mixes (e.g. α - methylnorvaline). Over 30 unnatural amino acids have been inserted translationally into protein in engineered systems, yet are not biosynthetic.
In addition to the IUPAC numbering system to differentiate the various carbons in an organic molecule, by sequentially assigning a number to each carbon, including those forming a carboxylic group, the carbons along the side - chain of amino acids can also be labelled with Greek letters, where the α - carbon is the central chiral carbon possessing a carboxyl group, a side chain and, in α - amino acids, an amino group -- the carbon in carboxylic groups is not counted. (Consequently, the IUPAC names of many non-proteinogenic α - amino acids start with 2 - amino - and end in - ic acid.)
Most natural amino acids are α - amino acids in the L conformation, but some exceptions exist.
Some non-α amino acids exist in organisms. In these structures, the amine group displaced further from the carboxylic acid end of the amino acid molecule. Thus a β amino acid has the amine group bonded to the second carbon away, and a γ amino acid has it on the third. Examples include β - alanine, GABA, and δ - aminolevulinic acid.
β - alanine: an amino acid produced by aspartate 1 - decarboxylase and a precursor to coenzyme A and the peptides carnosine and anserine.
γ - Aminobutyric acid (GABA): a neurotransmitter in animals.
δ - Aminolevulinic acid: an intermediate in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis (haem, chlorophyll, cobalamin etc.).
4 - Aminobenzoic acid (PABA): an intermediate in folate biosynthesis
The reason why α - amino acids are used in proteins has been linked to their frequency in meteorites and prebiotic experiments. An initial speculation on the deleterious properties of β - amino acids in terms of secondary structure, turned out to be incorrect.
Some amino acids contain the opposite absolute chirality, chemicals that are not available from normal ribosomal translation / transcription machinery. Most bacterial cells walls are formed by peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of amino sugars crosslinked with short oligopeptides bridged between each other. The oligopeptide is non-ribosomally synthesised and contains several peculiarities including D - amino acids, generally D - alanine and D - glutamate. A further peculiarity is that the former is racemised by a PLP - binding enzymes (encoded by alr or the homologue dadX), whereas the latter is racemised by a cofactor independent enzyme (murI). Some variants are present, in Thermotoga spp. D - lysine is present and in certain vancomycin - resistant bacteria D - serine is present (vanT gene).
In animals, some D - amino acids are neurotransmitters.
All proteinogenic amino acids have at least one hydrogen on the α - carbon. Glycine has two hydrogens, and all others have one hydrogen and one side - chain. Replacement of the remaining hydrogen with a larger substituent, such as a methyl group, distorts the protein backbone.
In some fungi α - amino isobutyric acid is produced as a precursor to peptides, some of which exhibit antibiotic properties. This compound is similar to alanine, but possesses an additional methyl group on the α - carbon instead of a hydrogen. It is therefore achiral. Another compound similar to alanine without an α - hydrogen is dehydroalanine, which possess a methylene sidechain. It is one of several naturally occurring dehydroamino acids.
alanine
aminoisobutyric acid
dehydroalanine
A subset of L - α - amino acids are ambiguous as to which of two ends is the α - carbon. In proteins a cysteine residue can form a disulfide bond with another cysteine residue, thus crosslinking the protein. Two crosslinked cysteines form a cystine molecule. Cysteine and methionine are generally produced by direct sulfurylation, but in some species they can be produced by transsulfuration, where the activated homoserine or serine is fused to a cysteine or homocysteine forming cystathionine. A similar compound is lanthionine, which can be seen as two alanine molecules joined via a thioether bond and is found in various organisms. Similarly, djenkolic acid, a plant toxin from jengkol beans, is composed of two cysteines connected by a methylene group. Diaminopimelic acid is both used as a bridge in peptidoglycan and is used a precursor to lysine (via its decarboxylation).
cystine
cystathionine
lanthionine
Djenkolic acid
Diaminopimelic acid
In meteorites and in prebiotic experiments (e.g. Miller -- Urey experiment) many more amino acids than the twenty standard amino acids are found, several of which at higher concentrations than the standard ones: it has been conjectured that if amino acid based life were to arise in parallel elsewhere in the universe, no more than 75 % of the amino acids would be in common. The most notable anomaly is the lack of aminobutyric acid.
The genetic code has been described as a frozen accident and the reasons why there is only one standard amino acid with a straight chain (alanine) could simply be redundancy with valine, leucine and isoleucine. However, straight chained amino acids are reported to form much more stable alpha helices.
Glycine (Hydrogen side - chain)
Alanine (Methyl side - chain)
α - aminobutyric acid (Ethyl side - chain)
Norvaline (n - Propyl side - chain)
Norleucine (n - Butyl side - chain)
Homonorleucine (n - Pentyl side - chain)
Serine, homoserine, O - methyl - homoserine and O - ethyl - homoserine possess an hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, O - methyl - hydroxymethyl and O - methyl - hydroxyethyl side chain. Whereas cysteine, homocysteine, methionine and ethionine possess the thiol equivalents. The selenol equivalents are selenocysteine, selenohomocysteine, selenomethionine and selenoethionine. Amino acids with the next chalcogen down are also found in nature: several species such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus terreus, and Penicillium chrysogenum in the absence of sulfur are able to produce and incorporate into protein tellurocysteine and telluromethionine.
Hydroxyglycine, an amino acid with a hydroxyl side - chain, is highly unstable.
In cells, especially autotrophs, several non-proteinogenic amino acids are found as metabolic intermediates. However, despite the catalytic flexibility of PLP - binding enzymes, many amino acids are synthesised as keto - acids (e.g. 4 - methyl - 2 - oxopentanoate to leucine) and aminated in the last step, thus keeping the number of non-proteinogenic amino acid intermediates fairly low.
Ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below).
In addition to primary metabolism, several non-proteinogenic amino acids are precursors or the final production in secondary metabolism to make small compounds or non-ribosomal peptides (such as some toxins).
Despite not being encoded by the genetic code as proteinogenic amino acids, some non-standard amino acids are nevertheless found in proteins. These are formed by post-translational modification of the side chains of standard amino acids present in the target protein. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein; for example, in Gamma - carboxyglutamate the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and in hydroxyproline the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues. Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A, through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, e.g., the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane.
Carboxyglutamic acid. Whereas glutamic acid possess one γ - carboxyl group, Carboxyglutamic acid possess two.
Hydroxyproline. This imino acid differs from proline due to a hydroxyl group on carbon 4.
Hypusine. This amino acid is obtained by adding to the ε - amino group of a lysine a 4 - aminobutyl moiety (obtained from spermidine)
Pyroglutamic acid
There is some preliminary evidence that aminomalonic acid may be present, possibly by misincorporation, in protein.
Several non-proteinogenic amino acids are toxic due to their ability to mimic certain properties of proteinogenic amino acids, such as thialysine. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are neurotoxic by mimicking amino acids used as neurotransmitters (i.e. not for protein biosynthesis), e.g. Quisqualic acid, canavanine or azetidine - 2 - carboxylic acid. Cephalosporin C has an α - aminoadipic acid (homoglutamate) backbone that is amidated with a cephalosporin moiety. Penicillamine is a therapeutic amino acid, whose mode of action is unknown.
Thialysine
Quisqualic acid
Canavanine
azetidine - 2 - carboxylic acid
Cephalosporin C
Penicillamine
Naturally - occurring cyanotoxins can also include non-proteinogenic amino acids. Microcystin and nodularin, for example, are both derived from ADDA, a β - amino acid.
Taurine is an amino sulfonic acid and not an amino acid, however it is occasionally considered as such as the amounts required to suppress the auxotroph in certain organisms (e.g. cats) are closer to those of "essential amino acids '' (amino acid auxotrophy) than of vitamins (cofactor auxotrophy).
The osmolytes, sarcosine and glycine betaine are derived from amino acids, but have a secondary and quaternary amine respectively.
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do you have to be 21 to drive in europe | List of countries by minimum Driving age - wikipedia
The minimum driving age is the minimum age at which a person may obtain a driver 's licence to lawfully drive a motor vehicle on public roads. That age is determined by and for each jurisdiction and is most commonly set at 18 years of age, but learner drivers may be permitted on the road at an earlier age under supervision. Before reaching the minimum age for a driver 's licence or anytime afterwards, the person wanting the licence would normally be tested for driving ability and knowledge of road rules before being issued with a licence, provided he or she is above the minimum driving age. Countries with the lowest driving ages (17 and below) are Canada, El Salvador, Iceland, Israel, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, the United Kingdom (Mainland), United States and Zimbabwe. In several jurisdictions in the United States and Canada, drivers can be as young as 14.
Most jurisdictions recognise driver 's licences issued by another jurisdiction, which may result in a young person who obtains a licence in a jurisdiction with a low minimum driving age being permitted to drive in a jurisdiction which normally has a higher driving age.
The minimum age may vary depending on vehicle type. This list refers to the minimum driving age for a motor vehicle with a maximum authorized mass not exceeding 3,500 kg and designed and constructed for the carriage of no more than eight passengers in addition to the driver (not including a trailer).
16 (motorcycles)
16 (mopeds and tractors)
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who voted against the civil rights act of 1964 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. Thereafter, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 - 27 and House vote of 289 - 126 (70 % - 30 %). The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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where did the story me before you happen | Me Before You - wikipedia
Me Before You is a romance novel written by Jojo Moyes. The book was first published on 5 January 2012 in the United Kingdom. A sequel titled After You was released 29 September 2015 through Pamela Dorman Books. A second sequel, Still Me, was published in January 2018.
Twenty - six - year - old Louisa Clark lives with her working - class family. Unambitious and with few qualifications, she feels constantly outshone by her younger sister, Treena, an outgoing single mother. Louisa, who helps support her family, loses her job at a local café when the café closes. She goes to the Job Centre and, after several failed attempts, is offered a unique employment opportunity: help care for Will Traynor, a successful, wealthy, and once - active young man who was paralysed in a motorcycle accident two years earlier. Will 's mother, Camilla, hires Louisa despite her lack of experience, believing Louisa can brighten his spirit. Louisa meets Nathan, who cares for Will 's medical needs, and Will 's father, Steven, a friendly upper - class businessman whose marriage to Camilla is strained.
Louisa and Will 's relationship starts out rocky due to his bitterness and resentment over being disabled. Things worsen after Will 's ex-girlfriend, Alicia, and best friend Rupert reveal that they are getting married. Under Louisa 's care, Will gradually becomes more communicative and open - minded as they share experiences together. Louisa notices Will 's scarred wrists and later overhears his mother and sister discussing how he attempted suicide shortly after Camilla refused his request to end his life through Dignitas, a Swiss - based assisted suicide organisation. Horrified by his attempt, Camilla promised to honour her son 's wish, but only if he agreed to live six more months. Camilla intends to prove that, in time, he will believe his life 's worth living.
Louisa conceals knowing about Will and Camilla 's agreement. However, she tells Treena, and together they devise ways that will help convince Will to abandon his death wish. Over the next few weeks, Will loosens up and lets Louisa shave his beard and cut his shaggy hair. Louisa begins taking Will on outings and the two grow closer.
Through their frequent talks, Louisa learns that Will has travelled extensively; his favourite place is a café in Paris. Noticing how limited her life is and that she has few ambitions, Will tries to motivate Louisa to change.
Louisa continues seeing her longtime boyfriend, Patrick, though they eventually break up due to her relationship with Will. Meanwhile, Louisa 's father loses his job, causing more financial difficulties. Mr. Traynor offers Mr. Clark a position. Louisa realises that Will is trying to help her secure her freedom from her family. The two attend Alicia and Rupert 's wedding where they dance and flirt. Will tells Louisa that she is the only reason he wakes in the morning.
Louisa convinces Will to go on a holiday with her, but before they can leave, Will contracts near - fatal pneumonia. Louisa cancels the plans for a whirlwind trip. Instead, she takes Will to the island of Mauritius. The night before returning home, Louisa tells Will that she loves him. Will says he wants to confide something, but she admits that she already knows about his plans with Dignitas. Will says their time together has been special, but he can not bear to live in a wheelchair. He will be following through with his plans. Angry and hurt, Louisa storms off and does not speak to him for the remainder of the trip. When they return home, Will 's parents are pleasantly surprised by his good physical condition. Louisa, however, resigns as his caretaker, and they understand that Will intends to end his life.
On the night of Will 's flight to Switzerland, Louisa visits him one last time. They agree that the past six months have been the best in their lives. He dies shortly after in the clinic, and it is revealed that he left Louisa a considerable inheritance, meant to continue her education and to fully experience life. The novel ends with Louisa at a café in Paris, reading Will 's last words to her in a letter, that tell her to ' live well '.
The book was placed on the Richard and Judy Book Club.
Disability advocates have criticised the book and film for suggesting that life may not be worth living for some with severe disabilities.
In 2014 MGM announced it would make a film adaptation of Me Before You, to be directed by Thea Sharrock and released via Warner Bros. The film was initially set to release in August 2015 but was pushed back to 3 June 2016.
Emilia Clarke and Sam Claflin portray the main characters, and filming began in the spring of 2015. The film has grossed over $200 million worldwide.
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beethoven piano sonata in c major op 2 no 3 | Piano sonata No. 3 (Beethoven) - Wikipedia
Ludwig van Beethoven 's Piano Sonata No. 3 in C major, Op. 2, No. 3, is a sonata written for solo piano, composed in 1795. It is dedicated to Joseph Haydn and is often referred to as Beethoven 's first virtuosic piano sonata. The three Opus 2 sonatas all contain four movements each, an unusual length which seems to show that Beethoven was aspiring towards composing a symphony. It is both the weightiest and longest of the three Opus 2 sonatas, lasting over 25 minutes, presenting many difficulties, including difficult trills, awkward hand movements, and forearm rotation. It is Beethoven 's second longest piano sonata in his early period, only to Beethoven 's Grand Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 7, published a year later.
The sonata, in C major, consists of four movements:
The first movement follows the Sonata - Allegro format of the Classical period, and borrows thematically from Beethoven 's Piano Quartet No. 3 in C Major, WoO 36 from a decade earlier. The movement opens with the main theme in the tonic key, beginning with a double - thirds trill - like pattern. This opening passage is infamous for pianists to play, and Arthur Rubinstein even used this passage to test pianos before performing on them. This pattern leads into an energetic outburst of a broken - chord and broken - octave section. The second theme of the exposition begins in the key of G Minor, and is repeated in D minor at m. 33. It is not until m. 47 that the traditional dominant key is finally reached, where a subsidiary theme in the second thematic group appears, marked "dolce. '' Some believed Beethoven was influenced here by the Weiner ideals of expressionism. A forte shows later, leading to a very rich melody with left and right hand. Then a similar outburst of a broken - chord and broken - octave sections appears in fortissimo. Then it ends with some difficult trills and an octave scale. Beethoven opens the development by improvising on trill patterns introduced in the end of the exposition, which are much more difficult to play. Following a broken - chords section filled with harmony changes, the main theme is restated in D Major (pianissimo), the supertonic key of C Major. Then a fortissimo and Beethoven 's very common syncopations appears in the music giving a rhythm, this continues on to the resolution. The recapitulation is a key change from G Major to C Major, which is finished by a Cadenza, which begins with a sudden A-flat major chord. This music is also an exception because cadenzas do not usually appear in music other than concertos. The cadenza is very light and vibrant and it ends with a long trill and descending chromatic scale in the right hand. The first movement is about 10 minutes long and is one of Beethoven 's longest movements from his early period.
The second movement is marked Adagio and written in the key of E Major. It is in Rondo form, A-B-A-B-A - Coda, written in the style of a string quartet, as there are four clear voices. The middle section, in E minor, contains numerous examples of Romanticism, and is considered a prelude to the master 's later sonatas. Later in the movement, the E minor passage is repeated in E Major.
The third movement, a Scherzo, is written in Minuet - Trio form. It opens with a joke - like statement, and the composer uses some polyphony. The trio is in the relative minor key of C Major (A minor) and contains running arpeggios in the right hand with the left hand playing a melodic line in octave form. The coda of this short movement ends the Scherzo softly with a perfect cadence.
The final movement, listed as a Rondo, is in the Sonata rondo form. The movement opens with an ascending run of first inversion chords in the right hand, which is the movement 's main theme. Like the first movement, the second theme in the exposition is also written in G Major. The great speed of this movement, combined with numerous examples of Beethoven 's virtuosic skill such as the triple trill at the very end, makes it challenging for pianists.
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who does uncle ruckus voice on the boondocks | Gary Anthony Williams - wikipedia
Gary Anthony Williams (born March 14, 1966) is an American actor and comedian who provided the voice of Uncle Ruckus on The Boondocks, Yancy Westridge in the video game Alpha Protocol, and Horace Warfield in StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty and StarCraft II: Heart of the Swarm. He appeared on the television series Weeds, Boston Legal, Blue Collar TV and as "Abe '' Kenarban in Malcolm in the Middle. Williams co-founded and is Artistic Director of the L.A. Comedy Shorts film festival in Hollywood, California. He also starred alongside Cedric the Entertainer on the hit TV Land sitcom The Soul Man.
Born in Fayetteville, Georgia, Williams was involved in theater, comedy and television in Atlanta, where his credits include acting with the Georgia Shakespeare Festival, performing and writing for Agatha 's: A Taste of Mystery and being a longtime member of Atlanta 's longest running improv troupe, Laughing Matters. Williams had recurring roles in the television series I 'll Fly Away and In the Heat of the Night, both filmed in the Atlanta area. He moved to Los Angeles in 1998.
Williams ' past roles include Abraham Kenarban (Stevie 's dad) in the Fox TV sitcom Malcolm in the Middle and as Judge Trudy 's Bailiff on Nickelodeon 's The Amanda Show. Williams was a series regular on the WB Television Network sketch comedy series, Blue Collar TV.
In 2003, Williams had a small role in an episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, "Invisible Evidence. '' During season three and four of Boston Legal, Williams appeared as part - time lawyer Clarence Bell, a pathologically shy man who expresses himself through characters, including crossdressing as women (including a nun and celebrities such as Oprah Winfrey). The role of Clarence / Clarice was originally to appear in one episode, but was expanded into a recurring role and then a regular role.
Williams plays parts in five different shows on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim, one being a STRATA technician on Saul of the Molemen, another as the self - hating African American, Uncle Ruckus on The Boondocks, Coroner Rick, a recurring character on Stroker and Hoop, he also played the role of Paul Revere on the television special, The Young Person 's Guide to History, and served as the voice - over announcer for The Eric Andre Show until 2013. He also voiced Riff Tamson in the opening three episodes of season four of Star Wars: The Clone Wars. He is also the voice of Mr. Dos on Special Agent Oso. He appeared on an episode of Hot in Cleveland as a drama teacher and soccer coach.
In 2009 and 2010, Williams provided the voice of the supervillain Mongul for several episodes of the animated series, Batman: The Brave and the Bold. On one occasion, he voiced the character 's sister, Mongal. He also voiced the supervillain Thunderball in The Avengers: Earth 's Mightiest Heroes.
Williams is currently working on a new Mike Judge animated series. He was part of a segment in the show Beyond Belief: Fact or Fiction, and guest - starred on How I Met Your Mother and Two and a Half Men. Williams also guest stars as the halfway house director in the 7th season of the TV show Weeds. In 2011, he joined the cast of the animated series China, IL as the voice of Doctor Falgot. Williams was also in an episode of the show Workaholics. He was a series regular for the animated sketch comedy series Mad and is currently voicing Mr. McStuffins for the animated Disney Junior series, Doc McStuffins and Dirty Dan and Dusty for the animated Disney Junior series Sheriff Callie 's Wild West. He is also the narrator for the TV One series UNSUNG. From 2012 to 2016, Williams appeared as the recurring character Lester on the TV Land original sitcom The Soul Man.
Since 2013, Williams has been a replacement performer on the CW revival of the television show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, where he improvises scenes and songs. He also provides the voice for Mufasa in The Lion Guard, and has provided voices for Star Wars Rebels. In 2017, he voiced Bark Knight and Baboo from the animated Disney Junior series Puppy Dog Pals.
Williams has appeared in films such as Undercover Brother, appearing as Smart Brother (having previously voiced the Undercover Brother character in the original internet animated series), Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, and Soul Plane. On the Boondocks second season premiere, "... Or Die Trying '', Riley Freeman and Robert Freeman are seen watching the Soul Plane 2 trailer, when they distinctly hear Williams and voice of grandad, John Witherspoon (who also had an acting role in Soul Plane), having a conversation on the plane. He also voiced Sweet in The Trumpet of the Swan. Williams also appeared in the film The Factory, starring John Cusack. In 2011, Williams narrated the feature - length documentary Ayn Rand and the Prophecy of Atlas Shrugged. Perhaps his most recent role is as Melvin (a father) in House Party: Tonight 's the Night. Williams played Bebop in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows (2016). He voiced the demon in the horror film Truth or Dare (2018).
Williams, Fuzzbee Morse and Nick Jameson perform as the Flying Fannoli Brothers, an improv comedy band. He performs in the improvisational shows Cookin ' With Gas and The Black Version at The Groundlings Theatre in Los Angeles. Williams also returns to Atlanta to perform with Laughing Matters once or twice a year. Since 2013 he has been a recurring performer on The CW 's revival of Whose Line Is It Anyway?.
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sculptor and one of the most prolific african american artists of the late nineteenth century | List of African - American visual artists - wikipedia
This list of African - American visual artists is a list that includes dates of birth and death of historically recognized African - American fine artists known for the creation of artworks that are primarily visual in nature, including traditional media such as painting, sculpture, photography, and printmaking, as well as more recent genres, including installation art, performance art, body art, conceptual art, video art, and digital art. The entries are in alphabetical order by surname.
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who does st vincent de paul society help | Society of Saint Vincent de Paul - wikipedia
The Society of St Vincent de Paul (SVP or SVdP or SSVP) is an international voluntary organization in the Catholic Church, founded in 1833 for the sanctification of its members by personal service of the poor.
Innumerable Catholic parishes have established "conferences '', most of which affiliate with a diocesan council. Among its varied efforts to offer material help to the poor or needy, the Society also has thrift stores which sell donated goods at a low price and raise money for the poor. There are a great variety of outreach programs sponsored by the local conferences and councils, addressing local needs for social services.
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded in 1833 to help impoverished people living in the slums of Paris, France. The primary figure behind the Society 's founding was Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, a French lawyer, author, and professor in the Sorbonne. Frédéric collaborated with Emmanuel Bailly, editor of the Tribune Catholique, in reviving a student organization which had been suspended during the revolutionary activity of July 1830. Ozanam was 20 years old when he founded the Society. He was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1997. Emmanuel Bailly was chosen as the first President.
The Society took Saint Vincent de Paul as its patron under the influence of Sister Rosalie Rendu, DC. Sister Rosalie, beatified in November 1999 by Pope John Paul II, was a member of the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, earlier known for her work with people in the slums of Paris. She guided Frédéric and his companions in their approach towards those in need.
SVP gradually expanded outside Paris in the mid-19th century and received benefactors in places such as Tours where figures such as the Venerable Leo Dupont, known as the Holy Man of Tours, became collaborators.
The Society is part of the Vincentian Family which also includes two congregations founded by St. Vincent de Paul -- the Congregation of the Mission with Vincentian priests and brothers and the Ladies of Charity -- along with the Sisters of Charity in the Setonian tradition and several others, including some religious groups that are part of the Anglican Communion like the Company of Mission Priests.
Servant of God Fr. Ignatius Spencer from London came to know the Society in visits to Paris. Parisian Monsieur Baudon, who would assume the presidency of SVDP in 1847, visited London in 1842 and persuaded Spencer to write about the Society in the Catholic Magazine. Then in January 1844 M. Pagliano, a London restaurateur and recent convert to Catholicism, gathered 13 Catholic men and the first English SVP conference was founded. Early initiatives included the formation of the Catholic Shoe Black Brigade, providing boys with gainful employment and the first home of "the Rescue Society '' which under various names still offers child care in many dioceses.
In 2013 there were more than 10,000 members in more than 1,000 Conferences in the United Kingdom, making over 500,000 recorded visits annually to more than 100,000 people.
The Society 's first Conference in the United States was established in 1845 in St. Louis, Missouri, at the Basilica of St. Louis King of France, or "Old Cathedral ''. Fr. John Timon, CM, had learned of the Society while visiting with his Vincentian superiors in Paris. From Dublin, Ireland, he brought to St. Louis copies of the SVP Rule. On November 16, 1845, Bishop Peter Richard Kenrick dedicated the new St. Vincent de Paul church on South Eighth Street and invited Timon to preach. Timon discussed the Society in his sermon, in the presence of prominent laymen who took hold of the idea and held an organizational meeting on November 20, 1845. The Conference included Dr. Moses Linton, founder of the St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal, and as chair Judge Bryan Mullanphy who would become mayor of St. Louis. Bishop Kenrick appointed Fr. Ambrose Heim as spiritual advisor to the Conference.
Father Gerald Ward was born in London in 1806 and was recruited for the Melbourne mission by the pioneering father, later bishop, Patrick Geoghegan. Ward was familiar with SVP from London and, observing the plight of the poor after the Victorian gold rush, established the Society in Australia in 1854. Ward served as its first president and helped establish the SVP orphanage in South Melbourne. Charles O'Neill, an engineer and parliamentarian who had led the Society in Scotland, established it in Sydney.
Fr. Chataigner, SM, established the first Conference in New Zealand in July 1867, but did not affiliate with the Council - General in Paris. The first to affiliate was the Wellington Conference founded in 1908 by Fr. Petitjean, SM, and Charles O'Neill, followed by other Conferences out of Wellington.
Charles Gordon O'Neill was born in Glasgow in 1828. He graduated as a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Upon graduation he had joined the Society of St Vincent de Paul. He was secretary at Dumbarton in 1851. He led the St Vincent de Paul Society in the Western Districts of Scotland between 1859 and 1863. By 1863 he was president of the Superior Council of Glasgow and a member of the Council - General in Paris.
SVP came to Mumbai in 1862 when the Conference of Our Lady of Hope, Bhuleshwar, was established at the cathedral by the future bishop Fr. Leo Meurin, S.J. With the closure of the cathedral in 1942, the Conference was transferred to the Church of Our Lady of Health, Cavel. Meurin also established a Conference at St. Teresa, Girgaum, in 1862, and four more in Mumbai in 1863: St. Peter, Bandra; St. Joseph, Umarkhadi; Our Lady of Victories, Mahim; and St. Anne, Mazagaon. The Society is active in southern India, especially through the Syro - Malabar Catholic Church headquartered in Kerala.
The Society numbers about 800,000 members in some 140 countries worldwide, whose members operate through "conferences ''. A Conference may be based out of a church, school, community center, hospital, etc., and is composed of Catholic volunteers who pursue their own Christian growth in the service of the poor. Some Conferences exist without affiliating with any local Council, and so are not counted in statistics. Non-Catholics may join and the Society serves all regardless of their personal beliefs.
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded in Ireland in 1844 when it was part of the United Kingdom. It is the largest voluntary charitable organisation in Ireland. During its history it has helped people in need through a famine, a civil war, a war of independence, two world wars, and several economic recessions. It is one of Ireland 's best known and most widely supported organisations of social concern and action with over 11,500 volunteers, active in every county in Ireland.
In Australia the "Vinnies '' number about 58,000. Works include Conferences, Special Works, and Vinnies shops, assisting over 2,200,000 people in Australia each year.
In New Zealand, SVP operates in 23 regions with over 50 shops which serve as centres for welfare service, including food banks and food trucks. Most Catholic schools have Young Vinnies who help with fundraising and with training for dealing directly with the poor. The work is varied, following the Vinnie motto: "No act of charity is foreign to the society. ''
The national headquarters is in St. Louis. Membership in the United States in 2015 exceeded 97,000 in 4,400 communities. Expenditures to people in poverty were $473,821,563. Programs include visits to homes, prisons, and hospitals, housing assistance, disaster relief, job training and placement, food pantries, dining halls, clothing, transportation and utility costs, care for the elderly, and medicine. Revenue is raised through a large network of thrift stores.
The St, Vincent de Paul Society runs thrift stores in many countries including Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada, as seen from websites for some in the USA: St. Louis area with 7 such stores, Cincinnati area with 7, Omaha with 3, Dayton with 2, Des Moines with 2, Florida with 35, California with 26, Pennsylvania with 24, Western Oregon with 15, Georgia with 12, Arizona with 10, Idaho with 3. Items from clothing to automobiles are sold for a small price, often with home pick - up for large items. Money, and at times donated items, are distributed to the poor.
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what was no man's land and why was it called that | No man 's land - wikipedia
No man 's land is land that is unoccupied or is under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied due to fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dumping ground for refuse between fiefdoms. In modern times, it is commonly associated with World War I to describe the area of land between two enemy trench systems, which neither side wished to cross or seize due to fear of being attacked by the enemy in the process.
According to Alasdair Pinkerton, an expert in human geography at the Royal Holloway University of London, the term is first mentioned in Domesday Book in the 11th century to describe parcels of land that were just beyond the London city walls. The Oxford English Dictionary contains a reference to the term dating back to 1320, and spelled nonesmanneslond, when the term was used to describe a disputed territory or one over which there was legal disagreement. The same term was later used as the name for the piece of land outside the north wall of London that was assigned as the place of execution. The term was applied to a little - used area on ships called the forecastle, a place where various ropes, tackle, block, and other supplies were stored. In the United Kingdom several places called No Man 's Land denoted "extra-parochial spaces that were beyond the rule of the church, beyond the rule of different fiefdoms that were handed out by the king... ribbons of land between these different regimes of power ''.
The British Army did not widely employ the term when the Regular Army arrived in France in August 1914, soon after the outbreak of the Great War. The terms used most frequently at the start of the war to describe the area between the trench lines included ' between the trenches ' or ' between the lines '. The term ' no man 's land ' was first used in a military context by soldier and historian Ernest Swinton in his short story The Point of View. Swinton used the term in war correspondence on the Western Front, with specific mention of the terms with respect to the Race to the Sea in late 1914. The Anglo - German Christmas truce of 1914 brought the term into common use, and thereafter it appeared frequently in official communiqués, newspaper reports, and personnel correspondences of the members of the British Expeditionary Force.
In World War I, no man 's land often ranged from several hundred yards to in some cases less than 10 yards. Heavily defended by machine guns, mortars, artillery and riflemen on both sides, it was often riddled with barbed wire and rudimentary improvised land mines, as well as corpses and wounded soldiers who were not able to make it across the sea of bullets, explosions and flames. The area was usually devastated by the warfare and riddled with craters from artillery and mortar shells, and sometimes contaminated by chemical weapons. It was open to fire from the opposing trenches and hard going generally slowed down any attempted advance. However, not only were soldiers forced to cross no man 's land when advancing, and as the case might be when retreating, but after an attack the stretcher bearers would need to go out into it to bring in the wounded. No man 's land remained a regular feature of the battlefield until near the end of World War I, when mechanised weapons (i.e. tanks) made entrenched lines less of an obstacle.
Effects from World War I no man 's lands persist today, for example at Verdun in France, where the Zone Rouge (Red Zone) is an area with unexploded ordnance, poisoned beyond habitation by arsenic, chlorine, and phosgene. The zone is sealed off completely and still deemed too dangerous for civilians to return: "The area is still considered to be very poisoned, so the French government planted an enormous forest of black pines, like a living sarcophagus '', comments Alasdair Pinkerton, a researcher at Royal Holloway University of London, who compared the zone to the nuclear disaster site at Chernobyl, similarly encased in a "concrete sarcophagus ''.
During the Cold War, one example of "no man 's land '' was the territory close to the Iron Curtain. Officially the territory belonged to the Eastern Bloc countries, but over the entire Iron Curtain there were several wide tracts of uninhabited land, several hundred meters in width, containing watch towers, minefields, unexploded bombs and other such debris.
The U.S. Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba is separated from Cuba proper by an area called the Cactus Curtain. In late 1961, Cuba had its troops plant an 8 - mile (13 km) barrier of Opuntia cactus along the northeastern section of the 28 - kilometre (17 mi) fence surrounding the base to prevent economic migrants fleeing from Cuba from resettling in the United States. This was dubbed the "Cactus Curtain '', an allusion to Europe 's Iron Curtain and the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia. U.S. and Cuban troops placed some 55,000 land mines across the no man 's land, creating the second - largest minefield in the world, and the largest in the Americas. On 16 May 1996, Bill Clinton, the President of the United States, ordered their removal. The U.S. land mines have since been replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders. The Cuban government has not removed the corresponding minefield on its side of the border.
The 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Jordan were signed in Rhodes with the help of UN mediation on 3 April 1949. Armistice lines were determined in November 1948. Between the lines territory was left that was defined as no man 's land. Such areas existed in Jerusalem, in the area between the western and southern parts of the Walls of Jerusalem and Musrara. A strip of land north and south of Latrun was also known as "no man 's land '' because it was not controlled by either Israel or Jordan in 1948 -- 1967.
In 1885, the United States Interior Department ruled that what was called "The Neutral Strip '' was public land and that squatter homesteads were invalid. The Strip began to be called No Man 's Land around 1886 after one official stated "no man can own the land ''.
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when did o canada become canada's national anthem | O Canada - wikipedia
"O Canada '' (French: Ô Canada) is the national anthem of Canada. The song was originally commissioned by Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Théodore Robitaille for the 1880 Saint - Jean - Baptiste Day ceremony; Calixa Lavallée composed the music, after which, words were written by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe - Basile Routhier. The original lyrics were in French; an English translation was published in 1906. Multiple English versions ensued, with Robert Stanley Weir 's version in 1908 gaining the most popularity, eventually serving as the basis for the official lyrics enacted by Parliament. Weir 's lyrics have been revised three times, most recently when An Act to amend the National Anthem Act (gender) was enacted in 2018. The French lyrics remain unaltered. "O Canada '' had served as a de facto national anthem since 1939, officially becoming the country 's national anthem in 1980 when Canada 's National Anthem Act received royal assent and became effective on July 1 as part of that year 's Dominion Day (now known as Canada Day) celebrations.
The Queen - in - Council established set lyrics for "O Canada '' in Canada 's two official languages, English and French. The lyrics are as follows:
English lyrics O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all of us command. With glowing hearts we see thee rise, The True North strong and free! From far and wide, O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.
French lyrics Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. Et ta valeur, de foi trempée, Protégera nos foyers et nos droits. Protégera nos foyers et nos droits.
English translation by the parliamentary translation bureau O Canada! Land of our ancestors Glorious deeds circle your brow For your arm knows how to wield the sword Your arm knows how to carry the cross; Your history is an epic Of brilliant deeds And your valour steeped in faith Will protect our homes and our rights, Will protect our homes and our rights.
Unofficial bilingual version O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all of us command. Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.
It has been noted that the opening theme of "O Canada '' bears a strong resemblance to the "March of the Priests '' from the opera The Magic Flute, composed in 1791 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The line "The True North strong and free '' is based on the Lord Tennyson 's description of Canada as "that true North, whereof we lately heard / A strain to shame us ''. In the context of Tennyson 's poem To the Queen, the word true means "loyal '' or "faithful ''.
The lyrics and melody of "O Canada '' are both in the public domain, a status unaffected by the trademarking of the phrases "with glowing hearts '' and "des plus brillants exploits '' for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Two provinces have adopted Latin translations of phrases from the English lyrics as their mottos: Manitoba -- Gloriosus et Liber (Glorious and Free) -- and Alberta -- Fortis et Liber (Strong and Free). Similarly, the Canadian Army 's motto is Vigilamus pro te (we stand on guard for thee).
The original French lyrics of "O Canada '' were written by Sir Adolphe - Basile Routhier, to music composed by Calixa Lavallée, as a French Canadian patriotic song for the Saint - Jean - Baptiste Society and first performed on June 24, 1880, at a Saint - Jean - Baptiste Day banquet in Quebec City. At that time, the "Chant National '', also by Routhier, was popular amongst Francophones as an anthem, while "God Save the Queen '' and "The Maple Leaf Forever '' had, since 1867, been competing as unofficial national anthems in English Canada. "O Canada '' joined that fray when a group of school children sang it for the 1901 tour of Canada by the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall (later King George V and Queen Mary). This was the first known performance of the song outside Quebec.
Five years later, the Whaley and Royce company in Toronto published the music with the French text and a first translation into English by Thomas Bedford Richardson and, in 1908, Collier 's Weekly magazine held a competition to write new English lyrics for "O Canada ''. The competition was won by Mercy E. Powell McCulloch, but her version never gained wide acceptance. In fact, many made English translations of Routhier 's words; however, the most popular version was created in 1908 by Robert Stanley Weir, a lawyer and Recorder of the City of Montreal. Weir 's original lyrics from 1908 contained no religious references and used the phrase "thou dost in us command '' before they were changed by Weir in 1913 to read "in all thy sons command ''. In 1926, a fourth verse of a religious nature was added. A slightly modified version was officially published for the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation in 1927, and gradually it became the most widely accepted and performed version of this song.
The tune was thought to have become the de facto national anthem after King George VI remained at attention during its playing at the dedication of the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Ontario, on May 21, 1939; though George was actually following a precedent set by his brother, Edward, the previous king of Canada, when he dedicated the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France in 1936. By - laws and practices governing the use of song during public events in municipalities varied; in Toronto, "God Save the Queen '' was employed, while in Montreal it was "O Canada ''.
Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in 1964 said one song would have to be chosen as the country 's national anthem and the government resolved to form a joint committee to review the status of the two musical works. The next year, Pearson put to the House of Commons a motion that "the government be authorized to take such steps as may be necessary to provide that ' O Canada ' shall be the National Anthem of Canada while ' God Save the Queen ' shall be the Royal Anthem of Canada '', of which parliament approved. In 1967, the Prime Minister advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems; the group first met in February and, within two months, on April 12, 1967, presented its conclusion that "O Canada '' should be designated as the national anthem and "God Save the Queen '' as the royal anthem of Canada, one verse from each, in both official languages, to be adopted by parliament. The group was then charged with establishing official lyrics for each song. For "O Canada '', the Robert Stanley Weir version of 1908 was recommended for the English words, with a few minor changes: two of the "stand on guard '' phrases were replaced with "from far and wide '' and "God keep our land ''.
In 1970 the Queen in Right of Canada purchased the right to the lyrics and music of "O Canada '' from Gordon V. Thompson Music for $1. The song finally became the official national anthem in 1980 with the passage of the National Anthem Act. The act replaced two of the repetitions of the phrase "We stand on guard '' in the English lyrics, as had been proposed by the Senate Special Joint Committee. This change was controversial with traditionalists and, for several years afterwards, it was not uncommon to hear people still singing the old lyrics at public events. In contrast, the French lyrics are unchanged from the original version.
In June 1990, Toronto City Council voted 12 to 7 in favour of recommending to the Canadian government that the phrase "our home and native land '' be changed to "our home and cherished land '' and that "in all thy sons command '' be partly reverted to "in all of us command ''. Councillor Howard Moscoe said that the words "native land '' were not appropriate for the many Canadians who were not native - born and that the word "sons '' implied "that women ca n't feel true patriotism or love for Canada ''. Senator Vivienne Poy similarly criticized the English lyrics of the anthem as being sexist and she introduced a bill in 2002 proposing to change the phrase "in all thy sons command '' to "in all of us command ''. In the late 2000s, the anthem 's religious references (to God in English and to the Christian cross in French) were criticized by secularists.
In the speech from the throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on March 3, 2010, a plan to have parliament review the "original gender - neutral wording of the national anthem '' was announced. However, three - quarters of Canadians polled after the speech objected to the proposal and, two days later, the prime minister 's office announced that the Cabinet had decided not to restore the original lyrics.
In another attempt to make the anthem gender - neutral, Liberal MP Mauril Bélanger introduced a private member 's bill in September of 2014. His Bill C - 624, An Act to amend the National Anthem Act (gender), was defeated at second reading in April 2015. Following the 2015 federal election, Bélanger reintroduced the bill in the new parliament as Bill C - 210 in January 2016. In June 2016, the bill passed its third reading with a vote of 225 to 74 in the House of Commons. The bill passed its third reading in the Senate with a voice vote on January 31, 2018 and received royal assent on February 7, 2018.
Below are some slightly different versions of the second and third stanzas and the chorus, plus an additional fourth stanza. These are rarely sung.
O Canada! Where pines and maples grow. Great prairies spread and lordly rivers flow. How dear to us thy broad domain, From East to Western sea. Thou land of hope for all who toil! Thou True North, strong and free! Chorus God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada! Beneath thy shining skies May stalwart sons, and gentle maidens rise, To keep thee steadfast through the years From East to Western sea. Our own beloved native land! Our True North, strong and free! Chorus Ruler supreme, who hearest humble prayer, Hold our Dominion within thy loving care; Help us to find, O God, in thee A lasting, rich reward, As waiting for the better Day, We ever stand on guard. Chorus
The first verse is the same. The other verses follow.
Sous l'œil de Dieu, près du fleuve géant, Le Canadien grandit en espérant. Il est né d'une race fière, Béni fut son berceau. Le ciel a marqué sa carrière Dans ce monde nouveau. Toujours guidé par sa lumière, Il gardera l'honneur de son drapeau, Il gardera l'honneur de son drapeau. De son patron, précurseur du vrai Dieu, Il porte au front l'auréole de feu. Ennemi de la tyrannie Mais plein de loyauté, Il veut garder dans l'harmonie, Sa fière liberté; Et par l'effort de son génie, Sur notre sol asseoir la vérité, Sur notre sol asseoir la vérité. Amour sacré du trône et de l'autel, Remplis nos cœurs de ton souffle immortel! Parmi les races étrangères, Notre guide est la loi: Sachons être un peuple de frères, Sous le joug de la foi. Et répétons, comme nos pères, Le cri vainqueur: "Pour le Christ et le roi! '' Le cri vainqueur: "Pour le Christ et le roi! ''
Under the eye of God, near the giant river, The Canadian grows hoping. He was born of a proud race, Blessed was his birthplace. Heaven has noted his career In this new world. Always guided by its light, He will keep the honour of his flag, He will keep the honour of his flag. From his patron, the precursor of the true God, He wears the halo of fire on his brow. Enemy of tyranny But full of loyalty, He wants to keep in harmony, His proud freedom; And by the effort of his genius, Set on our ground the truth, Set on our ground the truth. Sacred love of the throne and the altar, Fill our hearts with your immortal breath! Among the foreign races, Our guide is the law: Let us know how to be a people of brothers, Under the yoke of faith. And repeat, like our fathers, The battle cry: "For Christ and King! '' The battle cry: "For Christ and King! ''
"O Canada '' is routinely played before sporting events involving Canadian teams. Singers at such public events often mix the English and French lyrics to represent Canada 's linguistic duality. Other linguistic variations have also been performed: During the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, "O Canada '' was sung in the southern Tutchone language by Yukon native Daniel Tlen. At a National Hockey League (NHL) game in Calgary, in February 2007, Cree singer Akina Shirt became the first person ever to perform "O Canada '' in the Cree language at such an event.
Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, the National Basketball Association, and the NHL all require venues to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries, with the away team 's anthem being performed first, followed by the host country. The NHL 's Buffalo Sabres play both anthems before every home game, regardless of the opponent, in recognition of the team 's significant Canadian fanbase. Major League Baseball teams have played the song at games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos, and National Basketball Association teams do so for games involving the Toronto Raptors, and previously, the Vancouver Grizzlies. Major League Soccer has the anthem performed at matches involving Toronto FC, Montreal Impact, and Vancouver Whitecaps FC.
The National Anthem Act specifies the lyrics and melody of "O Canada '', placing both of them in the public domain, allowing the anthem to be freely reproduced or used as a base for derived works, including musical arrangements. There are no regulations governing the performance of "O Canada '', leaving citizens to exercise their best judgment. When it is performed at an event, traditional etiquette is to either start or end the ceremonies with the anthem, including situations when other anthems are played, and for the audience to stand during the performance. Civilian men usually remove their hats, while women and children are not required to do so. Military men and women in uniform traditionally keep their hats on and offer the military salute during the performance of the anthem, with the salute offered in the direction of the Maple Leaf Flag if one is present, and if not present it is offered standing at attention.
In the 1950s, "O Canada 's '' melody was adapted for the school anthem of the Ateneo de Manila University. Titled "A Song for Mary '' or simply "The Ateneo de Manila Graduation Hymn '', the song 's lyrics were written by James B. Reuter SJ, and the tune was adapted by Col. José Campaña.
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where was bridge over a pond of water lilies painted | Water Lilies (Monet series) - wikipedia
Water Lilies (or Nymphéas, French: (nɛ̃. fe. a)) is a series of approximately 250 oil paintings by French Impressionist Claude Monet (1840 -- 1926). The paintings depict his flower garden at his home in Giverny, and were the main focus of his artistic production during the last thirty years of his life. Many of the works were painted while Monet suffered from cataracts.
Monet 's long preference for producing and exhibiting a series of paintings related by subject and perspective began in 1889, with at least ten paintings done at the Valley of the Creuse, which were shown at the Galerie Georges Petit. Among his other famous series are his Haystacks.
During the 1920s, the state of France built a pair of oval rooms at the Musée de l'Orangerie as a permanent home for eight water lily murals by Monet. The exhibit opened to the public on 16 May 1927, a few months after Monet 's death. Sixty water lily paintings from around the world were assembled for a special exhibition at the Musée de l'Orangerie in 1999.
The paintings are on display at museums all over the world, including the Princeton University Art Museum, Musée Marmottan Monet, the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Saint Louis Art Museum, the Nelson - Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri, the Carnegie Museum of Art, the National Museum of Wales, the Musée des Beaux - Arts de Nantes, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Portland Art Museum and the Legion of Honor.
On 19 June 2007, one of Monet 's water lily paintings sold for £ 18.5 million at a Sotheby 's auction in London. On 24 June 2008 another of his water lily paintings, Le Bassin Aux Nymphéas, sold for almost £ 41 million at Christie 's in London, almost double the estimate of £ 18 to £ 24 million.
In May 2010, it was announced that the 1906 Nymphéas work would be auctioned in London in June 2010. The painting had an estimated sale price of between £ 30 and £ 40 million. Giovanna Bertazzoni, Christie 's auction house director and head of impressionist and modern art, said, "Claude Monet 's water - lily paintings are amongst the most recognised and celebrated works of the 20th Century and were hugely influential to many of the following generations of artists. '' The sale took place on 23 June 2010 at the auction house and the painting attracted bids of up to £ 29 million, but it ultimately failed to sell.
On 6 May 2014, one of the Water Lilies paintings was auctioned at Christie 's, New York City for $27 million. (16) This auction totaled $141 millon with the Monet piece Le bassin aux nymphéas being auctioned for $27 million of this amount.
In June of 2014, one of the Water Lilies, Nymphéas, sold for $54 million USD at a Sotheby 's auction in London. This piece was auctioned to an anonymous buyer, but the piece went on to be part of the exhibition "Painting the Modern Garden: From Monet to Matisse '' at the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Royal Academy of Arts, London, starting in 2015. The co-chairman of Sotheby 's modern and impressionist art department, Helena Newman, claims that the result is at the top of the original estimated selling price. This price was between 34 and 51 million USD.
While many of Monet 's masterpieces have sold, there are still an estimated 250 oil paintings from this series. The collection is widely popular, with many of these pieces residing in exhibits that have yet to go to auction.
Water Lilies, 1920 -- 1926, Musée de l'Orangerie
Water - Lily Pond, c. 1915 -- 1926, Chichu Art Museum, Naoshima, Kagawa, Japan
Wisteria, 1925, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
Water Lilies, 1922, Toledo Museum of Art
Le Bassin Aux Nymphéas, 1919
Water Lilies, 1919, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
The Water Lily Pond, c. 1917 - 19, Albertina
Water Lilies, 1917 -- 1919, Honolulu Museum of Art
Water - Lily Pond and Weeping Willow, (1916 -- 19)
Nymphéas reflets de saule (1916 -- 19), Musée Marmottan Monet
Blue Water Lilies, 1916 - 1919, Musée d'Orsay
Sea - Roses (Yellow Nirwana), after 1916, National Gallery, London
Nymphéas, 1916, Musée Marmottan Monet
Water Lilies, 1916, National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo
White and yellow Water Lilies, (1915 -- 1917), Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland
Nymphéas, 1915, Musée Marmottan Monet
Nymphéas (Waterlilies), 1914 - 1917, National Gallery of Australia
Water - Lilies, 1914 -- 1917, Toledo Museum of Art
Nymphéas, 1915, Neue Pinakothek, Munich
Water Lilies (TFAM), 1908, Tokyo Fuji Art Museum
Water Lily Pond, 1908
Water Lilies, 1907 The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Water Lilies, 1907, Bridgestone Museum of Art, Tokyo
Pond with Water Lilies, 1907, Israel Museum
Water Lilies, 1906, Art Institute of Chicago
Water Lilies, 1905, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Le Bassin des Nympheas, 1904, Denver Art Museum
Water Lilies, 1904
Water Lilies, 1903, Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio
Closeup of Water lily pond, one of 18 views of the pond, 1899, Boston Museum of Fine Arts
Water lilies, 1897 -- 1899, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna
Nympheas, 1897 -- 1898, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
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led zeppelin in through the out door youtube | In Through the Out Door - wikipedia
In Through the Out Door is the eighth studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, and their final album of entirely new material. It was recorded over a three - week period in November and December 1978 at ABBA 's Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, and released by Swan Song Records on 15 August 1979. In Through the Out Door was the band 's eighth and final studio release to reach the top of the charts in America, and was the last released by the band before the death of drummer John Bonham in 1980.
The album is a reflection of the personal turmoil that the band members had been going through before and during its recording. For example, frontman Robert Plant and his wife had gone through a serious car accident, and their young son, Karac Plant, died from a stomach illness. All four band members also felt weary of dealing with record companies and other associates. Despite this, the release wound up being a huge commercial success, particularly in the United States (sitting at the # 1 slot on Billboard 's chart in just its second week on the chart).
The album was named by the group to describe its recent struggles amidst the death of Robert Plant 's son Karac in 1977, and the taxation exile the band took from the UK. The exile resulted in the band being unable to tour on British soil for over two years, and trying to get back into the public mind was therefore like "trying to get in through the ' out ' door. ''
In contrast to previous Led Zeppelin albums, In Through the Out Door features much greater influence on the part of bassist and keyboardist John Paul Jones and vocalist Robert Plant, and relatively less from drummer John Bonham and guitarist Jimmy Page. Two songs from the album -- "South Bound Saurez '' and "All My Love '' -- were the only two original Led Zeppelin songs that Jimmy Page had no part in writing. With the exception of "Darlene, '' a boogie - woogie based song credited to all band members (which was eventually released on the 1982 album, Coda), Bonham did not receive writing credits for any of the songs recorded at Polar Studios. This diminished input by Page and Bonham is attributed to the two band members often not showing up on time at the recording studio, with Bonham struggling with alcoholism and Page battling heroin addiction. As Jones said, "there were two distinct camps by then, and we (Plant and I) were in the relatively clean one. ''
Many of the songs were consequently put together by Plant and Jones during the day, with Page and Bonham adding their parts late at night. According to Jones, this was
... mainly because I had a new toy. I had this big new keyboard. And Robert and I just got to rehearsals early, basically. (...) With Zeppelin writing, if you came up with good things, and everybody agreed that they were good things, they got used. There was no formula for writing. So Robert and I, by the time everybody turned up for rehearsals, we 'd written three or four songs. So we started rehearsing those immediately, because they were something to be getting on with.
Following the recording sessions at Polar Studios, the album was mixed at Page 's personal studio at his home in Plumpton. "Wearing and Tearing '', "Ozone Baby '' and "Darlene '' were recorded during sessions for this album, but were dropped because of space constraints. All later appeared on Coda.
The original album featured an unusual gimmick: the album had an outer sleeve which was made to look like a plain brown paper bag (reminiscent of similarly packaged bootleg album sleeves with the title rubber - stamped on it), and the inner sleeve featured black and white line artwork which, if washed with water, would become permanently fully coloured. There were also six different sleeves featuring a different pair of photos (one on each side), and the external brown paper sleeve meant that it was impossible for record buyers to tell which sleeve they were getting (there is actually a code on the spine of the album jacket which indicated which sleeve it was -- this could sometimes be seen while the record was still sealed). The pictures all depicted the same scene in a bar (in which a man burns a Dear John letter), and each photo was taken from the separate point of view of someone who appeared in the other photos. The walls are covered with thousands of yellowed business cards and dollar bills. The photo session in a London studio was meant to look like a re-creation of the Old Absinthe House, in New Orleans, Louisiana.
The album artwork was designed by Hipgnosis. Storm Thorgerson recalls the design in his book Eye of the Storm:
The sepia quality was meant to evoke a non-specific past and to allow the brushstroke across the middle to be better rendered in colour and so make a contrast. This self same brushstroke was like the swish of a wiper across a wet windscreen, like a lick of fresh paint across a faded surface, a new look to an old scene, which was what Led Zeppelin told us about their album. A lick of fresh paint, as per Led Zeppelin, and the music on this album... It somehow grew in proportion and became six viewpoints of the same man in the bar, seen by the six other characters. Six different versions of the same image and six different covers.
And:
Did you ever notice you could affect the dust jacket by putting water on it? If you applied spittle to it or a bit of water, it would change colour, like a children 's colouring book we based it on. But we did n't tell anybody. I do n't think Zeppelin told anybody, either.
In 1980, Hipgnosis were nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of Best Album Package for In Through the Out Door.
The album was intended to be released before the band 's twin concerts at Knebworth in 1979, but production delays meant that it was released shortly after their performances at this event. Plant jokingly referred to the delays at times during the performance on 4 August.
The album went to No. 1 on Billboard 's chart in its second week on the chart. On this album 's release, Led Zeppelin 's entire catalogue made the Billboard 200 between the weeks of 23 October and 3 November 1979, an unprecedented feat. The album remained on the US top spot for seven weeks and sold three million copies by the end of September 1979. It is also the Led Zeppelin album that has been most weeks on the top of the charts (tied along with Led Zeppelin II). To date, the album has sold six million copies in the US.
In Through the Out Door divided contemporary critics and Led Zeppelin fans; some found its synthesizer - influenced music inevitable but forward - thinking while others felt the band had forsaken their heavy, fast sound. According to Jimmy Page biographer Martin Power, "predictably, in the wake of punk, In Through the Out Door received a rough ride from some critics, with Zep 's veteran status in the music business now used as a stick with which to beat them. '' Rolling Stone reviewer Charles M. Young said Page 's diminishing creativity resulted in little good material to work with for Plant, whose lyrics Young found inane, and Bonham, whose drumming was viewed as heavy handed. This brought to the forefront the keyboard playing of Jones, whom Young said "functions best behind Page, not in front of him ''. Chris Bohn from Melody Maker said "the impressionable first play '' of the record "had everyone in the office rolling around laughing '', while accusing the band of being "totally out of touch '' and "displaying the first intimations of mortality ''. By contrast, NME journalist Nick Kent argued that the album was "no epitaph '', believing its "potential points of departure '' deserved further listening. Robert Christgau also wrote positively of the record in The Village Voice, observing the usual "lax in the lyrics department '', but regarding the album as the group 's best since Houses of the Holy (1973). He said "the tuneful synthesizer pomp on side two confirms my long - held belief that this is a real good art - rock band '', while "the lollapalooza hooks on the first side confirms the world 's long - held belief that this is a real good hard rock band. ''
Following the album 's release, Plant, Page and Bonham all expressed reservations about the record. In 1990 Plant stated:
In Through The Out Door was n't the greatest thing in the world, but at least we were trying to vary what we were doing, for our own integrity 's sake. Of all the (Led Zeppelin) records, it 's interesting but a bit sanitised because we had n't been in the clamour and chaos for a long time. In ' 77, when I lost my boy, I did n't really want to go swinging around -- "Hey hey mama say the way you move '' did n't really have a great deal of import any more. In Through The Out Door is more conscientious and less animal.
In a 1998 Guitar World magazine interview, Page was asked about the paradigm shift of the album 's composition and style:
GW: I thought maybe you were losing your enthusiasm for the band.
Page: Never. Never. In fact, Bonzo (i.e. drummer John Bonham) and I had already started discussing plans for a hard - driving rock album after that. We both felt that In Through the Out Door was a little soft. I was not really very keen on "All My Love ''. I was a little worried about the chorus. I could just imagine people doing the wave and all of that. And I thought, ' That is not us. That is not us. ' In its place it was fine, but I would not have wanted to pursue that direction in the future.
In the same interview Page explained that in juxtaposition to the previous Presence album, John Paul Jones was inspired to create new material from his recently purchased Yamaha GX - 1 synthesizer, and he was "... working closely with Robert, which was something that had not happened before. ''
Page said in 2004, "we wanted, after In Through the Out Door, to make something hard - hitting and riff - based again. Of course, we never got to make that album. '' He is also quoted as saying "It was n't the most comfortable album. I think it was very transitional... a springboard for what could have been.
In Through the Out Door was Led Zeppelin 's final album to be released while all the original members were still living. Drummer John Bonham died the next year on 25 September 1980.
A remastered version of In Through the Out Door, along with Presence and Coda were reissued on 31 July 2015. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two - CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe two - LP version, a super deluxe two - CD plus two - LP version with a hardback book, and as high resolution 96k / 24 - bit digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material containing alternative takes and previously unreleased songs, "Southbound Piano '', "The Epic '', "The Hook '', and "Blot ''. The reissue was released with an inverted color version of the original album 's artwork as its bonus disc 's cover. A replica of the brown bag and the colorable line drawing are included in this edition.
All tracks written by John Paul Jones, Jimmy Page, and Robert Plant, except where noted.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what state is it illegal to record police | Telephone recording laws - wikipedia
Telephone recording laws are laws that govern the civilian recording of telephone conversations by the participants. Recording of private conversations by government or law enforcement (wiretapping) are usually covered by distinct laws.
Telephone tapping is strictly regulated in many countries, especially in all developed democracies, to safeguard the privacy of telephone users. Telephone tapping often must be authorized by a court, and is normally only approved when evidence shows it is not possible to detect criminal or subversive activity in less intrusive ways; often the law and regulations require that the crime investigated must be at least of a certain severity. In many jurisdictions, however, permission for telephone tapping is easily obtained on a routine basis without further investigation by the court or other entity granting such permission. Illegal or unauthorized telephone tapping is often a criminal offense. However, in certain jurisdictions such as Germany, criminal courts may accept illegally recorded phone calls without the other party 's consent as evidence.
The federal Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979 and State and Territory listening devices laws may both apply to monitoring or recording of telephone conversations. The general rule is that the call may not be recorded. Section 7 of the Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979 prohibits intercepting a telephone call. "Interception '' is defined in section 6, of which one element is that it is made "without the knowledge of the person making the communication ''. There are exceptions to these rules in very limited circumstances, including where a warrant applies.
If a call is to be recorded or monitored, an organization must tell you at the beginning of the conversation so that you have the chance either to end the call, or to ask to be transferred to another line where monitoring or recording does not take place (if this is available).
Reasons organizations may monitor or record conversations could include:
In the state of Queensland it is not illegal to simply record a telephone conversation if you are a party to the conversation.
In Canada, organizations subject to the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) must comply with PIPEDA when recording calls.
In order to comply with the PIPEDA, organizations should take the following steps when recording conversations:
An individual may record a call as long as he or she is one of the participants of the call. The recording can be used as evidence in a lawsuit.
However, it is illegal to record communications that the recording party is not participating in. An illegal recording can lead to a sentence of up to five years in prison. Section 183 (Part VI) of the Criminal Code also outlaws surreptitious recording of communications without consent of one of the intended recipients.
Calls and conversations may be recorded by any active participant, with no requirement to make other parties aware of the recording. But forwarding or playing calls considered private is illegal.
In the case of private persons, calls and conversations may be recorded by any active participant. There is no requirement to make other parties aware of the recording, but the use of recordings, depending on their content, may be subject to various laws, such as data protection (privacy) legislation, libel laws, laws governing trade and national secrets, and any agreements, such as non-disclosure agreements.
Recording of calls by a company or an employer is subject to data protection legislation and, as a general rule, requires informing the participants prior to recording.
Germany is a two - party consent state -- telephone recording without the consent of the two or, when applicable, more, parties is a criminal offence according to Sec. 201 of the German Criminal Code -- violation of the confidentiality of the spoken word. Telephone tapping by authorities has to be approved by a judge. Telephone recording by a private citizen can be allowed in cases of self - defence, Sec. 32 of the German Criminal Code, or Necessity, Sec. 34 of the German Criminal Code.
For discussion on lawful interception in Germany please see de: Telekommunikationsüberwachung (German language).
In India, telephone tapping has to be approved by a designated authority. It is illegal otherwise. The Central Government or State Government is empowered to order interception of messages per 12section 5 of Indian Telegraph Act 1885. Rule 419 and 419A sets out the procedure of interception and monitoring of telephone messages. There is a provision for a review committee to supervise the order of interception.
Phone tapping is permitted based on Court order only and such permission is granted only if it is required to prevent a major offence involving national security or to gather intelligence on anti-national / terrorist activities.
Though economic offences / tax evasion were initially covered under the reasons for interception of phones, the same was withdrawn in 1999 by the Government based on a Supreme Court order citing protection to privacy of the individual.
As per Rule 428 of the India telegraphic rules, no person without the sanction of the telegraph authority, use any telephone or cause or suffer it to be used, purposes other than the establishment of local or trunk calls.
The Government of India instructions provide for approved attachments. There is no provision for attachment for recording conversation.
According to the Supreme Court of Cassation, recorded conversations are legal and can be used as evidence in court, even if the other party is unaware of being recorded, provided that the recording party takes part of the conversation.
Calls and conversations by private persons may be recorded by any active participant. There is no requirement in laws to make other parties aware of the recording, but the use of recordings, depending on their content, may be subject to various laws.
Recording of phone calls by private persons falls under interception - related provisions of the Crimes Act 1961, which has a general prohibition on the use of interception devices. An exception is made for when the person intercepting the call is a party to the conversation. There is no requirement that both parties be aware of the interception.
Intercepting communications falls under the provisions of the Penal Code and, in the case of electronic communications, under the Telecommunications Act (506 / 2004). The recording of a conversation by a private member to that conversation is specifically permitted. Nevertheless, while such recordings are legal, making use of them may fall subject to further civil or criminal law. Their admissibility as evidence also depends on the circumstances.
According to the Swedish Penal Code (Brottsbalken) (SFS1962 / 700) Chapter 4, 8 -- 9 § §, it is illegal to make unauthorized recordings of telephone conversations (a court can grant permission for law enforcement agencies). Also, anyone participating in the telephone call may record the conversation -- at least one party must be aware of the recording. A recording is always admissible as evidence in a court, even if obtained in illegal matters.
The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 in general prohibits interception of communications by a third party, with exceptions related to government agencies. A recording made by one party to a phone call or e-mail without notifying the other is not prohibited provided that the recording is for their own use; recording without notification is prohibited where some of the contents of the communication -- a phone conversation or an e-mail -- are made available to a third party. Businesses may record with the knowledge of their employees, but without notifying the other party, to
They may monitor without recording phone calls or e-mails that have been received to see whether they are relevant to the business (e.g., to check for business communications addressed to an employee who is away); but such monitoring must be proportional and in accordance with data protection laws and codes of practice.
This summary does not necessarily cover all possible cases. The main legislation which must be complied with is:
Under RIPA unlawful recording or monitoring of communications is a tort, allowing civil action in the courts. There is a summary of applicable rules on the Oftel website.
Recording is sometimes advised, as in recording business transactions carried out by telephone to provide a record. It is sometimes mandatory; from March 2009 Financial Services Authority rules required firms to record all telephone conversations and electronic communications relating to client orders and the conclusion of transactions in the equity, bond, and derivatives markets. In November 2011 this was extended to cover the recording of mobile phone conversations that related to client orders and transactions by regulated firms.
In Rathbun v United States, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in regard to interstate or foreign communication that "the clear inference is that one entitled to receive the communication may use it for his own benefit or have another use it for him. The communication itself is not privileged, and one party may not force the other to secrecy merely by using a telephone. It has been conceded by those who believe the conduct here violates Section 605 (of the Federal Communication Act) that either party may record the conversation and publish it. '' See United States v. Polakoff, 113 F. 2d 888, 889. (Therefore, every communications including interstate phone calls, to and from any States in the USA and every foreign phone call to and from the USA, are under the control and the jurisdiction of the Federal government of the USA pursuant to the Federal communication Act of June 19, 1934, 48 Stat. 1064, 1104, 47 U.S.C. Section 605. That any party to the phone conversation can him / herself record the phone conversation or have another person record the phone conversation for him / her and publish it, post it on social media too)
Federal law requires that at least one party taking part in the call must be notified of the recording (18 U.S.C. § 2511 (2) (d)). For example, it would be illegal to record, without notification, the phone calls of people who come into a place of business and ask to use the telephone.
Telephone recording laws in some U.S. states require only one party to be aware of the recording, while other states require both parties to be aware. Several states require that all parties consent when one party wants to record a telephone conversation. Telephone scammers and others intentionally violating the federal Do Not Call list may try to locate in those states, or use their area codes. Many businesses and other organizations record their telephone calls so that they can prove what was said, train their staff, or monitor performance. This activity may not be considered telephone tapping in some, but not all, jurisdictions because it is done with the knowledge of at least one of the parties to the telephone conversation.
Telephone recordings are governed by federal law and by mainly two types of state laws:
States that currently require that all parties consent to the recording include:
Other states (and the District of Columbia) not listed above require only that one party consent to the recording.
Following the Illinois Supreme Court 's decision in People v. Clark on March 20, 2014, which struck down Illinois ' two - party consent law, Illinois was a one - party consent state. However, the state legislature amended the statute and, as of December 30, 2014, Illinois is once again a two - party consent state, although the revised law establishes a one - party consent rule for private electronic communications.
The Michigan Court of Appeals ruled in 1982 that participants in a conversation may record a discussion without getting the permission of other participants. The ruling stated that eavesdropping only applies to: "a third party not otherwise involved in the conversation being eavesdropped on ''. This is because the law uses the wording, "the private discourse of others '', rather than the wording, "the private discourse of others or with others ''. Michigan law is often misinterpreted as requiring the consent of all parties to a conversation.
The California Supreme Court ruled in 2006 that if a caller in a one - party state records a conversation with someone in California, that one - party state caller is subject to the stricter of the laws and must have consent from all callers (cf. Kearney v. Salomon Smith Barney Inc., 39 Cal. 4th 95). However, non-disclosure recordings by one of the parties can legally be made if the other party is threatening kidnapping, extortion, bribery, human trafficking, or other felony violence. Also included in the exception is misdemeanor obscenity and threats of injury to persons or property via an electronic communication device (usually a telephone) if directed in whole or in part towards a conversation participant or family members.
According to the Digital Media Law Project, ' New York is a one - party consent state. '
Some states distinguish between electronic and in - person communication. For example, Oregon is a one - party consent state for electronic communication, but requires all - party consent for live in - person communication, with a few exceptions.
The Federal Communications Commission defines accepted forms of notification for telephone recording by telephone companies as:
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who discovered atoms of the same element are identical | Atom - wikipedia
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are very small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten - billionth of a meter, in the short scale).
Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics -- as if they were billiard balls, for example -- gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects. Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior.
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94 % of an atom 's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an ion.
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force, the nuclear force, which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind a different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word "atom '' was coined by the ancient Greek philosophers Leucippus and his pupil Democritus. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. As a result, their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect. They also could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain.
In the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). For instance, there are two types of tin oxide: one is 88.1 % tin and 11.9 % oxygen and the other is 78.7 % tin and 21.3 % oxygen (tin (II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5 g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1: 2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units -- in other words, atoms. In the case of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases ' respective particles, and carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).
In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion ''. This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905, Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein 's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton 's atomic theory.
The physicist J.J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which he originally called "corpuscle '' but was later named electron, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge within atoms. Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter. Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge. This became known as the plum pudding model.
In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered. They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection, because Thomson 's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much. However, Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90 °, which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson 's model. To explain this, Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. Rutherford compared his findings to one firing a 15 - inch shell at a sheet of tissue paper and it coming back to hit the person who fired it.
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.
In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.
Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr 's theory. These results refined Ernest Rutherford 's and Antonius Van den Broek 's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons. As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law, in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.
The Stern -- Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the direction of an atom 's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three - dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa. This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom 's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule. The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.
In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product. A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn 's result were the first experimental nuclear fission. In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn 's efforts, the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized.
In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that can not be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron; all three are fermions. However, the hydrogen - 1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons.
The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 6969911000000000000 ♠ 9.11 × 10 kg, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details.
Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 6973167260000000000 ♠ 1.6726 × 10 kg. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha - particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron, or 6973169290000000000 ♠ 1.6929 × 10 kg, the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions -- on the order of 6985250000000000000 ♠ 2.5 × 10 m -- although the ' surface ' of these particles is not sharply defined. The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick.
In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge + 2 / 3) and one down quark (with a charge of − 1 / 3). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.
The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range - properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1.07 √ A fm, where A is the total number of nucleons. This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 10 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short - ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.
The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud. However, a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state.
For atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron -- proton ratio is closer to one. However, as the atomic number increases, a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium) and as Z increases, the neutron -- proton ratio of stable isotopes increases. The stable isotope with the highest proton -- neutron ratio is lead - 208 (about 1.5).
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 -- 10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion -- the coulomb barrier -- and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei -- usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert Einstein 's mass -- energy equivalence formula, E = mc, where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.
The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel -- a total nucleon number of about 60 -- is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy - releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self - sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy - producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations.
Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three - dimensional standing wave -- a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron -- the electron binding energy -- is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground - state electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen - 1, by far the most common form, also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118 - proton element oganesson. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to be practically negligible.
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth, of which 254 (about 75 %) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes ''. However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in theory. Another 164 (bringing the total to 254) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable ''. An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half - lives longer than 80 million years, and are long - lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short - lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon - 14).
For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty - six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers '' of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 254 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen - 2 (deuterium), lithium - 6, boron - 10 and nitrogen - 14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd -- odd nuclides have a half - life over a billion years: potassium - 40, vanadium - 50, lanthanum - 138 and tantalum - 180m. Most odd -- odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even -- even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.
The large majority of an atom 's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called "nucleons '') in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a mass number is "carbon - 12, '' which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons).
The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), also called dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon - 12, which is approximately 6973166000000000000 ♠ 1.66 × 10 kg. Hydrogen - 1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1 %) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen - 14 is roughly 14 u). However, this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon - 12 (see below). The heaviest stable atom is lead - 208, with a mass of 7002207976652100000 ♠ 207.976 6521 u.
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about 7023602200000000000 ♠ 6.022 × 10). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon - 12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon - 12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.
Atoms lack a well - defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.
When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group - theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal - electrical fields may occur at low - symmetry lattice sites. Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite - type compounds.
Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400 -- 700 nm) so they can not be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion (7021200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of 6996200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 kg contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.
The most common forms of radioactive decay are:
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal conversion -- a process that produces high - speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high - energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission.
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period -- the half - life -- that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50 % every half - life. Hence after two half - lives have passed only 25 % of the isotope is present, and so forth.
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point - like and can not be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin 1⁄2 ħ, or "spin - 1⁄2 ''. In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.
The magnetic field produced by an atom -- its magnetic moment -- is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.
The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon - 129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction -- a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum - mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time - independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state. The electron 's energy raises when n increases because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on l is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons.
For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. grounded state to first excited level (ionization), it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels, according to Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle - like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties.
The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.
When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin -- orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron. When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines. The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.
If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.
Valency is the combining power of an element. It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds. The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells. For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one - electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one - electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron - sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. Within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond. Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone.
At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose -- Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling - current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning - tunneling - microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space - averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels -- the Fermi level local density of states.
An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass - to - charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.
A more area - selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom - probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3 - D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time - of - flight mass spectrometry.
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas - discharge lamp containing the same element. Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.
Atoms form about 4 % of the total energy density of the observable Universe, with an average density of about 0.25 atoms / m. Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, atoms have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 10 to 10 atoms / m. The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, a region of highly ionized gas, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 10 atoms / m. Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95 % of the Milky Way 's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10 % of the mass of the galaxy. (The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.)
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.
Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma -- a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000 years after the Big Bang -- an epoch called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.
Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details.
Isotopes such as lithium - 6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high - energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected.
Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r - process and in AGB stars through the s - process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei. Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating. Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99 % of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium - 3) is a product of alpha decay.
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial ''), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon - 14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by - products of nuclear reactors or explosions. Of the transuranic elements -- those with atomic numbers greater than 92 -- only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth. Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium - 244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust. Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.
The Earth contains approximately 7050133000000000000 ♠ 1.33 × 10 atoms. Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99 % of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small - scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.
While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an "island of stability '' has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay. The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom, unbihexium, has 126 protons and 184 neutrons.
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.
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what's the name of the lead singer of acdc | Brian Johnson - wikipedia
Brian Francis Johnson (born 5 October 1947) is an English singer and songwriter. In 1980, he became the third lead singer of the Australian rock band AC / DC, after the death of their second lead singer Bon Scott. He and the rest of the band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2003. In March 2016, Johnson stepped down from touring on the Rock or Bust World Tour due to hearing problems. On 20 May 2016, Johnson stated in an interview, "I 've had a pretty good run '' in AC / DC and implied that he might not be returning by saying, "I 'm just thankful, really, that I came out of it in one piece. ''
Johnson was one of the founding members of the rock band Geordie formed in Newcastle in 1971. After a few hit singles, including UK Top 10 "All Because of You '' (1973), the band split up in 1978. Following the death of AC / DC lead singer Bon Scott on 19 February 1980, Johnson was asked to audition for the band in London. AC / DC lead guitarist and co-founder Angus Young recalled: "I remember Bon playing me Little Richard, and then telling me the story of when he saw Brian singing (with Geordie). '' He says about that night: "There 's this guy up there screaming at the top of his lungs and then the next thing you know he hits the deck. He 's on the floor, rolling around and screaming. I thought it was great, and then to top it off -- you could n't get a better encore -- they came in and wheeled the guy off! ' '' Johnson was diagnosed with appendicitis later that night, which was the cause of his writhing around on stage. The band agreed immediately that Johnson 's performing style fit AC / DC 's music. Johnson 's first album with AC / DC, Back in Black, became the second all - time best - selling album worldwide according to some estimates. The Guardian ranked the successful transition to Johnson number 36 on their list of the 50 key events in rock music history.
A native of Tyneside, northeast England, Johnson is known for his strong Geordie accent. In July 2014 he was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Music by Northumbria University in his home city Newcastle in recognition of his significant contribution to the music industry.
Brian Francis Johnson was born in Dunston, Gateshead, in then County Durham. He is of partial Italian descent and is the oldest of four siblings. His father, Alan, was a sergeant major in the British Army 's Durham Light Infantry and a coal miner; he died during AC / DC 's Ballbreaker World Tour. Johnson 's mother, Esther (née De Luca), was Italian from Frascati. When he was young, Johnson performed in various shows with the Scouts, and appeared in a play which aired on television, and joined a local church choir.
Johnson 's first band was the Gobi Desert Canoe Club. He was also in a band called Fresh. From 1970, Johnson played with cabaret / club band The Jasper Hart Band, performing songs from the musical Hair as well as soft - rock / pop songs of the time. He and other members of the band went on to form Geordie.
His first and only solo single, "I Ca n't Forget You Now '', he released also as a member of Geordie in January 1976 on the Red Bus label. In 1982, a compilation including only Geordie 's 1973 -- 1976 ten songs was issued as Brian Johnson 's solo album Strange Man on the MCA label. The U.S. 1989 CD Keep On Rocking, with re-recorded versions of the band 's twelve known songs was released under the name of Brian Johnson and Geordie as well as the Australian 1991 compilation CD Rockin ' With The Boys 1972 -- 1976.
Following Bon Scott 's death, the remaining members of the band briefly considered quitting, before concluding that Scott would have wanted AC / DC to continue. Various candidates were considered for his successor, including ex-Back Street Crawler vocalist Terry Slesser and Slade 's Noddy Holder, who declined, before selecting Johnson. AC / DC guitarist and co-founder Angus Young later recalled, "I remember the first time I had ever heard Brian 's (Johnson) name was from Bon. Bon had mentioned that he had been in England once touring with a band and he had mentioned that Brian had been in a band called Geordie and Bon had said ' Brian Johnson, he was a great rock and roll singer in the style of Little Richard. ' And that was Bon 's big idol, Little Richard. I think when he saw Brian at that time, to Bon it was ' Well he 's a guy that knows what rock and roll is all about. ' He mentioned that to us in Australia. I suppose when we decided to continue, Brian was the first name that Malcolm and myself came up with, so we said we should see if we can find him. '' In March 1980 Johnson received a phone call inviting him to London to audition as the new vocalist for AC / DC. As a big AC / DC fan, he was happy to oblige. Malcolm remembers the day: "We were all sitting there going, Where 's this guy Brian? He should have been here an hour ago. ' Oh him? He 's downstairs playing pool with the roadies ' -- so we thought, well, at least he plays pool. ''
When someone fetched him to meet them, Malcolm recalls that Johnson, "had tears in his eyes. He was as sad about Bon as we were. Anyway, we said, Do you want to give it a go? And he said, ' I do Whole Lotta Rosie with Geordie, ' and off he went. We went, fucking hell, this guy is cutting the mustard. Anything else you know? ' Nutbush City Limits? ' OK, we can knock that out, and he sang that great too. It put a little smile on our faces -- for the first time since Bon. So we just started working with him then. '' Within days, Johnson was in the band, the news being made official on 1 April. A week after that he was sent a plane ticket to the Bahamas (their management 's idea, for tax purposes) where he joined the Youngs, bassist Cliff Williams, drummer Phil Rudd and Highway to Hell producer Mutt Lange in Compass Point Studios. The result was the album Back in Black, which was released in July that year. It was a worldwide success and went on to become the second best - selling album of all time. In 1986, Johnson returned to Tyneside and appeared in the controversial music video for "You Shook Me All Night Long '', and the video received significant airplay on MTV.
The 1988 album Blow Up Your Video was the last AC / DC album to feature lyrics from Johnson. Starting with The Razors Edge in 1990, guitarists Angus and Malcolm Young have written all of AC / DC 's material. When asked by a fan during a radio interview why he stopped contributing lyrics, he laughed, "I ran out of words '' and went on to explain that during recording he did n't always enjoy the pressure of having to come up with an album 's worth of lyrics and was relieved when the Young brothers filled in during The Razors Edge. The band has since continued in that tradition for every album since. In 2014, they released their eleventh album with Johnson, Rock or Bust.
A symbol of the working class in the North of England, Brian Johnson customarily wears a newsboy cap on stage and frequently off. Johnson has occasionally worn baseball caps as well. His brother suggested that the singer wear the cap onstage to prevent sweat rolling off his thick, curly hair into his eyes while singing. "He said, ' Put it on, at least you 'll be able to see what the bloody freak you 're doing! ' So I put it on and after three songs in the second set, I looked at him, put my thumbs up -- ' This is brilliant! ' He never did get that hat back. ''
In April 2016, during the Rock or Bust World Tour, AC / DC announced the departure of Brian Johnson citing hearing issues. As the band explained it, Johnson risked total hearing loss if he continued. Johnson stated that his hearing issues had n't come from performing for 36 years with AC / DC, but from having forgotten to put ear plugs in during a race that left him with a punctured left ear drum. Guns N ' Roses singer Axl Rose was recruited to complete the remaining 10 shows in North America and 12 shows in Europe. His last show with AC / DC was on February 28th, 2016; at the Sprint Center in Kansas City. After departing AC / DC, he recorded a new song with comedian Jim Breuer called "Mr. Rock'n'Roll ''. Johnson made a cameo appearance with rock band Muse on August 31, 2017, performing a rendition of "Back In Black '' with the group.
Since April 2003, Johnson, who says "I love musical theatre, especially the classic stuff, like Rodgers and Hammerstein '', has been working on a musical version of Helen of Troy with Sarasota Ballet choreographer, Robert de Warren. The musical is a Les Misérables - style musical with rousing anthems, tender ballads and minimal dialogue. He conceived the project with writers Ian La Frenais, Dick Clement, and Brendan Healy after seeing Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Cats and being underwhelmed at what he saw.
Malcolm McDowell, who made his recording debut singing one of the songs for the soundtrack in Brian 's studio, agreed to play Zeus. The Cranberries singer Dolores O'Riordan and Bruce Vilanch were also set to participate. In 2004 Johnson travelled to Greece to film an episode of the television series Goddess Odyssey in which he researched the Helen of Troy myth. It was released on DVD in July 2005 and contains music from the theatre production. Phil Carson, former chief executive of Atlantic Records, supported the project but it was never staged.
A car and racing enthusiast, Johnson currently enjoys racing his vintage race cars: a Royale RP - 4 and a Pilbeam MP84, which he races in vintage and historic races throughout the United States. In 1997, Johnson recorded with the band Jackyl on their song "Locked and Loaded '', and in 2002 wrote lyrics on the track "Kill the Sunshine '' from their album Relentless. In the video game Call of Duty: Finest Hour, he voices Sergeant Starkey. He made a cameo appearance in the 2005 film Goal! where he appears as a Newcastle United fan in a bar in California watching a Newcastle game.
In 2006 he took part in car racing reality television series The Race, broadcast on Sky One in the UK. In 2007 Johnson and AC / DC bassist Cliff Williams took part in the Classic Rock Cares tour to raise funds for the John Entwistle Foundation, which is run by Entwistle 's long - time friend and drummer Steve Luongo. They performed AC / DC songs as well as songs written by Johnson for the film Totally Baked.
On 26 July 2009, Johnson appeared as the Star in a Reasonably Priced Car on the BBC 's Top Gear. His time of 1: 45.9 tied him with Britain 's Got Talent judge Simon Cowell and Grand Designs host Kevin McCloud for the second fastest time in the Chevrolet Lacetti, just 0.1 seconds behind Jay Kay. Johnson subsequently appeared in the premiere of Top Gear series 20 and was the first star to record a time in their new Vauxhall Astra test vehicle, recording a time of 1: 45.1. In April 2015, Johnson stated it was a mistake for the BBC to sack Jeremy Clarkson after the Top Gear presenter punched a colleague: "I know Jeremy and I know the lads (Richard Hammond and James May) and it 's (the punch) just totally out of character. ''
His autobiography Rockers and Rollers was published in 2000. He raced in the 2012 Rolex 24 at Daytona on 29 and 30 January 2012. He finished 12th in the Daytona Prototype class, driving for 50 + Predator / Alegra Racing, sharing the # 50 RileyTech / BMW Daytona Prototype with Elliott Forbes - Robinson, Byron DeFoor, Jim Pace, and Carlos de Quesada. He competed in the 2012 Silverstone Classic Celebrity Challenge race. In 2013, Johnson appeared as a guest singer on two songs on Sting 's album The Last Ship which features artists with roots in the northeast of England.
In May 2014, Quest broadcast Cars That Rock with Brian Johnson, a documentary series fronted by Johnson where he explores his favourite iconic motor cars. The first episode looks at the history of the Mini, with Johnson driving a big selection of the cars, including the car from the 1969 British caper film The Italian Job and the world 's fastest Mini. It concludes with Johnson racing a Mini Cooper at Brands Hatch, and finishes with him stating he has bought the car he raced. As of 2016, the show can now be seen on the Velocity channel.
In April 2017, Sky Arts broadcast the first episode of Brian Johnson: A Life On The Road. Series 1 comprised six episodes, with Johnson meeting contemporaries in the music industry to talk about their musical upbringings and careers. Featured were Roger Daltrey (The Who), Lars Ulrich (Metallica), Nick Mason (Pink Floyd), Sting (The Police), Joe Elliott (Def Leppard), and Robert Plant (Led Zeppelin).
Johnson married his first wife, Carol, in 1968, and they have two daughters: Joanne (born 1968), and Kala (born 1973). They divorced during the writing of The Razors Edge album. He is now married to Brenda, and lives in Sarasota, Florida.
He is an avid supporter of Premier League football club Newcastle United, and was asked to make a substantial investment in the club around 1981 / 82 after being invited to meet the board by club legend Jackie Milburn.
According to The Sunday Times Rich List of British millionaires from the world of music, Johnson was worth £ 50 million in 2011.
On 9 July 2014, Johnson was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Music by Northumbria University in Newcastle upon Tyne in recognition of his significant contribution to the music industry. In October 2014, Johnson became a supporter of the Yorkshire Dementia Charity based in the village of Topcliffe.
In September 2009, Johnson was diagnosed with Barrett syndrome. This caused AC / DC to cancel several shows on their 2010 tour in support of Black Ice; however, doctors were able to successfully prevent the disease from developing into cancer.
With Geordie
With AC / DC
Solo
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a programming language that had a built-in support for a simple form of literate programming | Software documentation - wikipedia
Software documentation is written text or illustration that accompanies computer software or is embedded in the source code. It either explains how it operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to people in different roles.
Documentation is an important part of software engineering. Types of documentation include:
Requirements documentation is the description of what a particular software does or shall do. It is used throughout development to communicate how the software functions or how it is intended to operate. It is also used as an agreement or as the foundation for agreement on what the software will do. Requirements are produced and consumed by everyone involved in the production of software: end users, customers, product managers, project managers, sales, marketing, software architects, usability engineers, interaction designers, developers, and testers, to name a few. Thus, requirements documentation has many different purposes.
Requirements comes in a variety of styles, notations and formality. Requirements can be goal - like (e.g., distributed work environment), close to design (e.g., builds can be started by right - clicking a configuration file and select the ' build ' function), and anything in between. They can be specified as statements in natural language, as drawn figures, as detailed mathematical formulas, and as a combination of them all.
The variation and complexity of requirements documentation makes it a proven challenge. Requirements may be implicit and hard to uncover. It is difficult to know exactly how much and what kind of documentation is needed and how much can be left to the architecture and design documentation, and it is difficult to know how to document requirements considering the variety of people who shall read and use the documentation. Thus, requirements documentation is often incomplete (or non-existent). Without proper requirements documentation, software changes become more difficult -- and therefore more error prone (decreased software quality) and time - consuming (expensive).
The need for requirements documentation is typically related to the complexity of the product, the impact of the product, and the life expectancy of the software. If the software is very complex or developed by many people (e.g., mobile phone software), requirements can help to better communicate what to achieve. If the software is safety - critical and can have negative impact on human life (e.g., nuclear power systems, medical equipment, mechanical equipment), more formal requirements documentation is often required. If the software is expected to live for only a month or two (e.g., very small mobile phone applications developed specifically for a certain campaign) very little requirements documentation may be needed. If the software is a first release that is later built upon, requirements documentation is very helpful when managing the change of the software and verifying that nothing has been broken in the software when it is modified.
Traditionally, requirements are specified in requirements documents (e.g. using word processing applications and spreadsheet applications). To manage the increased complexity and changing nature of requirements documentation (and software documentation in general), database - centric systems and special - purpose requirements management tools are advocated.
Architecture documentation (also known as software architecture description) is a special breed of design document. In a way, architecture documents are third derivative from the code (design document being second derivative, and code documents being first). Very little in the architecture documents is specific to the code itself. These documents do not describe how to program a particular routine, or even why that particular routine exists in the form that it does, but instead merely lays out the general requirements that would motivate the existence of such a routine. A good architecture document is short on details but thick on explanation. It may suggest approaches for lower level design, but leave the actual exploration trade studies to other documents.
Another breed of design docs is the comparison document, or trade study. This would often take the form of a whitepaper. It focuses on one specific aspect of the system and suggests alternate approaches. It could be at the user interface, code, design, or even architectural level. It will outline what the situation is, describe one or more alternatives, and enumerate the pros and cons of each. A good trade study document is heavy on research, expresses its idea clearly (without relying heavily on obtuse jargon to dazzle the reader), and most importantly is impartial. It should honestly and clearly explain the costs of whatever solution it offers as best. The objective of a trade study is to devise the best solution, rather than to push a particular point of view. It is perfectly acceptable to state no conclusion, or to conclude that none of the alternatives are sufficiently better than the baseline to warrant a change. It should be approached as a scientific endeavor, not as a marketing technique.
A very important part of the design document in enterprise software development is the Database Design Document (DDD). It contains Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Design Elements. The DDD includes the formal information that the people who interact with the database need. The purpose of preparing it is to create a common source to be used by all players within the scene. The potential users are:
When talking about Relational Database Systems, the document should include following parts:
It is very important to include all information that is to be used by all actors in the scene. It is also very important to update the documents as any change occurs in the database as well.
It is important for the code documents associated with the source code (which may include README files and API documentation) to be thorough, but not so verbose that it becomes overly time - consuming or difficult to maintain them. Various how - to and overview documentation guides are commonly found specific to the software application or software product being documented by API writers. This documentation may be used by developers, testers, and also the end - users using the software application. Today, a lot of high - end applications in the field of power, energy, transportation, networks, aerospace, safety, security, industry automation and a variety of other domains are seen. Technical documentation has become important within such organizations as the basic and advanced level of information may change over a period of time with architecture changes.
Code documents are often organized into a reference guide style, allowing a programmer to quickly look up an arbitrary function or class.
Often, tools such as Doxygen, NDoc, Visual Expert, Javadoc, EiffelStudio, Sandcastle, ROBODoc, POD, TwinText, or Universal Report can be used to auto - generate the code documents -- that is, they extract the comments and software contracts, where available, from the source code and create reference manuals in such forms as text or HTML files.
The idea of auto - generating documentation is attractive to programmers for various reasons. For example, because it is extracted from the source code itself (for example, through comments), the programmer can write it while referring to the code, and use the same tools used to create the source code to make the documentation. This makes it much easier to keep the documentation up - to - date.
Of course, a downside is that only programmers can edit this kind of documentation, and it depends on them to refresh the output (for example, by running a cron job to update the documents nightly). Some would characterize this as a pro rather than a con.
Respected computer scientist Donald Knuth has noted that documentation can be a very difficult afterthought process and has advocated literate programming, written at the same time and location as the source code and extracted by automatic means. The programming languages Haskell and CoffeeScript have built - in support for a simple form of literate programming, but this support is not widely used.
Elucidative Programming is the result of practical applications of Literate Programming in real programming contexts. The Elucidative paradigm proposes that source code and documentation be stored separately.
Often, software developers need to be able to create and access information that is not going to be part of the source file itself. Such annotations are usually part of several software development activities, such as code walks and porting, where third party source code is analysed in a functional way. Annotations can therefore help the developer during any stage of software development where a formal documentation system would hinder progress.
Unlike code documents, user documents simply describe how a program is used.
In the case of a software library, the code documents and user documents could in some cases be effectively equivalent and worth conjoining, but for a general application this is not often true.
Typically, the user documentation describes each feature of the program, and assists the user in realizing these features. A good user document can also go so far as to provide thorough troubleshooting assistance. It is very important for user documents to not be confusing, and for them to be up to date. User documents need not be organized in any particular way, but it is very important for them to have a thorough index. Consistency and simplicity are also very valuable. User documentation is considered to constitute a contract specifying what the software will do. API Writers are very well accomplished towards writing good user documents as they would be well aware of the software architecture and programming techniques used. See also technical writing.
User documentation can be produced in a variety of online and print formats. However, there are three broad ways in which user documentation can be organized.
A common complaint among users regarding software documentation is that only one of these three approaches was taken to the near - exclusion of the other two. It is common to limit provided software documentation for personal computers to online help that give only reference information on commands or menu items. The job of tutoring new users or helping more experienced users get the most out of a program is left to private publishers, who are often given significant assistance by the software developer.
Like other forms of technical documentation, good user documentation benefits from an organized process of development. In the case of user documentation, the process as it commonly occurs in industry consists of five steps:
1. User analysis, the basic research phase of the process. 2. Planning, or the actual documentation phase. 3. Draft review, a self - explanatory phase where feedback is sought on the draft composed in the previous step. 4. Usability testing, whereby the usability of the document is tested empirically. 5. Editing, the final step in which the information collected in steps three and four is used to produce the final draft.
"The resistance to documentation among developers is well known and needs no emphasis. '' This situation is particularly prevalent in agile software development because these methodologies try to avoid any unnecessary activities that do not directly bring value. Specifically, the Agile Manifesto advocates valuing "working software over comprehensive documentation '', which could be interpreted cynically as "We want to spend all our time coding. Remember, real programmers do n't write documentation. ''
A survey among software engineering experts revealed, however, that documentation is by no means considered unnecessary in agile development. Yet it is acknowledged that there are motivational problems in development, and that documentation methods tailored to agile development (e.g. through Reputation systems and Gamification) may be needed.
For many applications it is necessary to have some promotional materials to encourage casual observers to spend more time learning about the product. This form of documentation has three purposes: -
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when was the last time the olymics were in the us | Olympic Games - wikipedia
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (French: Jeux olympiques) are leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world 's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held every four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart.
Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for snow and ice sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability, the Youth Olympic Games for athletes aged 14 to 18, the five Continental games (Pan American, African, Asian, European, and Pacific), and the World Games for sports that are not contested in the Olympic Games. The Deaflympics and Special Olympics are also endorsed by the IOC. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. As a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialisation of the Games. World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games. The latter, however, attracted 140 National Olympic Committees, which was a record at the time.
The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision - making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, and organises and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter. The IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third - place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively.
The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, and a terrorist attack in 1972. Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world.
The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city - states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city - states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce. This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus. The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games. According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic '' and established the custom of holding them every four years. The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labours, he built the Olympic Stadium as an honour to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a "stadion '' (Greek: στάδιον, Latin: stadium, "stage ''), which later became a unit of distance. The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race, and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, pankration, and equestrian events. Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honouring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis. The winners of the events were admired and immortalised in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games.
The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended, the most commonly held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date commonly cited is 426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II, ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.
Various uses of the term "Olympic '' to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or "Cotswold Olimpick Games '', an annual meeting near Chipping Campden, England, involving various sports. It was first organised by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British Olympic Association, in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as "the first stirrings of Britain 's Olympic beginnings ''.
L'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport.
In 1834 and 1836 olympic games was held in Ramlösa (Sweden) and an additional in Stockholm (Sweden) 1843, all organized by Gustaf Johan Schartau and others. At most 25 000 spectators saw the games. Olympiska spelen i Ramlösa
In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day. The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860.
Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only ' gentlemen amateurs ' could compete. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter. In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organised at London 's Crystal Palace.
Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead '', published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek - Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.
The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894, at the University of Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.
The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.
Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris.
After the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows. The Games in Paris did not have a stadium, but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games. When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement. The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so - called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens. These Games were, but are not now, officially recognised by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest. This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics.
The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, in connection with the Paris Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games. Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics.
In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II, organised a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Guttmann 's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. For the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the "Parallel Olympics '', which became known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver. Chairman of the London organising committee, Lord Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that,
We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole.
In 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 -- 26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events.
From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics. The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller. For example, Sochi hosted 2,873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics. During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village. This village is intended to be a self - contained home for all the Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression.
The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organisations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nations which qualify as "an independent State recognised by the international community ''. Therefore, it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognised the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986. After 2012, Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba.
The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 found that sports - related costs for the Summer Games since 1960 are on average USD 5.2 billion and for the Winter Games USD 3.1 billion. This does not include wider infrastructure costs like roads, urban rail, and airports, which often cost as much or more than the sports - related costs. The most expensive Summer Games are Beijing at USD 40 - 44 billion and the most expensive Winter Games are Sochi 2014 at USD 51 billion. As of 2016, costs per athlete are on average USD 599,000 for the Summer Games and USD 1.3 million for the Winter Games. For London 2012, cost per athlete was USD 1.4 million; for Sochi 2014, USD 7.9 million.
Where ambitious construction for the 1976 games in Montreal and 1980 games in Moscow had saddled organisers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues, 1984 host Los Angeles strictly controlled expenses by using existing facilities except a swim stadium and a velodrome that were paid for by corporate sponsors. The Olympic Committee led by Peter Ueberroth used some of the profits to endow the LA84 Foundation to promote youth sports in Southern California, educate coaches and maintain a sports library. The 1984 Summer Olympics are often considered the most financially successful modern Olympics.
Budget overruns are common for the Games. Average overrun for Games since 1960 is 156 % in real terms, which means that actual costs turned out to be on average 2.56 times higher than the budget that was estimated at the time of winning the bid to host the Games. Montreal 1976 had the highest cost overrun for Summer Games, and for any Games, at 720 %; Lake Placid 1980 had the highest cost overrun for Winter Games, at 324 %. London 2012 had a cost overrun of 76 %, Sochi 2014 of 289 %.
Many economists are sceptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasising that such "mega-events '' often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run. Conversely hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country 's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games. Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society.
The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US $50 billion. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games, this cost will not boost Russia 's national economy, but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services. But by December 2014, The Guardian stated that Sochi "now feels like a ghost town '', citing the spread - out nature of the stadiums and arenas, the still - unfinished construction, and the overall effects of Russia 's political and economic turmoil. Furthermore, at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, citing the high costs or the lack of local support, resulting in only a two - city race between Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China. Thus in July 2016, The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them. Bidding for the 2024 Summer Olympics also became a two - city race between Paris and Los Angeles, so the IOC took the unusual step of simultaneously awarding both the 2024 Games to Paris and the 2028 Games to Los Angeles.
The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organisations and federations, recognised media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the sports program, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights.
The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country.
The IOC has often been criticised for being an intractable organisation, with several members on the committee for life. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage was president for over 20 years, and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising. He was accused of both racism, for resisting exclusion of apartheid South Africa, and antisemitism. Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch 's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism.
In 1998, it was reported that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others. The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected, to avoid similar cases in the future.
The 1999, it was reported that the Nagano Olympic bid committee had spent approximately $14 million to entertain the 62 IOC members and many of their companions. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano, after the IOC asked that the entertainment expenditures not be made public, destroyed the financial records.
A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe) of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement. The allegation was never fully explored. The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organising Committee. These accusations led to a wide - ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion 's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.
In July 2012, the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics, "a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes. ''
The Olympics have been commercialised to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertising, including Kodak. In 1908, Oxo, Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games. Coca - Cola sponsored the 1928 Summer Olympics, and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time. Before the IOC took control of sponsorship, national organising committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols.
The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand. More than half of the Olympic committee 's global sponsors are American companies.
During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision - making. Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US $2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent.
The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles - based organising committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US $225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. The organising committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Programme (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US $50 million for a four - year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and advertisements.
The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialised television broadcasting networks -- CBS paid US $394,000 for the American rights, and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) allocated US $660,000. In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War. Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy, and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television. This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever - increasing fees for those rights. For example, CBS paid US $375 million for the American broadcast rights of the 1998 Nagano Games, while NBC spent US $3.5 billion for the American rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012. In 2011, NBC agreed to a $4.38 billion contract with the International Olympic Committee to broadcast the Olympics through the 2020 games, the most expensive television rights deal in Olympic history. NBC then agreed to a $7.75 billion contract extension on May 7, 2014, to air the Olympics through the 2032 games. NBC also acquired the American television rights to the Youth Olympic Games, beginning in 2014, and the Paralympic Games for the 2014 and 2016 editions. NBC is one of the major sources of revenue for the IOC.
Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century. This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964, and the introduction of colour television in 1968. Global audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million, whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984, the audience numbers had increased to 900 million; that number swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. However, at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney, NBC drew the lowest U.S. ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968. This was attributed to two factors: one was the increased competition from cable channels, the second was the internet, which was able to display results and video in real time. Television companies were still relying on tape - delayed content, which was becoming outdated in the information era. A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time. With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program. At the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest. The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs, both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers. Finally, the American television lobby, namely NBC, was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States, such as swimming and figure skating. The results of these efforts were mixed: ratings for the 2006 Winter Games were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games, while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics, and the 2012 Summer Games, where live broadcast in prime time on NBC were little, became the most watched event in US television history.
The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialised sporting spectacle. Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games. The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic - related wares. The IOC indicated that they would address this to prevent spectacles of over-marketing at future Games. Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of the cost, yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income. Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments. Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics.
The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, America, Asia, Australia and Europe). The coloured version of the rings -- blue, yellow, black, green, and red -- over a white field forms the Olympic flag. These colours were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games.
The Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger '' was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924. The motto was coined by Coubertin 's friend, the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891.
Coubertin 's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.
Months before each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun 's rays; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city 's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games to promote the Third Reich.
The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the Games ' identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics, when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire. Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games.
As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theatre representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor 's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment.
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honour the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language, with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece, the Greek flag entered the stadium first, while the Greek delegation entered last. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier, often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation, who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron.
The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag - bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the flag of the current host country; the flag of Greece, to honour the birthplace of the Olympic Games; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games. The president of the organising committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is extinguished. In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the mayor of the city that organised the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of its culture.
As is customary since 2004, the men 's marathon medals (at the Summer Olympics) or the men 's 50 km cross-country skiing freestyle mass start medals (at the Winter Olympics) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony, which take place later that day, in the Olympic Stadium, and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games.
A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third - place competitors or teams stand on top of a three - tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallist 's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag - bearers. While in the Summer Olympics this ceremony is held on the ground where the event is played, in the Winter Games it is usually held in a special "plaza ''.
The Olympic Games programme consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco - Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class. The Summer Olympics programme includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics programme features 15 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic programme. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics programme since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the programme as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the programme.
Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognised by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. There are sports recognised by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but they can be promoted to this status during a programme revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games. During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the programme on the basis of a two - thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC. There are recognised sports that have never been on an Olympic programme in any capacity, including chess and surfing.
In October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic programme and all non-Olympic recognised sports. The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic programme for each celebration of the Games. The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic programme. These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image, athletes ' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the sport. From this study five recognised sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics: golf, karate, rugby union, roller sports and squash. These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash. Neither sport attained the required two - thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic programme. In October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby union as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympic Games.
The 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games programme to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major programme revision was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official programme of the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 programme featured just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.
The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all - rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practising or training was considered tantamount to cheating. Those who practised a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby.
The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals.
As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team 's full - time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. Avery Brundage, president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition '' was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition '' between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics until 1988, because of the IOC 's amateur - only policy.
Greece, Australia, France, and United Kingdom are the only countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. While countries sometimes miss an Olympics due to a lack of qualified athletes, some choose to boycott a celebration of the Games for various reasons. The Olympic Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games, because the IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland.
There were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union, but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm; Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis; and China (the "People 's Republic of China '') boycotted the Games because Taiwan was allowed to compete in the Games as the "Republic of China ''.
In 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist regimes. New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets, because its national rugby union team had toured apartheid - ruled South Africa. The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic sport. Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were joined by Guyana and Iraq in a withdrawal from the Montreal Games, after a few of their athletes had already competed.
Taiwan was excluded from the 1976 games by order of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the Prime Minister of Canada. Trudeau 's action was widely condemned as having brought shame on Canada for having succumbed to political pressure to keep the delegation from the Republic of China (ROC) from competing under that name. The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long as the name was changed. Taiwan did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem.
In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other 's Games. The United States and sixty - five other countries boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This boycott reduced the number of nations participating to 80, the lowest number since 1956. The Soviet Union and 15 other nations countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984, contending that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Although a boycott led by the Soviet Union depleted the field in certain sports, 140 National Olympic Committees took part, which was a record at the time. The fact that Romania, a Warsaw Pact country, opted to compete despite Soviet demands led to a warm reception of the Romanian team by the United States. When the Romanian athletes entered during the opening ceremonies, they received a standing ovation from the spectators, which comprised mostly U.S. citizens. The boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate event, the Friendship Games, in July and August.
There had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China 's human rights record, and in response to Tibetan disturbances. Ultimately, no nation supported a boycott. In August 2008, the government of Georgia called for a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics, set to be held in Sochi, Russia, in response to Russia 's participation in the 2008 South Ossetia war.
The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the National Socialist Party as benevolent and peace - loving when they hosted the 1936 Games, though they used the Games to display Aryan superiority. Germany was the most successful nation at the Games, which did much to support their allegations of Aryan supremacy, but notable victories by African American Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, and Hungarian Jew Ibolya Csák, blunted the message. The Soviet Union did not participate until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, starting in 1928, the Soviets organised an international sports event called Spartakiads. During the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s, communist and socialist organisations in several countries, including the United States, attempted to counter what they called the "bourgeois '' Olympics with the Workers Olympics. It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the publicity that came with winning at the Olympics. Soviet Union 's success might be attributed to a heavy state 's investment in sports to fulfill its political agenda on an international stage.
Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200 metres, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand. The second - place finisher, Peter Norman of Australia, wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. In response to the protest, IOC president Avery Brundage told the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. During the same Olympics, Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská announced her protest to the Soviet - led invasion of her home country after controversially receiving silver on the beam and a shared gold on the floor. During the Soviet anthem, Čáslavská turned her head down and to the right of the Soviet flag in order to make a statement over the invasion and the Soviet influence of the sport of gymnastics. Returning home, Čáslavská was made an outcast by the Soviet government and was banned from competition and travelling.
Currently, the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from Israel. An Iranian judoka, Arash Miresmaeili, did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although he was officially disqualified for being overweight, Miresmaeli was awarded US $125,000 in prize money by the Iranian government, an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners. He was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout, but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion.
In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, in 1904, Thomas Hicks, a gold medallist in the marathon, was given strychnine by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to performance enhancing occurred at the 1960 Rome games. A Danish cyclist, Knud Enemark Jensen, fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner 's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations started to ban the use of performance - enhancing drugs; in 1967 the IOC followed suit.
According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency 's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the International Olympic Committee to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with (these) tremendous efforts ''. On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists ' Games. ''
Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union 's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country 's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union 's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.
The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance - enhancing drugs was Hans - Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. One of the most publicised doping - related disqualifications occurred after the 1988 Summer Olympics where Canadian sprinter, Ben Johnson (who won the 100 - metre dash) tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was later stripped and awarded to the American runner - up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics.
In 1999 the IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in an effort to systematise the research and detection of performance - enhancing drugs. There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics. Several medallists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified because of doping offences. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC - established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate. During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood tests were used to detect banned substances. Several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games; only three athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing. In London over 6,000 Olympic and Paralympic athletes were tested. Prior to the Games 107 athletes tested positive for banned substances and were not allowed to compete. During and after the Games eight athletes tested positive for a banned substance and were suspended, including shot putter Nadzeya Ostapchuk, who was stripped of her gold medal.
Russia has been partially banned from the 2016 Summer Olympics and completely banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics due to the state - sponsored doping program.
Women were first allowed to compete at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, but at the 1992 Summer Olympics 35 countries were still fielding all - male delegations. This number dropped rapidly over the following years. In 2000, Bahrain sent two women competitors for the first time: Fatema Hameed Gerashi and Mariam Mohamed Hadi Al Hilli. In 2004, Robina Muqimyar and Fariba Rezayee became the first women to compete for Afghanistan at the Olympics. In 2008, the United Arab Emirates sent female athletes (Maitha Al Maktoum competed in taekwondo, and Latifa Al Maktoum in equestrian) to the Olympic Games for the first time. Both athletes were from Dubai 's ruling family.
By 2010, only three countries had never sent female athletes to the Games: Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Brunei had taken part in only three celebrations of the Games, sending a single athlete on each occasion, but Saudi Arabia and Qatar had been competing regularly with all - male teams. In 2010, the International Olympic Committee announced it would "press '' these countries to enable and facilitate the participation of women for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Anita DeFrantz, chair of the IOC 's Women and Sports Commission, suggested that countries be barred if they prevented women from competing. Shortly thereafter, the Qatar Olympic Committee announced that it "hoped to send up to four female athletes in shooting and fencing '' to the 2012 Summer Games in London.
In 2008, Ali Al - Ahmed, director of the Institute for Gulf Affairs, likewise called for Saudi Arabia to be barred from the Games, describing its ban on women athletes as a violation of the International Olympic Committee charter. He noted: "For the last 15 years, many international nongovernmental organisations worldwide have been trying to lobby the IOC for better enforcement of its own laws banning gender discrimination... While their efforts did result in increasing numbers of women Olympians, the IOC has been reluctant to take a strong position and threaten the discriminating countries with suspension or expulsion. '' In July 2010, The Independent reported: "Pressure is growing on the International Olympic Committee to kick out Saudi Arabia, who are likely to be the only major nation not to include women in their Olympic team for 2012... Should Saudi Arabia... send a male - only team to London, we understand they will face protests from equal rights and women 's groups which threaten to disrupt the Games ''.
At the 2012 Olympic Games in London, Great Britain, for the first time in Olympic history, every country competing included female athletes. Saudi Arabia included two female athletes in its delegation; Qatar, four; and Brunei, one (Maziah Mahusin, in the 400m hurdles). Qatar made one of its first female Olympians, Bahiya al - Hamad (shooting), its flagbearer at the 2012 Games, and runner Maryam Yusuf Jamal of Bahrain became the first Gulf female athlete to win a medal when she won a bronze for her showing in the 1500 m race.
The only sport on the Olympic programme that features men and women competing together is the equestrian disciplines. There is no "Women 's Eventing '', or ' Men 's Dressage '. As of 2008, there were still more medal events for men than women. With the addition of women 's boxing to the programme in the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, female athletes were able to compete in all the same sports as men. In the winter Olympics, women are still unable to compete in the Nordic Combined. There are currently two Olympic events in which male athletes may not compete: synchronised swimming and rhythmic gymnastics.
Three Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war: the 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. The Russo - Georgian War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese president Hu Jintao. When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10 metre air pistol competition, she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina, a Russian shooter who had won the silver. In what became a much - publicised event from the Beijing Games, Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended.
Terrorism most directly affected the Olympic Games in 1972. When the Summer Games were held in Munich, Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed liberation attempt. A German police officer and five terrorists also perished.
Terrorism affected the last two Olympic Games held in the United States. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed two and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing. The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, took place just five months after the September 11 attacks, which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for an Olympic Games. The opening ceremonies of the Games featured symbols of the day 's events. They included the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America '', and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members. The events of that day have made security at the Olympic Games an increasing concern for Olympic planners.
The Olympic Games have been criticised as upholding (and in some cases increasing) the colonial policies and practices of some host nations and cities either in the name of the Olympics by associated parties or directly by official Olympic bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, host organising committees and official sponsors. Critics have argued that the Olympics have engaged in or caused erroneous anthropological and colonial knowledge production, erasure, commodification and appropriation of indigenous ceremonies and symbolism, theft and inappropriate display of indigenous objects, further encroachment on and support of the theft of indigenous lands, and neglect and / or intensification of poor social conditions for indigenous peoples. Such practices have been observed at the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri; the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec; the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta; and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The Olympic Charter requires that an athlete be a national of the country for which they compete. Dual nationals may compete for either country, as long as three years have passed since the competitor competed for the former country. However, if the NOCs and IF involved agree, then the IOC Executive Board may reduce or cancel this period. This waiting period exists only for athletes who previously competed for one nation and want to compete for another. If an athlete gains a new or second nationality, then they do not need to wait any designated amount of time before participating for the new or second nation. The IOC is only concerned with issues of citizenship and nationality after individual nations have granted citizenship to athletes.
Athletes will sometimes become citizens of a different nation so they are able to compete in the Olympics. This is often because they are drawn to sponsorships or training facilities in such places as the United States. It could also be because an athlete is unable to qualify from within their original country. The athlete may not qualify because there are already qualified athletes in the athlete 's home country. Between 1992 and 2008, about fifty athletes emigrated to the United States to compete on the US Olympic team after having previously competed for another nation.
One of the most famous cases of changing nationality for the Olympics was Zola Budd, a South African runner who emigrated to the United Kingdom because there was an apartheid - era ban on the Olympics in South Africa. Budd was eligible for British citizenship because her grandfather was born in Britain, but British citizens accused the government of expediting the citizenship process for her.
Other notable examples include Kenyan runner Bernard Lagat, who became a United States citizen in May 2004. The Kenyan constitution requires that one renounce their Kenyan citizenship when they become a citizen of another nation. Lagat competed for Kenya in the 2004 Athens Olympics even though he had already become a United States citizen. According to Kenya, he was no longer a Kenyan citizen, jeopardising his silver medal. Lagat said he started the citizenship process in late 2003 and did not expect to become an American citizen until after the Athens games.
The athletes or teams who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive gold medals, which were solid gold until 1912, then made of gilded silver and now gold - plated silver. Every gold medal however must contain at least six grams of pure gold. The runners - up receive silver medals and the third - place athletes are awarded bronze medals. In events contested by a single - elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined and both semifinal losers receive bronze medals. At the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal; silver for first and bronze for second. The current three - medal format was introduced at the 1904 Olympics. From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth, and sixth have received certificates, which became officially known as victory diplomas; in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh - and eighth - place finishers were added. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver, and bronze medal winners were also given olive wreaths. The IOC does not keep statistics of medals won on a national level (except for team sports), but NOCs and the media record medal statistics as a measure of success.
As of the 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro, all of the current 206 NOCs and 19 obsolete NOCs have participated in at least one edition of the Summer Olympics. Competitors from Australia, France, Great Britain, Greece, and Switzerland have competed in all twenty - eight Summer Olympic Games. Athletes competing under the Olympic flag, Mixed Teams and the Refugee Team have between them competed at six Games.
119 NOCs (110 of the current 206 NOCs and 9 obsolete NOCs) have participated in at least one Winter Games, and athletes from fournteen nations (Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States) have participated in all twenty - three Winter Games to date.
The host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven to eight years ahead of their celebration. The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two - year period. The prospective host city applies to its country 's National Olympic Committee; if more than one city from the same country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national committee typically holds an internal selection, since only one city per NOC can be presented to the International Olympic Committee for consideration. Once the deadline for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached, the first phase (Application) begins with the applicant cities asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key criteria related to the organisation of the Olympic Games. In this form, the applicants must give assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter and with any other regulations established by the IOC Executive Committee. The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a specialised group provides the IOC with an overview of each applicant 's project and their potential to host the Games. On the basis of this technical evaluation, the IOC Executive Board selects the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage.
Once the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is thoroughly analysed by an evaluation commission. This commission will also visit the candidate cities, interviewing local officials and inspecting prospective venue sites, and submit a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC 's final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the Games. After the work of the evaluation commission, a list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC, which must assemble in a country that does not have a candidate city in the running. The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the host city. Once elected, the host city bid committee (together with the NOC of the respective country) signs a Host City Contract with the IOC, officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city.
By 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries, but by cities outside Europe and North America on only eight occasions. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro were the first Olympics for a South American country. No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded.
The United States has hosted eight Olympic Games, four Summer and four Winter, more than any other nation. The British capital London holds the distinction of hosting three Olympic Games, all Summer, more than any other city. The other nations hosting the Summer Games twice are Germany, Australia, France and Greece. The other cities hosting the Summer Games twice are Los Angeles, Paris and Athens. With the 2020 Summer Olympic Games, Japan and Tokyo, respectively, will hold these statuses.
In addition to the United States, nations hosting multiple Winter Games are France with three, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, Canada and Italy have hosted twice. Among host cities, Lake Placid, Innsbruck and St. Moritz have played host to the Winter Olympic Games more than once, each holding that honour twice. The most recent Winter Games were held in Pyeongchang in 2018, South Korea 's first Winter Olympics and second Olympics overall (including the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul).
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what are the districts jobs in the hunger games | Fictional world of the Hunger Games - Wikipedia
The Hunger Games universe is a fictional world appearing in The Hunger Games trilogy written by Suzanne Collins. It consists primarily of the fictional nation of Panem, its Capitol where the totalitarian government resides, and the outlying districts, numbered 1 to 12, each with a different economy. In addition, there is the secretive District 13, where a rebel force is building strength. The Hunger Games themselves are an annual event in which 2 children from each district, selected through a process called "reaping '', are forced to participate in a battle to the death. The universe also contains fictional flora and fauna, such as the Mockingjay, a bird whose mimicry is used as a plot device, and after whom the third book in the series is named.
The series takes place in the fictional nation of Panem, which has replaced the 21st century North American nations at an unspecified future time after a series of ecological disasters and a great war. The name is the Latin word for bread. Panem consists of a Capitol city located in the Rocky Mountains, surrounded by thirteen outlying Districts. The government is a totalitarian dictatorship similar to ancient Rome, a police state in which the Districts are subservient to the Capitol, expected to provide economic goods in exchange for protection provided by "Peacekeepers ''.
Seventy - four years before the start of the story, a civil war was waged against the Capitol, led by District 13 which was a center of military -- industrial production. The Capitol put down the rebellion and razed District 13 to the ground, ostensibly wiping out its residents. The government refers to this war as "the Dark Days '', and to punish the rebellious districts and remind all generations of the Capitol 's power, instituted an annual pageant known as the "Hunger Games '' for which each district is compelled to provide one male and one female "tribute '' between the ages of 12 and 18, chosen by lottery. The twenty - four tributes are sent to an arena and forced to fight to the death, until a single victor remains.
Panem has been led for more than 25 years by President Coriolanus Snow. In Mockingjay, it is revealed that District 13 's population was not wiped out, but retreated underground and is currently led by Snow 's political rival, President Alma Coin. After the 75th and final Hunger Games, Coin leads a second rebellion against the Capitol, which is successful. She is then assassinated by Katniss Everdeen and is succeeded by Commander Paylor, who presides over a reestablished democratic republic.
The Capitol is populated by citizens who, like the ancient Romans as observed by the satirical poet Juvenal circa A.D. 100, have sold their civic responsibility and capacity for self - government in return for panem et circenses ("bread and circuses '').
Removed from the deprivation and oppression of the districts, the pampered and hedonistic civilians are generally preoccupied with extravagant fashion, parties, and mass entertainment like the Hunger Games. Compared to the Districts, the Capitol is extremely wealthy and derives most of the benefits of advanced technologies such as computers, hover planes, and high - speed trains. Visiting tributes who have grown up with the constant threat of starvation and poverty, are shocked by what they consider wasteful decadence in the Capitol. For example, the selection of dishes served at parties is commonly far greater than one person could sample, so it is usual to provide emetic beverages, allowing guests to continue eating. Due to this extravagant lifestyle, it is rare for Capitol citizens to join the Peacekeepers, as it requires its soldiers to avoid marriage for twenty years and is often considered a punishment to avoid spending time in jail. In addition, residents of other districts who are considered criminals or traitors may be forced into servitude in the Capitol and converted into Avoxes, a brutal form of punishment in which offenders have their tongue surgically removed.
Citizens of the Capitol are culturally distinct from those of the Districts, speaking with a characteristic accent and choosing first names of ancient Greco - Roman derivation, with the city itself having a modernized version of ancient Roman architecture. In the books, the Capitol buildings are described as "candy - colored '', rising in a rainbow of hues. The fashions of the Capitol are exotic and ostentatious, with citizens dyeing their skin and hair with vivid colors, adopting tattoos, and undergoing extensive surgical alteration in the name of style. The Capitol accent is distinctive, said to sound "silly '' and effete to people from the districts; the accent is described as being "high - pitched with clipped tones and odd vowels ''. The letter s is a hiss and the tone rises at the end of every sentence, as if the speaker is asking a question.
Residents of the Capitol can not be chosen as tributes for the Hunger Games, as the Games were instituted as a punishment for the twelve remaining districts of Panem for their failed rebellion. Once there were thirteen districts, but District 13 was supposedly destroyed by the Capitol as a result of the rebellion. The Games are an annual cause for celebration in the Capitol; citizens gamble on the tributes and sponsor their favorites in the arena, providing water, food, weapons, and other necessary provisions. Past victors are often able to cultivate celebrity status in the Capitol. Despite the bloodthirsty nature of the Games, the people of the Capitol are shown to be vulnerable to sentimentality and melodrama, becoming emotionally invested in the tributes, a fact ultimately manipulated by Katniss and Peeta.
An Avox is a person who has been punished for being a rebel against the Capitol; a traitor or a deserter. Most Avoxes will have been hunted and caught by the Peacekeepers of their respective Districts. Avoxes have had their tongues cut out, rendering them mute. They are used as domestic servants and waiters upon tributes and Capitol citizens. It is also suggested that Avoxes are charged with the day - to - day maintenance of the Capitol and work shifts in the Transfer network under the city.
People do not speak to Avoxes unless giving them an order. They spend their lives serving the Capitol at the lowest class; they are slaves.
Peacekeepers are the military, internal security and law enforcement organization in Panem. They wear black - trimmed white uniforms consisting of a "police helmet '' (which resembles a police motorcycle helmet in the first film and full - face motorcycle helmets in later films), a standing collar, waist - length tunic, and trousers tucked into high black boots. In the Capitol they wear what seems to be a dress version. This uniform is of the same basic design with a black sash and beret with gold capital seal. In The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, their appearance is different from the first film; they wear a full helmet, darker visor, and heavier - looking armor, and carry automatic rifles.
Peacekeepers maintain order and suppress dissidence through coercion and brutality. The Peacekeeper force in each district is led by a Head Peacekeeper of the district. The Peacekeepers ensure that the laws of the Capitol are obeyed and publicly punish those who break them. The most frequent punishment consists of floggings, but can include the pillory and hanging for the most serious crimes. Peacekeepers are usually equipped with sub-machine guns to further discourage social disobedience among the Districts. As the Capitol traditionally considers District 12 a minimal threat, the Peacekeepers stationed there have tended to be less brutal, and easily bribed with sex and black market goods such as poached animals. But in Catching Fire, after Katniss Everdeen 's and Peeta Mellark 's defiance of the Capitol in the 74th Hunger Games, the Head Peacekeeper is replaced by a much stricter and brutal one who can not be bribed, and destroys the Hob, which houses the black market.
Panem uses genetic engineering to create animals which figure into the Hunger Games or otherwise serve its political purposes.
Panem also places lots of poisonous plants in the Games, but most of the plants are the same as the ones in the real world.
Jabberjays are small, crested black birds created by the Capitol during the Dark Days. They possess the capability to remember and precisely mimic human speech, allowing their use to spy on rebels. The rebels figured out the birds ' purpose, and defeated it by giving the birds disinformation. When the Capitol discovered this, the birds were abandoned in the wilderness, expected to die because they were exclusively male. However, they bred with female mockingbirds and created a new hybrid species, the mockingjay.
During the third Quarter Quell in Catching Fire, the Capitol uses jabberjays in the arena to demoralize the tributes by repeating faked screams of their loved ones. Finnick hears his lover Annie, and Katniss hears her sister Prim, her mother, Gale, and Gale 's family. She attempts to shoot all the screaming birds, but eventually gives up.
Mockingjays are black and white birds created accidentally by the mating of engineered jabberjays with female mockingbirds, after rebels discovered and defeated the jabberjays ' purpose. After the emergence of mockingjays, their jabberjay progenitors became, as Katniss states in Catching Fire, "as rare and tough as rocks ''. The Mockingjay does not have the ability to enunciate words, but can perfectly copy the melody of human singing in a whistling tone. District 11 is known to have an especially large mockingjay population, and they are used there to signal the end of the work day.
The mockingjay is a source of embarrassment to the Capitol because of its accidental creation, and because of this, has become a symbol of anti-Capitol resistance and eventually the whole rebellion itself. At the beginning of The Hunger Games, Katniss wears a mockingjay pin given to her by Madge Undersee. In Catching Fire, Plutarch Heavanesbee shows Katniss that his pocket watch displays a holographic mockingjay. In Mockingjay, Katniss is given the identity of "the Mockingjay '', as an inspirational character to the rebels, wearing a mockingjay - inspired costume.
Tracker jackers are wasps engineered to be extremely aggressive, tracking their victims and stinging with extremely painful, hallucinogenic, and potentially fatal venom, which can cause extreme illusions, and even death. Katniss drops a tracker jacker nest on several tributes during her first Hunger Games, killing two of them. Katniss and several other tributes are stung and hallucinate. The Capitol uses the venom in a process of torture and brainwashing known as "hijacking ''. The venom targets the part of the brain that controls fear and confusion, and is used to distort the victim 's memories. The technique is used on Peeta in Mockingjay, in an attempt to turn him into an assassin to kill Katniss.
The groosling is an edible wild bird the size of a wild turkey. Katniss hunts it in the first book of the series. Rue states that it is commonly found in District 11. They are spotted and hunted frequently in the 74th Hunger Games.
Wolf "muttations '' or "mutts '' appeared at the end of the 74th Hunger Games to draw Katniss, Peeta, and Cato into a final fight. The wolf - like creatures mimicked the deceased tributes, particularly in fur and eye color, but also with collars which match the tributes ' district numbers. One wolf Katniss identifies as Rue, and others as Glimmer, Foxface, the boy from District 9, and Thresh. They were created by the Gamemakers to draw the three remaining tributes together for the finale. Peeta later creates a painting of the wolf mutt supposed to be Glimmer. It took him three days to find the right shade for sunlight on white fur. He "kept thinking it was just yellow, but it was so much more than that. '' When he is shot in the hand with an arrow, Cato falls off the Cornucopia; and in the book, Cato 's fight for survival against the mutts goes on for several hours before Katniss shoots him in the skull with an arrow out of pity. He would not have survived for so long without his suit of body armor and a hidden sword or knife. In the film adaptation, the mutts resemble Rottweiler dogs and Cato dies more quickly.
These creatures are seen in Mockingjay in the underground tunnels of the Capitol, supposedly created especially to hunt Katniss down as their voices hissed her name. They are human - sized and described as having tight, white skin, long sharp claws and teeth. They also smell of roses, thought to be so because Katniss hates the smell of the Capitol 's altered roses, due to their association with President Snow. They can jump extremely far and are capable of decapitating their victims with a single bite. Katniss kills the mutts with a Holo device that she throws into the underground tunnel. These mutts are responsible for the deaths of Finnick Odair, Jackson, Castor, and Homes by beheading them on the wild chase.
The 75th Games included "muttation '' monkeys, with razor - sharp claws, wickedly sharp teeth, and orange fur, that would attack during the 4th hour of the "clock ''. They attacked the tributes in packs when Peeta glanced up at them, but the woman victor from 6, or ' female morphling ', as Katniss calls her, jumps in front of Peeta to save his life, as she was part of the alliance formed to defend Katniss and Peeta with their lives. On the clock, the monkeys are the 3: 00 -- 4: 00 section.
During the 50th Games, Haymitch struck a temporary alliance with a female tribute from his district named Maysilee Donner. After they break off this alliance, Haymitch hears her screams and runs to her. He sees a flock of candy - pink birds attacking Maysilee, and they spear her throat with their razor - sharp beaks as he arrives. He stays with her as she dies, just as Katniss stays with Rue.
Nightlock is a wild bush with extremely toxic berries. The berry will kill almost as soon as it is ingested, and it becomes a major plot device in The Hunger Games, first gathered by Peeta, who thinks they are edible. Katniss identifies them immediately, luckily before Peeta has eaten any. One of the remaining tributes (Foxface) steals them and eats them. When Katniss and Peeta are the last two survivors, the improvised rule allowing two winners from the same District is revoked. Katniss suggests that they kill themselves by eating the berries, hoping that the Gamemaker will relent rather than have a Game with no victor. This plan works.
The nightlock name is likely a hybrid of the real plants nightshade and hemlock, both of which are deadly poisons. It has been suggested the names may go with Collins ' allusions to Romeo and Juliet in the use of the phrase "star - crossed lovers '' and the suicidal nature of Romeo and Juliet 's death.
In Mockingjay, District 13 makes a suicide pill out of the nightlock toxin and gives one to Katniss and each member of the "Star Squad '' in the final Capitol attack, in case they are captured. The word "nightlock '' repeated three times is used as the self - destruct code for the Holo, a holographic map device used by the rebels in Mockingjay to display the location of the Capitol 's defense pods.
In the 74th Hunger Games, Rue uses an unnamed plant 's leaves to treat Katniss 's tracker jacker stings. Katniss recognizes the leaves as something that her mother used, but by a different method. While Rue utilizes the leaves by chewing them into a pulp then applying them directly to the tracker jacker stings, Katniss ' mother stewed the leaves to make an infusion which the patient then drinks. Also in the 74th Hunger Games, Katniss applies the leaves of the same plant to Peeta 's leg wound (inflicted by Cato) in the hope of warding off infection. The application causes pus to run out of his leg and the swelling to go down temporarily.
The Capitol controls all TV broadcasts within Panem. Sometimes there are emergency announcements that make the TV start itself, like the Hunger Games, news bulletins or warnings.
High speed trains run throughout the districts. The trains are known for their speed and comfort. They are the trains that carry the tributes.
Electromagnetic force fields are used by the Capitol as barriers, mainly in the arenas, where the fields are camouflaged to match the arena 's terrain. In the Second Quarter Quell, Haymitch used the force field as a weapon against a District 1 tribute. In the Third Quarter Quell, Peeta accidentally hits the force field while walking through the tropical arena. Blight, the male district 7 tribute is killed when stumbling upon the force field during the blood rain in that sector. Katniss also shoots an arrow at the force field to destroy it in the same Quarter Quell.
In Panem, Districts 1 - 12 wore clothing that was generic, and similar to modern day fashions, but citizens of the Capitol typically wore extravagant designer clothes that were very colorful and peculiar. In District 13, all citizens outfits consisted of just simple grey jumpsuits. In the Games, special uniforms were designed specifically to help the tributes have a chance against harsh conditions. An example of the specially designed uniforms are the ones worn in "Catching Fire ''. In the books, these uniforms included flotation devices (due to the fact that most tributes could not swim). In the films, the uniforms did not have flotation devices, but in both versions, the uniforms were designed to help survive in tropical temperatures. Technological advances also influenced Panem fashions. During both tribute parades, and interviews in the Hunger Games trilogy, Katniss Everdeen (and Peeta Mellark in the parades) showcased outfits that seemingly caught fire, just like the coal from their District (District 12), while in reality the flames were purely special effects.
Hovercraft are used by the capitol to transport Peacekeepers, and secure district borders. They are implied to be extremely fast and silent. In Mockingjay it is revealed that district 13 had an entire fleet of hovercraft, but had never used them due to the fear that the Capitol would retaliate with even more firepower. Hovercraft are also used in The Hunger Games to transport the tributes to the arena.
In Mockingjay the Capitol uses them as bombers to attack District Eight and used them in the same manner in their destruction of District Twelve. The rebels also used them in this manner while attacking the Nut in District 2 and the bombing of the Capitol.
To counter the aircraft, both the Capitol and District 13 operate air defense networks to intercept and shoot them down.
A Holo Map, more commonly referred to as a Holo, is a piece of technology with the purpose of projecting a holographic map of a location. In Mockingjay Part Two, it is used by the Star Squad as both an interactive, three - dimensional map of the Capitol and as a tool to locate dangerous defense pods hidden in the streets of the city. It doubles as an explosive device that detonates if a squad member is to flick a switch on the object and repeat the word ' nightlock ' three consecutive times. If set off, it blasts everything within a five - yard radius. It caused the death of the Mutts in Mockingjay.
Nuclear weapons are held by both the Capitol and District 13. Prior to the Dark Days, District 13 was responsible for the Capitol 's nuclear weapons development, though publicly it was responsible for graphite mining (a material needed in the enrichment process). It is implied that the weapons are only delivered via missiles. Little information is given on the original source of the weapons development, though it is possible it originated from what remained of the United States military prior to the formation of Panem.
Due to the uncertain nature of the location of the Districts, besides that District 13 was approximately a week on foot from the edge of District 12, it can be assumed that it was located around southern Pennsylvania.
It is unclear how many weapons each side holds. However, it is enough that, according to both the Capitol and District 13, there would be no winners.
District 1 specializes in producing luxury items such as jewelry. Children living there take pride in representing District 1 in the Games, and are often among the group of tributes nicknamed "Careers '', who illegally train for the Games from a young age so when they volunteer they have a higher chance of winning. Katniss refers to them as "the Capitol 's lap dogs '' in the first book. Once the Games begin, the tributes from the Career - heavy districts (typically Districts 1, 2, and 4 in the book, just 1 & 2 in the film) tend to form an alliance until they are forced to fight among themselves to determine the winner. Along with District 2, District 1 is heavily favored by the Capitol and is fairly wealthy compared to the rest of the districts. It is also noted that people from this district give their children names after expensive material, such as Cashmere, or characteristics of the things they make, such as Glimmer, and Katniss states in the first book she thinks it 's "ridiculous. ''
In The Hunger Games, during the 74th Hunger Games, both tributes from District 1 (Marvel and Glimmer) join the "Career '' pack. Glimmer is eventually killed by tracker jackers (mutant wasps), which were dropped on the Careers by Katniss. Marvel is killed by Katniss after he kills Rue. In Catching Fire, the tributes from District 1 are siblings Cashmere and Gloss, who are killed by Johanna Mason and Katniss, respectively.
During the Second Rebellion, it is noted that District 1 was one of the first to rebel against the Capitol.
District 2 is in charge of stone cutting, fighting, and weapons manufacturing, though it was revealed in Mockingjay that it is also a center of training for the Capitol 's army of Peacekeepers. District 2 is a large district in the mountains, not far from the Capitol itself. Its citizens have better living conditions than most other districts; support for Capitol control is stronger here than in any other district. Some citizens of District 2 give their children names of Ancient Roman or Greek style, like those common in the Capitol. District 2 tributes often volunteer for the Games even when not selected in the drawing (this is said to make the Reapings very difficult). As such, their tributes are among those referred to as "careers ''. Like Districts 1 and 4 (in the film like District 1) these tributes train for the games. This is illegal but because of the support District 2 gives for the Capitol, they are let off, along with District 1 (and District 4 in the book), the other richer district (s). It is also mentioned that the number of victors is heavily skewed on District 2 due to their eagerness to compete in the game.
During the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, Cato and Clove, the tributes from District 2, were formidable opponents. Clove came the closest of anyone to killing Katniss, but she was interrupted and killed by Thresh, after having said loudly that the Careers killed Rue, the female tribute from Thresh 's district. Thresh avenged her death. Cato was the final tribute to be killed when Katniss shot him with her bow out of pity after he was shredded beyond repair by wolf - like muttations. In the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, District 2 's tributes were Brutus and Enobaria. Brutus was killed by Peeta in the arena; Enobaria survived the Games and the rebellion to be one of the few victors left after the war. Another victor, Commander Lyme, was the leader of the rebellion 's District 2 forces during the takeover of The Nut.
District 2 is made up of many small villages, each based around a mine. In the midst of District 2 is a central mountain (referred to as "The Nut '' by Katniss) which contains the command and control center for the Capitol 's defenses. During the Dark Days, District 2 was the Capitol 's staunchest ally and received preferential treatment from the Capitol after the rebellion, along with District 1. Katniss states that many of the other Districts loathe District 2, referring to them as "the Capitol 's lap dogs. '' In the third book, during the second rebellion, District 2 is the last to fall to the rebels as District 2 had the strongest Capitol influence and had many Peacekeepers. The rebels were losing in the district until the fall (takeover in the book; destruction in the movie) of The Nut, and Katniss ' speech (in both) to the people of District 2.
District 3 specializes in the production of electronics. Most of its inhabitants work in factories and are very adept in skills such as engineering, which its tributes have used to their advantage in the Games. In the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, the male tribute from District 3 manages to reactivate the land mines surrounding the Cornucopia so they can be used to protect the supplies of the Careers. One of the previous victors to come from District 3, Beetee, won his Games by setting a trap that electrocuted six tributes at once, crowning him the victor. He also used his skills after being chosen to compete in the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games in Catching Fire. The other victor chosen to compete in the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games is a woman named Wiress, who discovered that the arena operated like a clock and told Katniss how to detect force fields, after she pointed (or at least started to point) out the force field put up between the Gamemakers and the victors. Wiress died during the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, while Beetee joins the technological division for the Second Rebellion 's war effort and becomes the only surviving Victor from District 3. After the war 's end, Beetee made a special bow and arrows for Katniss. The arrows included explosive arrows and regular arrows. Although District 3 seems to have technological advantages over other districts, it is actually the poorest of the wealthy districts and typically does not do well in the Games.
District 4 is a coastal district that specializes in fishing. It is another wealthy district in which children often train to become Careers (tributes from this district are not considered Careers in the film). It is said that District 4 has the most "decent - looking '' people. The most popular bread baked in this District is a salty, fish - shaped loaf tinted green by seaweed.
In the first book, the male tribute from District 4 is one of the eleven to die in the initial bloodbath at the Cornucopia; in the film he is depicted as having his throat slit by Cato after an attempt to flee. In the book, the female tribute is shown as a Career and killed by the tracker jackers alongside Glimmer; however, in the film she rarely makes an appearance. She is seen as picking up one of the backpacks at the cornucopia bloodbath and running away. It is believed that she is the tribute that Katniss saw before falling down the hill. The district 4 female may have been the last to die in the bloodbath. In Catching Fire, Katniss finds important allies in Mags and Finnick Odair, the victors from District 4 chosen for the Quarter Quell. Mags is an elderly victor who mentored Finnick in his first Games and could make a fishing hook "out of anything. '' She volunteered for the Quarter Quell, taking the place of Annie Cresta, an unstable past victor who won her games by being able to swim the longest after the arena was flooded. During the third Quarter Quell, Mags is killed by a mysterious blister agent in the form of a fog. As for Finnick, Katniss describes him as "beautiful '' and mentions that he won his Games at the young age of fourteen. In Mockingjay, Katniss and Finnick turn out to become great friends and eventually Finnick is killed by part - lizard, part - human mutations during the second rebellion, so that he could save Katniss 's life. This results in Annie being the only surviving Victor from District 4 left after the war.
District 5 specializes in electrical power, which Caesar Flickerman referred as the "Power Plant Workers '' in the first film. The third book reveals that the district is dotted by dams providing the Capitol with electricity; this fact is exploited by the rebels, who destroy the dams, briefly cutting off electricity within the Capitol and allowing District 13 to rescue the captured Victors. This is only mentioned in the book but is shown fully in the third film.
In the first book, Katniss nicknamed the female tribute from District 5 "Foxface '' because she looked similar to a fox, with a slim face and sleek red hair. She was one of the last to die, due to her cleverness, avoiding any form of contact with other tributes. She also steals a small portion of food from the Careers ' supplies, dodging the bombs set up by the Careers, shortly before her death. She dies by eating poisonous berries known as nightlock (possibly on purpose) after watching Peeta harvest them. No name or description is given to the male tribute from District 5, except that he is one of the eleven who die in the bloodbath on the first day. In the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, Finnick kills the male tribute with his trident at the Cornucopia on the first day. In the film, the female tribute is killed by the 10 o'clock wave that propels itself through the jungle.
District 6 specializes in transportation, serving as a hub for the transport network. During the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, both tributes were killed in the bloodbath on the first day. In the film the male was targeted by Cato, who accused him of taking his knife during a pre-Games training exercise (though it was in fact stolen by Rue). During the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, both tributes are nicknamed the "Morphlings '' due to their addiction to morphling, a psychoactive drug similar to that of morphine. During training, they often go to the camouflage station and paint. The male tribute is killed in the bloodbath, while the female tribute dies when a monkey muttation bites her in the chest and ruptures her internal organs as she blocks it from Peeta, who was its initial target. Peeta allows her to paint flowers on his face with her blood, and describes the many colors in the sky to her as she dies.
District 7 specializes in lumber and paper. Its two tributes in the 74th Hunger Games die in the initial bloodbath. In the 75th Hunger Games, the tributes selected are Blight, who protests his inclusion, and Johanna Mason, a sarcastic woman who has no qualms over killing with her axe, a signature weapon from her district, who in the film, also protests her inclusion in an expletive ridden tirade with Cesar Flickerman, and is the one mentioned Victor closest to Katniss and Peeta in age, having won the very recent 71st Hunger Games.
District 8 specializes in textiles (including at least one factory in which Peacekeeper uniforms are made). Along with Districts 7 and 11, It was among the first districts to rebel, as Katniss saw on Mayor Undersee 's television (On a monitor on the Victory Tour train in the film, showing all three; 7, 8, and 11). Two people from District 8, Bonnie and Twill, escaped during one of the uprisings and informed Katniss of the theory that District 13 still existed. It is implied that security is strict in District 8 following the uprising, and the citizens are desperate for hope. In Mockingjay, Katniss visits a hospital in District 8, which is later bombed by the Capitol. It is thus the second-most targeted of the districts during the Second Rebellion, after District 12 (which is outright destroyed). The leader of District 8 and another of its Victors, Paylor, is able to command fierce loyalty from her soldiers who follow her orders in preference to those of Alma Coin, the president of District 13. Paylor later becomes President of Panem after Katniss assassinates Coin.
In the 74th Hunger Games, the male tribute from District 8 died at the Cornucopia at the hands of Marvel; the female tribute was attacked by the Careers on the first night and "finished off '' by Peeta when her death did not occur immediately, as indicated by cannon blast. In the 75th Hunger Games, both tributes from District 8, Woof and Cecelia, died in the initial battle at the Cornucopia. Woof was an elderly, senile tribute in his 70 's. Cecelia was a young mother of 3, and was noted to be about 30 years of age. It is later revealed that Cecelia was to be an original member of the arranged alliance to save Katniss and Peeta from the second arena; however, she did not survive the initial bloodbath. Woof also had knowledge of the plot.
District 9 specializes in producing grain and salts. It is the least mentioned district in the series; no named character from the district has appeared in the series. The only mention of note from the district is the male tribute in the 74th Hunger Games who tackles Katniss for a supply bag until Clove puts a knife in his back. District 9 is the only district to lose both of its tributes in the bloodbath of both the 74th and 75th Hunger Games, and the only one to have no named characters in the trilogy.
District 10 specializes in livestock. At least one job is mentioned throughout the book: keeping embryos of cattle to keep enough livestock to send to the Capitol. Katniss does not note any major tributes from District 10, except one boy with a crippled leg who is mentioned several times. In Mockingjay, Katniss meets Dalton, a District 10 refugee who explains to her a bit about District 13 's history. At the 75th Hunger Games, Katniss notes that the District 10 tributes, who are dressed as cows, have flaming belts on as if they are broiling themselves, a poor imitation of Cinna and Portia 's techniques to showcase Katniss and Peeta at the 74th Hunger Games.
District 11 specializes in agriculture. It is located somewhere in the South and is very large, possibly occupying nearly all of the Deep South. The people are housed in small shacks and there is a harsh force of Peacekeepers. Common traits are dark skin and brown eyes. According to Rue, many tracker jacker nests were left there, leading the workers to keep medicinal leaves on hand. In the orchards, small children were sent into the branches to pick the highest fruit. Sometimes during the height of the harvest they were given night - vision goggles to allow them to work after dark. The district also contained fields of vegetables. Electric fences are set up 24 hours a day, in contrast to District 12. The inhabitants apparently have extensive knowledge of herbs. Overall, the condition of the district is worse than District 12, because, as the food - producing district, security is enforced greatly and harsh measures, including summary execution, are implemented to keep people from stealing anything meant for the Capitol.
In the 74th Hunger Games, the tributes from District 11 are Thresh, the tallest and most imposing of all tributes whom the others try to avoid as much as possible, and Rue, a 12 - year - old petite girl who can climb and jump between trees and becomes Katniss ' steadfast ally until her death. In the 75th Hunger Games, the victors selected as tributes are Chaff, Haymitch 's drinking comrade who refused a prosthetic arm, and Seeder, an elderly but healthy tribute who reminds Katniss of Rue. District 11 was also the first District to rebel, its rebellion erupting during the events of the 74th Hunger Games in response to the way in which Rue was killed and Katniss ' tribute to her, with 7 and 8 rebelling shortly soon after.
District 12 specializes in coal mining, replaced by medicine after the Second Rebellion, and is the farthest from the Capitol. Katniss, Peeta, and other major characters come from District 12. It is located in the Appalachian Mountains, and the district itself is split into two distinct housing areas and social classes. "The Seam '' is a slum where those who work in the coal mines live, whereas the mercantile class lives in the town, centered around the "Square ''. Both classes are easy to distinguish physically and generally socialize amongst themselves. Those from the Seam generally have dark hair, grey eyes, and olive skin, and those from merchant families typically have blond hair, blue eyes, and fair skin. Katniss and Gale are from The Seam, whereas Peeta is a baker 's son from town; however, Katniss ' sister, Prim, despite coming from the Seam, has characteristics typical of the town residents because she resembles her mother, who was one of the few town residents willing to move to the Seam to marry Katniss 's and Prim 's father. It is unclear if this class divide exists in other Districts or is unique to District 12. On the victory tour in Catching Fire Katniss mentions that she can not see where the well - to - do live in District 11, as it surely is not the square where their speech is being held. She also notes that many members of the crowd during the Victory Tour seem even poorer than the Seam inhabitants in 12.
District 12 is the poorest out of the 12 districts and starvation is a major issue for the citizens. Due to the lack of food, the local Capitol authority figures -- the Mayor and Peacekeepers -- often bend the extremely strict Panem laws. The electric fence surrounding the district to prevent access to the woods is usually turned off, and Katniss and her friend Gale often hunt there for food for their families or to raise money by selling their catches on the local black market. The black market, located at an old coal warehouse named the Hob, was where many of the citizens made their money. The Hob was destroyed by the Peacekeepers (whose local commander was replaced) in Catching Fire. This was followed by the bombing of the entire district after the escape of the tributes during the 75th Hunger Games. However, Gale managed to evacuate about 10 % of the population -- "a little under 900 people '' -- to District 13.
District 12 's geography is dominated by forests and meadows. The meadow, which is located just outside the community, ends at a long electric fence constructed to keep the wild animals from escaping the forest outside. It has many holes and, as mentioned above, is usually turned off, giving Katniss and Gale chance to hunt; however, the fence is fully electrified after Romulus Thread replaces Cray as Head Peacekeeper. The forest has a lake, is vast, and contains a large amount of wildlife enough to support more than 800 residents of the district stranded after the bombings in Catching Fire. Many do not know where it leads to; as revealed in Catching Fire, the forest eventually ends at District 13, located a week away from District 12 on foot. Another feature of the district is a small hill, which is where the Victor 's Village is located. It contains twelve big villas facing each other in two rows. It is very quiet for most of its history since District 12 has few Victors, though more people begin to settle there after the war. After the Capitol bombs District 12 at the end of Catching Fire, most of the residency is destroyed with its meadow turned into a mass grave of the residents unable to escape and with only the Victor 's Village left unharmed. After the Second Rebellion, though, the District 12 refugees begin to return to their home, including Katniss, who states in the epilogue that the mass grave is returning into the meadow again.
District 12 is notorious for having only two Victors in the history of the Hunger Games before the 74th, one of them having died due to natural causes. Because of this, it is a laughingstock among the other districts; volunteering for the Hunger Games in District 12 is seen as suicide, since the tributes of the district often perish early in the game.
Before the Dark Days war, District 13 specialized in nuclear technology, mining graphite, and the development of emerging technologies for use by Panem 's military. It was also the Capitol 's primary military -- industrial complex and weapons manufacturer until the rebellion. During the Dark Days, they were one of the major forces of the rebellion. Near the end of the Dark Days they managed to take control of the nuclear arsenal. District 13 was supposedly bombed and destroyed before the first annual Hunger Games at the end of the Dark Days war, but it was hinted in Catching Fire that they had survived, and in Mockingjay it is confirmed that District 13 had become, literally, an underground district when the population retreated to bunkers. After the Capitol and District 13 agreed to cease hostilities towards one another under the doctrine of mutually assured destruction, the Capitol spread the story that District 13 had been destroyed; District 13 had control of the primary nuclear weapons stockpile and the Capitol did not want a nuclear war. This underground district maintains concealed livestock and vegetable farms in order to survive after the Capitol destroyed everything above ground, so as not to arouse the suspicion of the other districts. This was a risk that, according to Katniss, the Capitol had underestimated. District 13 is a week away from District 12 on foot.
In Mockingjay, District 13 is the center of the new rebellion. It is led by President Alma Coin, who aspires to succeed Snow as President of Panem and has orchestrated the events in books two and three to circumvent District 13 's truce with the Capitol. The lifestyle in District 13 is very strict because of their circumstances. When a citizen wakes up, they are given a temporary tattoo of their personalized schedule for the day, though Katniss usually ignores it, wandering around and sleeping. They are very thrifty and ration food carefully -- even a small thing wasted is heavily frowned upon and minor theft is punished by detention; everyone wears the same grey uniform and sleeps in identical living quarters. Everyone over the age of 14 is addressed as "Soldier '' because almost everyone in District 13 is being trained for a military rebellion against the Capitol. On the other hand, free education is provided, and all refugees are allowed to become citizens. This is, in part, due to the eagerness of the district to add more genetic diversity in the population due to a deadly virus hitting the district years before which made many infertile. Weddings are usually not celebrated since marriages are done through simple paper - signing, though the wedding of Finnick Odair and Annie Cresta in Mockingjay deviates from this.
Every year since the Dark Days, which occurred 75 years before the events of Mockingjay, the Capitol hosts an event called the Hunger Games. The Games consist of a gladiatorial combat fought amongst twenty - four teenagers (tributes) aged 12 -- 18, with one boy and one girl chosen by lottery from each district (except for District 13). The game is held to remind the citizens of the districts of their failed rebellion and the absolute power of the Capitol while simultaneously providing entertainment for the Capitol citizens. The game is discontinued after the second rebellion, following the fall of President Snow and the ascendancy of Commander Paylor. Thus, there are a total of 1800 district citizens who were reaped as tributes from the start to the end of the games (the 50th Hunger Games had double the number, while the 75th reaped the victors from the previous games).
All citizens from each district between the ages of 12 and 18 are entered into the "reaping, '' a lottery system that chooses the tributes. On the day of the reaping, spokespersons from the Capitol, known to the Districts as "escorts, '' visit their respective districts (District 12 's is Effie Trinket, and Katniss describes that she has been the escort for a number of years before the events of The Hunger Games) and choose one male and one female name at random, selecting the two tributes who are to compete. However, any other citizen of the same sex aged 12 to 18 can volunteer to become a tribute, taking the place of the child originally reaped (as Katniss did for Prim in The Hunger Games). In Districts 1 and 2 (and 4 in the book), most children spend years training specifically for the Games and then volunteer to compete, in spite of the fact that this is technically against the rules.
All 12 - year - old candidates are entered once in the reaping, and older candidates are entered one more time for every year past 12. The names are written on slips of paper and placed in glass bowls ("reaping balls ''), one each for males and females. Since many families live in poverty, a candidate may request additional tessera (a year 's meager ration of grain and oil for one person) in exchange for additional entries in the reaping. One such entry is issued for every tessera that a candidate has requested since turning 12. Thus, a candidate who requested three tesserae every year would be entered four times at age 12, eight times at age 13, and so on, up to 28 times at age 18.
Following the reaping, the tributes are taken immediately to the Capitol, where they are given a makeover by a team of stylists in order to look appealing for a TV audience. Female tributes are usually waxed to remove all their body hair. One of the stylists on the team focuses on designing a costume for them to wear in the tribute parade, which reflects the resource their District provides for the Capitol. Each District 's tributes are then put in horse - drawn chariots and attempt to impress Capitol citizens while they ride down the Avenue of the Tributes. Afterwards, they learn strategy with mentors drawn from their District 's pool of past victors (for Katniss and Peeta, Haymitch, who is the only living victor from District 12) and train in combat and survival skills with the other tributes. On the last day of training, they demonstrate their skills before a team of judges, including the Gamemakers, who then score them on a scale of 1 to 12 according to their performance and skill. These scores are made public to show who has the best chances of surviving, which can attract Sponsors and influence the betting; tributes awarded the highest scores are often targeted first in the arena because they are considered to be the largest threats. Time in the Capitol is also spent courting the cameras; on the eve of the Games, each tribute dresses formally and appears on television for an interview, where they attempt to attract Sponsors by being charismatic.
On the morning of the Games, the tributes have a tracker chip inserted in their skin so the Gamemakers can track them. The tributes are then flown to a dedicated outdoor location, called the Arena. A new Arena is built every year, while past arenas become popular tourist attractions for Capitol citizens. Each tribute is given special clothing to wear, depending on the environment, and then confined to an underground room, referred to in the Capitol as the "Launch Room '', until game time. The tributes are lifted into the arena by glass tubes, emerging via tubes surrounding a giant, supply - filled horn made of solid gold, called the Cornucopia. A sixty - second countdown to the start of the Games begins, during which any tribute who steps off his or her plate will be killed immediately by land mines planted in the ground around the plates. The power of the landmines is immense, according to Katniss, when she mentions that one year, a girl from District 3 dropped her token, a little wooden ball, and "they literally had to scrape bits of her off the ground. ''
The Games begin with the sound of a loud gong. Most tributes make for the Cornucopia to find food, water, weapons, tools, or other useful items; the most valuable and useful items, including weapons, are often placed closest to the Cornucopia itself. The initial competition for supplies usually results in intense fighting, with a significant number of tributes killed in the first few minutes or hours of the Games. In most Games, a well - stocked, often well - trained group of tributes band together to hunt down other individuals, until they are the only ones left to fight each other. The alliance is generally agreed upon before the Games begin. These tributes are dubbed "Careers '' because of the fact that they are often trained for an extensive portion of their childhood in combat and other survival skills. The "Careers '' usually come from Districts 1, 2 and 4 (Only 1 & 2 in the films), and are generally disliked, even despised by some, and considered brutally aggressive by many of the other Districts.
If one or more tributes does not move fast enough, avoids conflict for too long, or is too close to the edge of the Arena, the Gamemakers will sometimes create hazards to make for more entertaining programming or to steer the remaining tributes toward each other. Another common occurrence is a "feast '', where a boon of extra supplies or food is granted to the tributes at a particular place and time (usually the Cornucopia), though whether it is a lavish feast, carefully regulated supplies, or a single loaf of stale bread for the tributes to fight over is up to the Gamemakers. In the first novel, the Gamemakers told the tributes that the feast would provide them with something they direly needed.
It is implied that there are no official rules for the Games except for not stepping off the plate until the conclusion of the sixty - second countdown. In the first novel, Katniss mentions that there is an unspoken rule against cannibalism in the Games. This rule came to be after the 71st Hunger Games, when a District 6 tribute named Titus resorted to cannibalism in the arena, actually attempting to eat the tributes that he had killed. He was subsequently killed by an avalanche created by the gamemakers. There is some speculation that it was created specifically to kill him, to ensure that the victor was not a mad cannibal. During the 74th Hunger Games, the rules are altered during the Games to allow two tributes from the same district to win. However, when Katniss Everdeen and Peeta Mellark, both tributes from District 12, are the only two tributes remaining, the rule is revoked in an attempt to have them fight one another to the death. This ultimately fails when they attempt to poison themselves in unison, and at the last moment the rule is reinstated, allowing both of them to become victors. Though described as an act of love for one another in the publicity after the Games, the establishment in the Capitol saw it as an act of defiance. By refusing to respect the prescribed rules, the District 12 tributes were believed to have manipulated and outwitted the Capitol, and encouraged an uprising in the Districts in the process.
The meaning of the word ' quell ' is ' suppress ', this gives meaning to the special name ' Quarter Quell '. The Quarter Quell is an especially brutal edition of the Hunger Games that occurs every 25 years. Each Quarter Quell includes a different twist to the rules, to serve as a reminder to the districts of some aspect of the rebellion. Officially, many Quells were prescribed by the original creators of the Hunger Games at the end of the Dark Days. Each quarter, the current President selects the rule change from a box of numbered, sealed envelopes and reads it aloud on live television.
In the first Quell (year 25), the Districts were forced to choose their tributes by election instead of the usual random lottery, to remind them that they chose to rebel.
In the second Quell (year 50), twice the usual number of tributes were reaped from each District, to remind them that two rebels died for each Capitol citizen during the rebellion. Coriolanus Snow was President that year. The victor was Haymitch Abernathy, who won by discovering the properties of the force field surrounding the arena and using them to his advantage during the final battle with a girl from District 1, causing his attacker 's thrown axe to fly back and hit her in the head. Humiliated by Haymitch 's actions, Snow retaliated by ordering Haymitch 's family and girlfriend killed shortly after.
In the third Quell (year 75), portrayed in Catching Fire, the rule change requires the tributes to be chosen from the surviving victors, as a reminder that not even the strongest can hope to defy the Capitol. At this time, 59 victors are still alive, including the only living female victor from District 12, Katniss Everdeen. In the book, Katniss suspects President Snow actually made up the rule for this Quell, which conveniently serves the purpose of his vendetta against her. In the film, it is implied that Snow makes the rule under counsel of his new Head Gamemaker Plutarch Heavensbee, in order to exterminate the living victors. This Quell has no winner, and is the last Hunger Game. Katniss destroys the force field surrounding the arena, and becomes one of six survivors. Heavensbee is revealed as the leader of an underground Capitol rebel group, working for Alma Coin, who presides over District 13 and uses the collapse of the Quell to launch a second civil war.
The location of the arena varies from year to year. Past arenas have included volcanoes, avalanche zones, and dams; the terrain has included woods, meadows, scrubland, deserts, and frozen tundra. In the "Hunger Games '' movies, they briefly show one of the previous Games taking place in the ruins of an abandoned city. Upon the conclusion of the Games, the arena is preserved as a tourist attraction for Capitol citizens.
The arena for the 74th Hunger Games is a largely forested area with a central meadow where the Cornucopia is located, a lake, and a wheat field. Katniss notes that it resembles the forests of District 12, which gives her a slight advantage in navigating and surviving in the game.
The arenas devised for the Quarter Quells appear to be especially spectacular. The second Quarter Quell took place in a beautiful meadow with flowers and a fruit - bearing forest and mountains. However, everything was designed by the Gamemakers to be either dangerous or poisonous, including all of the food and water, as well as the wildlife and vegetation. In the third Quarter Quell, the Cornucopia was placed on an island in a saltwater lake, with the surrounding shore divided into 12 segments that resembled a clock, with every hour featuring its own deadly attack, limited only to that slice of the arena during that time of day. The only area where there was no attack was the Cornucopia and the saltwater lake. This proved to be an important location for Katniss ' allies.
The Gamemakers have complete control of the arena environment and can create any hazard they wish. In The Hunger Games, they set the forest on fire and switched between day and night at will. In the 75th Hunger Games, the Gamemakers divided the arena into twelve segments, each containing a different terror which only activated at a certain hour. For example, at noon and midnight, an hour - long electrical storm would take place in the first segment. Other dangers encountered by the tributes included blood rain, carnivorous monkeys, insects, a tidal wave, a fog - like gas that caused chemical burns to the skin and nerve damage, and a section of the jungle in which tributes were trapped with jabberjays that imitated the screams of their loved ones. The center of the island could also rotate, disorienting those attempting to master the clock strategy.
After the rebellion, the arenas were destroyed and replaced by memorials.
The last living tribute of the Hunger Games is the victor. After the Games, the victor receives extreme medical treatment in the Capitol to recover from all the injuries during the Games, followed by a final celebration during which they are interviewed and crowned victor by the President of Panem. Once the festivities are over, the victor returns to live in his or her District in an area called the "Victor 's Village '', where houses are well - furnished and equipped with luxuries such as hot water and telephones. All families in the victor 's District receive additional parcels of food and other goods for a year. About six months after the Games, the victor participates in the Victory Tour. In every District, the victor is given a celebration and ceremony, usually accompanied by a victory rally and dinner with senior district officials. In the victory tour, the victor speaks publicly in each district, even if they are disliked or even hated by certain districts, especially if the victor was responsible for their tribute 's death.
However, the victors ' involvement with the games and the Capitol does not end there. Their lives are under constant surveillance by the Capitol to prevent them from organizing an insurgency or rebellion within the districts. If they do not behave "properly '' within the games or outside of it, the Capitol will not punish them directly to prevent them from becoming "martyrs '', but instead they will punish their loved ones. This is exemplified with Haymitch, who lost his family and girlfriend due to his unorthodox way of winning his game, while Johanna is implied to have lost her family due to her disobedience. Victors who are particularly attractive will be sold by the Capitol as prostitutes to the highest bidder. One example of this is Finnick, who served as prostitute to the Capitol citizens, both men and women, under the threat of having his girlfriend, the fellow victor Annie, tortured. Johanna 's family is said to have been killed because she refused to be a subject of such cruelty. The victors also have to mentor the incoming tributes for the next games. This is particularly cruel to Haymitch; with his being the only living victor of District 12 prior to the 74th Hunger Games, he has to personally mentor all of the following District 12 tributes only to watch them die in the games. Furthermore, the victors are able to be reaped again to serve the interests of the Capitol. As Haymitch puts it, "Nobody ever wins the games. There are survivors. There 's no winners. '' As a result of both their own experiences and having to mentor tributes who ultimately die, most, if not all of the Victors frequently resorted to some kind or even multiple kinds of substance abuse as a coping mechanism, usually becoming intoxicated with alcohol, like Haymitch or Chaff, or becoming addicted to morphling like the District 6 Victors, Katniss, or Johanna, sometimes both.
The victors of the Hunger Games usually form friendships with each other, having shared the experiences of brutality. In Finnick and Annie 's case, their attraction turns into love. While this is a factor for the increased pressure for the 75th Hunger Games, this means that the victors can relay information about rebel planning that is revealed in Catching Fire. In the book, it is revealed that half of the tributes of the game are part of a conspiracy to break Katniss from the arena and transport her to District 13 to become the face of the rebellion.
Before the start of the 75th Hunger Games, there are a total of 59 out of 75 victors who are still alive, the rest having died of natural causes. A total of 18 of 24 victors die during the events of Catching Fire. Furthermore, due to the conspiracy of the 75th Hunger Games, Mockingjay reveals that the Capitol has conducted the "Victor 's Purge '' to capture, torture, and execute all remaining victors. At the end of the series, there are only 7 victors remaining: Enobaria from District 2, Beetee from District 3, Annie from District 4, Johanna from District 7, and Katniss, Peeta, and Haymitch from District 12, with uncertainty about the fate of an eighth; Lyme from District 2, as to whether she survived the assault on The Nut, or whether she did not, or was even involved, in the assault on The Capitol.
The Victory Tour is a trip across all of the districts of Panem to honor the victor of each Hunger Games. The tour is usually held six months after the games to keep the horror of the games fresh in the minds of those living in the districts. The Victory Tour usually starts at District 12 and then goes in descending district order to District 1. The victor 's district is skipped and saved for the very last. In Catching Fire the tour starts in District 11 because the victors live in District 12. After attending celebrations in the Capitol, the victors return to their home district for celebrations paid for by The Capitol. In Catching Fire Katniss looks forward to the feast in District 12 during which everyone could eat their fill. Before the tour, the victor 's prep team and stylist prepare the victor to show off for the crowds of people just as when they appeared in the Capitol before the games. During the Victory Tour Katniss and Peeta try unsuccessfully to convince President Coriolanus Snow of their love.
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what is the character's name in black panther | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther, alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa is crowned king of Wakanda following his father 's death, but his sovereignty is challenged by an adversary who plans to abandon the country 's isolationist policies and begin a global revolution.
Wesley Snipes expressed interest in working on a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios announced a Black Panther film as one of ten based on Marvel characters and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). By 2016, Cole and Coogler had joined; additional cast joined in May, making Black Panther the first Marvel film with a predominantly black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and other premium large formats. The film received praise from critics for its direction, screenplay, acting, production and costume design, and soundtrack, though the computer - generated effects received some criticism. Critics considered it one of the best films set in the MCU and noted its cultural significance. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, breaking numerous box office records including the highest - grossing film by a black director. For 2018 it is the highest - grossing film in the U.S. and Canada and the second - highest - grossing film worldwide, and received numerous awards and nominations. A sequel is in development.
Five African tribes war over a meteorite containing vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart - shaped herb '' affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther ''. He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. Over centuries, the Wakandans use the vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country. In 1992, Wakanda 's King T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black - market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions.
In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, the leader of the Dora Milaje regiment, extract T'Challa's ex-lover Nakia from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe 's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die.
When Klaue and his accomplice Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, T'Challa's friend and Okoye 's lover W'Kabi urges him to bring Klaue back alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross ' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda 's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him.
While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda 's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, the latter attacked Zuri and forced T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son in order to maintain the lie. This boy grew up to be Stevens, a U.S. black ops soldier who adopted the name "Killmonger ''. Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity and claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, where he kills Zuri, defeats T'Challa, and hurls him over a waterfall to his presumed death. Killmonger ingests the heart - shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world.
Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda, and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia 's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his own Black Panther suit. W'Kabi and his army fight Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down planes carrying the vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda 's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger 's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated.
T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died, to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda 's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recuperation.
Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Kani 's son Atandwa portrays a young T'Chaka, and Sterling K. Brown plays his brother N'Jobu, who is Killmonger 's father. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe, Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe, Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe. Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams - Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson also play Doras. Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage. Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I., Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan makes an uncredited appearance in the post-credits scene reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther, and began work on it by that August. Snipes felt that Africa had been portrayed poorly in Hollywood films previously, and that this film could highlight the majesty of the continent due to the character being noble and "the antithesis of (African) stereotypes ''. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man (1993), and a month later he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that there was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought that the film was about the Black Panther Party.
-- Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics, to work on it; Quesada and Palmiotti have both denied this. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold. A year later, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film, while Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel in May 2000 to co-produce, finance, and distribute the film. In March 2002, Snipes planned to make the film or Blade 3 (2004) over the next year. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer felt Snipes starring as Black Panther in addition to Marvel 's Blade "might be overkill ''.
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of ten films being developed by the new Marvel Studios. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon, and Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige reiterated in February 2007 that Black Panther was in development. By that July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther; Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, was overseeing the development of Black Panther specifically. Snipes ' involvement stalled at this time, as he was convicted of failing to file a tax return, serving his sentence from June 2010 to April 2013. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. By October 2013, the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda, was introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe; Marvel had considered showing Wakanda itself as early as Iron Man 2 (2010), but were waiting until they had "a full idea '' of how to depict it.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast as T'Challa / Black Panther. Boseman did not audition for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel, and earned $2 million for appearing in the film. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War. Snipes gave his support for the project, despite no longer being involved. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority writers and directors for the film, but would prioritize "the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic ''. He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', and the next month Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. Further casting was underway, and Feige was set to meet with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of April.
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel (2019). In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that she had been drawn to the cultural importance of depicting a black hero to the whole world, but disagreed with Marvel on the story and did not want to compromise her vision. By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered as directors for the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct The Fate of the Furious (2017) instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed (2015).
Coogler was confirmed as director in January 2016, and said that the film was his "most personal movie to date '' in part because he grew up reading comics, adding, "I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' After being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler agreed to direct the film if he could bring collaborators from his previous films to differentiate the film from other MCU films that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. This included Fruitvale Station (2013) cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Coogler felt Black Panther would be unique while still fitting within the MCU 's overall narrative.
-- Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the beginning of 2017. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast '': Lupita Nyong'o soon entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest, and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Nate Moore, serving as a producer on the film by the end of May, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well.
At San Diego Comic - Con 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. Additional casting occurred from September 2016 until the start of filming, with Winston Duke cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II had also tested for; Forest Whitaker as Zuri; Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi; Angela Bassett as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda; Sterling K. Brown as N'Jobu; and Letitia Wright in an unspecified role. Florence Kasumba was revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Amandla Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, was considered for a role in the film but was not comfortable taking the place of a dark - skinned actor, and described her decision to pass on the role as "really challenging ''. By January 2017, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler growing up in that area.
The production team was inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the same time as they were working on the film. Of particular inspiration was Coates ' poetic dialogue, Brian Stelfreeze 's art, and "some of the questions that it 's asking ''. The film was also inspired by the comic runs of Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics based on what worked for the film 's story. The ceremonial betrothal aspect of the Dora Milaje was not adapted from the comics for the film. Coogler had hoped to include Spider - Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process because of a scene in Priest 's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven, but the rights to the character were not available. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri. Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda to explore "what it means to be African and African - American in the world a bit more '', and hoped these could be revisited in a later film, particularly a "super cool '' sequence that was storyboarded before being cut.
Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure '' that focuses on family and T'Challa learning to be king, with Civil War laying the groundwork for T'Challa's morality and establishing the geopolitical landscape that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy '', and that the latter would avoid the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) and Ant - Man (2015). He also said the film would be a cross between The Godfather (1972) and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage ''. Coogler was influenced by 1970s films such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. He also watched the film A Prophet (2009) for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas '', with Boseman indicating there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama, though Feige added that "these are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. '' Moore said the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films, but it does affect the wider MCU moving forward, with Feige stating the film was "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and its sequel (2019). Civil War did introduce the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language, which Boseman was taught by John Kani who portrays T'Challa's father King T'Chaka.
Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization ''. It was important to root film in the actual cultures of Africa, with the filmmakers consulting with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in, rooting the film "in reality first and then build (ing) out from there ''. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a full country with multiple distinct tribes, and created a project bible that detailed each Wakandan tribe to guide the design process. Special care was taken to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby 's original comic designs appeared.
Beachler wanted to honor the comic designs, but fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo - Kinshasa, and Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid. Moore described this approach as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to advance the technology naturally rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. Circular motifs, signifying the transmission of energy, were an important theme throughout the film. Older locations depicted in the film, such as Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, were juxtaposed with the more modern Afro - punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers, inspired by the look of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa.
Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a sun symbol found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language on an old Nigerian language. She consulted with mining and metallurgy experts for the vibranium technology, including for the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand - based technology. Beachler wanted futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, such as the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king 's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.
The majority of Beachler 's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri 's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a 6 feet (1.8 m) high pool, and then 30 feet (9.1 m) high cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand - sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built - in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. Six large pumps were used to fill the pool at the base of the set, and create a waterfall over the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set took four months to complete, and was used for two weeks of filming.
Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent, and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to Carter for Angela Bassett 's costumes.
The Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans that would be passed down from mother to daughter. Carter wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits '' look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take actors ' stunt work into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people and denote stature. As such, General Okoye has gold bands and rings while the other Dora Milaje wear silver.
The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda 's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri; blue with wood for the Border Tribe; black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace; plums and purples for the Merchant Tribe in reference to the Tuareg; and ochre for the Mining Tribe inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot. The Wakandans wear "normal '' clothes outside of the country, with the colors of their costumes kept consistent. Overall, Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army '' of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more.
Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current - day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the actors ' hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists '', and when necessary, extensions and wigs. As with Carter, Friend designed each tribe to have their own identifiable aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having hair styled with "very straight, clean lines '' and war - paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther after working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, first watched all of the other MCU films to understand the established "language ''. She wanted to "push '' that language and feature more contrast in color. Visual effects supervisor Geoff Baumann provided Morrison with before - and - after shots of scenes from Civil War so she could understand what elements are captured on set and what is created digitally. She filmed in 3.4 K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses, primarily using a two - camera set - up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I 'd experienced before '', and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Some sets were completely surrounded by SkyPanels.
Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on - set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced that production was underway on January 26, and confirmed the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, while revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father 's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming. Dialect coach Beth McGuire worked to ensure there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents ''. Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.
Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene that involved 150 cars and over 700 people. Coogler and Morrison referenced the car chase sequences from Bullitt (1968), Drive (2011), and The French Connection (1971), taking the best elements from each for Black Panther 's sequence. Filming in Busan began on March 17, at the Jagalchi Fish Market. Filming moved to Gwangalli Beach on March 21, with other South Korean filming locations including Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27, with additional location shooting also taking place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. John Marzano served as cinematographer for aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda, and South Korea. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
Black Panther was edited by Michael Shawver and Debbie Berman, with Shawver spending time on set during filming as well as at an editing suite near the Atlanta production base. Berman joined the film after an initial director 's cut had been produced, two weeks after she completed work on Marvel 's Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), because Coogler likes to have both a male and female editing his films. She believed that she was chosen by Marvel because she is South African, and had been expressing interest in Black Panther throughout the editing process for Homecoming after first seeing the character in Civil War. Shawver said that a lot of their time editing was spent discussing how their work was affecting the audience. For instance, Shawver felt that initial versions of the first Warrior Falls fight fell "flat '' and used techniques he learned working with Coogler on Creed to have the editing move back - and - forth to mimic the back - and - forth of the fighters. He also felt that adding more reaction shots to the crowd during the fight gave more weight to T'Challa's victory at the end. During work on the final battle, Berman pointed out to Coogler that the female Dora Milajae are rescued by the all - male Jabari tribe, which she felt undermined the focus on female characters leading up to that moment. Coogler agreed, and subsequently added female Jabar fighters to the scene through additional photography, including the first onscreen Jabari fighter in the scene. Berman felt that this was an important change that would not have been made if only men were editing the film.
As first hinted by Coogler in January 2018, the film includes two post-credit scenes: one showing T'Challa address the United Nations; and one featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes. The first scene was originally intended to be part of the actual ending of the film, but was moved to during the credits so the film could conclude in Oakland, where it begins. Coogler felt having this symmetry was important. In the scene, T'Challa says "The foolish build barriers, while the wise build bridges. '' Some felt this was a reference to the political climate of the presidency of Donald Trump, but Coogler stated that the line was added before Trump 's election and was simply an African proverb that his wife had found. His intention with the scene was to inspire the audience by making T'Challa seem like a real person in a familiar, real - world environment, similar to how Tony Stark was treated in Iron Man (2008). Coogler was not mandated by Marvel to feature connections to other films, but was interested in addressing the fact that Barnes was in Wakanda (per the end of Civil War) because it would be fun for the audience. He did not feel the character fit in the body of the film, but felt that an end - credits scene was appropriate.
Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co. Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor, while Perception also created the main title sequence for the film. Geoffrey Baumann served as visual effects supervisor.
Comparing Black Panther to other MCU films, Baumann noted that the visual effects department often have free rein when creating otherworldly science fiction designs, but had to be more specific with this film due to the need to be authentic to African culture and geography. For the Warrior Falls environment, the amphitheater - like cliff walls had to be populated with digital spectators that could not simply be copy - and - pasted around the set due to the precise costume designs created by Carter for each tribe and character. Instead, the visual effects department had to work with the costumers to individually model each digital extra for the sequence. Additionally, visual effects were also used to adjust the opening sequence after test audiences were confusing the characters of T'Chaka and T'Challa, both dressed as the Black Panther. Artists digitally added some grey to T'Chaka's beard and gold trimmings to his suit to help differentiate the characters.
ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. ILM VFX supervisor Craig Hammack compared this work to his time on Tomorrowland (2015), but noted the additional challenge of not just building a futuristic city, but also one that was culturally appropriate. He explained that African culture has a "certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city, '' which would typically use lots of steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala, but also had to "depart from a strict understanding of physics and go into a movie cheat world '' at times to produce the desired look. Hammack was also inspired by the architecture of Uganda, where he spent time while aerial footage for the film was being shot. 60,000 individual buildings were designed and modeled for the city, which Hammack said was the first thing ILM began work on and also the last thing they were doing when the film was completed. Other things that ILM worked on during the production included set extensions and blue - screen replacements for interior sets, and the first rhinoceros shown in the film. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM replaced the basic set that was used with a full CG environment including an acacia tree and animated panthers. The sky was based on the Northern Lights, with this first designed for nighttime scenes before being replicated for daytime scenes in which the animators had to work hard to keep the effects visible. ILM also added additional sand for the burial sequences so Boseman could breathe during filming, and additional flames when Killmonger burns the heart - shaped herb.
Method Studios created many of the natural environments of Wakanda. The company built a 3,600 square kilometers (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film, which was based on multiple landscapes from across Africa. Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther 's and Killmonger 's digital suits, including developing the look of the nanotechnology they use. They created many of the film 's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons, with some of those digital creatures being rhinoceroses for the final battle, a sequence that Method did the majority of the work for. Because these rhinoceroses did not have to be seen on screen with the one designed by ILM, only basic structures, scale, and details of the character models had to be shared between the two companies. Much of the work for the final fight included crowd simulation, with Method working alongside the stunt coordinators in motion capture sessions to give each fighter a unique style. In addition to randomizing the height and weight of each digital fighter, the models had to incorporate specific design elements from the costumers. Method also worked on the vibranium mine and Shuri 's laboratory, including animating the gadgets seen in the latter.
Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the cars featured in the sequence based on CAD models and on - set reference. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment these moments. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue 's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis ' left arm for the London museum heist sequence. Several companies worked on the vibranium sand effects used in Wakandan technology, including ILM for the beginning of the film. Perception referenced these sand effects when creating the main - on - end titles for the film, and also did additional work on Shuri 's laboratory and the interface designs for the displays in it.
After reading the script, composer Ludwig Göransson decided to go to Africa to do research for the film. He spent a month in Senegal, first traveling around with musician Baaba Maal on his tour, and then spending several weeks working with local musicians to form the "base '' of his score. Göransson was particularly drawn to the talking drum and the tambin, or Fula flute, to use in his character themes, along with horns. Nate Moore compared the work Göransson did in defining the sound of the film to the use of music by James Gunn in the Guardians of the Galaxy films, with the composer pushing Marvel out of their comfort zone.
Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith, after Coogler wanted to include original songs from Lamar in the film because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film ''. The soundtrack features songs that are heard in the film as well as others that are inspired by it, with the other artists featured the majority of "top - billing names '' under Top Dawg Entertainment. Göransson collaborated with Lamar and producer Sounwave on the soundtrack. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars '', "King 's Dead '', and "Pray for Me ''. Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson 's score was released on February 16. An extended play titled Black Panther: Wakanda Remixed, featuring remixes of five cues from Göransson 's score, was released on August 16, 2018. Göransson worked with several other artists to create the remixes.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film at a press event in April 2017. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and black cast, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' The screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, which Feige said they did to show off the "highest - class cast we 've had '' despite editing having not yet begun. A poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans on Twitter felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and it was compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film finding it unexpected and refreshing, io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore calling it "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '', and Andrew Husband for Uproxx feeling the single teaser outshone the entire Homecoming marketing campaign. It was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, generating 349,000 mentions (second only to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) teaser received) and "dominated the conversation on social media '' over Game 4. Per comScore and its PreAct service, the film was the subject of the most new social media conversations for the rest of the week, and the second-most for the week ending June 18, behind Homecoming.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, with Coogler, Boseman, and other members of the cast presenting exclusive footage of the film at the latter event, to a standing ovation from the audience. In September, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response. On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider praised the trailer for showing an "unmistakable sense of style '' unique to the character, while BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day felt the trailer "does everything right. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther set around the time of Iron Man. The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album and the beginning of ticket sales for the film.
By February 12, Black Panther was the most - tweeted about film of 2018 with more than 5 million tweets globally, and in mid-March it became the most - tweeted about film ever with 35 million. When the hastag # BlackPanther is used on Twitter a custom emoji appears. During New York Fashion Week, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era ''. Marvel Studios formed a partnership with Lexus on the film, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in it. The partnership produced a graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, which was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne, and Chuck Brown; a concept coupe from Lexus inspired by the character; and a Super Bowl LII commercial featuring Boseman and Wright, which had 4.3 million views on social media after its Super Bowl airing, according to RelishMix. Other marketing partners included shoe manufacturer Clarks creating a film - inspired variant of their Originals ' Trigenic Evo shoe; PepsiCo and Unilever launching an arts program for young people in urban areas to be mentored by established artists; Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All - Star Game; Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Nyong'o and Wright used at the film 's premiere; and Synchrony Financial with Marvel awarded the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler speaking to the school 's students.
Overall, Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated that budget to be $140 million. Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films, said the campaign was about "super-serving '' black audiences while still trying to appeal to all, in order to make the film "feel like a cultural event ''. Disney and Marvel created a "synergy program '' with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC television series Black - ish, Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown - ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing outside the United States was "fairly uniform '', though in the Middle East the focus was kept on Black Panther in - costume as superhero films "just keep working '' there according to Gianluca Chakra of Middle East distributor Front Row. This was the same for Asian territories. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven Chinese cities, along with displays showing Black Panther with other MCU characters. A special trailer created for China had Boseman explain the character 's connection to other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement.
Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, while Coogler, cast members, and other guests wore African clothing at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire '', honoring the African setting of the film. Ahead of the premiere screening, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, in South Korea on February 14, and the United States on February 16. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D - Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270 - degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most markets in its first weekend of release including a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. Black Panther was originally scheduled for release on November 3, 2017, before moving to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017). It was then moved to the final February date to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018).
Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018, marking the first public film screening since movie theaters were banned in the kingdom in the early 1980s after ultraconservative religious standards were introduced in 1979. The ban was lifted in December 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The film premiered in a newly constructed 620 leather seat cinema, owned by AMC Theatres, in Riyadh 's King Abdullah Financial District that was originally intended to be a symphony hall. Disney 's regional distributor Italia Film revealed that 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia 's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance. Men and women sat together at the screening, after the Saudi government relaxed enforcement of laws banning co-mingling between unrelated men and women. Black Panther screened there for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26.
Black Panther was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on May 15. The digital and Blu - ray releases included several bonus features: behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, an exclusive look at Ant - Man and the Wasp, and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU.
Black Panther grossed $700.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $646.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.347 billion. During its theatrical run, it became the highest - grossing solo superhero film, the third - highest - grossing film of the MCU and superhero film overall, the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time, and the highest grossing film by a black director. It is the fifth MCU film and 33rd overall to surpass $1 billion, and the second - highest - grossing film of 2018. In March 2018 Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film would be $461 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
The film had the fourth - highest pre-sale tickets sold on Fandango, and became the top pre-seller for a superhero film and for a film released in February as well as the first quarter of a year. The first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales on the site were the largest for a Marvel film. Black Panther also had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, while out - selling all previous Marvel films at AMC Theatres, and having strong pre-sales at Atom Tickets. Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film, which did not appear to have peaked 10 days before opening as with most films; Black Panther, he said, "feels like it 's going to peak the day it opens ''. Fandango 's pre-sales ultimately accounted for 30 % of the film 's United States and Canada opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango 's history.
Early projections for Black Panther 's opening weekend ranged from $80 -- 170 million, with rival film studios projecting the total to be as high as $180 -- 200 million; Disney projected the gross to be around $150 million. It ultimately earned $75.8 million on its opening day (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and $242.1 million over the four - day Presidents ' Day weekend. This was the best Presidents ' Day weekend opening, and the best opening weekend for a black director and predominantly black cast. For AMC Theatres, Black Panther became the highest - grossing film ever at 33 locations, and had the biggest opening weekend for 150 of them. Overall, this was the second - largest opening weekend ever for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood described the success as "summer box office records during the second month of the year ''.
The week after its opening weekend was also strong, with a record - setting Tuesday and Thursday earnings, becoming the MCU film with the highest first - week gross. It also surpassed $300 million in eight days, becoming the fastest MCU film to do so. In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week, the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film. It was the second - best second weekend ever, and the best second weekend for a Marvel film beating The Avengers ($103 million). Black Panther also became the highest - grossing film released in February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ (2004) ($370.3 million).
Black Panther was the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar (2009), and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since Wayne 's World in 1992. The film declined over subsequent weekends, but remained in the top ten through its tenth. In its eleventh weekend, the film rose back up at the box office, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend, and the following weekend it earned $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War. Black Panther was in the top ten again in its thirteenth weekend.
In its 25th weekend, Disney increased the film 's theater count from 10 to 25 to help the film become the third ever to surpass $700 million. Brian Gallagher of IGN felt the film surpassing $700 million was more impressive than Infinity War 's $2.045 billion worldwide gross at the time. Gallagher pointed to Black Panther being more consistent each week, never having more than a 50 % weekend decrease until the 15th frame while Infinity War dropped 55 % in its second weekend, its February release date without any major competition from other films, and the fact it was "a rallying cry for diversity and representation ''. Black Panther is the highest - grossing film of 2018 and became the third - highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing superhero film. Its IMAX total of $36 million is the most for any MCU film.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (though second in some where Fifty Shades Freed performed better, such as Germany and Italy). It became the top February opening in many countries, including in the African market and the Middle East, while taking the top spot across Latin America. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross, from 272 screens, which included record opening weekends in the format for Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia. In its second weekend, in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most, including across Latin America, while becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7 % increase, which resulted in the biggest three - day weekend ever there. Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000) and the IMAX release in Russia ($1.7 million) was a February record for that country.
In its third weekend, the film remained number one across many of its 56 territories, including the entire Latin America region, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million) with the fourth - highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the country. This included the biggest opening day and opening weekend ($7.3 million) of March for IMAX in China. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America region (except Argentina) for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Black Panther was the top film in South Africa for seven weeks, where it became the highest - grossing film ever. It also became the highest - grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, and the southern Africa region, and the highest - grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million). It became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film of all time in other territories.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97 % based on 419 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU 's most absorbing stories -- and introducing some of its most fully realized characters. '' As of February 18, 2018, it is the best - reviewed live - action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight (2008) and Iron Man (both 94 %). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 88 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, the second superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel 's The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by comScore 's PostTrak service gave the film a 92 % positive score and an 88 % "definite recommend '', with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that the use of Twitter hashtags for # BlackPanther and tagging of the film 's Twitter account from those leaving the theater was the highest for a film 's opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day (100,000 posts for a film is average).
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter highlighted the actors in the film, feeling that Boseman "certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players '' including Jordan, Nyong'o, and Wright. Peter Debruge at Variety said the film was one of the best standalone Marvel films so far, and that it "celebrates its hero 's heritage ''. Writing for The New York Times, Manohla Dargis called Black Panther "a jolt of a movie '', and praised it as an "emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present '' due to its focus on black imagination, creation, and liberation. At the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan praised the themes of the film and their exploration of what wealthy countries owe to the poor and oppressed, and noted that the film "draws energy from Coogler 's sense of excitement at all he 's attempting '', saying that the film was worth seeing twice which he felt was rare for a modern superhero film. Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, called the film "one of the best superhero movies of the century '' and said audiences should watch the film if they appreciate "finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz - bang action sequences and good humor ''. Brian Truitt of USA Today awarded the film four out of four stars, and called it Marvel Studios ' best origin film since Guardians of the Galaxy. Truitt also praised the "superb cast '' and stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda ''.
Also giving the film four stars, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it unlike any other Marvel film, "an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it ''. Natasha Alford of The Grio called the film a "movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one '', and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are ''. Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds called the film a masterpiece that is "afro - futuristic and Blackity - black as hell. It 's everything I 've ever desired in a live - action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more. '' Jamelle Bouie of Slate said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises. '' He added that the film should be included with Superman (1978), Spider - Man 2 (2004), and The Dark Knight as superhero films that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects ''. Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp (but) Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did. '' Although praising the film itself and calling it a "refreshing answer to the increasingly stale world of superhero cinema '', Devindra Hardawar at Engadget was critical of the CGI, notably the digital actors used, calling them "weightless, ugly and, worst of all, incredibly distracting ''. Hardawar felt two "particularly disappointing '' CGI shots were when T'Challa flips over a car during the Korea chase, and when T'Challa and Kilmonger punch each other as they fall within the vibranium mines.
-- Erlanger Turner, assistant professor of Psychology at the University of Houston -- Downtown
Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther would prove to Hollywood that African - American films can generate profits from "all audiences '', and described it as a resistance to "a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white - nativist movement... Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on black life and tradition. '' Discussing the film as a defining moment for black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its blackness ''. He felt Wakanda would become a "promised land '' for future generations of black Americans, "untroubled by the criminal horrors of our (current) American existence. '' Historian Nathan D.B. Connolly said Black Panther was "a powerful fictional analogy for real - life struggles '' that taps into a "500 - year history of African - descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy. '' Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation 's A Raisin in the Sun (1961). Writer and activist Shaun King found the film to be a cultural moment in American black history similar to Rosa Parks ' Montgomery bus boycott, Martin Luther King Jr. 's "I Have a Dream '' speech, or Barack Obama being elected president.
By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution '' allowing "white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it ''. Wilt found the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero '' for shooting down the Wakandan ships to be the film 's way of endorsing the crushing of armed revolt against oppression. Wilt also felt that Killmonger was given the "most hideous traits imaginable (making) the only major African - American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence ''. Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country agreed with Wilt 's assessment of Killmonger, whose role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism ''. Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, with the only Islamic characters being a Boko Haram - based group that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.
Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave (2012) sparked girls ' interest in archery. Broadnax felt many people of color who generally do not watch comic book films would go to Black Panther since "they 're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just have n't been able to see before '', especially since the film avoided black pain, suffering, and poverty, usual topics in films about the black experience. She added that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls. Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, called the film "critically important '' and "a gate - opener opportunity for other black - centered projects ''. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would make a huge impact on children 's spirits by offering positive role models. Tre Johnson of Rolling Stone felt that "after decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for '', with Johnson saying Black Panther felt different from the Blaxploitation films of the 1970s and the "Blaxploitation - lite '' attempts at black superhero films in the 1990s and 2000s because it was "respectable, imaginative and powerful '', setting "a new direction '' for the depiction of black superheroes. In the film 's opening weekend, 37 % of audiences in the United States were African - American, according to PostTrak, compared to 35 % Caucasian, 18 % Hispanic, and 5 % Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever, for which African - Americans generally make up 15 % of audiences. In its second weekend, demographics were 37 % Caucasian, 33 % African American, 18 % Hispanic and 7 % Asian.
In early January 2018, Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe campaign to raise money for children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem to see Black Panther. Joseph said the film was a rare opportunity for underserved children of color to see a major black comic character brought to film. Joseph promoted the campaign with Boseman on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The campaign went on to raise over $45,000, exceeding its goal. Joseph planned to donate excess money from the campaign to other programs for children in Harlem, and started the "Black Panther Challenge '' where he encouraged others to create similar campaigns for their communities. GoFundMe created a centralized page for anyone wishing to create a campaign for the challenge. Over 400 additional campaigns were started around the world, and the overall campaign became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event, raising over $400,000. Many celebrities offered their support and contributions to the campaigns, including Ellen DeGeneres, Snoop Dogg, Chelsea Clinton, J.J. Abrams, Octavia Spencer, and British actress Jade Anouka.
In June 2018, the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of African American History and Culture announced they had acquired several items from the film for their collection, including Boseman 's Black Panther costume and a shooting script for the film signed by Coogler, Feige, Moore, and Cole. The museum said that the collection provides a "fuller story of black culture and identity '' by showing the progression of black Americans in film, "an industry that (once) regulated them to flat, one - dimensional and marginalized figures. ''
Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as addressing "serious political issues concerning Africa 's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves '', with Wakandans portrayed as suspicious towards outsiders. He concluded that while the country is fictional, the politics "are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa 's politics ''. Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow! said the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger represents the collision of "what it means to be African "and "what Africa means to Afro - minorities today ''. In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy, '' concluding that Killmonger wants to use Wakanda 's resources to become a colonizer of the West while "Wakanda 's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Erik Killmonger ''. Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African - Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance ''. He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself ''. Cobb added that Black Panther is political in a way previous MCU films were not because in those "we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality (while this film is set in) in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the ' dark continent ' and set about plundering its people and its resources. ''
Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa '', which -- rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology '' -- offers "the same destructive myths ''. Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed, still essentially a European creation, as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite that despite its advanced technical abilities does not have a means of succession beyond lethal combat. The Wakandans "still cleanly fit into the Western molds (of) a dark people in a dark continent '' according to Gathara, and they "remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a ' returning ' American can basically stroll in and take over... (The film) should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its ' redemptive counter-mythology ' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries. '' Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, called the film "racist '' because it depicts black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, as still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard '' in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross ' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by understanding how Killmonger was affected by American racism and T'Chaka's "cruelty '', and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president (Donald Trump) who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about black empowerment where the only redeemed blacks are African nobles (who) safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a black American ''.
Black Panther was nominated for nine BET Awards (winning two), one Billboard Music Award, eight Golden Trailer Awards (winning four), seven MTV Movie & TV Awards (winning four), fourteen Saturn Awards (winning five), and eleven Teen Choice Awards (winning three).
In late August 2018, it was reported that Disney had hired veteran Oscar strategist Cynthia Swartz to create a nomination campaign on behalf of the film for the 91st Academy Awards, with Feige and Marvel Studios said to have given the film "a significant awards season budget, a commitment Marvel has never before made. '' The campaign was focused to highlight "the film 's creative accomplishments and the global impact it made '' in the hopes of receiving a Best Picture nomination; the campaign was not altered with the announcement of the new Best Popular Film award, which appeared to be "designed to reward blockbusters like Black Panther '' in the event they did not receive a best picture nomination. The Best Popular Film award was ultimately not implemented for the 91st Academy Awards, in order for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to "examine and seek additional input regarding '' it. Glenn Whipp of the Los Angeles Times felt the "blueprint '' for the film 's best picture campaign was to "communicate to Oscar voters that this is an auteur - driven superhero movie possessing a deep significance both to its director and to people historically underrepresented in Hollywood films. '' An additional Oscar campaign consultant felt reminding the Oscar voters Black Panther "was n't just a movie, it was a phenomenon '' would help the film earn a nomination, while another campaign consultant noted voters "want to reward good movies and they also want to reward movies that say something significant and make the industry look good. Black Panther ticks off those boxes. '' The consultants also felt if Black Panther could earn multiple nominations in the craft award categories, it would bolster its chances for a best picture nomination; Whipp believed that Morrison, Beachler, Carter, Friend and Harlow, and Lamar all had the possibility to be nominated for Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup and Hairstyling, and Best Original Song, respectively. A few weeks later, Disney revealed their For Your Consideration list, with consideration in all Awards of Merit categories, aside from Best Actress and categories it was not eligible for, such as those for animation, short films, and documentaries.
With the release of Black Panther, Feige said "there are many, many stories to tell '' about the character, and that he wanted Coogler to return for any potential sequel. Coogler added that he wanted to see how T'Challa would grow as a king in future films, since his reign only began recently in the MCU, while in the comics, he has been king since childhood. In March 2018, Feige added there was "nothing specific to reveal '' in terms of a sequel, but that there "absolutely '' were "ideas and a pretty solid direction on where we want to head with the second one ''. By October 2018, Coogler had completed a deal to write and direct a sequel to Black Panther.
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gst first time in which state in india | Goods and services tax (India) - Wikipedia
Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax levied in India on the sale of goods and services. Goods and services are divided into five tax slabs for collection of tax - 0 %, 5 %, 12 %, 18 % and 28 %. Petroleum products and Alcoholic drinks are taxed separately by the individual state governments. There is a special rate of 0.25 % on rough precious and semi-precious stones and 3 % on gold. In addition a cess of 22 % or other rates on top of 28 % GST applies on few items like aerated drinks, luxury cars and tobacco products.
The tax came into effect from July 1, 2017 through the implementation of one hundred and first amendment by the Government of India. The tax replaced existing multiple cascading taxes levied by the central and state governments. The tax rates, rules and regulations are governed by the Goods and Services Tax Council which comprises of finance ministers of centre and all the states. GST simplified a slew of indirect taxes with a unified tax and is therefore expected to dramatically reshape the country 's 2 trillion dollar economy.
The reform process of India 's indirect tax regime was started in 1986 by Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Finance Minister in Rajiv Gandhi 's government, with the introduction of the Modified Value Added Tax (MODVAT). Subsequently, Manmohan Singh, and the Finance Minister PV Narasimha Rao, initiated early discussions on a Value Added Tax at the state level. A single common "Goods and Services Tax (GST) '' was proposed and given a go - ahead in 1999 during a meeting between the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and his economic advisory panel, which included three former RBI governors IG Patel, Bimal Jalan and C Rangarajan. Vajpayee set up a committee headed by the then finance minister of West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta to design a GST model.
The Ravi Dasgupta committee was also tasked with putting in place the back - end technology and logistics (later came to be known as the GST Network, or GSTN, in 2017) for rolling out a uniform taxation regime in the country. In 2002, the Vajpayee government formed a task force under Vijay Kelkar to recommend tax reforms. In 2005, the Kelkar committee recommended rolling out GST as suggested by the 12th Finance Commission.
After the fall of the BJP - led NDA government in 2004, and the election of a Congress - led UPA government, the new Finance Minister P Chidambaram in February 2006 continued work on the same and proposed a GST rollout by 1 April 2010. However in 2010, with the Trinamool Congress routing CPI (M) out of power in West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta resigned as the head of the GST committee. Dasgupta admitted in an interview that 80 % of the task had been done.
In 2014, the NDA government was elected into power, this time under the leadership of Narendra Modi. With the consequential dissolution of the 15th Lok Sabha, the GST Bill -- approved by the standing committee for reintroduction -- lapsed. Seven months after the formation of the Modi government, the new Finance Minister Arun Jaitley introduced the GST Bill in the Lok Sabha, where the BJP had a majority. In February 2015, Jaitley set another deadline of 1 April 2017 to implement GST. In May 2016, the Lok Sabha passed the Constitution Amendment Bill, paving way for GST. However, the Opposition, led by the Congress, demanded that the GST Bill be again sent back to the Select Committee of the Rajya Sabha due to disagreements on several statements in the Bill relating to taxation. Finally in August 2016, the Amendment Bill was passed. Over the next 15 to 20 days, 18 states ratified the GST Bill and the President Pranab Mukherjee gave his assent to it.
A 22 - members select committee was formed to look into the proposed GST laws. State and Union Territory GST laws were passed by all the states and Union Territories of India except Jammu & Kashmir, paving the way for smooth rollout of the tax from 1 July 2017. the Jammu and Kashmir state legislature passed its GST act on 7 July 2017, thereby ensuring that the entire nation is brought under an unified indirect taxation system. There was to be no GST on the sale and purchase of securities. That continues to be governed by Securities Transaction Tax (STT).
The Goods and Services Tax was launched at midnight on 1 July 2017 by the former President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, and Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi. The launch was marked by a historic midnight (30 June -- 1 July) session of both the houses of parliament convened at the Central Hall of the Parliament. Though the session was attended by high - profile guests from the business and the entertainment industry including Ratan Tata, it was boycotted by the opposition due to the predicted problems that it was bound to lead to for the middle and lower class Indians. It is one of the few midnight sessions that have been held by the parliament - the others being the declaration of India 's independence on 15 August 1947, and the silver and golden jubilees of that occasion.
Members of the Congress boycotted the GST launch altogether. They were joined by members of the Trinamool Congress, Communist Parties of India and the DMK. The parties reported that they found virtually no difference between the GST and the existing taxation system, claiming that the government was trying to merely rebrand the current taxation system. They also argued that the GST would increase existing rates on common daily goods while reducing rates on luxury items, and affect many Indians adversely, especially the middle, lower middle and poorer classes.
The single GST (goods and service taxes) replaced several former taxes and levies which included: central excise duty, services tax, additional customs duty, surcharges, state - level value added tax and Octroi. Other levies which were applicable on inter-state transportation of goods have also been done away with in GST regime. GST is levied on all transactions such as sale, transfer, purchase, barter, lease, or import of goods and / or services. India adopted a dual GST model, meaning that taxation is administered by both the Union and State Governments. Transactions made within a single state are levied with Central GST (CGST) by the Central Government and State GST (SGST) by the State governments. For inter-state transactions and imported goods or services, an Integrated GST (IGST) is levied by the Central Government. GST is a consumption - based tax / destination - based tax, therefore, taxes are paid to the state where the goods or services are consumed not the state in which they were produced. IGST complicates tax collection for State Governments by disabling them from collecting the tax owed to them directly from the Central Government. Under the previous system, a state would only have to deal with a single government in order to collect tax revenue.
HSN (Harmonized System of Nomenclature) is an 8 - digit code for identifying the applicable rate of GST on different products as per CGST rules. If a company has turnover up to RS. 1.5 Crore in the preceding financial year then they need not mention the HSN code while supplying goods on invoices. If a company has turnover more than 1.5 Cr but up to 5 Cr then they need to mention the 2 digit HSN code while supplying goods on invoices. If turnover crosses 5 Cr then they shall mention the 4 digit HSN code on invoices.
The GST is imposed at variable rates on variable items. The rate of GST is 2.5 % for soaps and 28 % on washing detergents. GST on movie tickets is based on slabs, with 18 % GST for tickets that cost less than Rs. 100 and 28 % GST on tickets costing more than Rs. 100 and 5 % on readymade clothes. The rate on under - construction property booking is 12 %. Some industries and products were exempted by the government and remain untaxed under GST, such as dairy products, products of milling industries, fresh vegetables & fruits, meat products, and other groceries and necessities.
Checkposts across the country were abolished ensuring free and fast movement of goods.
The Central Government had proposed to insulate the revenues of the States from the impact of GST, with the expectation that in due course, GST will be levied on petroleum and petroleum products. The central government had assured states of compensation for any revenue loss incurred by them from the date of GST for a period of five years. However, no concrete laws have yet been made to support such action. GST council adopted concept paper discouraging tinkering with rates.
As per the government website on GST, "Goods and Services Tax '' Network (GSTN) is a nonprofit organisation proposed to be formed for creating a website / platform for all the concerned parties related to the GST, namely stakeholders, government and taxpayers to collaborate on a single portal. When up and running, the portal is supposed to be accessible to the central government which allows it to track down every transaction on its end while taxpayers are advertised to have the ability of connecting this to their tax returns. However its efficacy and efficiency is yet to be tested. The known authorised capital of GSTN is ₹ 10 crore (US $1.6 million) in which Central Government holds 24.5 percent of shares while the state government holds 24.5 percent and rest with private banking firms for smooth running of the transactions.
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who was president when the afghanistan war started | United States invasion of Afghanistan - wikipedia
United States - led victory / ongoing
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Al - Qaeda
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan East Turkistan Islamic Party
Airstrikes
Major insurgent attacks
2002 -- 2007
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The United States invasion of Afghanistan occurred after the September 11 attacks in late 2001, supported by close allies. The conflict is also known as the U.S. war in Afghanistan. Its public aims were to dismantle al - Qaeda, and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power. The United Kingdom was a key ally of the United States, offering support for military action from the start of preparations for the invasion. It followed the Afghan Civil War 's 1996 -- 2001 phase between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance groups, although the Taliban controlled 90 % of the country by 2001.
U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al - Qaeda; bin Laden had already been wanted by the FBI since 1998. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing evidence of his involvement in the 9 / 11 attacks and ignored demands to shut down terrorist bases and hand over other terrorist suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a meaningless delaying tactic and it launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001 with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance troops on the ground. The U.S. and its allies rapidly drove the Taliban from power by 17 December 2001, and built military bases near major cities across the country. Most al - Qaeda and Taliban members were not captured, escaping to neighboring Pakistan or retreating to rural or remote mountainous regions during the Battle of Tora Bora.
In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to oversee military operations in the country and train Afghan National Security Forces. At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga (grand assembly) in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. In August 2003, NATO became involved as an alliance, taking the helm of ISAF. One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2002, it launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF that continues to this day.
Afghanistan 's political order began to break down with the overthrow of King Zahir Shah by his cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan in a bloodless 1973 coup. Daoud Khan had served as prime minister since 1953 and promoted economic modernization, emancipation of women, and Pashtun nationalism. This was threatening to neighboring Pakistan, faced with its own restive Pashtun population. In the mid-1970s, Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto began to encourage Afghan Islamic leaders such as Burhanuddin Rabbani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, to fight against the regime. In 1978, Daoud Khan was killed in a coup by Afghan 's Communist Party, his former partner in government, known as the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). PDPA pushed for a socialist transformation by abolishing arranged marriages, promoting mass literacy and reforming land ownership. This undermined the traditional tribal order and provoked opposition from Islamic leaders across rural areas, but it was particularly the PDPA 's crackdown that contributed to open rebellion, including Ismail Khan 's Herat Uprising. The PDPA was beset by internal leadership differences and was weakened by an internal coup on 11 September 1979 when Hafizullah Amin ousted Nur Muhammad Taraki. The Soviet Union, sensing PDPA weakness, intervened militarily three months later, to depose Amin and install another PDPA faction led by Babrak Karmal.
The entry of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan in December 1979 prompted its Cold War rivals, the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and China to support rebels fighting against the Soviet - backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In contrast to the secular and socialist government, which controlled the cities, religiously motivated mujahideen held sway in much of the countryside. Beside Rabbani, Hekmatyar, and Khan, other mujahideen commanders included Jalaluddin Haqqani. The CIA worked closely with Pakistan 's Inter-Service Intelligence to funnel foreign support for the mujahideen. The war also attracted Arab volunteers, known as "Afghan Arabs '', including Osama bin Laden.
After the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Afghanistan in May 1989, the PDPA regime under Najibullah held on until 1992, when the collapse of the Soviet Union deprived the regime of aid, and the defection of Uzbek general Abdul Rashid Dostum cleared the approach to Kabul. With the political stage cleared of Afghan socialists, the remaining Islamic warlords vied for power. By then, Bin Laden had left the country. The United States ' interest in Afghanistan also diminished.
In 1992, Rabbani officially became president of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, but had to battle other warlords for control of Kabul. In late 1994, Rabbani 's defense minister, Ahmad Shah Massoud defeated Hekmatyr in Kabul and ended ongoing bombardment of the capital. Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation. Other warlords, including Ismail Khan in the west and Dostum in the north maintained their fiefdoms.
In 1994, Mullah Omar, a Pashtun, a mujahideen who taught at a Pakistani madrassa, returned to Kandahar and founded the Taliban. His followers were religious students, known as the Talib and they sought to end warlordism through strict adherence to Islamic law. By November 1994, the Taliban had captured all of Kandahar Province. They declined the government 's offer to join in a coalition government and marched on Kabul in 1995.
The Taliban 's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of costly defeats. Pakistan provided strong support to the Taliban. Analysts such as Amin Saikal described the group as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan 's regional interests, which the Taliban denied. The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995, but were driven back by Massoud.
On 27 September 1996, the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, seized Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They imposed their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or to leave their homes unless accompanied by a male relative. According to the Pakistani expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan '' on the side of the Taliban.
Massoud and Dostum, former arch - enemies, created a United Front against the Taliban, commonly known as the Northern Alliance. In addition to Massoud 's Tajik force and Dostum 's Uzbeks, the United Front included Hazara factions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq and Haji Abdul Qadir. Abdul Haq also gathered a limited number of defecting Pashtun Taliban. Both agreed to work together with the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah. International officials who met with representatives of the new alliance, which the journalist Steve Coll referred to as the "grand Pashtun - Tajik alliance '', said, "It 's crazy that you have this today... Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazara... They were all ready to buy in to the process... to work under the king 's banner for an ethnically balanced Afghanistan. '' The Northern Alliance received varying degrees of support from Russia, Iran, Tajikistan and India.
The Taliban captured Mazar - i - Sharif in 1998 and drove Dostum into exile.
The conflict was brutal. According to the United Nations (UN), the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres '' between 1996 and 2001. The Taliban especially targeted the Shiite Hazaras. In retaliation for the execution of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by Uzbek general Abdul Malik Pahlawan in 1997, the Taliban executed about 4,000 civilians after taking Mazar - i - Sharif in 1998.
Bin Laden 's so - called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass - killings of Afghan civilians. The report by the United Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing "Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people ''.
By 2001, the Taliban controlled as much as 90 % of the country, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country 's northeast corner. Fighting alongside Taliban forces were some 28,000 -- 30,000 Pakistanis and 2,000 -- 3,000 Al Qaeda militants. Many of the Pakistanis were recruited from madrassas. A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirmed that "20 -- 40 percent of (regular) Taliban soldiers are Pakistani. '' The document said that many of the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child 's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan ''. According to the U.S. State Department report and reports by Human Rights Watch, other Pakistani nationals fighting in Afghanistan were regular soldiers, especially from the Frontier Corps, but also from the army providing direct combat support. The 055 Brigade had at least 500 men during the time of the invasion, at least 1,000 more Arabs were believed to have arrived in Afghanistan following the September 11 Attacks, crossing over from Pakistan and Iran, many were based at Jalalabad, Khost, Kandahar and Mazar - i Sharif. There were rumours in the weeks before the September 11 attacks that Juma Namangani, had been appointed as one of the top commanders in the 055 brigade.
In August 1996, Bin Laden was forced to leave Sudan and arrived in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. He had founded Al - Qaeda in the late 1980s to support the mujahideen 's war against the Soviets, but became disillusioned by infighting among warlords. He grew close to Mullah Omar and moved Al Qaeda 's operations to eastern Afghanistan.
The 9 / 11 Commission in the U.S. reported found that under the Taliban, al - Qaeda was able to use Afghanistan as a place to train and indoctrinate fighters, import weapons, coordinate with other jihadists, and plot terrorist actions. While al - Qaeda maintained its own camps in Afghanistan, it also supported training camps of other organizations. An estimated 10,000 and 20,000 men passed through these facilities before 9 / 11, most of whom were sent to fight for the Taliban against the United Front. A smaller number were inducted into al - Qaeda.
After the August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings were linked to bin Laden, President Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes on militant training camps in Afghanistan. U.S. officials pressed the Taliban to surrender bin Laden. In 1999, the United Nations Security Council imposed sanctions on the Taliban, calling for bin Laden to be surrendered. The Taliban repeatedly rebuffed these demands, though there were reports about attempts to negotiate the delivery of Bin Laden by the Taliban.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Special Activities Division paramilitary teams were active in Afghanistan in the 1990s in clandestine operations to locate and kill or capture Osama bin Laden. These teams planned several operations, but did not receive the order to proceed from President Clinton. Their efforts built relationships with Afghan leaders that proved essential in the 2001 invasion.
During the Clinton administration, the U.S. tended to favor Pakistan and until 1998 -- 1999 had no clear policy toward Afghanistan. In 1997, for example, the U.S. State Department 's Robin Raphel told Massoud to surrender to the Taliban. Massoud responded that, as long as he controlled an area the size of his hat, he would continue to defend it from the Taliban. Around the same time, top foreign policy officials in the Clinton administration flew to northern Afghanistan to try to persuade the United Front not to take advantage of a chance to make crucial gains against the Taliban. They insisted it was the time for a cease - fire and an arms embargo. At the time, Pakistan began a "Berlin - like airlift to resupply and re-equip the Taliban '', financed with Saudi money.
U.S. policy toward Afghanistan changed after the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. Subsequently, Osama bin Laden was indicted for his involvement in the embassy bombings. In 1999 both the U.S. and the United Nations enacted sanctions against the Taliban via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, which demanded the Taliban surrender Osama bin Laden for trial in the U.S. and close all terrorist bases in Afghanistan. The only collaboration between Massoud and the US at the time was an effort with the CIA to trace bin Laden following the 1998 bombings. The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.
By 2001 the change of policy sought by CIA officers who knew Massoud was underway. CIA lawyers, working with officers in the Near East Division and Counter-terrorist Center, began to draft a formal finding for President George W. Bush 's signature, authorizing a covert action program in Afghanistan. It would be the first in a decade to seek to influence the course of the Afghan war in favor of Massoud. Richard A. Clarke, chair of the Counter-Terrorism Security Group under the Clinton administration, and later an official in the Bush administration, allegedly presented a plan to incoming Bush National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice in January 2001.
A change in US policy was effected in August 2001. The Bush administration agreed on a plan to start supporting Massoud. A meeting of top national security officials agreed that the Taliban would be presented with an ultimatum to hand over bin Laden and other al - Qaeda operatives. If the Taliban refused, the US would provide covert military aid to anti-Taliban groups. If both those options failed, "the deputies agreed that the United States would seek to overthrow the Taliban regime through more direct action. ''
Ahmad Shah Massoud was the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control, Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women 's Rights Declaration. As a consequence, many civilians had fled to areas under his control. In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban.
In late 2000, Massoud officially brought together this new alliance in a meeting in Northern Afghanistan to discuss "a Loya Jirga, or a traditional council of elders, to settle political turmoil in Afghanistan ''. That part of the Pashtun - Tajik - Hazara - Uzbek peace plan did eventually develop. Among those in attendance was Hamid Karzai.
In early 2001, Massoud, with other ethnic leaders, addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan. He said that the Taliban and al - Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam '' and that without the support of Pakistan and Osama bin Laden, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for another year. On this visit to Europe, he warned that his intelligence had gathered information about an imminent, large - scale attack on U.S. soil.
On 9 September 2001, Massoud was critically wounded in a suicide attack by two Arabs posing as journalists, who detonated a bomb hidden in their video camera during an interview in Khoja Bahauddin, in the Takhar Province of Afghanistan. Massoud died in the helicopter taking him to a hospital. The funeral, held in a rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning Afghans.
On the morning of 11 September 2001, al - Qaeda carried out four coordinated attacks on the United States. Four commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked. The hijackers -- members of al - Qaeda 's Hamburg cell -- intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from fire damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the White House or the United States Capitol. No flights had survivors. In total, 2,996 people, including the 19 hijackers, died and more than 6,000 others injured in the attacks. According to the New York State Health Department, 836 first responders, including firefighters and police personnel, had died as of June 2009.
On 11 September, Taliban foreign minister Wakil Ahmed Muttawakil "denounce (d) the terrorist attack, whoever is behind it '' but Mullah Omar immediately issued a statement saying bin Laden was not responsible. The following day, President Bush called the attacks more than just "acts of terror '' but "acts of war '' and resolved to pursue and conquer an "enemy '' that would no longer be safe in "its harbors ''. The Taliban ambassador to Pakistan, Abdul Salam Zaeef said on 13 September 2001, that the Taliban would consider extraditing bin Laden if there was solid evidence linking him to the attacks. Though Osama bin Laden eventually took responsibility for the 9 / 11 attacks in 2004, he denied having any involvement in a statement issued on 17 September 2001, and by interview on 29 September 2001.
The State Department, in a memo dated 14 September, demanded that the Taliban surrender all known al - Qaeda associates in Afghanistan, provide intelligence on bin Laden and his affiliates and expel all terrorists from Afghanistan. On 18 September, the director of Pakistan 's Inter-Services Intelligence, Mahmud Ahmed conveyed these demands to Mullah Omar and the senior Taliban leadership, whose response was "not negative on all points ''. Mahmud reported that the Taliban leadership was in "deep introspection '' and waiting for the recommendation of a grand council of religious clerics that was assembling to decide the matter. On 20 September, President Bush, in an address to Congress, demanded the Taliban deliver bin Laden and other suspected terrorists and destroy the al - Qaeda bases. "These demands are not open to negotiation or discussion. The Taliban must act and act immediately. They will hand over the terrorists, or they will share in their fate. ''
On the same day, a grand council of over 1,000 Muslim clerics from across Afghanistan that had convened to decide bin Laden 's fate, issued a fatwa, expressing sadness for the deaths in the 9 / 11 attacks, recommending that the Islamic Emirate "persuade '' bin Laden to leave their country, and calling on the United Nations and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation to conduct an independent investigation of "recent events to clarify the reality and prevent harassment of innocent people ''. The fatwa went on to warn that should the United States not agree with its decision and invade Afghanistan, "jihad becomes an order for all Muslims. '' However, that very same day the Taliban ambassador to Pakistan said: "We will neither surrender Osama bin Laden nor ask him to leave Afghanistan. '' These maneuvers were dismissed by the U.S. as insufficient.
On 21 September, Taliban representatives in Pakistan reacted to the U.S. demands with defiance. Zaeef said the Taliban were ready, if necessary, for war with the United States. His deputy Suhail Shaheen, warned that a U.S. invasion would share in the same fate that befell Great Britain and the Soviet Union in previous centuries. He confirmed that the clerics ' decision "was only a recommendation '' and bin Laden would not be asked to leave Afghanistan. But he suggested "If the Americans provide evidence, we will cooperate with them... In America, if I think you are a terrorist, is it properly justified that you should be punished without evidence? '' he asked. "This is an international principle. If you use the principle, why do you not apply it to Afghanistan? '' As formulated earlier by Mullah Omar, the demand for evidence was attached to a suggestion that bin Laden be handed over for trial before an Islamic court in another Muslim country. He did not address the demands to hand over other suspected terrorists or shut down training camps.
On 28 September Bush commented "First, there is no negotiations with the Taliban. They heard what I said. And now they can act. And it 's not just Mr. bin Laden that we expect to see and brought to justice; it 's everybody associated with his organization that 's in Afghanistan. And not only those directly associated with Mr. bin Laden, any terrorist that is housed and fed in Afghanistan needs to be handed over. And finally, we expect there to be complete destruction of terrorist camps. That 's what I told them; that 's what I mean. And we expect them -- we expect them to not only hear what I say but to do something about it. ''
On 24 September, Mahmoud told the U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan that while the Taliban was "weak and ill - prepared to face the American onslaught '', "real victory will come through negotiations '' for if the Taliban were eliminated, Afghanistan would revert to warlordism. On 28 September, he led a delegation of eight Pakistani religious leaders to persuade Mullah Omar to accept having religious leaders from Islamic countries examine the evidence and decide bin Laden 's fate but Mullah Omar refused.
On 1 October, Mullah Omar agreed to a proposal by Qazi Hussain Ahmad, the head of Pakistan 's most important Islamic party, the Jamaat - i - Islami, to have bin Laden taken to Pakistan where he would be held under house arrest in Peshawar by that party and tried by an international tribunal within the framework of sharia law. The proposal was said to have bin Laden 's approval. Pakistan 's president Pervez Musharraf blocked the plan because he could not guarantee bin Laden 's safety. On 2 October, Zaeef appealed to the United States to negotiate, "We do not want to compound the problems of the people, the country or the region. '' He pleaded, "the Afghan people need food, need aid, need shelter, not war. '' However he reiterated that bin Laden would not be turned over to anyone unless evidence was presented.
A U.S. State Department spokesman in response to a question about sharing evidence with the Taliban stated "My response, first of all, is that strikes me as a request for delay and prevarication rather than any serious request. And second of all, they 're already overdue. They are already required by the United Nations resolutions that relate to the bombings in East Africa to turn over al - Qaida, to turn over their leadership, and to shut down the network of operations in their country. There should be no further delay. There is no cause to ask for anything else. They are already under this international obligation, and they have to meet it. '' The British Prime Minister Tony Blair called on the Taliban to "surrender the terrorists or surrender power ''.
Nonetheless, some evidence of bin Laden 's involvement in the 9 / 11 attacks was shown to Pakistan 's government whose leaders later stated that the materials they had seen "provide (d) sufficient basis for indictment in a court of law ''. Pakistan ISI chief Lieutenant General Mahmud Ahmed shared information provided to him by the U.S. with Taliban leaders. On 4 October the British government publicly released a document summarizing the evidence linking bin Laden to the attacks. The document stated that the Taliban had been repeatedly warned in the past about harboring bin Laden but refused to turn him over as demanded by the international community. Evidence had been supplied to the Taliban about bin Laden 's involvement in the 1998 Embassy bombings, yet they did nothing.
On 5 October, the Taliban offered to try bin Laden in an Afghan court, so long as the U.S. provided what it called "solid evidence '' of his guilt. The U.S. Government dismissed the request for proof as "request for delay or prevarication ''; NATO commander George Robertson said the evidence was "clear and compelling ''. On 7 October, as the U.S. aerial bombing campaign began, President Bush ignored questions about the Taliban 's offer and said instead, "Full warning had been given, and time is running out. '' The same day, the State Department gave the Pakistani Government one last message to the Taliban: Hand over all al - Qaeda leaders or "every pillar of the Taliban regime will be destroyed. ''
On 11 October Bush told the Taliban "You still have a second chance. Just bring him in, and bring his leaders and lieutenants and other thugs and criminals with him. '' On 14 October, Abdul Kabir, the Taliban 's third ranking leader, offered to hand over bin Laden to a neutral third country if the U.S. government provided evidence of his guilt and halted the bombing campaign. He apparently did not respond to the demand to hand over other suspected terrorists apart from bin Laden. President Bush rejected the offer as non-negotiable. On 16 October, Muttawakil, the Taliban foreign minister floated a compromise offer that dropped the demand for evidence. However, Muttawakil was not part of the Taliban 's inner circle, he wanted the bombing to stop so that he could try to persuade Mullah Omar to adopt a compromise.
On 14 September 2001, Congress passed legislation titled Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, which was signed on 18 September 2001 by President Bush. It authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces against those responsible for the 9 / 11 attacks and those who harbored them.
Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter, to which all Coalition countries are signatories and for which its ratification by the U.S. makes it the "law of the land '', prohibits the ' threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state ' except in circumstances where a competent organ of the UN (e.g. the Security Council) has authorized it, or where it is in self - defence under article 51 of the Charter. Although the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) did not authorize the U.S. - led military campaign, it was widely (although not universally) perceived to be a legitimate form of self - defence under the UN Charter.
Defenders of the invasion argued that UNSC authorization was not required, since the invasion was an act of collective self - defense provided for under Article 51 of the UN Charter. Specifically, it is argued that a series of UN Security Council Resolutions concerning Afghanistan provided for the possibility of establishing that the Taliban were indirectly responsibility for al - Qaeda 's attacks and although the initial invasion of Afghanistan was not mandated by a specific UN Security Council Resolution, the Security Council moved quickly to authorize a military operation to stabilize the country. Critics claimed that the invasion was illegitimate under Article 51 because the 9 / 11 attacks were not "armed attacks '' by another state, but were perpetrated by non-state actors. They alleged that the attackers had no proven connection to Afghanistan or the Taliban. Critics claimed that even if a state had made the 9 / 11 attacks, no bombing campaign would constitute self - defense. They interpreted self - defense to cover actions that were "instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation. ''
On 20 December 2001, more than two months after the attack began, the UNSC authorized the creation of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to assist the Afghan Interim Authority in maintaining security. Command of ISAF passed to NATO on 11 August 2003, following the US invasion of Iraq in March of that year.
Under the overall leadership of General Tommy Franks, Commander - in - Chief, U.S. Central Command, four major task forces were raised to support Operation Enduring Freedom: the Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF), Combined Joint Task Force Mountain (CJTF - Mountain), the Joint Interagency Task Force - Counterterrorism (JIATF - CT), and the Coalition Joint Civil - Military Operations Task Force (CJCMOTF).
CJSOTF was a mixture of black and white SOF and comprised three subordinate task forces: Joint Special Operations Task Force - North (JSOTF - North - known as Task Force Dagger), Joint Special Operations Task Force - South (JSOTF - South - known as Task Force K - Bar) and Task Force Sword (later renamed Task Force 11). Task Force Dagger was established on October 10, 2001, led by Colonel James Mulholland and was formed around his 5th Special Forces Group with helicopter support from the 160th SOAR, Dagger was assigned to the north of Afghanistan. Task Force K - Bar, also established on October 10, was assigned to Southern Afghanistan, led by Navy SEAL Captain Robert Harward and formed around a Naval Special Warfare Group consisting of SEAL Teams 2, 3 and 8 and Green Berets from 1st Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group. The Task force principally conducted SR and SSE missions, although some 3rd SFG ODAs were given to the foreign internal defence and unconventional warfare role - advising anti-Taliban militias. Task Force Sword, established in early October 2001, was a black SOF unit under direct command of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). This was a so - called hunter - killer force whose primary objective was to capturing or killing senior leadership and High - value target (HVT) within both al - Qaeda and the Taliban. Sword was initially structure around a two - squadron component of operators from Delta Force (Task Force Green) and DEVGRU (Task Force Blue) supported by a Ranger protection force teams (Task Force Red) and ISA signals intercept and surveillance operators (Task Force Orange) and the 160th SOAR (Task Force Brown). The British Special Boat Service was integrated directly into Swords structure.
Alongside the SOF task forces operated the largely conventional CJTF - Mountain. Mountain initially comprised three subordinate commands, but only one was a special operations force - Task Force 64, a special forces task group built around a sabre squadron from the Australian SAS. The U.S. Marines contributed Task Force 58, consisting of the 15th MEU, who were later replaced by Task Force Rakkasan. The JIATF - CT (better known as Task Force Bowie), led by Brigadier General Gary Harrell, was an intelligence integration and fusion activity manned by personnel from all Operation Enduring Freedom -- Afghanistan (OEF - A) participating units, both US, coalition and a number of civilian intelligence and law enforcement agencies. Bowie numbered 36 military personnel and 57 from agencies such as FBI, NSA, and CIA, as well as liaison officers from coalition SOF. Administratively embedded within Bowie was Advanced Force Operations (AFO). AFO was a 45 - man reconnaissance unit made up of Delta Force reconnaissance specialists augmented by selected SEALs from DEVGRU and supported by ISA 's technical experts. AFO had been raised to support TF Sword and was tasked with intelligence preparation of the battlefield, working closely with the CIA and reported directly to TF Sword. AFO conducted covert reconnaissance - sending small 2 or 3 man teams into al - Qaeda ' Backyard ' along the border with Pakistan, the AFO operators would deploy observation posts to watch and report enemy movements and numbers as well as environmental reconnaissance; much of the work was done on foot or ATVs. The final task force supporting OEF - A was CJCMOTF, which had the responsibility of managing civil affairs and humanitarian efforts.
On September 26, 2001, fifteen days after the 9 / 11 attack, the U.S. covertly inserted (by a CIA - piloted Mi - 17 helicopter) seven or eight members of the CIA 's Special Activities Division and Counter Terrorism Center (CTC), led by Gary Schroen, into the Panjshir Valley, north of Kabul. They formed the Northern Afghanistan Liaison Team, known by the callsign ' Jawbreaker ', a team composed of former special operations, communication and linguistic experts. They brought three cardboard boxes filled with $3 million in $100 bills to buy support. Jawbreaker linked up with General Abdul Rashid Dostum, head of the Northern Alliance, and prepared the way for the introduction of Army Special Forces into the region. The Jawbreaker team brought satellite communications enabling its intelligence reports to be instantly available to headquarters staff at Langley and Central Command (CENTCOM) - who were responsible for Operation Crescent Wind and Operation Enduring Freedom. The Team also assessed potential targets for Operation Crescent Wind, provide an in - extremis CSAR and could provide BDA for the air campaign.
On 7 October 2001, the U.S. officially launched military operations in Afghanistan. Airstrikes were reported in Kabul, at the airport, at Kandahar (home of Mullah Omar), and in the city of Jalalabad. The day before the bombing commenced, Human Rights Watch issued a report in which they urged that no military support be given to the Northern Alliance due to their human rights record.
At 17: 00 UTC, President Bush confirmed the strikes in his address to the nation and Prime Minister Blair also addressed his nation. Bush stated that Taliban military sites and terrorist training grounds would be targeted. Food, medicine and supplies would be dropped to "the starving and suffering men, women and children of Afghanistan ''. Most of the Taliban 's outdated SA - 2 and SA - 3 surface to air missiles, as well as its intended radar and command units were destroyed on the first night along with the Taliban 's small fleet of MIG - 21 and Su - 22.
Training camps and Taliban air defenses were bombarded by U.S. aircraft, including Apache helicopter gunships from the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade. U.S. Navy cruisers, destroyers and Royal Navy submarines launched several Tomahawk cruise missiles.
The strikes initially focused on Kabul, Jalalabad and Kandahar. Within a few days, most Taliban training sites were severely damaged and air defenses were destroyed. The campaign focused on command, control, and communications targets. The front facing the Northern Alliance held, and no battlefield successes were achieved there.
During these initial airstrikes a garrison of the 055 brigade near Mazar - i - Sharif was one of the first targets for US aircraft. Donald Rumsfeld described the troops as "the al - Qaida - dominated ground force ''.
Earlier Bin Laden had released a video in which he condemned all attacks in Afghanistan.
On October 18, 2001, Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) teams 555 and 595, both 12 - man Green Beret teams from the 5th Special Forces Group, plus Air Force Combat Controllers, were airlifted by helicopter from the Karshi - Khanabad Air Base in Uzbekistan more than 300 kilometers (190 mi) across the 16,000 feet (4,900 m) Hindu Kush mountains in zero - visibility conditions by two MH - 47E Chinook helicopters from 2nd Battalion 160th SOAR to the Dari - a-Souf Valley, just south of Mazar - e-Sharif. The Chinooks were refueled in - flight three times during the 11 - hour mission, establishing a new world record for combat rotorcraft missions at the time. They linked up with the CIA and Northern Alliance. Within a few weeks the Northern Alliance, with assistance from the U.S. ground and air forces, captured several key cities from the Taliban.
In mid-October 2001, A and G squadron of the British 22nd SAS Regiment, reinforced by members of the Territorial SAS regiments, deployed to north west Afghanistan in support of OEF - A. They conducted largely uneventful reconnaissance tasks under the codename Operation Determine, none of these tasks resulted in enemy contact; they travelled in Land Rover Desert Patrol Vehicles (known as Pinkies) and modified ATVs. After a fortnight and with missions drying up both squadrons returned to their barracks in the UK.
On the night of October 19, 2001, 200 Rangers from the 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment, parachuted from 4 Lockheed MC - 130 aircraft onto "Objective Rhino '', a landing strip south of Kandahar, covered by AC - 130 gunships. Before the Rangers dropped, the site was softened up by B - 2 Spirit stealth bombers. The Rangers met almost no resistance, except for a solitary Taliban fighter who was quickly killed, securing the objective. A small Taliban force mounted in pick up trucks that attempted to investigate was spotted and destroyed by the AC - 130s. The Rangers provided security while a FARP (Forward Arming and Refuelling Point) was established using fuel bladders from MC - 130s; the mission paved the way for the later use of the airstrip by the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit as FOB Rhino, who would be among the first conventional forces to set foot in Afghanistan. No casualties were suffered in the operation itself (two Rangers received minor injuries in the jump itself), though two Rangers assigned to a CSAR element supporting the mission were killed when their MH - 60L helicopter crashed at Objective Honda in Pakistan, a temporary staging site used by a company of Rangers from 3 / 75. The Helicopter crashed due to a brownout.
At the same time, a squadron of Delta Force operatives supported by Rangers from Task Force Sword conducted an operation outside of Kandahar at a location known as Objective Gecko - its target was Mullah Omar, who was suspected to be at his summer retreat in the hills above Kandahar. Four MH - 47E helicopters took off from the USS Kitty Hawk (which was serving as an SOF base) in the Indian Ocean carrying 91 soldiers. The assault teams were drawn from Delta while teams from the Rangers secured the perimeter and manned blocking positions. Before the soldiers were inserted, the target area was softened up by preparatory fire from AC - 130s and MH - 60L Direct Action Penetrators. The assaulters met no resistance on target and there was no sign of the Taliban leader, so they switched to exploiting the target location for any intelligence, while their helicopters landed at Rhino to refuel at the newly established FARP. As the teams prepared to extract, a sizable Taliban force approached the compound and engaged the US force with small arms fire and RPG 's. The Delta Force operators and Rangers engaged the insurgents and a heavy firefight developed. An attached Combat Controller directed fire from the orbiting AC - 130s and DAPs, allowing the assault force to break contact and withdraw to an emergency Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ). One of the MH - 47Es lost a wheel assembly after striking the compound wall in the scramble to extract the ground force. Some 30 Taliban fighters were killed in the firefight; there were no US soldiers killed but 12 Delta operators were wounded.; Delta 's plans to leave a stay - behind reconnaissance team in the area were aborted by the Taliban response.
The Green Berets of ODA 595 split into two elements - Alpha and Bravo. Alpha rode on horseback with the Uzbek Warlord General Dostum to his headquarters to plan the impending assault on Mazar - e-Sharif. Bravo was tasked with clearing the Dari - a-Souf Valley of Taliban and to travel into the Alma Tak Mountains to get a good look at its area of operations.
On October 20, 2001, the Alpha element of ODA 595 guided in the first JDAM bomb from a B - 52, impressing Dostum, who soon taunted the Taliban over their radio frequencies. As part of its operations, the Americans beamed in radio broadcasts in both Pashto and Dari calling al - Qaeda and the Taliban criminals who were not proper Muslims and promising US $25 million to anyone who would provide information leading to the whereabouts of bin Laden.
Two weeks into the campaign, the Northern Alliance demanded the air campaign focus more on the front lines. A number of units from the U.S. 5th Special Forces Group Operational Detachment Alpha teams were accompanied by USAF Tactical Air Control Party. They called in air strikes on targets, pounding Taliban vehicles, antiaircraft weapons, armored vehicles, their trenches, and ammunition supplies.
On October 23, ODA 585 infiltrated an area near Kunduz to work alongside the warlord Burillah Khan.
The United States conducted its own psychological warfare operation with EC - 130E Commando Solo aircraft beaming radio transmissions in both Dari and Pashtu to the Afghan civilian population. Radios were dropped with humanitarian packages that were fixed to only receive news and Afghan music from a Coalition radio station. Air Force Special Operations aircraft also dropped huge numbers of Psy Ops leaflets, decrying the Taliban and al - Qaeda as criminals who ruined Afghanistan and promoting the $25 million reward placed on Bin Laden 's head.
Carrier - based F / A-18 Hornet fighter - bombers hit Taliban vehicles in pinpoint strikes, while other aircraft cluster bombed Taliban defenses. At the beginning of November, U.S. aircraft attacked front lines with daisy cutter bombs and AC - 130 gunships.
By 2 November, Taliban frontal positions were devastated and a march on Kabul seemed possible. According to author Stephen Tanner,
After a month of the U.S. bombing campaign rumblings began to reach Washington from Europe, the Mideast, and Pakistan where Musharraf had requested the bombing to cease. Having begun the war with the greatest imaginable reservoir of moral authority, the U.S. was on the verge of letting it slip away through high - level attacks using the most ghastly inventions its scientists could come up with.
Also on 2 November, the 10 - man ODA 553 inserted into Bamain and linked up with General Kareem Kahlili 's forces; ODA 534 was also inserted into the Dari - a-Balkh Valley after being delayed by weather for several nights, its role was to support General Mohammed Atta - the head of Jaamat - e-Islami militia. Alongside the Green Berets was a small element of CIA SAD operatives.
Bravo team of ODA 595 conducted its own airstrikes in the Dari - a-Souf Valley, cutting off and destroying Taliban reinforcements and frustrating its attempts to relieve its embattled forces in the north. Cumulatively, the near constant airstrikes had begun to have a decisive effect and the Taliban began to withdraw toward Mazar - e-sharif. Dostrum 's forces and Alpha team of ODA 595 followed, pausing only to drop further bombs on Taliban stragglers using their Special Operations Forces Laser Marker (SOFLAM), a device that emits laser - aiming point that can be followed by a smart bomb, such as a JDAM.
On the Shomali Plains, ODA 555 and the CIA Jawbreaker team attached to Fahim Khan 's forces began calling in airstrikes on entrenched Taliban positions at the southeastern end of the former Soviet air base at Bagram. The Green Berets set up an observation post in a disused air traffic control tower and with perfect lines of sight, guided in two BLU - 82 Daisy Cutter bombs which devastated the Taliban lines, both physically and psychologically. By 5 November 2001, the advance of Dostrum and his force was stalled at the Taliban - held village of Bai Beche in the strategically vital Dari - a-Souf Valley. Two earlier Northern Alliance attacks had been driven back by the entrenched Taliban; Dostrum prepared his men to follow a bombing run from a B - 52 with a cavalry charge, but one of Dostrums lieutenants misunderstood an order and sent around 250 Uzbek horseman charging toward the Taliban lines as the B - 52 made its final approach, three or four bombs landed just in time on the Taliban positions and the cavalry charge succeeded in breaking the back of the Taliban defenders.
On 8 November, ODAs 586 and 594 were infiltrated into Afghanistan in MH - 47s and picked up on the Afghan / Tajik border by CIA - flown MI - 17s crewed by the SAD Air Branch contractors. ODA 586 deployed to Kunduz with the forces of General Daoud Khan and ODA 594 deployed into the Panjshir to assist the men of ODA 555.
Bush went to New York City on 10 November 2001 to address the United Nations. He said that not only was the U.S. in danger of further attacks, but so were all other countries in the world. Tanner observed, "His words had impact. Most of the world renewed its support for the American effort, including commitments of material help from Germany, France, Italy, Japan and other countries. ''
Al - Qaeda fighters took over security in Afghan cities. The Northern Alliance troops planned to seize Mazar - i - Sharif, cutting off Taliban supply lines and enabling equipment to arrive from the north and then attack Kabul.
During the early months, the U.S. military had a limited presence on the ground. Special Forces and intelligence officers with a military background liaised with Afghan militias and advanced after the Taliban was disrupted by air power.
The Tora Bora Mountains lie roughly east of Kabul, on the Pakistan border. American analysts believed that the Taliban and al - Qaeda had dug in behind fortified networks of caves and underground bunkers. The area was subjected to a heavy B - 52 bombardment.
U.S. and Northern Alliance objectives began to diverge. While the U.S. was continuing the search for Osama bin Laden, the Northern Alliance wanted to finish off the Taliban.
Mazari - i Sharif was important because it is the home of the Shrine of Ali or "Blue Mosque '', a sacred Muslim site and because it is a significant transportation hub with two major airports and a major supply route leading into Uzbekistan. Taking the city would enable humanitarian aid to alleviate a looming food crisis, which threatened more than six million people with starvation. Many of those in most urgent need lived in rural areas to the south and west of Mazar - i - Sharif. On 9 November 2001, Northern Alliance forces, under the command of Dostum and Ustad Atta Mohammed Noor, overcame resistance crossing the Pul - i - Imam Bukhri bridge, and seized the city 's main military base and airport.
ODA 595 and ODA 534 and the seven members of the CIA 's Special Activities Division assisted about 2000 members of the Northern Alliance who attacked Mazari Sharif on horseback, foot, pickup trucks, and BMP armored personnel carriers. The U.S. forces utilized close air support which they used to destroy armor and vehicles. After a brief but bloody 90 - minute battle, the Taliban withdrew, triggering celebrations.
The fall of the city was a "body blow '' to the Taliban and ultimately proved to be a "major shock '', since the U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) had originally believed that the city would remain in Taliban hands well into the following year and any potential battle would require "a very slow advance ''.
US Army Civil Affairs Teams from the 96th Civil Affairs Battalion and Tactical Psychological Operations Teams from the 4th Psychological Operations Group assigned to both the Green Berets and Task Force Dagger were immediately deployed to Mazar - e-Sharif to assist in winning the hearts and minds of the inhabitants.
Following rumors that Mullah Dadullah was headed to recapture the city with as many as 8,000 fighters, a thousand U.S. troops of the 10th Mountain Division were airlifted into the city, providing the first solid position from which Kabul and Kandahar could be reached. The U.S. Air Force now had an airport to allow them to fly more sorties for resupply missions and humanitarian aid.
U.S. - backed forces began immediately broadcasting from Radio Mazar - i - Sharif, the former Taliban Voice of Sharia channel, including an address from former President Rabbani.
On November 10, operators from C squadron SBS inserted into the recently captured Bagram Airfield and caused an immediate political quandary with the Northern Alliance leadership which claimed the British had failed to consult in on the deployment.
On November 11, in the central north of Afghanistan, ODA 586 was advising General Daoud Khan outside the city of Taloqan and coordinating a batch of preparatory airstrikes when the General surprised everyone by launching an impromptu massed infantry assault on the Taliban holding the city. Before the first bomb could be dropped, the city fell.
On the night of 12 November, Taliban forces fled Kabul under cover of darkness. Northern Alliance forces (supported by ODA 555) arrived the following afternoon, encountering a group of about twenty fighters hiding in the city 's park. This group was killed in a 15 - minute gun battle. After these forces were neutralized, Kabul was in the hands of coalition forces.
The fall of Kabul started a cascading collapse of Taliban positions. Within 24 hours, all Afghan provinces along the Iranian border had fallen, including Herat. Local Pashtun commanders and warlords had taken over throughout northeastern Afghanistan, including Jalalabad. Taliban holdouts in the north fell back to the northern city of Kunduz. By 16 November, the Taliban 's last stronghold in northern Afghanistan was under siege. Nearly 10,000 Taliban fighters, led by foreign fighters, continued to resist. By then, the Taliban had been forced back to their heartland in southeastern Afghanistan around Kandahar.
Elsewhere in Afghanistan UK and US special forces joined the Northern Alliance and other Afghan opposition groups to take Herat in November 2001. Canada and Australia also deployed forces. Other countries provided basing, access and overflight permission.
As a result of all the losses, surviving members of the Taliban and al - Qaeda retreated toward Kandahar, the spiritual birthplace and home of the Taliban movement and Tora Bora.
By 13 November, al - Qaeda and Taliban forces, possibly including bin Laden, were concentrating in Tora Bora, 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Jalalabad. Nearly 2,000 al - Qaeda and Taliban fighters fortified themselves in positions within bunkers and caves. On 16 November the U.S. began bombing the mountain redoubt. Around the same time, CIA and Special Forces operatives were at work in the area, enlisting local warlords and planning an attack.
On November 13, the 75th Ranger Regiment carried out its second combat parachute drop into Afghanistan. A platoon - sized Ranger security element, including Team 3 of the Ranger Reconnaissance Detachment, accompanied by 8 Air Force Special Tactical operators, parachuted into a site southwest of Kandahar, codenamed Bastogne to secure a FARP for a follow on operation by the 160th SOAR. A pair of MC - 130 cargo soon landed at the improvised airstrip and deposited four AH - 6J Little Bird helicopters, the flight of little birds lifted off to hit a Taliban target compound near Kandahar code named Objective Wolverine. After destroying the target, the Little Birds returned to the FARP and proceeded to rearm and refuel and then they launched another strike against a second site called objective Raptor. With their mission completed, the Little Birds returned to the FARP, loaded onto the MC - 130s and flew back to Pakistan. Several nights later, a similar mission codenamed Operation Relentless Strike took place - this time with the Rangers driving their modified HMMWV and Land Rovers to secure a remote desert strip. These were the first missions in Afghanistan conducted by the Little Bird pilots of the 160th SOAR, as the helicopters could not operate at the high altitudes in the mountains.
Meanwhile, the U.S. was able to track and kill al - Qaeda 's number three, Mohammed Atef with a bomb at his Kabul home between 14 -- 16 November 2001, along with his guard Abu Ali al - Yafi'i and six others.
On November 14, 2001, ODA 574 and Hamid Karzai inserted into Uruzgan Province via 4 MH - 60K helicopters with a small force of guerrillas. In response to the approach of Karzai 's force, the inhabitants of the town of Tarinkot revolted and expelled their Taliban administrators. Karzai traveled to Tarinkot to meet with the town elders. While he was there, the Taliban marshaled a force of 500 men to retake Tarinkot. Karzai 's small force plus the American contingent, which consisted of US Army Special Forces from ODA 574 and their US Air Force Combat Controller, Tech Sergeant Alex Yoshimoto, were deployed in front of the town to block their advance. Relying heavily on close air support directed by Yoshimoto, the American / Afghan force managed to halt the Taliban advance and drive them away from the town.
The defeat of the Taliban at Tarinkot was an important victory for Karzai, who used the victory to recruit more men to his fledgling guerrilla band. His force would grow in size to a peak of around 800 men. On November 30, they left Tarinkot and began advancing on Kandahar.
Task Force Dagger attention focused on the last northern Taliban stronghold, Kunduz; as the bombardment at Tora Bora grew, the Siege of Kunduz was continuing. General Daoud and ODA 586 had initiated massive coalition airstrikes to demoralize the Taliban defenders. After 11 days of fighting and bombardment, Taliban fighters surrendered to Northern Alliance forces on 23 November. Shortly before the surrender, Pakistani aircraft arrived to evacuate intelligence and military personnel who had been aiding the Taliban 's fight against the Northern Alliance. The airlift is alleged to have evacuated up to five thousand people, including Taliban and al - Qaeda troops.
After political intersession with Prime minister Tony Blair, the SAS were given a direct - action task -- the destruction of an al - Qaeda - linked opium plant. The facility was located 250 miles southwest of Kandahar, manned by between 80 and 100 foreign fighters, with defenses consisting of trench lines and several makeshift bunkers. The SAS were ordered to assault the facility in full daylight: the timelines had been mandated by CENTCOM and were based on the availability of air support assets -- only one hour of on - call close air support was provided. The timings meant that the squadrons could not carry out a detailed reconnaissance of the site prior to the assault being launched. Despite these factors, the commanding officer of 22 SAS accepted the mission. The Target was a low priority for the US and probably would have been destroyed from the air if the British had n't argued for a larger role in Afghanistan; U.S. SOF commanders guarded targets for their own units. The strategic significance of the facility has never fully been explained.
The mission began in November 2001, with an 8 - man patrol from G Squadron 's Air Troop performing the regiments first wartime HALO parachute jump - onto a barren desert site in Registan to test its suitability as an improvised airstrip for the landing of the main assault force in C - 130 Hecules. The Air Troop advance team confirmed it was suitable and later that day a fleet of C - 130s began to land, each touching down just long enough for the SAS to disembark in their vehicles. Operators from A and G squadron drove directly off the ramps as the planes moved along the desert strip before the aircraft took off again; the squadrons were drove in 38 Land Rover "pinkies '', 2 logistics vehicles and 8 Kawasaki dirt bikes, they formed up and proceeded towards their target. One Land Rover broke down due to an engine problem, the vehicle was left behind, its 3 - man crew stayed to guard it (they were picked when the assault force exfilled). The assault force drove to a previously agreed forming - up point and split into two elements - the main assault force and the FSB (fire support base), A Squadron was given the task of assaulting the target facility, whilst G Squadron took the role of FSB, G Squadron would suppress the enemy with vehicle - mounted GPMGs,. 50cal HMGs, MILAN antitank missiles along with 81mm mortars and M82A1 sniper rifle, allowing A squadron closed in on the target (the force was out of range of the Coalition artillery guns).
The Assault began with a preparatory airstrike, following this, A Squadron moved from its start line, firing its weapon; they pulled up meters from the outer perimeter to dismount from their vehicles and closed in on the target on foot. All the while, G Squadron provided covering fire with heavy weapons onto the facility. Air support flew sorties until they ran out of munitions; on a final pass, a US Navy F - 18 Hornet strafed a bunker with its 20mm cannon, which narrowly missed several members of G Squadron. As A Squadron closed on the fortified positions several SAS troopers were wounded, the Al - Qaeda fighters were not particularly well trained but they were fanatical fighters and most relished the fight. The SAS had to fight hard for every inch of progress. The RSM in command of the FSB joined in the action, he brought forward teams to reinforce A Squadron when he believed the assault was stalling, they were several hundred meters from the enemy positions when he was shot in the leg by an AK - 47 round. Eventually, the A Squadron assault force reached the objective, they cleared the HQ building, gathering all intelligence materials they could find. The mission lasted 4 hours and a total of 4 SAS operators were wounded; the operation became the largest British SAS operation in history.
On 25 November, as Taliban and terrorist prisoners were moved into Qala - I - Janghi fortress near Mazar - I - Sharif, a few Taliban attacked their Northern Alliance guards. This incident triggered a revolt by 600 prisoners, who soon seized the southern half of the medieval fortress, including an armory stocked with an array of AK47s, RPGs and crew - served weapons. Johnny Micheal Spann, one of two CIA SAD operatives at the fortress who had been interrogating prisoners, was killed, marking America 's first combat death.
The other CIA operator, known as ' Dave, ' managed to make contact with CENTCOM who relayed his request for assistance to SOF troops at TF Dagger safe house in Mazar - e-Sharif. The safe house housed members of Delta Force, some Green Berets and a small team from M squadron SBS. A QRF was immediately formed of whoever was in the safe house at the time: a headquarters element from 3rd Battalion, 5th SFG, a pair of USAF liaison officers, a handful of CIA SAD operators and the SBS team. The 8 - man SBS team arrived in Land Rover 90s and the Green Berets and CIA operatives arrived in minivans and began engaging the prisoners, fighting a pitched battle to "stem the tide '' of the uprising; as a result, CIA operative ' Dave ' managed to escape, following this the operators turned their attention to recovering Spann 's body. Over the course of 4 days the battle continued, Green Berets called in multiple airstrikes on the Taliban prisoners, during one CAS mission a JDAM was misdirected and hit the ground closed to the Coalition and Northern Alliance positions, wounding 5 Green Berets and four SBS operators to various degrees.
AC - 130 gunships kept up aerial bombardments throughout the night, the following day (27 November) the siege was finally broken as Northern Alliance T - 55 tanks were brought into the central courtyard to fire shells from its main guns into several block houses containing Taliban. Fighting continued sporadically thought the week as the last remnants were mopped out by Dostrum 's Northern Alliance forces, the combined Green Beret - SBS team recovered Spann 's body.
The revolt was crushed after seven days of fighting involving a Special Boat Service unit, Army Special Forces, and Northern Alliance forces and other aircraft provided strafing fire and launched bombs. 86 Taliban survived, and around 50 Northern Alliance soldiers were killed. The revolt was the final combat in northern Afghanistan.
ODA 574 and Hamid Karzai began moving on Kandahar, gathering fighters from friendly local Pashtun tribes. His militia force eventually numbered some 800 men. They fought for two days with the Taliban, who were dug into ridgelines overlooking the strategic Sayd - Aum - Kalay Bridge, eventually seizing it, with the help of US airpower, and opening the road to Kandahar.
By the end of November, Kandahar was the Taliban 's last stronghold, and was coming under increasing pressure. Nearly 3,000 tribal fighters, led by Karzai and Gul Agha Sherzai, the governor of Kandahar before the Taliban seized power, pressured Taliban forces from the east and cut off northern supply lines to Kandahar. The Northern Alliance loomed in the north and northeast.
ODA 583 had infiltrated the Shin - Narai Valley, southeast of Kandahar to support Gul Agha Sherzai, the former governor of Kandahar. By 24 November, ODA 583 had established covert observations posts, which allowed them to call in devastating fire on Taliban positions.
Meanwhile, nearly 1,000 U.S. Marines, ferried in by CH - 53E Super Stallion helicopters and C - 130s, set up a Forward Operating Base known as Camp Rhino in the desert south of Kandahar on 25 November. This was the coalition 's first base, and enabled other operating bases to form. The first significant combat involving U.S. ground forces occurred a day after Rhino was captured, when 15 Taliban armored vehicles approached the base and were attacked by helicopter gunships, destroying many of them. Meanwhile, airstrikes continued to pound Taliban positions inside the city, where Mullah Omar remained. Omar remained defiant although his movement controlled only four out of 30 Afghan provinces by the end of November. He called on his forces to fight to the death.
On 5 December, a 2,000 lb GPS - guided bomb landed among the Green Berets from ODA 574, killing 3 members and wounding the rest of the team. Over 20 of Karzai 's militia were also killed and Karzai himself slightly wounded. A Delta Force unit nearby that had been operating nearby on a classified reconnaissance mission arrived in their Pinzgauers and secured the site, while Delta medics worked with wounded Green Berets. Along with a USMC CH - 53 casualty evacuation helicopter onboard ODB 570 and ODA 524 were immediately dispatched by helicopter to assist with the wounded and to eventually replace the fallen operators of ODA 574.
On 6 December, Karzai was informed that he would be the next president of Afghanistan, he also negotiated the successful surrender of both the remaining Taliban forces around Sayd - Aum - Kalay and the entire city of Kandahar itself. ODA 524, ODB 570 and Karzai 's militia began their final push to clear the city. The U.S. government rejected amnesty for Omar or any Taliban leaders. On 7 December, Sherzai 's forces seized Kandahar airport and moved in the city of Kandahar. Omar slipped out of Kandahar with a group of loyalists and moved northwest into the mountains of Uruzgan Province, thus reneging on the Taliban 's promise to surrender their fighters and their weapons. He was last reported seen leaving in a convoy of motorcycles.
Other Taliban leaders fled to Pakistan through the remote passes of Paktia and Paktika Provinces. The border town of Spin Boldak surrendered on the same day, marking the end of Taliban control in Afghanistan. Afghan forces under Gul Agha seized Kandahar, while the U.S. Marines took control of the airport and established a U.S. base.
After the fall of Kabul and Kandahar, al - Qaeda elements including Bin Laden and other key leaders withdrew to Jalalabad, Nangarhar Province, from there they moved into the Tora Bora region of the White Mounatins, 20 km away from the Pakistan border - where there was a network of caves and prepared defences used by the mujahideen during the Soviet - Afghan War. Signal intercepts and interrogation of captured Taliban fighters and al - Qaeda terrorists pointed towards the presence of significant numbers of foreign fighters and possible HVTs in and moving to the area; instead of committing conventional forces, higher echelons of both the White House and the Pentagon took the decision to isolate and destroy the al - Qaeda elements in the area with the US SOF supporting locally recruited AMFs (Afghan Militia Forces) - due to misplaced fear of replicating the Soviets experience in the area.
ODA 572 and a CIA Jawbreaker team (small group of CIA SAD ground branch operators) were dispatched to Tora Bora to advise eastern anti-Taliban forces under the command of two warlords: Hazrat Ali and Mohammed Zaman (both had a deep - seated distrust toward each other); using CIA hard currency, some 2,500 to 3,000 AMF were recruited for the coming battle; al - Qaeda were using Tora Bora as a final strongpoint. The leader of the CIA Jawbreaker team requested a battalion of Rangers - 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment - to be dropped into the mountains to establish blocking positions along potential escape routes out of Tora Bora into Pakistan. They would serve as the ' anvil ' whilst Green Berets with the AMF would be the ' Hammer, ' with attached Air Force Combat Controllers, the Rangers could direct airstrikes onto enemy concentrations or engage them in ambushes; troops from the 10th Mountain Division were also an option, but this was denied.
From the outset of the battle, ODA 572 with its attached Combat Controller called in precision airstrikes (15,000 lb Daisy Cutters were often used), whilst their AMFs launched what amounted to a number of poorly executed and coordinated attacks on established al - Qaeda positions with a predictable degree of success. The Green Berets discovered that the militias lacked both the motivation and skill for the battle: according to ODA members they would gain ground in the morning following US airstrikes and then relinquish control of those gains the same day, they would also retreat to their base areas for sleep each night. With the AMF offensive stalled and the CIA and ODA teams overstretched, the decision was made to deploy more troops into the battle.
40 operators from A squadron Delta Force were forward deployed to Tora Bora and would assume tactical command of the battle from the CIA, with the Delta squadron were a dozen of so members of M squadron SBS. The Delta operators were deployed in small teams embedded within the militias and sent their own Recce operators out to pick up Bin Laden 's trail, eventually with the assistance of Green Berets and CIA operators cajoling the AMF, progress was made. The Delta squadron commander agreed with the Jawbreaker assessment of the situation and requested blocking forces or the scattering of aerial landmines to deny mountain passes to the enemy and since the deployment of the Ranger battalion had been denied, he requested that his operators carryout their proposed role but all his requests were denied by General Franks. On December 12, two weeks into the battle, AMF commander Zaman opened negotiations with the trapped al - Qaeda and Taliban in Tora Bora, despite the frustrations of the Americans and British, a temporary truce was called until 0800hr the following morning to allow al - Qaeda to supposedly agree to surrender terms by Shura (group meeting). This was a ruse played to allow as many as several hundred al - Qaeda and members of the 055 Brigade to escape over night toward Pakistan.
The following day, a handheld ICOM radio recovered from the body of a dead al - Qaeda fighter allowed members of the Delta squadron and the CIA to hear Bin laden 'S voice - apparently apologising to his followers for leading them to Tora Bora and giving his blessing for their surrender - thought to be addressed to the terrorists that stayed to fight a rearguard action to allow Bin Laden to escape. Credible rumours of cash payments by Bin Laden to at least one of the warlords abound - the reluctance of the AMF to press the attack may have been influenced by similar bribes, the leader of the CIA Jawbreaker team at Tora Bora believes that two large al - Qaeda groups escaped. The smaller group of 130 jihadist escaped east into Pakistan, whilst the second group in including Bin Laden and 200 Saudi and Yemeni jihadist took the route across the mountains to the town of Parachinar, Pakistan; the Delta squadron commander believes that Bin Laden crossed the border into Pakistan sometime around 16 December. A Delta Recce team, callsign ' Jackal ', spotted a tall man wearing a camouflage jacket with a large number of fighters entering a cave, the Recce team called in multiple airstrikes on the obvious presumption that it was Bin Laden, but later DNA analysis from the remains did not match Bin Laden 's. With the majority of the terrorist gone the battle came to an end, official tallies of claiming hundreds of al - Qaeda killed at Tora Bora are difficult to confirm since many of the bodies were buried in caves or vaporised by bombs, only a handful of prisoners were taken.
On December 20, ODA 561 were inserted into the White Mountains to support ODA 572 in conducting SSE of the caves and to assist with recovering DNA samples from terrorist bodies.
US and UK forces continued searching into January, but no sign of al - Qaeda leadership emerged. An estimated 200 al - Qaeda fighters were killed during the battle, along with an unknown number of tribal fighters. No American or British deaths were reported.
In December 2001 the United Nations hosted the Bonn Conference. The Taliban were excluded. Four Afghan opposition groups participated. Observers included representatives of neighbouring and other involved major countries.
The resulting Bonn Agreement created the Afghan Interim Authority that would serve as the "repository of Afghan sovereignty '' and outlined the so - called Petersberg Process that would lead towards a new constitution and a new Afghan government.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1378 of 14 November 2001, included "Condemning the Taliban for allowing Afghanistan to be used as a base for the export of terrorism by the al - Qaeda network and other terrorist groups and for providing safe haven to Osama bin Laden, al - Qaeda and others associated with them, and in this context supporting the efforts of the Afghan people to replace the Taliban regime ''.
The United Nations World Food Programme temporarily suspended activities within Afghanistan at the beginning of the bombing attacks but resumed them after the fall of the Taliban.
On 20 December 2001, the United Nations authorised an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), with a mandate to help the Afghans maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. It was initially established from the headquarters of the British 3rd Mechanised Division under Major General John McColl, and for its first years numbered no more that 5,000. Its mandate did not extend beyond the Kabul area for the first few years. Eighteen countries were contributing to the force in February 2002.
In January 2002, another series of caves was discovered in Zawar Kili, just south of Tora Bora, airstrikes hit the sites before SOF teams were inserted into the area. A SEAL platoon from SEAL Team 3, including several of their Desert Patrol Vehicles, accompanied by a German KSK element, a Norwegian SOF team and JTF2 reconnaissance teams spent some nine days conducting extensive SEE, clearing an estimated 70 caves and 60 structures in the area, recovering a huge amount of both intelligence and munitions, but they did n't encounter any al - Qaeda fighters.
Following the Loya jirga, tribal leaders and former exiles established an interim government in Kabul under Hamid Karzai. U.S. forces established their main base at Bagram airbase just north of Kabul. Kandahar airport also became an important U.S. base. Outposts were established in eastern provinces to hunt for Taliban and al - Qaeda fugitives.
Al - Qaeda forces regrouped in the Shah - i - Kot Valley area, Paktia province, in January and February 2002. A Taliban fugitive in Paktia province, Mullah Saifur Rehman began reconstituting some of his militia forces. They totalled over 1,000 by the beginning of March 2002. The insurgents wanted to launch guerrilla attacks and possibly a major offensive, copying 1980s anti-Soviet fighters.
The U.S. detected the buildup, and on 2 March 2002, U.S., Canadian, and Afghan forces began "Operation Anaconda '' against them. The trucks of Task Force Hammer become stuck in the mud while owing to a communications mistake, the massive aerial bombardment did not take place. The poorly trained Afghan government troops proved incapable of fighting al - Qaeda without air support. Mujahideen forces, using small arms, rocket - propelled grenades, and mortars, were entrenched into caves and bunkers in the hillsides largely above 3,000 m (10,000 ft). They used "hit and run '' tactics, opening fire and then retreating to their caves and bunkers to weather the return fire and bombing. U.S. commanders initially estimated their opponents as an isolated pocket numbering fewer than 200. Instead the guerrillas numbered between 1,000 -- 5,000, according to some estimates. By 6 March, eight American, seven Afghan allied, and up to 400 Al Qaida opposing fighters had been killed. At one point, while coming under heavy al - Qaeda force, the Afghan government forces fled in panic and refused to fight, leading to the men of Task Force Hammer to take on al - Qaeda alone. "Friendly fire '' incidents where American troops were bombed by their air force several times added to further difficulties. Sub-engagements included the Battle of Takur Ghar on ' Roberts Ridge, ' and follow - up Operations Glock and Polar Harpoon.
Several hundred guerrillas escaped to the tribal areas in Waziristan. During Operation Anaconda and other missions during 2002 and 2003, the New Zealand Special Air Service and other special forces from Australia, Germany, and Norway were also involved in operations.
In February 2002, the National Security Council met to decide whether to expand ISAF beyond Kabul. In a dispute between Powell and Rumsfeld (a pattern repeated often through the Bush Administration) Rumsfeld 's view that the force should not be expanded prevailed. Historians later wrote that the failure of ISAF to be deployed beyond Kabul drove Karzai to offer positions within the state to potential spoilers whose activities did great harm to the state 's reputation. Because the rise of the insurgency was linked to grievances over governance, this became a serious problem.
U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld 's aimed to carry out operations in Afghanistan as quickly as possible, and leave as fast as possible. He thus wished to focus on kinetic counter-terrorism operations and building up a new Afghan Army.
Operation Harpoon started in the early hours of March 13, aiming to eliminate pockets of Taliban and Al - Qaeda resistance in the Arma Mountains in eastern Afghanistan. The land component was under the command of Lieutenant - Colonel Pat Stogran, the commanding officer of 3rd Battalion, the Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry (3 PPCLI). It consisted of a battalion - sized Canadian and an American force from the 187th Infantry Regiment, of the 101st Airborne Division.
Following the battle at Shahi - Kot, al - Qaeda fighters established sanctuaries on the Pakistani border, where they launched cross-border raids beginning in the summer of 2002. Guerrilla units, numbering between 5 and 25 men, regularly crossed the border to fire rockets at coalition bases, ambush convoys and patrols and assault non-governmental organizations. The area around the Shkin base in Paktika province saw some of the heaviest activity.
Taliban fighters remained in hiding in the rural regions of four southern provinces: Kandahar, Zabul, Helmand and Uruzgan. After Anaconda the Department of Defense requested British Royal Marines, highly trained in mountain warfare, to be deployed. In response, 45 Commando deployed under the operational codename Operation Jacana in April 2002. They conducted missions (including Operation Snipe, Operation Condor, and Operation Buzzard) over several weeks with varying results. The Taliban avoided combat.
In May 2002 Combined Joint Task Force 180 became the senior U.S. military headquarters in the country, under Lieutenant General Dan K. McNeill.
Later in 2002, CJSOFT became a single integrated command under the broader CJTF - 180 that commanded all US forces assigned to OEF - A, it was built around an Army Special Forces Group (often manned by National Guard units) and SEAL teams. A small JSOC element (formerly Task Force Sword / 11) not under direct CTJF command - embedded within CJSOFT, it was manned by a joint SEAL and Ranger element that rotated command, it was not under direct ISAF command, although it operated in support of NATO operations.
Several events, taken together, in early 2002 can be seen as the ending of the first phase of the U.S. led war in the country. The first was the dispersal of the major groups of the Taliban and Al Qaeda after the end of Anaconda. In the United States, in February 2002 the decision was taken not to expand international security forces beyond Kabul. Finally President Bush made his speech at the Virginia Military Institute on April 17, 2002, invoking the memory of General George Marshall whilst talking of Afghan reconstruction, which resulted in discussion of a ' Marshall Plan ' for Afghanistan. The decision against a significant expansion of international presence and development assistance was later seen by historians as a major error. Avoiding large forces which might rouse the Afghans against the United States was later seen as a fallacy. However, the growing commitment to Iraq was absorbing more and more resources, which in hindsight would have made committing such resources to Afghanistan impossible.
The U.S. invasion of Afghanistan became the first phase of the War in Afghanistan (2001 -- present).
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what was the south called before the civil war | Confederate States of America - Wikipedia
The Confederate States of America (CSA or C.S.), commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was an unrecognized country in North America that existed from 1861 to 1865. The Confederacy was originally formed by seven secessionist slave - holding states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas -- in the Lower South region of the United States, whose regional economy was heavily dependent upon agriculture, particularly cotton, and a plantation system that relied upon the labor of African - American slaves.
Each state declared its secession from the United States following the November 1860 election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln to the U.S. presidency on a platform which opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Before Lincoln took office in March, a new Confederate government was established in February 1861, which was considered illegal by the government of the United States. States volunteered militia units and the new government hastened to form its own Confederate States Army from scratch practically overnight. After the American Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South -- Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina -- also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The Confederacy later accepted Missouri and Kentucky as members, although neither officially declared secession nor were they ever largely controlled by Confederate forces; Confederate shadow governments attempted to control the two states but were later exiled from them.
The government of the United States (the Union) rejected the claims of secession and considered the Confederacy illegitimate. The War began with the Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. No foreign government officially recognized the Confederacy as an independent country, although Great Britain and France granted it belligerent status, which allowed Confederate agents to contract with private concerns for arms and other supplies. In early 1865, after four years of heavy fighting which led to over 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered and the Confederacy vanished. The war lacked a formal end; nearly all Confederate forces had been forced into surrender or deliberately disbanded by the end of 1865, by which point the dwindling manpower and resources of the Confederacy were facing overwhelming odds. By 1865, Jefferson Davis lamented that the Confederacy had "disappeared ''.
On March 11, 1861, the Confederate Constitution of seven state signatories -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas -- replaced the February 7 Provisional Confederate States Constitution with one stating in its preamble a desire for a "permanent federal government ''. Four additional slave - holding states -- Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina -- declared their secession and joined the Confederacy following a call by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln for troops from each state to recapture Sumter and other seized federal properties in the South. Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the "Five Civilized Tribes '' -- the Choctaw and the Chickasaw -- located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of martial law; Delaware, though of divided loyalty, did not attempt it. A Unionist government in western parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia, which was admitted to the Union during the war on June 20, 1863.
Confederate control over its claimed territory and population in congressional districts steadily shrank from 73 % to 34 % during the course of the Civil War due to the Union 's successful overland campaigns, its control of the inland waterways into the South, and its blockade of the southern coast. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal (in addition to reunion). As Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers. The most notable advance was Sherman 's "March to the Sea '' in late 1864. Much of the Confederacy 's infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads and bridges. Plantations in the path of Sherman 's forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and limiting army mobility.
These losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, and allegations of autocratic government. After four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. A few days later General Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, effectively signalling the collapse of the Confederacy. President Davis was captured on May 10, 1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held.
The U.S. government began a decade - long process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. The priorities were: to guarantee that Confederate nationalism and slavery were ended, to ratify and enforce the Thirteenth Amendment which outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth which guaranteed dual U.S. and state citizenship to all native - born residents, regardless of race; and the Fifteenth, which made it illegal to deny the right to vote because of race.
By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Federal troops were withdrawn from the South, where conservative white Southern Democrats had already regained political control of state governments, often through extreme violence and fraud to suppress black voting. Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many rich areas; the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure, and exhausted resources. Continuing to be dependent on an agricultural economy and resisting investment in infrastructure, the region remained dominated by the planter elite into the 20th century. After 1890 the Democratic - dominated legislatures worked to secure their control by passing new constitutions and amendments at the turn of the 20th century that disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites. This exclusion of blacks from the political system, and great weakening of the Republican Party, was generally maintained until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Solid South of the early 20th century was built on white Democratic control of politics. The region did not achieve national levels of prosperity until long after World War II.
The Confederacy was established in the Montgomery Convention in February 1861 (before Lincoln 's inauguration in March) and was disintegrated in April and May 1865. It was formed by delegations from seven Southern slave states that had proclaimed their secession from the Union. After the fighting began in April, four additional slave states seceded and were admitted. Later, two states (Missouri and Kentucky) and two territories were given seats in the Confederate Congress. Southern California, although having some pro-Confederate sentiment, was never organized as a territory.
Many southern whites had considered themselves more Southern than American and were prepared to fight for their state and their region to be independent of the larger nation. That regionalism became a Southern nationalism, or the "Cause ''. For the duration of its existence, the Confederacy underwent trial by war. The "Southern Cause '' transcended the ideology of states ' rights, tariff policy, or internal improvements. This "Cause '' supported, or descended from, cultural and financial dependence on the South 's slavery - based economy. The convergence of race and slavery, politics, and economics raised almost all South - related policy questions to the status of moral questions over way of life, commingling love of things Southern and hatred of things Yankee (the North). Not only did national political parties split, but national churches and interstate families as well divided along sectional lines as the war approached. According to historian John M. Coski, "The statesmen who led the secession movement were unashamed to explicitly cite the defense of slavery as their prime motive... Acknowledging the centrality of slavery to the Confederacy is essential for understanding the Confederate. ''
Southern Democrats chose John Breckinridge as their candidate during the presidential election of 1860, but in no Southern state (other than South Carolina, where the legislature chose the electors) was support for him unanimous; all of the other states recorded at least some popular votes for one or more of the other three candidates (Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas and John Bell). Support for these candidates, collectively, ranged from significant to an outright majority, with extremes running from 25 % in Texas to 81 % in Missouri. There were minority views everywhere, especially in the upland and plateau areas of the South, with western Virginia and eastern Tennessee of particular concentration.
Following South Carolina 's unanimous 1860 secession vote, no other Southern states considered the question until 1861, and when they did none had a unanimous vote. All had residents who cast significant numbers of Unionist votes in either the legislature, conventions, popular referendums, or in all three. Voting to remain in the Union did not necessarily mean that individuals were northern sympathizers. Once hostilities began, many of these who voted to remain in the Union, particularly in the Deep South, accepted the majority decision, and supported the Confederacy.
The American Civil War became an American tragedy, what some scholars termed the "Brothers ' War '', pitting "brother against brother, father against son, kin against kin of every degree ''.
According to historian Avery O. Craven in 1950, the Confederate States of America was created by secessionists in Southern slave states who believed that the federal government was making them second - class citizens and refused to honor their belief that slavery was beneficial to the Negro. They judged the agent of change to be abolitionists and anti-slavery elements in the Republican Party, whom they believed used repeated insult and injury to subject them to intolerable "humiliation and degradation ''. The "Black Republicans '' (as the Southerners called them) and their allies soon dominated the U.S. House, Senate, and Presidency. On the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney (a presumed supporter of slavery) was 83 years old, and ailing.
During the campaign for president in 1860, some secessionists threatened disunion should Lincoln (who opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories) be elected, most notably William L. Yancey. Yancey toured the North calling for secession as Stephen A. Douglas toured the South calling for union in the event of Lincoln 's election. To the Secessionists the Republican intent was clear: to contain slavery within its present bounds, and, eventually, to eliminate it entirely. A Lincoln victory presented them with a momentous choice (as they saw it), even before his inauguration -- "the Union without slavery, or slavery without the Union ''.
The immediate catalyst for secession was the victory of the Republican Party and the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in the 1860 elections. American Civil War historian James M. McPherson suggested that, for the Southerners, the most ominous feature of the Republican victories in the Congressional and Presidential elections of 1860 was the magnitude of those victories. Republicans captured over 60 percent of the Northern vote, and won three - fourths of its Congressional delegations. The Southern press said that such Republicans represented the anti-slavery portion of the North, "a party founded on the single sentiment... of hatred of African slavery '', and now the controlling power in national affairs. The "Black Republican party '' could overwhelm conservative Yankees. The New Orleans Delta said of the Republicans, "It is in fact, essentially, a revolutionary party '' to overthrow slavery.
By 1860, sectional disagreements between North and South relate primarily to the maintenance or expansion of slavery in the United States. Historian Drew Gilpin Faust observed that "leaders of the secession movement across the South cited slavery as the most compelling reason for southern independence ''. Although most white Southerners did not own slaves, the majority supported the institution of slavery and benefited in indirect ways from the slave society. For struggling yeomen and subsistence farmers, the slave society provided a large class of people ranked lower in the social scale than they. Secondary differences related to issues of free speech, runaway slaves, expansion into Cuba, and states ' rights.
Historian Emory Thomas assessed the Confederacy 's self - image by studying the correspondence sent by the Confederate government in 1861 -- 62 to foreign governments. He found that Confederate diplomacy projected multiple contradictory self - images:
The Southern nation was by turns a guileless people attacked by a voracious neighbor, an ' established ' nation in some temporary difficulty, a collection of bucolic aristocrats making a romantic stand against the banalities of industrial democracy, a cabal of commercial farmers seeking to make a pawn of King Cotton, an apotheosis of nineteenth - century nationalism and revolutionary liberalism, or the ultimate statement of social and economic reaction.
In what later became known as the Cornerstone Speech, C.S. Vice President Alexander H. Stephens declared that the "cornerstone '' of the new government "rest (ed) upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery -- subordination to the superior race -- is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth ''. After the war Stephens made efforts to qualify his remarks, claiming they were extemporaneous, metaphorical, and intended to refer to public sentiment rather than "the principles of the new Government on this subject ''.
Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas, issued formal declarations of causes, each of which identified the threat to slaveholders ' rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession. Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favoring Northern over Southern economic interests. Texas mentioned slavery 21 times, but also listed the failure of the federal government to live up to its obligations, in the original annexation agreement, to protect settlers along the exposed western frontier. Texas resolutions further stated that governments of the states and the nation were established "exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity ''. They also stated that although equal civil and political rights applied to all white men, they did not apply to those of the "African race '', further opining that the end of racial enslavement would "bring inevitable calamities upon both (races) and desolation upon the fifteen slave - holding states ''.
Alabama did not provide a separate declaration of causes. Instead the Alabama ordinance stated "the election of Abraham Lincoln... by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the State of Alabama, preceded by many and dangerous infractions of the Constitution of the United States by many of the States and people of the northern section, is a political wrong of so insulting and menacing a character as to justify the people of the State of Alabama in the adoption of prompt and decided measures for their future peace and security. '' The ordinance invited "the slaveholding States of the South, who may approve such purpose, in order to frame a provisional as well as a permanent Government upon the principles of the Constitution of the United States '' to participate in a February 4, 1861 convention in Montgomery, Alabama.
The secession ordinances of the remaining two states, Florida and Louisiana, simply declared their severing of ties with the federal Union, without stating any causes. Afterward, the Florida secession convention formed a committee to draft a declaration of causes, but the committee was discharged before completion of the task. Only an undated, untitled draft remains.
Four of the Upper South states initially rejected secession until after the clash at Ft. Sumter (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). Virginia 's ordinance stated a kinship with the slave - holding states of the Lower South, but did not name the institution itself as a primary reason for its course
Arkansas 's secession ordinance primarily revolved around strong objection to the use of military force to maintain the Union as its motivating factor. Prior to the outbreak of war, the Arkansas Convention had on March 20 given as their first resolution: "The people of the Northern States have organized a political party, purely sectional in its character, the central and controlling idea of which is hostility to the institution of African slavery, as it exists in the Southern States; and that party has elected a President... pledged to administer the Government upon principles inconsistent with the rights and subversive of the interests of the Southern States. ''
North Carolina and Tennessee limited their ordinances to simply withdrawing, although Tennessee went so far as to make clear they wished to make no comment at all on the "abstract doctrine of secession ''.
In a message to the Confederate Congress on April 29, 1861 Jefferson Davis cited both the tariff and slavery for the South 's secession.
The Fire - Eaters, calling for immediate secession, were opposed by two factions. "Cooperationists '' in the Deep South would delay secession until several states went together, maybe in a Southern Convention. Under the influence of men such as Texas Governor Sam Houston, delay would have had the effect of sustaining the Union. "Unionists '', especially in the Border South, often former Whigs, appealed to sentimental attachment to the United States. Southern Unionists ' favorite presidential candidate was John Bell of Tennessee, sometimes running under an "Opposition Party '' banner.
William L. Yancey, Alabama Fire - Eater, "The Orator of Secession ''.
William Henry Gist, Governor of South Carolina, called the Secessionist Convention.
Many secessionists were active politically. Governor William Henry Gist of South Carolina corresponded secretly with other Deep South governors, and most southern governors exchanged clandestine commissioners. Charleston 's secessionist "1860 Association '' published over 200,000 pamphlets to persuade the youth of the South. The most influential were: "The Doom of Slavery '' and "The South Alone Should Govern the South '', both by John Townsend of South Carolina; and James D.B. De Bow 's "The Interest of Slavery of the Southern Non-slaveholder ''.
Developments in South Carolina started a chain of events. The foreman of a jury refused the legitimacy of federal courts, so Federal Judge Andrew Magrath ruled that U.S. judicial authority in South Carolina was vacated. A mass meeting in Charleston celebrating the Charleston and Savannah railroad and state cooperation led to the South Carolina legislature to call for a Secession Convention. U.S. Senator James Chesnut, Jr. resigned, as did Senator James Henry Hammond.
Elections for Secessionist conventions were heated to "an almost raving pitch, no one dared dissent '', said Freehling. Even once -- respected voices, including the Chief Justice of South Carolina, John Belton O'Neall, lost election to the Secession Convention on a Cooperationist ticket. Across the South mobs expelled Yankees and (in Texas) executed German - Americans suspected of loyalty to the United States. Generally, seceding conventions which followed did not call for a referendum to ratify, although Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee did, as well as Virginia 's second convention. Kentucky declared neutrality, while Missouri had its own civil war until the Unionists took power and drove the Confederate legislators out of the state.
In the antebellum months, the Corwin Amendment, was an unsuccessful attempt by the Congress to bring back the seceding states to the Union and to prevent the border slave states to remain. It was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution by Ohio Congressman Thomas Corwin that would shield "domestic institutions '' of the states (which in 1861 included slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress.
It was passed by the 36th Congress on March 2, 1861. The House approved it by a vote of 133 to 65 & the United States Senate adopted it, with no changes, on a vote of 24 to 12. It was then submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. In his inaugural address Lincoln endorsed the proposed amendment.
The text was as follows:
No amendment shall be made to the Constitution which will authorize or give to Congress the power to abolish or interfere, within any State, with the domestic institutions thereof, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State.
Had it been ratified by the required number of states prior to 1865, it would have made institutionalized slavery immune to the constitutional amendment procedures and to interference by Congress.
The first secession state conventions from the Deep South sent representatives to meet at the Montgomery Convention in Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, 1861. There the fundamental documents of government were promulgated, a provisional government was established, and a representative Congress met for the Confederate States of America.
The new ' provisional ' Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued a call for 100,000 men from the various states ' militias to defend the newly formed Confederacy. All Federal property was seized, along with gold bullion and coining dies at the U.S. mints in Charlotte, North Carolina; Dahlonega, Georgia; and New Orleans. The Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia, in May 1861. On February 22, 1862, Davis was inaugurated as president with a term of six years.
The newly inaugurated Confederate administration pursued a policy of national territorial integrity, continuing earlier state efforts in 1860 and early 1861 to remove U.S. government presence from within their boundaries. These efforts included taking possession of U.S. courts, custom houses, post offices, and most notably, arsenals and forts. But after the Confederate attack and capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861, Lincoln called up 75,000 of the states ' militia to muster under his command. The stated purpose was to re-occupy U.S. properties throughout the South, as the U.S. Congress had not authorized their abandonment. The resistance at Fort Sumter signaled his change of policy from that of the Buchanan Administration. Lincoln 's response ignited a firestorm of emotion. The people of both North and South demanded war, and young men rushed to their colors in the hundreds of thousands. Four more states (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas) refused Lincoln 's call for troops and declared secession, while Kentucky maintained an uneasy "neutrality ''.
Secessionists argued that the United States Constitution was a contract among sovereign states that could be abandoned at any time without consultation and that each state had a right to secede. After intense debates and statewide votes, seven Deep South cotton states passed secession ordinances by February 1861 (before Abraham Lincoln took office as president), while secession efforts failed in the other eight slave states. Delegates from those seven formed the CSA in February 1861, selecting Jefferson Davis as the provisional president. Unionist talk of reunion failed and Davis began raising a 100,000 man army.
Initially, some secessionists may have hoped for a peaceful departure. Moderates in the Confederate Constitutional Convention included a provision against importation of slaves from Africa to appeal to the Upper South. Non-slave states might join, but the radicals secured a two - thirds hurdle for them.
Seven states declared their secession from the United States before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter April 12, 1861, and Lincoln 's subsequent call for troops on April 15, four more states declared their secession:
Kentucky declared neutrality but after Confederate troops moved in, the state government asked for Union troops to drive them out. The splinter Confederate state government relocated to accompany western Confederate armies and never controlled the state population. By the end of the war, 90,000 Kentuckians had fought on the side of the Union, compared to 35,000 for the Confederate States.
In Missouri, a constitutional convention was approved and delegates elected by voters. The convention rejected secession 89 -- 1 on March 19, 1861. The governor maneuvered to take control of the St. Louis Arsenal and restrict Federal movements. This led to confrontation, and in June Federal forces drove him and the General Assembly from Jefferson City. The executive committee of the constitutional convention called the members together in July. The convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a Unionist interim state government. The exiled governor called a rump session of the former General Assembly together in Neosho and, on October 31, 1861, passed an ordinance of secession. It is still a matter of debate as to whether a quorum existed for this vote. The Confederate state government was unable to control very much Missouri territory. It had its capital first at Neosho, then at Cassville, before being driven out of the state. For the remainder of the war, it operated as a government in exile at Marshall, Texas.
Neither Kentucky nor Missouri was declared in rebellion in Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation. The Confederacy recognized the pro-Confederate claimants in both Kentucky (December 10, 1861) and Missouri (November 28, 1861) and laid claim to those states, granting them Congressional representation and adding two stars to the Confederate flag. Voting for the representatives was mostly done by Confederate soldiers from Kentucky and Missouri.
The order of secession resolutions and dates are:
Ft. Sumter (April 12) and Lincoln 's call up (April 15)
In Virginia, the populous counties along the Ohio and Pennsylvania borders rejected the Confederacy. Unionists held a Convention in Wheeling in June 1861, establishing a "restored government '' with a rump legislature, but sentiment in the region remained deeply divided. In the 50 counties that would make up the state of West Virginia, voters from 24 counties had voted for disunion in Virginia 's May 23 referendum on the ordinance of secession. In the 1860 Presidential election "Constitutional Democrat '' Breckenridge had outpolled "Constitutional Unionist '' Bell in the 50 counties by 1,900 votes, 44 % to 42 %. Regardless of scholarly disputes over election procedures and results county by county, altogether they simultaneously supplied over 20,000 soldiers to each side of the conflict. Representatives for most of the counties were seated in both state legislatures at Wheeling and at Richmond for the duration of the war.
Attempts to secede from the Confederacy by some counties in East Tennessee were checked by martial law. Although slave - holding Delaware and Maryland did not secede, citizens from those states exhibited divided loyalties. Regiments of Marylanders fought in Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia. But overall, 24,000 men from Maryland joined the Confederate armed forces, compared to 63,000 who joined Union forces.
Delaware never produced a full regiment for the Confederacy, but neither did it emancipate slaves as did Missouri and West Virginia. District of Columbia citizens made no attempts to secede and through the war years, referendums sponsored by President Lincoln approved systems of compensated emancipation and slave confiscation from "disloyal citizens ''.
Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention, which voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Lewis Owings as the new territorial governor. They won the Battle of Mesilla and established a territorial government with Mesilla serving as its capital. The Confederacy proclaimed the Confederate Arizona Territory on February 14, 1862, north to the 34th parallel. Marcus H. MacWillie served in both Confederate Congresses as Arizona 's delegate. In 1862 the Confederate New Mexico Campaign to take the northern half of the U.S. territory failed and the Confederate territorial government in exile relocated to San Antonio, Texas.
Confederate supporters in the trans - Mississippi west also claimed portions of United States Indian Territory after the United States evacuated the federal forts and installations. Over half of the American Indian troops participating in the Civil War from the Indian Territory supported the Confederacy; troops and one general were enlisted from each tribe. On July 12, 1861, the Confederate government signed a treaty with both the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations. After several battles Union armies took control of the territory.
Indian Territory was never formally ceded into the Confederacy by American Indian councils, but like Missouri and Kentucky, the Five Civilized Nations received representation in the Confederate Congress and their citizens were integrated into regular Confederate Army units. After 1863 the tribal governments sent representatives to the Confederate Congress: Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek people. The Cherokee Nation, aligning with the Confederacy, alleged northern violations of the Constitution, waging war against slavery commercial and political interests, abolishing slavery in the Indian Territory, and that the North intended to seize additional Indian lands.
Montgomery, Alabama served as the capital of the Confederate States of America from February 4 until May 29, 1861, in the Alabama State Capitol. Six states created the Confederate States of America there on February 8, 1861. The Texas delegation was seated at the time, so it is counted in the "original seven '' states of the Confederacy; it had no roll call vote until after its referendum made secession "operative ''. Two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in Montgomery, adjourning May 21. The Permanent Constitution was adopted there on March 12, 1861.
The permanent capital provided for in the Confederate Constitution called for a state cession of a ten - miles square (100 square mile) district to the central government. Atlanta, which had not yet supplanted Milledgeville, Georgia as its state capital, put in a bid noting its central location and rail connections, as did Opelika, Alabama, noting its strategically interior situation, rail connections and nearby deposits of coal and iron.
Richmond, Virginia was chosen for the interim capital at the Virginia State Capitol. The move was used by Vice President Stephens and others to encourage other border states to follow Virginia into the Confederacy. In the political moment it was a show of "defiance and strength ''. The war for southern independence was surely to be fought in Virginia, but it also had the largest Southern military - aged white population, with infrastructure, resources and supplies required to sustain a war. The Davis Administration 's policy was that, "It must be held at all hazards. ''
The naming of Richmond as the new capital took place on May 30, 1861, and the last two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in the new capital. The Permanent Confederate Congress and President were elected in the states and army camps on November 6, 1861. The First Congress met in four sessions in Richmond from February 18, 1862, to February 17, 1864. The Second Congress met there in two sessions, from May 2, 1864, to March 18, 1865.
As war dragged on, Richmond became crowded with training and transfers, logistics and hospitals. Prices rose dramatically despite government efforts at price regulation. A movement in Congress led by Henry S. Foote of Tennessee argued for moving the capital from Richmond. At the approach of Federal armies in mid-1862, the government 's archives were readied for removal. As the Wilderness Campaign progressed, Congress authorized Davis to remove the executive department and call Congress to session elsewhere in 1864 and again in 1865. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate farther south. Little came of these plans before Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia on April 9, 1865. Davis and most of his cabinet fled to Danville, Virginia, which served as their headquarters for about a week.
Unionism was widespread in the Confederacy, especially in the mountain regions of Appalachia and the Ozarks. Unionists, led by Parson Brownlow and Senator Andrew Johnson, took control of eastern Tennessee in 1863. Unionists also attempted control over western Virginia but never effectively held more than half the counties that formed the new state of West Virginia.
Union forces captured parts of coastal North Carolina, and at first were welcomed by local unionists. That changed as the occupiers became perceived as oppressive, callous, radical and favorable to the Freedmen. Occupiers engaged in pillaging, freeing of slaves, and eviction of those refusing to take or reneging on the loyalty oaths, as ex-Unionists began to support the Confederate cause.
Support for the Confederacy was perhaps weakest in Texas; Claude Elliott estimates that only a third of the population actively supported the Confederacy. Many unionists supported the Confederacy after the war began, but many others clung to their unionism throughout the war, especially in the northern counties, the German districts, and the Mexican areas. According to Ernest Wallace: "This account of a dissatisfied Unionist minority, although historically essential, must be kept in its proper perspective, for throughout the war the overwhelming majority of the people zealously supported the Confederacy... '' Randolph B. Campbell states "In spite of terrible losses and hardships, most Texans continued throughout the war to support the Confederacy as they had supported secession ''. Dale Baum in his analysis of Texas politics in the era counters: "This idea of a Confederate Texas united politically against northern adversaries was shaped more by nostalgic fantasies than by wartime realities. '' He characterizes Texas Civil War history as "a morose story of intragovernmental rivalries coupled with wide - ranging disaffection that prevented effective implementation of state wartime policies. ''
In Texas local officials harassed unionists and engaged in large - scale massacres against unionists and Germans. In Cooke County 150 suspected unionists were arrested; 25 were lynched without trial and 40 more were hanged after a summary trial. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot.
Civil liberties were of small concern in North and South. Lincoln and Davis both took a hard line against dissent. Neely explores how the Confederacy became a virtual police state with guards and patrols all about, and a domestic passport system whereby everyone needed official permission each time they wanted to travel. Over 4,000 suspected unionists were imprisoned without trial.
During the four years of its existence under trial by war, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. None were ever officially recognized by a foreign government. The United States government regarded the southern states in rebellion and so refused any formal recognition of their status.
Even before Fort Sumter, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward issued formal instructions to the American minister to Britain, Charles Francis Adams:
Seward instructed Adams that if the British government seemed inclined to recognize the Confederacy, or even waver in that regard, it was to receive a sharp warning, with a strong hint of war:
The United States government never declared war on those "kindred and countrymen '' in the Confederacy, but conducted its military efforts beginning with a presidential proclamation issued April 15, 1861. It called for troops to recapture forts and suppress what Lincoln later called an "insurrection and rebellion ''.
Mid-war parleys between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war predominantly governed military relationships on both sides of uniformed conflict.
On the part of the Confederacy, immediately following Fort Sumter the Confederate Congress proclaimed "... war exists between the Confederate States and the Government of the United States, and the States and Territories thereof... '' A state of war was not to formally exist between the Confederacy and those states and territories in the United States allowing slavery, although Confederate Rangers were compensated for destruction they could effect there throughout the war.
Concerning the international status and nationhood of the Confederate States of America, in 1869 the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White, 74 U.S. (7 Wall.) 700 (1869) ruled Texas ' declaration of secession was legally null and void. Jefferson Davis, former President of the Confederacy, and Alexander H. Stephens, its former Vice-President, both wrote postwar arguments in favor of secession 's legality and the international legitimacy of the Government of the Confederate States of America, most notably Davis ' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.
Once the war with the United States began, the Confederacy pinned its hopes for survival on military intervention by Great Britain and France. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king '' -- that is, Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton -- proved mistaken. The British had stocks to last over a year and had been developing alternative sources of cotton, most notably India and Egypt. They were not about to go to war with the U.S. to acquire more cotton at the risk of losing the large quantities of food imported from the North. The Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe but historians give them low marks for their poor diplomacy. James M. Mason went to London and John Slidell traveled to Paris. They were unofficially interviewed, but neither secured official recognition for the Confederacy.
In late 1861 the seizure of a British ship by the U.S. navy outraged Britain and led to a war scare in the Trent Affair. Recognition of the Confederacy seemed at hand, but Lincoln released the two detained Confederate diplomats, tensions cooled, and the Confederacy gained no advantage.
Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord John Russell, Emperor Napoleon III of France, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, showed interest in recognition of the Confederacy or at least mediation of the war. William Ewart Gladstone, the British finance minister whose family wealth was based on slavery, was the key advocate calling for intervention to help the Confederacy achieve independence. He failed to convince prime minister Palmerston. By September 1862 the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and abolitionist opposition in Britain put an end to these possibilities. The cost to Britain of a war with the U.S. would have been high: the immediate loss of American grain shipments, the end of exports to the U.S., and the seizure of billions of pounds invested in American securities. War would have meant higher taxes, another invasion of Canada, and full - scale worldwide attacks on the British merchant fleet. Outright recognition would have meant certain war with the United States; in mid-1862 fears of race war as had transpired in Haiti led to the British considering intervention for humanitarian reasons. Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation did not lead to interracial violence let alone a bloodbath, but it did give the friends of the Union strong talking points in the arguments that raged across Britain.
John Slidell, emissary to France, did succeed in negotiating a loan of $15,000,000 from Erlanger and other French capitalists. The money was used to buy ironclad warships, as well as military supplies that came in by blockade runners. The British government did allow blockade runners to be built in Britain; they were owned and operated by British financiers and sailors; a few were owned and operated by the Confederacy. The British investors ' goal was to get highly profitable cotton.
Several European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S., but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy. Those nations recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled the European diplomatic missions for advising their resident subjects to refuse to serve in the Confederate army. Both Confederate and Union agents were allowed to work openly in British territories. Some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. Pope Pius IX wrote a letter to Jefferson Davis in which he addressed Davis as the "Honorable President of the Confederate States of America ''. The Confederacy appointed Ambrose Dudley Mann as special agent to the Holy See on September 24, 1863. But the Holy See never released a formal statement supporting or recognizing the Confederacy.
Nevertheless, the Confederacy was seen internationally as a serious attempt at nationhood, and European governments sent military observers, both official and unofficial, to assess whether there had been a de facto establishment of independence. These included Arthur Lyon Fremantle of the British Coldstream Guards, Fitzgerald Ross of the Austrian Hussars and Justus Scheibert of the Prussian Army. European travelers visited and wrote accounts for publication. Importantly in 1862, the Frenchman Charles Girard 's Seven months in the rebel states during the North American War testified "this government... is no longer a trial government... but really a normal government, the expression of popular will ''. Fremantle went on to write in his book "Three Months in the Southern States '' that he had "not attempted to conceal any of the peculiarities or defects of the Southern people. Many persons will doubtless highly disapprove of some of their customs and habits in the wilder portion of the country; but I think no generous man, whatever may be his political opinions, can do otherwise than admire the courage, energy, and patriotism of the whole population, and the skill of its leaders, in this struggle against great odds. And I am also of opinion that many will agree with me in thinking that a people in which all ranks and both sexes display a unanimity and a heroism which can never have been surpassed in the history of the world, is destined, sooner or later, to become a great and independent nation. '' French Emperor Napoleon III assured Confederate diplomat John Slidell that he would make "direct proposition '' to Britain for joint recognition. The Emperor made the same assurance to Members of Parliament John A. Roebuck and John A. Lindsay. Roebuck in turn publicly prepared a bill to submit to Parliament June 30 supporting joint Anglo - French recognition of the Confederacy. "Southerners had a right to be optimistic, or at least hopeful, that their revolution would prevail, or at least endure ''. Following the dual reverses at Vicksburg and Gettysburg in July 1863, the Confederates "suffered a severe loss of confidence in themselves '', and withdrew into an interior defensive position. There would be no help from the Europeans.
By December 1864, Davis considered sacrificing slavery in order to enlist recognition and aid from Paris and London; he secretly sent Duncan F. Kenner to Europe with a message that the war was fought solely for "the vindication of our rights to self - government and independence '' and that "no sacrifice is too great, save that of honor. '' The message stated that if the French or British governments made their recognition conditional on anything at all, the Confederacy would consent to such terms. Davis 's message could not explicitly acknowledge that slavery was on the bargaining table due to still - strong domestic support for slavery among the wealthy and politically influential. European leaders all saw that the Confederacy was on the verge of total defeat.
The great majority of young white men voluntarily joined Confederate national or state military units. Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Civil War historian E. Merton Coulter noted that for those who would secure its independence, "The Confederacy was unfortunate in its failure to work out a general strategy for the whole war ''. Aggressive strategy called for offensive force concentration. Defensive strategy sought dispersal to meet demands of locally minded governors. The controlling philosophy evolved into a combination "dispersal with a defensive concentration around Richmond ''. The Davis administration considered the war purely defensive, a "simple demand that the people of the United States would cease to war upon us ''. Historian James M. McPherson is a critic of Lee 's Offensive Strategy: "Lee pursued a faulty military strategy that ensured Confederate defeat ''.
As the Confederate government lost control of territory in campaign after campaign, it was said that "the vast size of the Confederacy would make its conquest impossible ''. The enemy would be struck down by the same elements which so often debilitated or destroyed visitors and transplants in the South. Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, endemic diseases such as malaria and typhoid would match the destructive effectiveness of the Moscow winter on the invading armies of Napoleon.
Early in the war both sides believed that one great battle would decide the conflict; the Confederate won a great victory at the First Battle of Bull Run, also known as First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces). It drove the Confederate people "insane with joy ''; the public demanded a forward movement to capture Washington relocate the Confederate capital there, and admit Maryland to the Confederacy. A council of war by the victorious Confederate generals decided not to advance against larger numbers of fresh Federal troops in defensive positions. Davis did not countermand it. Following the Confederate incursion halted at the Battle of Antietam in October 1862, generals proposed concentrating forces from state commands to re-invade the north. Nothing came of it. Again in early 1863 at his incursion into Pennsylvania, Lee requested of Davis that Beauregard simultaneously attack Washington with troops taken from the Carolinas. But the troops there remained in place during the Gettysburg Campaign.
The eleven states of the Confederacy were outnumbered by the North about four to one in white men of military age. It was overmatched far more in military equipment, industrial facilities, railroads for transport, and wagons supplying the front.
Confederate military policy innovated to slow the invaders, but at heavy cost to the Southern infrastructure. The Confederates burned bridges, laid land mines in the roads, and made harbors inlets and inland waterways unusable with sunken mines (called "torpedos '' at the time). Coulter reports:
The Confederacy relied on external sources for war materials. The first came from trade with the enemy. "Vast amounts of war supplies '' came through Kentucky, and thereafter, western armies were "to a very considerable extent '' provisioned with illicit trade via Federal agents and northern private traders. But that trade was interrupted in the first year of war by Admiral Porter 's river gunboats as they gained dominance along navigable rivers north -- south and east -- west. Overseas blockade running then came to be of "outstanding importance ''. On April 17, President Davis called on privateer raiders, the "militia of the sea '', to make war on U.S. seaborne commerce. Despite noteworthy effort, over the course of the war the Confederacy was found unable to match the Union in ships and seamanship, materials and marine construction.
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to success in the 19th century warfare of mass armies was the Confederacy 's lack of manpower, and sufficient numbers of disciplined, equipped troops in the field at the point of contact with the enemy. During the winter of 1862 -- 63, Lee observed that none of his famous victories had resulted in the destruction of the opposing army. He lacked reserve troops to exploit an advantage on the battlefield as Napoleon had done. Lee explained, "More than once have most promising opportunities been lost for want of men to take advantage of them, and victory itself had been made to put on the appearance of defeat, because our diminished and exhausted troops have been unable to renew a successful struggle against fresh numbers of the enemy. ''
The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised three branches: Army, Navy and Marine Corps.
The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their Federal commissions and had won appointment to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. Many had served in the Mexican -- American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but some such as Leonidas Polk (who graduated from West Point but did not serve in the Army) had little or no experience.
Navy Jack -- light blue cross also square canton, white fly
Battle Flag -- square also without center star
The Confederate officer corps consisted of men from both slave - owning and non-slave - owning families. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, some colleges (such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that trained Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry 's Bluff, Virginia in 1863, but no midshipmen graduated before the Confederacy 's end.
The soldiers of the Confederate armed forces consisted mainly of white males aged between 16 and 28. The median year of birth was 1838, so half the soldiers were 23 or older by 1861. In early 1862, the Confederate Army was allowed to disintegrate for two months following expiration of short - term enlistments. A majority of those in uniform would not re-enlist following their one - year commitment, so on April 16, 1862, the Confederate Congress enacted the first mass conscription on the North American continent. (The U.S. Congress followed a year later on March 3, 1863, with the Enrollment Act.) Rather than a universal draft, the initial program was a selective service with physical, religious, professional and industrial exemptions. These were narrowed as the war progressed. Initially substitutes were permitted, but by December 1863 these were disallowed. In September 1862 the age limit was increased from 35 to 45 and by February 1864, all men under 18 and over 45 were conscripted to form a reserve for state defense inside state borders. By March 1864, the Superintendent of Conscription reported that all across the Confederacy, every officer in constituted authority, man and woman, "engaged in opposing the enrolling officer in the execution of his duties ''. Although challenged in the state courts, the Confederate State Supreme Courts routinely rejected legal challenges to conscription.
Many thousands of slaves served as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat ''. Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In early 1865, the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee 's and Davis 's recommendations, the Congress refused "to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers ''. No more than two hundred black combat troops were ever raised.
The immediate onset of war meant that it was fought by the "Provisional '' or "Volunteer Army ''. State governors resisted concentrating a national effort. Several wanted a strong state army for self - defense. Others feared large "Provisional '' armies answering only to Davis. When filling the Confederate government 's call for 100,000 men, another 200,000 were turned away by accepting only those enlisted "for the duration '' or twelve - month volunteers who brought their own arms or horses.
It was important to raise troops; it was just as important to provide capable officers to command them. With few exceptions the Confederacy secured excellent general officers. Efficiency in the lower officers was "greater than could have been reasonably expected ''. As with the Federals, political appointees could be indifferent. Otherwise, the officer corps was governor - appointed or elected by unit enlisted. Promotion to fill vacancies was made internally regardless of merit, even if better officers were immediately available.
Anticipating the need for more "duration '' men, in January 1862 Congress provided for company level recruiters to return home for two months, but their efforts met little success on the heels of Confederate battlefield defeats in February. Congress allowed for Davis to require numbers of recruits from each governor to supply the volunteer shortfall. States responded by passing their own draft laws.
The veteran Confederate army of early 1862 was mostly twelve - month volunteers with terms about to expire. Enlisted reorganization elections disintegrated the army for two months. Officers pleaded with the ranks to re-enlist, but a majority did not. Those remaining elected majors and colonels whose performance led to officer review boards in October. The boards caused a "rapid and widespread '' thinning out of 1700 incompetent officers. Troops thereafter would elect only second lieutenants.
In early 1862, the popular press suggested the Confederacy required a million men under arms. But veteran soldiers were not re-enlisting, and earlier secessionist volunteers did not reappear to serve in war. One Macon, Georgia, newspaper asked how two million brave fighting men of the South were about to be overcome by four million northerners who were said to be cowards.
The Confederacy passed the first American law of national conscription on April 16, 1862. The white males of the Confederate States from 18 to 35 were declared members of the Confederate army for three years, and all men then enlisted were extended to a three - year term. They would serve only in units and under officers of their state. Those under 18 and over 35 could substitute for conscripts, in September those from 35 to 45 became conscripts. The cry of "rich man 's war and a poor man 's fight '' led Congress to abolish the substitute system altogether in December 1863. All principals benefiting earlier were made eligible for service. By February 1864, the age bracket was made 17 to 50, those under eighteen and over forty - five to be limited to in - state duty.
Confederate conscription was not universal; it was a selective service. The First Conscription Act of April 1862 exempted occupations related to transportation, communication, industry, ministers, teaching and physical fitness. The Second Conscription Act of October 1862 expanded exemptions in industry, agriculture and conscientious objection. Exemption fraud proliferated in medical examinations, army furloughs, churches, schools, apothecaries and newspapers.
Rich men 's sons were appointed to the socially outcast "overseer '' occupation, but the measure was received in the country with "universal odium ''. The legislative vehicle was the controversial Twenty Negro Law that specifically exempted one white overseer or owner for every plantation with at least 20 slaves. Backpedalling six months later, Congress provided overseers under 45 could be exempted only if they held the occupation before the first Conscription Act. The number of officials under state exemptions appointed by state Governor patronage expanded significantly. By law, substitutes could not be subject to conscription, but instead of adding to Confederate manpower, unit officers in the field reported that over-50 and under - 17 - year - old substitutes made up to 90 % of the desertions.
Gen. Gabriel J. Rains Conscription Bureau chief April 1862 -- May 1863
Gen. Gideon J. Pillow military recruiter under Bragg, then J.E. Johnston
The Conscription Act of February 1864 "radically changed the whole system '' of selection. It abolished industrial exemptions, placing detail authority in President Davis. As the shame of conscription was greater than a felony conviction, the system brought in "about as many volunteers as it did conscripts. '' Many men in otherwise "bombproof '' positions were enlisted in one way or another, nearly 160,000 additional volunteers and conscripts in uniform. Still there was shirking. To administer the draft, a Bureau of Conscription was set up to use state officers, as state Governors would allow. It had a checkered career of "contention, opposition and futility. '' Armies appointed alternative military "recruiters '' to bring in the out - of - uniform 17 -- 50 - year - old conscripts and deserters. Nearly 3000 officers were tasked with the job. By late 1864, Lee was calling for more troops. "Our ranks are constantly diminishing by battle and disease, and few recruits are received; the consequences are inevitable. '' By March 1865 conscription was to be administered by generals of the state reserves calling out men over 45 and under 18 years old. All exemptions were abolished. These regiments were assigned to recruit conscripts ages 17 -- 50, recover deserters, and repel enemy cavalry raids. The service retained men who had lost but one arm or a leg in home guards. April 1865 Lee surrendered an army of 50,000. Conscription had been a failure.
The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year of fighting, and the Confederacy never succeeded in replacing casualties as the Union could. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861 -- 62, seem to have lost faith in the future of the Confederacy by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment. ''
The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with a Confederate victory at the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston.
In January, President James Buchanan had attempted to resupply the garrison with the steamship, Star of the West, but Confederate artillery drove it away. In March, President Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Pickens that without Confederate resistance to the resupply there would be no military reinforcement without further notice, but Lincoln prepared to force resupply if it were not allowed. Confederate President Davis, in cabinet, decided to seize Fort Sumter before the relief fleet arrived, and on April 12, 1861, General Beauregard forced its surrender.
Following Sumter, Lincoln directed states to provide 75,000 troops for three months to recapture the Charleston Harbor forts and all other federal property. This emboldened secessionists in Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina to secede rather than provide troops to march into neighboring Southern states. In May, Federal troops crossed into Confederate territory along the entire border from the Chesapeake Bay to New Mexico. The first battles were Confederate victories at Big Bethel (Bethel Church, Virginia), First Bull Run (First Manassas) in Virginia July and in August, Wilson 's Creek (Oak Hills) in Missouri. At all three, Confederate forces could not follow up their victory due to inadequate supply and shortages of fresh troops to exploit their successes. Following each battle, Federals maintained a military presence and occupied Washington, DC; Fort Monroe, VA; and Springfield, MO. Both North and South began training up armies for major fighting the next year. Union General George B. McClellan 's forces gained possession of much of northwestern Virginia in mid-1861, concentrating on towns and roads; the interior was too large to control and became the center of guerrilla activity. General Robert E. Lee was defeated at Cheat Mountain in September and no serious Confederate advance in western Virginia occurred until the next year.
Meanwhile, the Union Navy seized control of much of the Confederate coastline from Virginia to South Carolina. It took over plantations and the abandoned slaves. Federals there began a war - long policy of burning grain supplies up rivers into the interior wherever they could not occupy. The Union Navy began a blockade of the major southern ports and prepared an invasion of Louisiana to capture New Orleans in early 1862.
The victories of 1861 were followed by a series of defeats east and west in early 1862. To restore the Union by military force, the Federal strategy was to (1) secure the Mississippi River, (2) seize or close Confederate ports, and (3) march on Richmond. To secure independence, the Confederate intent was to (1) repel the invader on all fronts, costing him blood and treasure, and (2) carry the war into the North by two offensives in time to affect the mid-term elections.
Much of northwestern Virginia was under Federal control. In February and March, most of Missouri and Kentucky were Union "occupied, consolidated, and used as staging areas for advances further South ''. Following the repulse of Confederate counter-attack at the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, permanent Federal occupation expanded west, south and east. Confederate forces repositioned south along the Mississippi River to Memphis, where at the naval Battle of Memphis, its River Defense Fleet was sunk. Confederates withdrew from northern Mississippi and northern Alabama. New Orleans was captured April 29 by a combined Army - Navy force under U.S. Admiral David Farragut, and the Confederacy lost control of the mouth of the Mississippi River. It had to concede extensive agricultural resources that had supported the Union 's sea - supplied logistics base.
Although Confederates had suffered major reverses everywhere, as of the end of April the Confederacy still controlled territory holding 72 % of its population. Federal forces disrupted Missouri and Arkansas; they had broken through in western Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Louisiana. Along the Confederacy 's shores, Union forces had closed ports and made garrisoned lodgments on every coastal Confederate state except Alabama and Texas. Although scholars sometimes assess the Union blockade as ineffectual under international law until the last few months of the war, from the first months it disrupted Confederate privateers, making it "almost impossible to bring their prizes into Confederate ports ''. British firms developed small fleets of blockade running companies, such as John Fraser and Company, and the Ordnance Department secured its own blockade runners for dedicated munitions cargoes.
During the Civil War fleets of armored warships were deployed for the first time in sustained blockades at sea. After some success against the Union blockade, in March the ironclad CSS Virginia was forced into port and burned by Confederates at their retreat. Despite several attempts mounted from their port cities, CSA naval forces were unable to break the Union blockade. Attempts were made by Commodore Josiah Tattnall 's ironclads from Savannah in 1862 with the CSS Atlanta. Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory placed his hopes in a European - built ironclad fleet, but they were never realized. On the other hand, four new English - built commerce raiders served the Confederacy, and several fast blockade runners were sold in Confederate ports. They were converted into commerce - raiding cruisers, and manned by their British crews.
In the east, Union forces could not close on Richmond. General McClellan landed his army on the Lower Peninsula of Virginia. Lee subsequently ended that threat from the east, then Union General John Pope attacked overland from the north only to be repulsed at Second Bull Run (Second Manassas). Lee 's strike north was turned back at Antietam MD, then Union Major General Ambrose Burnside 's offensive was disastrously ended at Fredericksburg VA in December. Both armies then turned to winter quarters to recruit and train for the coming spring.
In an attempt to seize the initiative, reprovision, protect farms in mid-growing season and influence U.S. Congressional elections, two major Confederate incursions into Union territory had been launched in August and September 1862. Both Braxton Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Lee 's invasion of Maryland were decisively repulsed, leaving Confederates in control of but 63 % of its population. Civil War scholar Allan Nevins argues that 1862 was the strategic high - water mark of the Confederacy. The failures of the two invasions were attributed to the same irrecoverable shortcomings: lack of manpower at the front, lack of supplies including serviceable shoes, and exhaustion after long marches without adequate food. Also in September Confederate Gen. William W. Loring pushed Federal forces from Charleston, Virginia, and the Kanawha Valley in western Virginia, but lacking re-inforcements Loring abandoned his position and by November the region was back in Federal control.
The failed Middle Tennessee campaign was ended January 2, 1863, at the inconclusive Battle of Stones River, (Murfreesboro), both sides losing the largest percentage of casualties suffered during the war. It was followed by another strategic withdrawal by Confederate forces. The Confederacy won a significant victory April 1863, repulsing the Federal advance on Richmond at Chancellorsville, but the Union consolidated positions along the Virginia coast and the Chesapeake Bay.
Without an effective answer to Federal gunboats, river transport and supply, the Confederacy lost the Mississippi River following the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson in July, ending Southern access to the trans - Mississippi West. July brought short - lived counters, Morgan 's Raid into Ohio and the New York City draft riots. Robert E. Lee 's strike into Pennsylvania was repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania despite Pickett 's famous charge and other acts of valor. Southern newspapers assessed the campaign as "The Confederates did not gain a victory, neither did the enemy. ''
September and November left Confederates yielding Chattanooga, Tennessee, the gateway to the lower south. For the remainder of the war fighting was restricted inside the South, resulting in a slow but continuous loss of territory. In early 1864, the Confederacy still controlled 53 % of its population, but it withdrew further to reestablish defensive positions. Union offensives continued with Sherman 's March to the Sea to take Savannah and Grant 's Wilderness Campaign to encircle Richmond and besiege Lee 's army at Petersburg.
In April 1863, the C.S. Congress authorized a uniformed Volunteer Navy, many of whom were British. Wilmington and Charleston had more shipping while "blockaded '' than before the beginning of hostilities. The Confederacy had altogether eighteen commerce destroying cruisers, which seriously disrupted Federal commerce at sea and increased shipping insurance rates 900 percent. Commodore Tattnall unsuccessfully attempted to break the Union blockade on the Savannah River in Georgia with an ironclad again in 1863. Beginning in April 1864 the ironclad CSS Albemarle engaged Union gunboats and sank or cleared them for six months on the Roanoke River North Carolina. The Federals closed Mobile Bay by sea - based amphibious assault in August, ending Gulf coast trade east of the Mississippi River. In December, the Battle of Nashville ended Confederate operations in the western theater.
Large numbers of families relocated to safer places, usually remote rural areas, bringing along household slaves if they had any. Mary Massey argues these elite exiles introduced an element of defeatism into the southern outlook.
The first three months of 1865 saw the Federal Carolinas Campaign, devastating a wide swath of the remaining Confederate heartland. The "breadbasket of the Confederacy '' in the Great Valley of Virginia was occupied by Philip Sheridan. The Union Blockade captured Fort Fisher NC, and Sherman finally took Charleston SC by land attack.
The Confederacy controlled no ports, harbors or navigable rivers. Railroads were captured or had ceased operating. Its major food producing regions had been war - ravaged or occupied. Its administration survived in only three pockets of territory holding one - third its population. Its armies were defeated or disbanding. At the February 1865 Hampton Roads Conference with Lincoln, senior Confederate officials rejected his invitation to restore the Union with compensation for emancipated slaves. The three pockets of unoccupied Confederacy were southern Virginia - North Carolina, central Alabama - Florida, and Texas, the latter two areas less from any notion of resistance than from the disinterest of Federal forces to occupy them. The Davis policy was independence or nothing, while Lee 's army was wracked by disease and desertion, barely holding the trenches defending Jefferson Davis ' capital.
The Confederacy 's last remaining blockade - running port, Wilmington, North Carolina, was lost. When the Union broke through Lee 's lines at Petersburg, Richmond fell immediately. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865. "The Surrender '' marked the end of the Confederacy. The CSS Stonewall sailed from Europe to break the Union blockade in March; on making Havana, Cuba it surrendered. Some high officials escaped to Europe, but President Davis was captured May 10; all remaining Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865. The U.S. Army took control of the Confederate areas without post-surrender insurgency or guerrilla warfare against them, but peace was subsequently marred by a great deal of local violence, feuding and revenge killings. The last confederate military unit, the commerce raider CSS Shenandoah, surrendered on November 6, 1865 in Liverpool.
Historian Gary Gallagher concluded that the Confederacy capitulated in early 1865 because northern armies crushed "organized southern military resistance. '' The Confederacy 's population, soldier and civilian, had suffered material hardship and social disruption. They had expended and extracted a profusion of blood and treasure until collapse; "the end had come ''. Jefferson Davis ' assessment in 1890 determined, "With the capture of the capital, the dispersion of the civil authorities, the surrender of the armies in the field, and the arrest of the President, the Confederate States of America disappeared... their history henceforth became a part of the history of the United States. ''
When the war ended over 14,000 Confederates petitioned President Johnson for a pardon; he was generous in giving them out. He issued a general amnesty to all Confederate participants in the "late Civil War '' in 1868. Congress passed additional Amnesty Acts in May 1866 with restrictions on office holding, and the Amnesty Act in May 1872 lifting those restrictions. There was a great deal of discussion in 1865 about bringing treason trials, especially against Jefferson Davis. There was no consensus in President Johnson 's cabinet and there were no treason trials against anyone. In the case of Davis there was a strong possibility of acquittal which would have been humiliating for the government.
Davis was indicted for treason but never tried; he was released from prison on bail in May 1867. The amnesty of December 25, 1868, by President Johnson eliminated any possibility of Jefferson Davis (or anyone else associated with the Confederacy) standing trial for treason.
Henry Wirz, the commandant of a notorious prisoner - of - war camp near Andersonville, Georgia was tried and convicted by a military court, and executed on November 10, 1865. The charges against him involved conspiracy and cruelty, not treason.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled -- by a 5 -- 3 majority -- that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States of America. In this case, the court held that the Constitution did not permit a state to unilaterally secede from the United States. Further, that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the Constitution. This case settled the law that applied to all questions regarding state legislation during the war. Furthermore, it decided one of the "central constitutional questions '' of the Civil War: The Union is perpetual and indestructible, as a matter of constitutional law. In declaring that no state could leave the Union, "except through revolution or through consent of the States '', it was "explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate states that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states ''.
Historian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states ' rights. '' The central government was denied requisitioned soldiers and money by governors and state legislatures because they feared that Richmond would encroach on the rights of the states. Georgia 's governor Joseph Brown warned of a secret conspiracy by Jefferson Davis to destroy states ' rights and individual liberty. The first conscription act in North America authorizing Davis to draft soldiers was said to be the "essence of military despotism. ''
Joseph E. Brown Georgia Governor
Pendleton Murrah Texas Governor
Vice President Alexander H. Stephens feared losing the very form of republican government. Allowing President Davis to threaten "arbitrary arrests '' to draft hundreds of governor - appointed "bomb - proof '' bureaucrats conferred "more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on the king. History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority. '' The abolishment of draft exemptions for newspaper editors was interpreted as an attempt by the Confederate government to muzzle presses, such as the Raleigh NC Standard, to control elections and to suppress the peace meetings there. As Rable concludes, "For Stephens, the essence of patriotism, the heart of the Confederate cause, rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights '' without considerations of military necessity, pragmatism or compromise.
In 1863 governor Pendleton Murrah of Texas determined that state troops were required for defense against Plains Indians and Union forces that might attack from Kansas. He refused to send his soldiers to the East. Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina showed intense opposition to conscription, limiting recruitment success. Vance 's faith in states ' rights drove him into repeated, stubborn opposition to the Davis administration.
Despite political differences within the Confederacy, no national political parties were formed because they were seen as illegitimate. "Anti-partyism became an article of political faith. '' Without a two - party system building alternative sets of national leaders, electoral protests tended to be narrowly state - based, "negative, carping and petty. '' The 1863 mid-term elections became mere expressions of futile and frustrated dissatisfaction. According to historian David M. Potter, this lack of a functioning two - party system caused "real and direct damage '' to the Confederate war effort since it prevented the formulation of any effective alternatives to the conduct of the war by the Davis administration.
The enemies of President Davis proposed that the Confederacy "died of Davis. '' He was unfavorably compared to George Washington by critics such as Edward Alfred Pollard, editor of the most influential newspaper the Richmond Examiner. Coulter summarizes, "The American Revolution had its Washington; the Southern Revolution had its Davis... one succeeded and the other failed. '' Beyond the early honeymoon period, Davis was never popular. He unwittingly caused much internal dissension from early on. His ill health and temporary bouts of blindness disabled him for days at a time.
Coulter says Davis was heroic and his will was indomitable. But his "tenacity, determination, and will power '' stirred up lasting opposition of enemies Davis could not shake. He failed to overcome "petty leaders of the states '' who made the term "Confederacy '' into a label for tyranny and oppression, denying the "Stars and Bars '' from becoming a symbol of larger patriotic service and sacrifice. Instead of campaigning to develop nationalism and gain support for his administration, he rarely courted public opinion, assuming an aloofness, "almost like an Adams. ''
Escott argues that Davis was unable to mobilize Confederate nationalism in support of his government effectively, and especially failed to appeal to the small farmers who comprised the bulk of the population. In addition to the problems caused by states rights, Escott also emphasizes that the widespread opposition to any strong central government combined with the vast difference in wealth between the slave - owning class and the small farmers created insolvable dilemmas when the Confederate survival presupposed a strong central government backed by a united populace. The prewar claim that white solidarity was necessary to provide a unified Southern voice in Washington no longer held. Davis failed to build a network of supporters who would speak up when he came under criticism, and he repeatedly alienated governors and other state - based leaders by demanding centralized control of the war effort.
Davis was not an efficient administrator. He attended to too many details. He protected his friends after their failures were obvious. He spent too much time on military affairs versus his civic responsibilities. Coulter concludes he was not the ideal leader for the Southern Revolution, but he showed "fewer weaknesses than any other '' contemporary character available for the role. Robert E. Lee 's assessment of Davis as President was, "I knew of none that could have done as well. ''
The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution. Much of the Confederate States Constitution replicated the United States Constitution verbatim, but it contained several explicit protections of the institution of slavery including provisions for the recognition and protection of slavery in any territory of the Confederacy. It maintained the existing ban on international slave - trading while protecting the existing internal trade of slaves among slaveholding states.
In certain areas, the Confederate Constitution gave greater powers to the states (or curtailed the powers of the central government more) than the U.S. Constitution of the time did, but in other areas, the states lost rights they had under the U.S. Constitution. Although the Confederate Constitution, like the U.S. Constitution, contained a commerce clause, the Confederate version prohibited the central government from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. The Confederate Constitution 's equivalent to the U.S. Constitution 's general welfare clause prohibited protective tariffs (but allowed tariffs for providing domestic revenue), and spoke of "carry (ing) on the Government of the Confederate States '' rather than providing for the "general welfare ''. State legislatures had the power to impeach officials of the Confederate government in some cases. On the other hand, the Confederate Constitution contained a Necessary and Proper Clause and a Supremacy Clause that essentially duplicated the respective clauses of the U.S. Constitution. The Confederate Constitution also incorporated each of the 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution that had been ratified up to that point.
The Confederate Constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character '' but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government ''. During the debates on drafting the Confederate Constitution, one proposal would have allowed states to secede from the Confederacy. The proposal was tabled with only the South Carolina delegates voting in favor of considering the motion. The Confederate Constitution also explicitly denied States the power to bar slaveholders from other parts of the Confederacy from bringing their slaves into any state of the Confederacy or to interfere with the property rights of slave owners traveling between different parts of the Confederacy. In contrast with the language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God 's blessing ("... invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God... '').
The Montgomery Convention to establish the Confederacy and its executive met on February 4, 1861. Each state as a sovereignty had one vote, with the same delegation size as it held in the U.S. Congress, and generally 41 to 50 members attended. Offices were "provisional '', limited to a term not to exceed one year. One name was placed in nomination for president, one for vice president. Both were elected unanimously, 6 -- 0.
Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president. His U.S. Senate resignation speech greatly impressed with its clear rationale for secession and his pleading for a peaceful departure from the Union to independence. Although he had made it known that he wanted to be commander - in - chief of the Confederate armies, when elected, he assumed the office of Provisional President. Three candidates for provisional Vice President were under consideration the night before the February 9 election. All were from Georgia, and the various delegations meeting in different places determined two would not do, so Alexander H. Stephens was elected unanimously provisional Vice President, though with some privately held reservations. Stephens was inaugurated February 11, Davis February 18.
Davis and Stephens were elected President and Vice President, unopposed on November 6, 1861. They were inaugurated on February 22, 1862.
Historian E.M. Coulter observed, "No president of the U.S. ever had a more difficult task. '' Washington was inaugurated in peacetime. Lincoln inherited an established government of long standing. The creation of the Confederacy was accomplished by men who saw themselves as fundamentally conservative. Although they referred to their "Revolution '', it was in their eyes more a counter-revolution against changes away from their understanding of U.S. founding documents. In Davis ' inauguration speech, he explained the Confederacy was not a French - like revolution, but a transfer of rule. The Montgomery Convention had assumed all the laws of the United States until superseded by the Confederate Congress.
The Permanent Constitution provided for a President of the Confederate States of America, elected to serve a six - year term but without the possibility of re-election. Unlike the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution gave the president the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power also held by some state governors.
The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two - thirds votes required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two - thirds vote in both houses of Congress. The only person to serve as president was Jefferson Davis, due to the Confederacy being defeated before the completion of his term.
The only two "formal, national, functioning, civilian administrative bodies '' in the Civil War South were the Jefferson Davis administration and the Confederate Congresses. The Confederacy was begun by the Provisional Congress in Convention at Montgomery, Alabama on February 28, 1861. It had one vote per state in a unicameral assembly.
The Permanent Confederate Congress was elected and began its first session February 18, 1862. The Permanent Congress for the Confederacy followed the United States forms with a bicameral legislature. The Senate had two per state, twenty - six Senators. The House numbered 106 representatives apportioned by free and slave populations within each state. Two Congresses sat in six sessions until March 18, 1865.
The political influences of the civilian, soldier vote and appointed representatives reflected divisions of political geography of a diverse South. These in turn changed over time relative to Union occupation and disruption, the war impact on local economy, and the course of the war. Without political parties, key candidate identification related to adopting secession before or after Lincoln 's call for volunteers to retake Federal property. Previous party affiliation played a part in voter selection, predominantly secessionist Democrat or unionist Whig.
The absence of political parties made individual roll call voting all the more important, as the Confederate "freedom of roll - call voting (was) unprecedented in American legislative history. Key issues throughout the life of the Confederacy related to (1) suspension of habeas corpus, (2) military concerns such as control of state militia, conscription and exemption, (3) economic and fiscal policy including impressment of slaves, goods and scorched earth, and (4) support of the Jefferson Davis administration in its foreign affairs and negotiating peace.
For the first year, the unicameral Provisional Confederate Congress functioned as the Confederacy 's legislative branch.
Jesse J. Finley Florida District
Henry R. Jackson Georgia District
Asa Biggs North Carolina District
Andrew Magrath South Carolina District
The Confederate Constitution outlined a judicial branch of the government, but the ongoing war and resistance from states - rights advocates, particularly on the question of whether it would have appellate jurisdiction over the state courts, prevented the creation or seating of the "Supreme Court of the Confederate States; '' the state courts generally continued to operate as they had done, simply recognizing the Confederate States as the national government.
Confederate district courts were authorized by Article III, Section 1, of the Confederate Constitution, and President Davis appointed judges within the individual states of the Confederate States of America. In many cases, the same US Federal District Judges were appointed as Confederate States District Judges. Confederate district courts began reopening in early 1861, handling many of the same type cases as had been done before. Prize cases, in which Union ships were captured by the Confederate Navy or raiders and sold through court proceedings, were heard until the blockade of southern ports made this impossible. After a Sequestration Act was passed by the Confederate Congress, the Confederate district courts heard many cases in which enemy aliens (typically Northern absentee landlords owning property in the South) had their property sequestered (seized) by Confederate Receivers.
When the matter came before the Confederate court, the property owner could not appear because he was unable to travel across the front lines between Union and Confederate forces. Thus, the District Attorney won the case by default, the property was typically sold, and the money used to further the Southern war effort. Eventually, because there was no Confederate Supreme Court, sharp attorneys like South Carolina 's Edward McCrady began filing appeals. This prevented their clients ' property from being sold until a supreme court could be constituted to hear the appeal, which never occurred. Where Federal troops gained control over parts of the Confederacy and re-established civilian government, US district courts sometimes resumed jurisdiction.
Supreme Court -- not established.
District Courts -- judges
John H. Reagan Postmaster General
Jefferson Davis, 5 cent The 1st stamp, 1861
Andrew Jackson 2 cent, 1862
George Washington 20 cent, 1863
When the Confederacy was formed and its seceding states broke from the Union, it was at once confronted with the arduous task of providing its citizens with a mail delivery system, and, in the midst of the American Civil War, the newly formed Confederacy created and established the Confederate Post Office. One of the first undertakings in establishing the Post Office was the appointment of John H. Reagan to the position of Postmaster General, by Jefferson Davis in 1861, making him the first Postmaster General of the Confederate Post Office as well as a member of Davis ' presidential cabinet. Through Reagan 's resourcefulness and remarkable industry, he had his department assembled, organized and in operation before the other Presidential cabinet members had their departments fully operational.
When the war began, the US Post Office still delivered mail from the secessionist states for a brief period of time. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state 's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing US postage was still delivered. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry some of the mail across enemy lines. Later, mail that crossed lines had to be sent by ' Flag of Truce ' and was allowed to pass at only two specific points. Mail sent from the South to the North states was received, opened and inspected at Fortress Monroe on the Virginia coast before being passed on into the U.S. mail stream. Mail sent from the North to the South passed at City Point, also in Virginia, where it was also inspected before being sent on.
With the chaos of the war, a working postal system was more important than ever for the Confederacy. The Civil War had divided family members and friends and consequently letter writing increased dramatically across the entire divided nation, especially to and from the men who were away serving in an army. Mail delivery was also important for the Confederacy for a myriad of business and military reasons. Because of the Union blockade, basic supplies were always in demand and so getting mailed correspondence out of the country to suppliers was imperative to the successful operation of the Confederacy. Volumes of material have been written about the Blockade runners who evaded Union ships on blockade patrol, usually at night, and who moved cargo and mail in and out of the Confederate States throughout the course of the war. Of particular interest to students and historians of the American Civil War is Prisoner of War mail and Blockade mail as these items were often involved with a variety of military and other war time activities. The postal history of the Confederacy along with surviving Confederate mail has helped historians document the various people, places and events that were involved in the American Civil War as it unfolded.
The Confederacy actively used the army to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 4,108 names of men arrested and estimated a much larger total. The Confederacy arrested pro-Union civilians in the South at about the same rate as the Union arrested pro-Confederate civilians in the North. Neely argues:
The Confederate citizen was not any freer than the Union citizen -- and perhaps no less likely to be arrested by military authorities. In fact, the Confederate citizen may have been in some ways less free than his Northern counterpart. For example, freedom to travel within the Confederate states was severely limited by a domestic passport system.
Across the South, widespread rumors alarmed the whites by predicting the slaves were planning some sort of insurrection. Patrols were stepped up. The slaves did become increasingly independent, and resistant to punishment, but historians agree there were no insurrections. In the invaded areas, insubordination was more the norm than loyalty to the old master; Bell Wiley says, "It was not disloyalty, but the lure of freedom. '' Many slaves became spies for the North, and large numbers ran away to federal lines.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, an executive order of the U.S. government on January 1, 1863, changed the legal status of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave '' to "free ''. The long - term effect was that the Confederacy could not preserve the institution of slavery, and lost the use of the core element of its plantation labor force. Slaves were legally freed by the Proclamation, and became free by escaping to federal lines, or by advances of federal troops. Many freed slaves served as volunteers in the federal army as teamsters, cooks, laundresses and laborers, and eventually as soldiers. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By "Juneteenth '' (June 19, 1865, in Texas), the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all its slaves. Their owners never received compensation.
Most whites were subsistence farmers who traded their surpluses locally. The plantations of the South, with white ownership and an enslaved labor force, produced substantial wealth from cash crops. It supplied two - thirds of the world 's cotton, which was in high demand for textiles, along with tobacco, sugar, and naval stores (such as turpentine). These raw materials were exported to factories in Europe and the Northeast. Planters reinvested their profits in more slaves and fresh land, for cotton and tobacco depleted the soil. There was little manufacturing or mining; shipping was controlled by outsiders.
The plantations that enslaved over three million black people were the principal source of wealth. Most were concentrated in "black belt '' plantation areas (because few white families in the poor regions owned slaves.) For decades there had been widespread fear of slave revolts. During the war extra men were assigned to "home guard '' patrol duty and governors sought to keep militia units at home for protection. Historian William Barney reports, "no major slave revolts erupted during the Civil War. '' Nevertheless, slaves took the opportunity to enlarge their sphere of independence, and when union forces were nearby, many ran off to join them.
Slave labor was applied in industry in a limited way in the Upper South and in a few port cities. One reason for the regional lag in industrial development was top - heavy income distribution. Mass production requires mass markets, and slaves living in small cabins, using self - made tools and outfitted with one suit of work clothes each year of inferior fabric, did not generate consumer demand to sustain local manufactures of any description in the same way a mechanized family farm of free labor did in the North. The Southern economy was "pre-capitalist '' in that slaves were put to work in the largest revenue - producing enterprises, not free labor market. That labor system as practiced in the American South encompassed paternalism, whether abusive or indulgent, and that meant labor management considerations apart from productivity.
Approximately 85 % of both North and South white populations lived on family farms, both regions were predominantly agricultural, and mid-century industry in both was mostly domestic. But the Southern economy was pre-capitalist in its overwhelming reliance on the agriculture of cash crops to produce wealth, while the great majority of farmers fed themselves and supplied a small local market. Southern cities and industries grew faster than ever before, but the thrust of the rest of the country 's exponential growth elsewhere was toward urban industrial development along transportation systems of canals and railroads. The South was following the dominant currents of the American economic mainstream, but at a "great distance '' as it lagged in the all - weather modes of transportation that brought cheaper, speedier freight shipment and forged new, expanding inter-regional markets.
A third count of southern pre-capitalist economy relates to the cultural setting. The South and southerners did not adopt a work ethic, nor the habits of thrift that marked the rest of the country. It had access to the tools of capitalism, but it did not adopt its culture. The Southern Cause as a national economy in the Confederacy was grounded in "slavery and race, planters and patricians, plain folk and folk culture, cotton and plantations ''.
The Confederacy started its existence as an agrarian economy with exports, to a world market, of cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and sugarcane. Local food production included grains, hogs, cattle, and gardens. The cash came from exports but the Southern people spontaneously stopped exports in early 1861 to hasten the impact of "King Cotton ''. When the blockade was announced, commercial shipping practically ended (the ships could not get insurance), and only a trickle of supplies came via blockade runners. The cutoff of exports was an economic disaster for the South, rendering useless its most valuable properties, its plantations and their enslaved workers. Many planters kept growing cotton, which piled up everywhere, but most turned to food production. All across the region, the lack of repair and maintenance wasted away the physical assets.
The eleven states had produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860, chiefly from local grist - mills, and lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and naval stores such as turpentine. The main industrial areas were border cities such as Baltimore, Wheeling, Louisville and St. Louis, that were never under Confederate control. The government did set up munitions factories in the Deep South. Combined with captured munitions and those coming via blockade runners, the armies were kept minimally supplied with weapons. The soldiers suffered from reduced rations, lack of medicines, and the growing shortages of uniforms, shoes and boots. Shortages were much worse for civilians, and the prices of necessities steadily rose.
The Confederacy adopted a tariff or tax on imports of 15 %, and imposed it on all imports from other countries, including the United States. The tariff mattered little; the Union blockade minimized commercial traffic through the Confederacy 's ports, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the North. The Confederate government in its entire history collected only $3.5 million in tariff revenue. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation. The Confederacy underwent an economic revolution by centralization and standardization, but it was too little too late as its economy was systematically strangled by blockade and raids.
In peacetime, the South 's extensive and connected systems of navigable rivers and coastal access allowed for cheap and easy transportation of agricultural products. The railroad system in the South had developed as a supplement to the navigable rivers to enhance the all - weather shipment of cash crops to market. Railroads tied plantation areas to the nearest river or seaport and so made supply more dependable, lowered costs and increased profits. In the event of invasion, the vast geography of the Confederacy made logistics difficult for the Union. Wherever Union armies invaded, they assigned many of their soldiers to garrison captured areas and to protect rail lines.
At the onset of the Civil War the South had a rail network disjointed and plagued by changes in track gauge as well as lack of interchange. Locomotives and freight cars had fixed axles and could not use tracks of different gauges (widths). Railroads of different gauges leading to the same city required all freight to be off - loaded onto wagons for transport to the connecting railroad station, where it had to await freight cars and a locomotive before proceeding. Centers requiring off - loading included Vicksburg, New Orleans, Montgomery, Wilmington and Richmond. In addition, most rail lines led from coastal or river ports to inland cities, with few lateral railroads. Due to this design limitation, the relatively primitive railroads of the Confederacy were unable to overcome the Union naval blockade of the South 's crucial intra-coastal and river routes.
The Confederacy had no plan to expand, protect or encourage its railroads. Southerners ' refusal to export the cotton crop in 1861 left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many lines had to lay off employees; many critical skilled technicians and engineers were permanently lost to military service. In the early years of the war the Confederate government had a hands - off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate a national policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. Railroads came under the de facto control of the military. In contrast, the U.S. Congress had authorized military administration of Union - controlled railroad and telegraph systems in January 1862, imposed a standard gauge, and built railroads into the South using that gauge. Confederate armies successfully reoccupying territory could not be resupplied directly by rail as they advanced. The C.S. Congress formally authorized military administration of railroads in February 1865.
In the last year before the end of the war, the Confederate railroad system stood permanently on the verge of collapse. There was no new equipment and raids on both sides systematically destroyed key bridges, as well as locomotives and freight cars. Spare parts were cannibalized; feeder lines were torn up to get replacement rails for trunk lines, and rolling stock wore out through heavy use.
The Confederate army experienced a persistent shortage of horses and mules, and requisitioned them with dubious promissory notes given to local farmers and breeders. Union forces paid in real money and found ready sellers in the South. Both armies needed horses for cavalry and for artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply was undermined by an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. After 1863 the invading Union forces had a policy of shooting all the local horses and mules they did not need -- in order to keep them out of Confederate hands. The Confederate armies and farmers experienced a growing shortage of horses and mules, which hurt the Southern economy and the war effort. The South lost half of its 2.5 million horses and mules; many farmers ended the war with none left. Army horses were used up by hard work, malnourishment, disease and battle wounds; they had a life expectancy of about seven months.
Both the individual Confederate states and later the Confederate government printed Confederate States of America dollars as paper currency in various denominations, with a total face value of $1.5 billion. Much of it was signed by Treasurer Edward C. Elmore. Inflation became rampant as the paper money depreciated and eventually became worthless. The state governments and some localities printed their own paper money, adding to the runaway inflation. Many bills still exist, although in recent years counterfeit copies have proliferated.
The Confederate government initially wanted to finance its war mostly through tariffs on imports, export taxes, and voluntary donations of gold. After the spontaneous imposition of an embargo on cotton sales to Europe in 1861, these sources of revenue dried up and the Confederacy increasingly turned to issuing debt and printing money to pay for war expenses. The Confederate States politicians were worried about angering the general population with hard taxes. A tax increase might disillusion many Southerners, so the Confederacy resorted to printing more money. As a result, inflation increased and remained a problem for the southern states throughout the rest of the war. By April 1863, for example, the cost of flour in Richmond had risen to $100 a barrel and housewives were rioting.
The Confederate government took over the three national mints: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia, and the New Orleans Mint in Louisiana. During 1861, the first two produced small amounts of gold coinage, the latter half dollars. Since the mints used the current dies on hand, these issues remain indistinguishable from those minted by the Union. In New Orleans the Confederacy used its own reverse design to strike four half dollars. US coinage was hoarded and did not have any general circulation. U.S. coinage was admitted as legal tender up to $10, as were British sovereigns, French Napoleons and Spanish and Mexican doubloons at a fixed rate of exchange. Confederate money was paper and postage stamps.
By mid-1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured goods. Food that formerly came overland was cut off.
Women had charge of making do. They cut back on purchases, brought out old spinning wheels and enlarged their gardens with flax and peas to provide clothing and food. They used ersatz substitutes when possible, but there was no real coffee and it was hard to develop a taste for the okra or chicory substitutes used. The households were severely hurt by inflation in the cost of everyday items like flour and the shortages of food, fodder for the animals, and medical supplies for the wounded.
State governments pleaded with planters to grow less cotton and more food. Most refused. When cotton prices soared in Europe, expectations were that Europe would soon intervene to break the blockade and make them rich. The myth of omnipotent "King Cotton '' died hard. The Georgia legislature imposed cotton quotas, making it a crime to grow an excess. But food shortages only worsened, especially in the towns.
The overall decline in food supplies, made worse by the inadequate transportation system, led to serious shortages and high prices in urban areas. When bacon reached a dollar a pound in 1863, the poor women of Richmond, Atlanta and many other cities began to riot; they broke into shops and warehouses to seize food. The women expressed their anger at ineffective state relief efforts, speculators, and merchants. As wives and widows of soldiers they were hurt by the inadequate welfare system.
By the end of the war deterioration of the Southern infrastructure was widespread. The number of civilian deaths is unknown. Every Confederate state was affected, but most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee, while Texas and Florida saw the least military action. Much of the damage was caused by direct military action, but most was caused by lack of repairs and upkeep, and by deliberately using up resources. Historians have recently estimated how much of the devastation was caused by military action. Paul Paskoff calculates that Union military operations were conducted in 56 % of 645 counties in nine Confederate states (excluding Texas and Florida). These counties contained 63 % of the 1860 white population and 64 % of the slaves. By the time the fighting took place, undoubtedly some people had fled to safer areas, so the exact population exposed to war is unknown.
Potters House, Atlanta Ga
Downtown Charleston SC
Navy Yard, Norfolk Va
Rail bridge, Petersburg Va
The eleven Confederate States in the 1860 United States Census had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 40,500, 8,100, and 37,900, respectively); the eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14 % of the urban South. Historians have not estimated what their actual population was when Union forces arrived. The number of people (as of 1860) who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1 % of the Confederacy 's 1860 population. In addition, 45 court houses were burned (out of 830). The South 's agriculture was not highly mechanized. The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million; by 1870, there was 40 % less, worth just $48 million. Many old tools had broken through heavy use; new tools were rarely available; even repairs were difficult.
The economic losses affected everyone. Banks and insurance companies were mostly bankrupt. Confederate currency and bonds were worthless. The billions of dollars invested in slaves vanished. Most debts were also left behind. Most farms were intact but most had lost their horses, mules and cattle; fences and barns were in disrepair. Paskoff shows the loss of farm infrastructure was about the same whether or not fighting took place nearby. The loss of infrastructure and productive capacity meant that rural widows throughout the region faced not only the absence of able - bodied men, but a depleted stock of material resources that they could manage and operate themselves. During four years of warfare, disruption, and blockades, the South used up about half its capital stock. The North, by contrast, absorbed its material losses so effortlessly that it appeared richer at the end of the war than at the beginning.
The rebuilding took years and was hindered by the low price of cotton after the war. Outside investment was essential, especially in railroads. One historian has summarized the collapse of the transportation infrastructure needed for economic recovery:
One of the greatest calamities which confronted Southerners was the havoc wrought on the transportation system. Roads were impassable or nonexistent, and bridges were destroyed or washed away. The important river traffic was at a standstill: levees were broken, channels were blocked, the few steamboats which had not been captured or destroyed were in a state of disrepair, wharves had decayed or were missing, and trained personnel were dead or dispersed. Horses, mules, oxen, carriages, wagons, and carts had nearly all fallen prey at one time or another to the contending armies. The railroads were paralyzed, with most of the companies bankrupt. These lines had been the special target of the enemy. On one stretch of 114 miles in Alabama, every bridge and trestle was destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water - tanks gone, ditches filled up, and tracks grown up in weeds and bushes... Communication centers like Columbia and Atlanta were in ruins; shops and foundries were wrecked or in disrepair. Even those areas bypassed by battle had been pirated for equipment needed on the battlefront, and the wear and tear of wartime usage without adequate repairs or replacements reduced all to a state of disintegration.
About 250,000 men never came home, some 30 percent of all white men aged 18 to 40, in 1860. Widows who were overwhelmed often abandoned the farm and merged into the households of relatives, or even became refugees living in camps with high rates of disease and death. In the Old South, being an "old maid '' was something of an embarrassment to the woman and her family. Now it became almost a norm. Some women welcomed the freedom of not having to marry. Divorce, while never fully accepted, became more common. The concept of the "New Woman '' emerged -- she was self - sufficient and independent, and stood in sharp contrast to the "Southern Belle '' of antebellum lore.
1st National Flag (7 -, 9, 11 -, 13 - stars) "Stars and Bars ''
2nd National Flag (Richmond Capitol) "Stainless Banner ''
3rd National Flag (never flown) "Blood Stained Banner ''
CSA Naval Jack 1861 -- 63
CSA Naval Jack 1863 -- 65
Battle Flag "Southern Cross ''
Bonnie Blue Flag Unofficial Southern Flag
The first official flag of the Confederate States of America -- called the "Stars and Bars '' -- originally had seven stars, representing the first seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. As more states joined, more stars were added, until the total was 13 (two stars were added for the divided states of Kentucky and Missouri). During the First Battle of Bull Run, (First Manassas) it sometimes proved difficult to distinguish the Stars and Bars from the Union flag. To rectify the situation, a separate "Battle Flag '' was designed for use by troops in the field. Also known as the "Southern Cross '', many variations sprang from the original square configuration. Although it was never officially adopted by the Confederate government, the popularity of the Southern Cross among both soldiers and the civilian population was a primary reason why it was made the main color feature when a new national flag was adopted in 1863. This new standard -- known as the "Stainless Banner '' -- consisted of a lengthened white field area with a Battle Flag canton. This flag too had its problems when used in military operations as, on a windless day, it could easily be mistaken for a flag of truce or surrender. Thus, in 1865, a modified version of the Stainless Banner was adopted. This final national flag of the Confederacy kept the Battle Flag canton, but shortened the white field and added a vertical red bar to the fly end.
Because of its depiction in the 20th - century and popular media, many people consider the rectangular battle flag with the dark blue bars as being synonymous with "the Confederate Flag '', but this flag was never adopted as a Confederate national flag. The "Confederate Flag '' has a color scheme similar to the official Battle Flag, but is rectangular, not square. (Its design and shape matches the Naval Jack, but the blue bars are darker.) The "Confederate Flag '' is a highly recognizable symbol of the South in the United States today, and continues to be a controversial icon.
The Confederate States of America claimed a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 km) of coastline, thus a large part of its territory lay on the seacoast with level and often sandy or marshy ground. Most of the interior portion consisted of arable farmland, though much was also hilly and mountainous, and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans - Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,670 m).
Climate
Much of the area claimed by the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate and terrain varied from vast swamps (such as those in Florida and Louisiana) to semi-arid steppes and arid deserts west of longitude 100 degrees west. The subtropical climate made winters mild but allowed infectious diseases to flourish. Consequently, on both sides more soldiers died from disease than were killed in combat, a fact hardly atypical of pre -- World War I conflicts.
The United States Census of 1860 gives a picture of the overall 1860 population of the areas that joined the Confederacy. Note that population - numbers exclude non-assimilated Indian tribes.
(Figures for Virginia include the future West Virginia.)
(Rows may not total to 100 % due to rounding)
In 1860 the areas that later formed the eleven Confederate States (and including the future West Virginia) had 132,760 (1.46 %) free blacks. Males made up 49.2 % of the total population and females 50.8 % (whites: 48.60 % male, 51.40 % female; slaves: 50.15 % male, 49.85 % female; free blacks: 47.43 % male, 52.57 % female).
The CSA was overwhelmingly rural land. Few towns had populations of more than 1,000 -- the typical county seat had a population of fewer than 500 people. Cities were rare. Of the twenty largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, only New Orleans lay in Confederate territory -- and the Union captured New Orleans in 1862. Only 13 Confederate - controlled cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities vanished or suffered severely in the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the Confederate capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864. Other Southern cities in the Border slave - holding states such as Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Wheeling (W.Va., formerly Va.), Alexandria, Louisville, and St. Louis never came under the control of the Confederate government.
The cities of the Confederacy included most prominently in order of size of population:
(See also Atlanta in the Civil War, Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War, Nashville in the Civil War, New Orleans in the Civil War, Wilmington, North Carolina, in the American Civil War, and Richmond in the Civil War).
The CSA was overwhelmingly Protestant. Both free and enslaved populations identified with evangelical Protestantism. Freedom of religion and separation of church and state were fully ensured by Confederate laws. Church attendance was very high and chaplains played a major role in the Army.
Some denominations experienced a North -- South split around 1861 on the issue of slavery and also due to the ongoing political climate. In the wake of the Second Great Awakening, Baptists and Methodists together formed majorities of both the white and the slave population (see Black church). Both broke off from their Northern coreligionists over the slavery issue. Elites in the southeast favored the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America, which reluctantly split off the Episcopal Church (USA) in 1861. Other elites were Presbyterians belonging to the 1861 founded Presbyterian Church in the United States. Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father of President Woodrow Wilson) was a prominent leader of the new denomination. In 1861, he organized the meeting that formed General Assembly of the Southern Presbyterian Church and served as its chief executive for thirty - seven years. Catholics included an Irish working class element in coastal cities and an old French element in southern Louisiana. Other insignificant and scattered religious populations included Lutherans, the Holiness movement, other Reformed, other Christian fundamentalists, the Stone - Campbell Restoration Movement, the Churches of Christ, the Latter - day Saints movement, Adventists, Muslims, Jews, Native American animists, deists and irreligious people.
The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries. The Southern Baptists started in 1862 and had a total of 78 missionaries. Presbyterians were even more active with 112 missionaries and early 1865. Other missionaries were funded and supported by the Episcopalians, Methodists, and Lutherans. One result was wave after wave of revivals in the Army.
Military leaders of the Confederacy (with their state or country of birth and highest rank) included:
As the telegraph chattered reports of the attack on Sumter April 12 and its surrender next day, huge crowds poured into the streets of Richmond, Raleigh, Nashville, and other upper South cities to celebrate this victory over the Yankees. These crowds waved Confederate flags and cheered the glorious cause of southern independence. They demanded that their own states join the cause. Scores of demonstrations took place from April 12 to 14, before Lincoln issued his call for troops. Many conditional unionists were swept along by this powerful tide of southern nationalism; others were cowed into silence.
Historian Daniel W. Crofts disagrees with McPherson. Crofts wrote:
The bombardment of Fort Sumter, by itself, did not destroy Unionist majorities in the upper South. Because only three days elapsed before Lincoln issued the proclamation, the two events viewed retrospectively, appear almost simultaneous. Nevertheless, close examination of contemporary evidence... shows that the proclamation had a far more decisive impact.
Many concluded... that Lincoln had deliberately chosen ' to drive off all the Slave states, in order to make war on them and annihilate slavery. '
by John B. Boles and Evelyn Thomas Nolen
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when did the stock market crash in canada | Great Depression in Canada - wikipedia
Canada was hit hard by the Great Depression. The worldwide depression that started in the United States in late 1929 quickly reached Canada. Between 1929 and 1939, the gross domestic product dropped 40 % (compared to 37 % in the US). Unemployment reached 27 % at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many companies closed, as corporate profits of $398 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million as prices fell. Farmers in the Prairies were hit especially hard by the collapse of wheat prices. Despite the emergence of numerous radical parties, the government was run by the major parties. The Depression ended in 1939 as World War II began.
By 1930, 30 % of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell, as did prices. Gross National Expenditure had declined 42 % from the 1929 levels. In some areas, the decline was far worse. In the rural areas of the prairies, two thirds of the population were on relief.
Further damage was the reduction of investment: both large companies and individuals were unwilling and unable to invest in new ventures.
In 1932, industrial production was only at 58 % of the 1929 level, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which only saw it fall to 83 % of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 55 % of the 1929 level, again worse than any nation other than the U.S.
Canada 's economy at the time was just starting to shift from primary industry (farming, fishing, mining and logging) to manufacturing. Exports of raw materials plunged, and employment, prices and profits fell in every sector. Canada was the worst - hit because of its economic position. It was further affected as its main trading partners were Britain and the U.S., both of which were badly affected by the worldwide depression.
One of the areas not affected was bush flying, which, thanks to a mining and exploration boom, continued to thrive throughout this period. Even so, most bush flying companies lost money, impacted by the government 's cancellation of airmail contracts in 1931 - 2.
Urban unemployment nationwide was 19 %; Toronto 's rate was 17 %, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed. By 1933, 30 % of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. In some areas, such as mining and lumbering areas, the decline was far worse.
The Prairie Provinces and Western Canada were the hardest - hit. In the rural areas of the prairies, two thirds of the population were on relief. The region fully recovered after 1939. The fall of wheat prices drove many farmers to the towns and cities, such as Calgary, Alberta; Regina, Saskatchewan; and Brandon, Manitoba. Population in the prairie provinces fell below natural replacement level. There was also migration from the southern prairies affected by Dust Bowl conditions such as the Palliser 's Triangle to aspen parkland in the north.
During the depression, there was a rise of working class militancy organized by the Communist Party. The labour unions largely retreated in response to the ravages of the depression at the same time that significant portions of the working class, including the unemployed, clamoured for collective action.
Numerous strikes and protests were led by the Communists, many of which culminated in violent clashes with the police. Some notable ones include a coal miners strike that resulted in the Estevan Riot in Estevan, Saskatchewan that left three strikers dead by RCMP bullets in 1931, a waterfront strike in Vancouver that culminated with the "Battle of Ballantyne Pier '' in 1935, and numerous unemployed demonstrations up to and including the On - to - Ottawa Trek that left one Regina police constable and one protester dead in the "Regina Riot. '' Although the actual number of Communist Party militants remained small, their impact was far disproportionate to their numbers, in large part because of the anticommunist reaction of the government, especially the policies of Prime Minister R.B. Bennett who vowed to crush Communism in Canada with an "iron heel of ruthlessness. ''
These conflicts diminished after 1935, when the Communist Party shifted strategies and Bennett 's Conservatives were defeated. Agitation and unrest nonetheless persisted throughout the depression, marked by periodic clashes, such as a sit - down strike in Vancouver that ended with "Bloody Sunday. '' These developments had far - reaching consequences in shaping the postwar environment, including the domestic cold war climate, the rise of the welfare state, and the implementation of an institutional framework for industrial relations.
Women 's primary role were as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. The birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major countries fell 12 % from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births.
Among the few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white - collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed.
Housewives updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest cuts of meat -- sometimes even horse meat -- and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. These strategies show that women 's domestic labor -- cooking, cleaning, budgeting, shopping, childcare -- was essential to the economic maintenance of the family and offered room for economies. Many women also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid -- extra food, spare rooms, repair - work, cash loans -- to help cousins and in - laws.
Women held 25 - 30 % of the jobs in the cities. Few women were employed in heavy industry, railways or construction. Many were household workers or were employed in restaurants and family - owned shops. Women factory workers typically handled clothing and food. Educated women had a narrow range of jobs, such as clerical work and teaching. It was expected that a woman give up a good job when she married. Srigley emphasizes the wide range of background factors and family circumstances, arguing that "gender '' itself was typically less important than race, ethnicity, or class.
School budgets were cut across the country, although enrollments went up and up because dropouts could not find jobs. To save money the districts consolidated nearby schools, dropped staff lines, postponed new construction, and increased class size. Middle - class well - educated teachers were squeezed by the financial crisis facing their employers. In Ontario, new teachers were not hired so the average age and experience increased. However, their salaries fell and men who otherwise would have taken higher status business jobs increasingly competed against women. Married women were not hired on the grounds it was unfair for one family to have two scarce jobs that breadwinners needed. Women teachers, who had made major gains in the 1910 - 20 era, saw themselves discriminated against. The teacher 's unions were practically helpless in the crisis, even in Ontario where they were strongest. After prosperity returned in the 1940s, however, money was available again, there was a shortage of teachers, and the unions proved more effective. For example, in Quebec, the Corporation Général des Instituteurs et des Institutrices Catholics (CIC) was founded in 1946 (it became the Centrale de l'Enseignement du Québec (CEQ) in 1967). It sought higher pensions and salaries and better working conditions, while insisting the teachers were full - fledged professionals. In remote rural areas professionalization was uncommon; local school boards tightly controlled the one - room schools, typically hiring local women with a high school education or a year at university as teachers, so their meagre salaries would remain in the community.
Case studies of four Canadian textile firms -- two cotton and two hosiery and knitting -- demonstrate the range of business response to the economic crisis. Each faced a different array of conditions, and each devised the appropriate restructuring strategies. The large corporations responded by investing in more expensive machinery and automation, hiring less skilled workers to tend the automated equipment, and tweaking their product lines to changing consumer tastes. However the smaller hosiery and knitting firms lacked the capital to invest or the research needed to monitor consumer tastes. They used time - tested "Taylorized '' scientific management or made piecemeal changes. Power shifted upward to management, as strikes were too risky in the early 1930s and the opportunity to find a better job had drastically narrowed. By 1935, however, the influence of militant American unions spilled over the border and Canadian unions became more forceful and harmonious. The activity was most notable in Ontario 's automobile factories, beginning in Windsor in late 1936, where the new Automobile Workers of America (UAW) chartered its first Canadian local at the Kelsey - Hayes factory.
The Stock Market crash in New York led people to hoard their money; as consumption fell, the American economy steadily contracted, 1929 - 32. Given the close economic links between the two countries, the collapse quickly affected Canada. Added to the woes of the prairies were those of Ontario and Quebec, whose manufacturing industries were now victims of overproduction. Massive lay - offs occurred and other companies collapsed into bankruptcy. This collapse was not as sharp as that in the United States, but was the second sharpest collapse in the world.
Canada did have some advantages over other countries, especially its extremely stable banking system that had no failures during the entire depression, compared to over 9,000 small banks that collapsed in the United States.
Canada was hurt badly because of its reliance on base commodities, whose prices fell by over 50 %, and because of the importance of international trade. In the 1920s about 25 % of the Canadian Gross National Product was derived from exports. The first reaction of the U.S. was to raise tariffs via the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act, passed into law June 17, 1930. This hurt the Canadian economy more than most other countries in the world, and Canada retaliated by raising its own rates on American exports and by switching business to the Empire.
In an angry response to Smoot -- Hawley, Canada welcomed the British introduction of trade protectionism and a system of Commonwealth preference during the winter of 1931 - 32. It helped Canada avoid external default on their public debt during the Great Depression. Canada had a high degree of exposure to the international economy, which left Canada susceptible to any international economic downturn. The onset of the depression created critical balance of payment deficits, and it was largely the extension of imperial protection by Britain that gave Canada the opportunity to increase their exports to the British market. By 1938 Britain was importing more than twice the 1929 volume of products from Australia, while the value of products shipped from Canada more than doubled, despite the dramatic drop in prices. Thus, the British market played a vital role in helping Canada and Australia stabilize their balance of payments in the immensely difficult economic conditions of the 1930s.
At the Depression, the provincial and municipal governments were already in debt after an expansion of infrastructure and education during the 1920s. It thus fell to the federal government to try to improve the economy. When the Depression began Mackenzie King was Prime Minister. He believed that the crisis would pass, refused to provide federal aid to the provinces, and only introduced moderate relief efforts. The government 's reaction to The Great Depression is the focus of the 2013 documentary Catch The Westbound Train from Prairie Coast Films.
The Bennett Government, which defeated Mackenzie King in the 1930 election, initially refused to offer large - scale aid or relief to the provinces, much to the anger of provincial premiers, but it eventually gave in and started a Canadian "New Deal '' type of relief by 1935. By 1937, the worst of the Depression had passed, but it left its mark on the country 's economic landscape. Atlantic Canada was especially hard hit. Newfoundland (an independent dominion at the time) was bankrupt economically and politically and gave up responsible government by reverting to direct British control.
World War I veterans built on a history of postwar political activism to play an important role in the expansion of state - sponsored social welfare in Canada. Arguing that their wartime sacrifices had not been properly rewarded, veterans claimed that they were entitled to state protection from poverty and unemployment on the home front. The rhetoric of patriotism, courage, sacrifice, and duty created powerful demands for jobs, relief, and adequate pensions that should, veterans argued, be administered as a right of social citizenship and not a form of charity. At the local, provincial, and national political levels, veterans fought for compensation and recognition for their war service, and made their demands for jobs and social security a central part of emerging social policy.
The Liberal Party lost the 1930 election to the Conservative Party, led by R.B. Bennett. Bennett, a successful western businessman, campaigned on high tariffs and large - scale spending. Make - work programs were begun, and welfare and other assistance programs became vastly larger. This led to a large federal deficit, however. Bennett became wary of the budget shortfalls by 1932, and cut back severely on federal spending. This only deepened the depression as government employees were put out of work and public works projects were cancelled.
One of the greatest burdens on the government was the Canadian National Railway (CNR). The federal government had taken over a number of defunct and bankrupt railways during World War I and the 1920s. The debt the government assumed was over $2 billion, a massive sum at the time, but during the boom years it seemed payable. The Depression turned this debt into a crushing burden. Due to the decrease in trade, the CNR also began to lose substantial amounts of money during the Depression, and had to be further bailed out by the government.
With falling support and the depression only getting worse, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the United States. Bennett thus called for a minimum wage, unemployment insurance, and other such programs. This effort was largely unsuccessful; the provinces challenged the rights of the federal government to manage these programs. Some of the federal efforts were successful: the Companies ' Creditors Arrangement Act and Farmers ' Creditors Arrangement Act, which provided alternatives to bankruptcy for distressed businesses, were held to be constitutional by the Reference Re Farmers ' Creditors Arrangement Act.
The judicial and political failure of Bennett 's New Deal legislation shifted the struggle to reconstitute capitalism to the provincial and municipal levels of the state. Attempts to deal with the dislocations of the Great Depression in Ontario focused on the "sweatshop crisis '' that came to dominate political and social discourse after 1934. Ontario 's 1935 Industrial Standards Act (ISA) was designed to bring workers and employers together under the auspices of the state to establish minimum wages and work standards. The establishment of New Deal style industrial codes was premised on the mobilization of organized capital and organized labour to combat unfair competition, stop the spread of relief - subsidized labour, and halt the predations of sweatshop capitalism. Although the ISA did not bring about extensive economic regulation, it excited considerable interest in the possibility of government intervention. Workers in a diverse range of occupations, from asbestos workers to waitresses, attempted to organize around the possibility of the ISA. The importance of the ISA lies in what it reveals about the nature of welfare, wage labour, the union movement, competitive capitalism, business attitudes toward industrial regulation, and the role of the state in managing the collective affairs of capitalism. The history of the ISA also suggests that "regulatory unionism, '' as described by Colin Gordon in his work on the American New Deal, may have animated key developments in Canadian social, economic, and labour history.
The failure to help the economy led to the federal Conservatives ' defeat in the 1935 election when the Liberals, still led by Mackenzie King, returned to power.
The public at large lost faith in both the Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative Party of Canada. This caused the rise of a third party: the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (a socialist party that achieved some success before joining the Canadian Labour Congress in 1961, becoming the New Democratic Party).
With the worst of the Depression over, the government implemented some relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission, and it established Trans - Canada Airlines (1937, the predecessor to Air Canada). However, it took until 1939 and the outbreak of war for the Canadian economy to return to 1929 levels.
After 1936 the prime minister lost patience when westerners preferred radical alternatives such as the CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) and Social Credit to his middle - of - the - road liberalism. Indeed, he came close to writing off the region with his comment that the prairie dust bowl was "part of the U.S. desert area. I doubt if it will be of any real use again. '' Instead he paid more attention to the industrial regions and the needs of Ontario and Quebec regarding the proposed St. Lawrence Seaway project with the United States. As for the unemployed, he was hostile to federal relief and reluctantly accepted a Keynesian solution that involved federal deficit spending, tax cuts and subsidies to the housing market.
Mackenzie King returned as prime minister, serving until his retirement in 1948. During all but the last two years he was also secretary of state for external affairs, taking personal charge of foreign policy.
Social Credit (often called SoCred) was a populist political movement strongest in Alberta and neighbouring British Columbia, 1930s - 1970s. Social Credit was based on the economic theories of an Englishman, C.H. Douglas. His theories became very popular across the nation in the early 1930s. A central proposal was the free distribution of dividends (or social credit), called "funny money '' by the opposition.
During the Great Depression in Canada the demand for radical action peaked around 1934, after the worst period was over and the economy was recovering. Mortgage debt was significant because farmers could not meet their interest payments. The insecurity of farmers, whose debts were increasing and who had no legal protection against foreclosure, was a potent factor in creating a mood of political desperation. The radical farmers party, UFA was baffled by the depression and Albertans demanded new leadership.
Prairie farmers had always believed that they were being exploited by Toronto and Montreal. What they lacked was a prophet who would lead them to the promised land. The Social Credit movement began in Alberta in 1932; it became a political movement in 1935 and suddenly burned like a prairie fire. The prophet and new premier was radio evangelist William Aberhart (1878 -- 1943). The message was biblical prophecy. Aberhart was a fundamentalist, preaching the revealed word of God and quoting the Bible to find a solution for the evils of the modern, materialistic world: the evils of sophisticated academics and their biblical criticism, the cold formality of middle - class congregations, the vices of dancing and movies and drink. "Bible Bill '' preached that the capitalist economy was rotten because of its immorality; specifically it produced goods and services but did not provide people with sufficient purchasing power to enjoy them. This could be remedied by the giving out money in the form of "social credit '', or $25 a month for every man and woman. This pump priming was guaranteed to restore prosperity, he prophesied to the 1600 Social Credit clubs he formed in the province.
Alberta 's businessmen, professionals, newspaper editors and the traditional middle - class leaders vehemently protested Aberhart 's crack - pot ideas, but they had not solved any problems and spoke not of the promised land ahead. Aberhart 's new party in 1935 elected 56 members to the Alberta Assembly, compared to 7 for all the other parties.
Alberta 's Social Credit Party remained in power for 36 years until 1971. It was re-elected by popular vote no less than 9 times, achieving success by moving from left to the right.
Once in office in Alberta Aberhart gave a high priority to balancing the provincial budget. He reduced expenditures and increased the sales tax and the income tax. The poor and unemployed got nothing. The $25 monthly social dividend never arrived, as Aberhart decided nothing could be done until the province 's financial system was changed, and 1936 Alberta defaulted on its bonds. He did pass a Debt Adjustment Act that cancelled all the interest on mortgages since 1932 and limited all interest rates on mortgages to 5 %, in line with similar laws passed by other provinces. In 1937 backbenchers passed a radical banking law that was disallowed by the national government (banking was a federal responsibility). Efforts to control the press were also disallowed. The party was authoritarian and tried to exert detailed control over its officeholders; those who rebelled were purged or removed from office by the new device of recall elections. Although Aberhart was hostile to banks and newspapers, he was basically in favour of capitalism and did not support socialist policies as did the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan.
By 1938 the Social Credit government abandoned its notions about the $25 payouts, but its inability to break with UFA policies led to disillusionment and heavy defections from the party. Aberhart 's government was re-elected in the 1940 election, carrying 43 % of the vote. The prosperity of the Second World War relieved the economic fears and hatreds that had fuelled farmer unrest. Aberhart died in 1943, and was succeeded as Premier by his student at the Prophetic Bible Institute and lifelong close disciple, Ernest C. Manning (1908 -- 1996).
The Social Credit party, now firmly on the right, governed Alberta until 1968 under Manning.
The Canadian recovery from the Great Depression proceeded slowly. Economists Pedro Amaral and James MacGee find that the Canadian recovery has important differences with the United States. In the U.S. productivity recovered quickly while the labour force remained depressed throughout the decade. In Canada employment quickly recovered but productivity remained well below trend. Amaral and MacGee suggest that this decline is due to the sustained reduction in international trade during the 1930s.
In the midst of the Great Depression, the Crown - in - Council attempted to uplift the people, and created two national corporations: the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (CRBC), and the Bank of Canada. The former, established in 1932, was seen as a means to keep the country unified and uplifted in these harsh economic times. Many poor citizens found radio as an escape and used it to restore their own faiths in a brighter future. Broadcasting coast to coast mainly in English, with some French, primarily in Quebec, the CRBC played a vital role in keeping the morale up for Canadians everywhere. The latter was used to regulate currency and credit which had been horribly managed amongst Canadian citizens in the prior years. It was also set up to serve as a private banker 's bank and to assist and advise the Canadian government on its own debts and financial matters. The bank played an important role to help steer government spending in the right direction. The bank 's effort took place through the tough years of the depression and on to the prosperity that followed into and after the Second World War.
Both of these corporations were seen as positive moves by the Canadian government to help get the economy back on track. 1937 was an important year in the recovery from the Great Depression. The Bank of Canada was nationalized in that year, and the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (CRBC) became the Canadian Broadcasting Company (CBC) in that same year. Both corporations were successful aids in the cultural and financial recovery of the Canadian economy during the Great depression.
It took the outbreak of World War II to pull Canada out of the depression. From 1939, an increased demand in Europe for materials, and increased spending by the Canadian government created a strong boost for the economy. Unemployed men enlisted in the military. By 1939, Canada was in the first prosperity period in the business cycle in a decade. This coincided with the recovery in the American economy, which created a better market for exports and a new inflow of much needed capital.
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most number of clean sheets in premier league | List of Premier League goalkeepers with 100 or more clean sheets - wikipedia
In association football a goalkeeper may be said to "keep a clean sheet '' if they prevent their opponents scoring any goals during an entire match.
Since the Premier League 's formation at the start of the 1992 -- 93 season, 14 goalkeepers have managed to keep 100 or more clean sheets in the Premier League.
During the 1997 -- 98 season, Peter Schmeichel became the first player to keep 100 Premier League clean sheets.
Petr Čech and Edwin van der Sar holds the joint record for most clean sheets kept in a single season, with 21. The record for consecutive clean sheets was also set by Čech, who became the first goalkeeper to keep ten consecutive clean sheets; Edwin van der Sar later eclipsed this when he went 14 games without conceding in 2008 -- 09 for Manchester United.
The first goalkeepers to keep a clean sheet in the Premier League were Tim Flowers and Erik Thorstvedt on the opening day of the inaugural season in a 0 -- 0 draw between Southampton and Tottenham Hotspur; all other goalkeepers conceded that day.
Each year the goalkeeper who has kept the most clean sheets during the Premier League campaign is awarded the Premier League Golden Glove award. First presented in 2004 -- 05, five goalkeepers have won the award, with Joe Hart holding the record for most wins at four.
Petr Čech became the keeper with the highest number of clean sheets while playing against AFC Bournemouth on 28 December 2015.
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joseph and the amazing technicolor dreamcoat 1982 original broadway cast songs | Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat - wikipedia
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat is a musical with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The story is based on the "coat of many colors '' story of Joseph from the Bible 's Book of Genesis. This was the first Lloyd Webber and Rice musical to be performed publicly (the first, The Likes of Us, written in 1965, was not performed until 2005).
The show has little spoken dialogue; it is almost entirely sung - through. Its family - friendly story, familiar themes and catchy music have resulted in numerous stagings. According to the owner of the copyright, the Really Useful Group, by 2008 more than 20,000 schools and amateur theatre groups had staged productions.
Joseph was first presented as a 20 - minute "pop cantata '' at Colet Court School in London in 1968, and was published by Novello and released by Decca Records in 1969. After the success of the next Lloyd Webber and Rice piece, Jesus Christ Superstar, Joseph received stage productions beginning in 1970 and expanded recordings in 1971 and 1972. While still undergoing various modifications and expansions, the musical was produced in the West End in 1973, and in its full format was recorded in 1974. The musical was mounted on Broadway in 1982. Several major revivals, national tours, and a 1999 straight - to - video film, starring Donny Osmond, followed.
The 17 - year - old budding musical - theatre composer Andrew Lloyd Webber was introduced to the 20 - year - old aspiring pop - song writer Tim Rice in 1965, and they created their first musical, The Likes of Us. They produced a demo tape of that work in 1966, but the project failed to gain a backer.
In the summer of 1967 Alan Doggett, a family friend of the Lloyd Webbers who had assisted on The Likes of Us and who was the music teacher at the Colet Court school in London, commissioned Lloyd Webber and Rice to write a piece for the school 's choir. Doggett requested a "pop cantata '' along the lines of Herbert Chappell 's The Daniel Jazz (1963) and Michael Hurd 's Jonah - Man Jazz (1966), both of which had been published by Novello and were based on the Old Testament. The request for the new piece came with a 100 - guinea advance from Novello. This resulted in Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, a retelling of the biblical story of Joseph, in which Lloyd Webber and Rice humorously pastiched a number of pop - music styles.
The piece was first presented as a 20 - minute pop cantata at Colet Court School in London on 1 March 1968. Lloyd Webber 's composer father William arranged for a second performance at his church, Westminster Central Hall, with a revised and expanded format; the boys of Colet Court and members of the band Mixed Bag sang at this performance in May 1968. One of the children 's parents in that audience was the Sunday Times music critic; he reviewed the piece in the newspaper, calling it a new pop oratorio and praising its innovation and exuberance. By its third performance, at St Paul 's Cathedral in November 1968, the musical had been expanded to 35 minutes.
Novello published the lyrics and sheet music at the beginning of 1969, as the third of their Old Testament pop cantatas. Decca Records, which had already recorded the musical in the summer of 1968, released the recording in 1969, credited to the Joseph Consortium, after the Novello publication. David Daltrey, front man of British psychedelic band Tales of Justine, played the role of Joseph and lead guitar, and Tim Rice was Pharaoh. Other vocalists included members of the Mixed Bag group, such as Terry Saunders and Malcolm Parry, and the choir of Colet Court School. Daltrey, although not part of the Mixed Bag, was managed by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber at the time, and EMI colleague Martin Wilcox suggested to Rice that they use the Mixed Bag as a backing group on the album.
A recording of the musical with 19 tracks was issued in the US on Scepter Records in 1971. It was a reissue of the 1969 Decca UK album, capitalising on the success of 1970 's Jesus Christ Superstar in the US. It featured Daltrey as Joseph, Rice as Pharaoh, William S. Lloyd Webber on the Hammond organ, Alan Doggett conducting, and the Colet Court choir as the chorus.
Lloyd Webber and Rice used the popularity of their subsequent musical, the rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar, to promote Joseph, which was advertised in America as a "follow - up '' to Superstar. The rock opera 's title song "Superstar '' had been an international hit single released in late 1969, and "I Do n't Know How To Love Him '', another hit from Jesus Christ Superstar, was released 1 May 1970. The first American production of Joseph was in May 1970, at Cathedral College of the Immaculate Conception in Douglaston, New York. Following this, other colleges and schools sought to produce the piece.
In late August and September 1972, Joseph was presented at the Edinburgh International Festival by the Young Vic Theatre Company, directed by Frank Dunlop. It starred Gary Bond in the title role, Peter Reeves as the narrator, and Gordon Waller as Pharaoh; Alan Doggett was the music director. In October the production played at London 's Young Vic Theatre, and in November at the Roundhouse. The production was part of a double bill called Bible One: Two Looks at the Book of Genesis. Part I was Dunlop 's reworking of the first six of the medieval Wakefield Mystery Plays, with music by Alan Doggett. Part II was Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. The Young Vic production was recorded for an LP released on the RSO label in 1972. This production was also broadcast in the UK by Granada Television in 1972.
In February 1973, theatre producer Michael White and impresario Robert Stigwood mounted the Young Vic production at the Albery Theatre in the West End, where it ran for 243 performances. The mystery plays that had preceded the original Young Vic productions were dropped, and instead the musical was preceded by a piece called Jacob 's Journey, with music and lyrics by Lloyd Webber and Rice and a book by television comedy writers Ray Galton and Alan Simpson. Jacob 's Journey, which contained a great deal of spoken dialogue, was eventually phased out in favour of a sung - through score that became part of Joseph. The first production of the show in its modern, final form was at the Haymarket Theatre in Leicester, which presented the musical several times from 1974 through 1978.
A recording of the full musical was released on the MCA label in 1974, again featuring Bond, Reeves and Waller. This is the earliest recording of Joseph to eventually be issued on CD. Waller also appeared on another recording in 1979, featuring Rice as the Narrator and Paul Jones as Joseph, on the Music For Pleasure label.
In 1975 Miranda Enterprises in association with Leicester Theatre Company presented Joseph at the Queen 's Theatre, Hornchurch. It was directed by Paul Tomlinson and choreographed by David Thornton. This production starred Patrick Ryecart as Joseph and David Sadgrove as Pharaoh.
Ken Hill directed a large - scale production of Joseph at the Westminster Theatre, London, which ran from November 1978 to February 1979, and again from November 1979 to February 1980. This production starred Paul Jones as Joseph, John Golder as the Narrator, and Leonard Whiting as Pharaoh. A recording of this production with additional narration spoken by children was broadcast on BBC radio, produced by Richard Wilcox.
The musical ran at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York in 1976 and in 1977 as "holiday fare ''. In the 1976 production, which opened on 30 December, direction was by John Dunlop, with a cast that featured Cleavon Little as the Narrator and David - James Carroll as Joseph. In the 1977 production, running in December through 1 January 1978, staging was by Graciela Daniele, with Carroll as Joseph, Alan Weeks as the Narrator and William Parry as Pharaoh / Elvis.
Joseph received an Off - Broadway production at the Entermedia Theatre, running from 18 November 1981 through 24 January 1982. Directed by Tony Tanner, the cast starred Bill Hutton as Joseph, Laurie Beechman as the Narrator, and Tom Carder as Pharaoh.
The production transferred to Broadway at the Royale Theatre on 27 January 1982 and ran through 4 September 1983, with 747 performances. This production was recorded on the Chrysalis label, and is the first to feature the Prologue (dubbed on the Chrysalis release "You are what you feel ''). The producers were Gail Berman and Susan Rose, who were the youngest producers on Broadway. The show received several Tony Award nominations including Best Musical and Best Original Score. Allen Fawcett replaced Hutton as Joseph in June 1982. David Cassidy took over the role of Joseph in March 1983 and also performed in the touring cast in 1983 -- 1984.
With Jason Donovan in the lead, the expanded show was restaged in 1991 at the London Palladium with Steven Pimlott as director, winning the 1992 Laurence Olivier Award for set design. The cast album of this production was the # 1 UK album for two weeks in September 1991, and the single "Any Dream Will Do '' from it was also the # 1 UK single for two weeks in June -- July 1991. When Donovan left, former children 's TV presenter Phillip Schofield portrayed Joseph.
The musical opened in Toronto at the Elgin Theatre in July 1992, with Donny Osmond as Joseph and Janet Metz as the Narrator. Afterwards, Osmond toured North America in the role. A major Australian production, based on the 1991 UK version, opened on 31 December 1992 at the State Theatre in Melbourne. It featured Indecent Obsession lead singer David Dixon as Joseph and Tina Arena as the Narrator. The musical then played seasons in Brisbane and Sydney through 1993.
The show was revived in the United States in 1993, playing in Los Angeles at the Pantages Theatre for 18 weeks, and in San Francisco at the Golden Gate Theatre for an 8 - week run, before moving to Broadway, where it played for 231 performances at the Minskoff Theatre from 10 November 1993 to 29 May 1994. Directed by Steven Pimlott and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast, the cast featured Michael Damian (Joseph), Kelli Rabke (Narrator), Clifford David (Jacob), and Robert Torti (Pharaoh).
A production starring Stephen Gately, "with cartoon cut - out sets and props and naff panto choreography '', previewed in Oxford in December 2002, before moving to Liverpool over Christmas 2002. This production reached the West End at the New London Theatre in March 2003.
A US national tour began in September 2005 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, starring starred Patrick Cassidy.
A 2007 revival of the London Palladium production at the Adelphi Theatre starred a Joseph cast with the winner of BBC One 's Any Dream Will Do, presided over by Lloyd Webber. This was second reality talent show to search for a West End star, capitalising on the success of the 2006 BBC -- Lloyd Webber series, How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?. Viewers voted to for Lee Mead as Joseph. Mead had given up his ensemble role in The Phantom of the Opera, where he also understudied Raoul. The new Joseph production, which began on 6 July 2007, used Steven Pimlott 's (who had died since staging the Palladium production) original direction, with Preeya Kalidas as the Narrator.
Tickets for the show 's originally - planned six - month run sold out in three weeks, and the producers had extended the show 's run -- and Mead 's contract -- until 7 June 2008. Before opening night, the producers had received £ 10 million in advance ticket sales. In his review for Variety, David Benedict wrote, "Mead delivers... For as long as Mead chooses to continue in it, Joseph is, commercially speaking, the safest of bets. '' Lloyd Webber 's Really Useful Group donated all receipts from two special performances to the BBC 's Children in Need charity appeal. Additionally, the money normally given to the cast for first - night gifts in July 2007 went instead to Children in Need. In January 2009 Mead left the show and was replaced by Gareth Gates. The production closed in May 2009.
The long - running UK touring production was re-cast in 2010 with Keith Jack taking on Joseph in July 2010 opposite Jennifer Potts as narrator. In May 2013 Ian "H '' Watkins replaced Jack, reprising the role he had played in London and on tour. The 2014 -- 15 leg of the tour saw X Factor contestant Lloyd Daniels take on the title role opposite Eastender 's Matt Lapinskas as Pharaoh. Danielle Hope played Narrator in 2014. Amelia Lily, another X factor alumna, later played the Narrator.
A new North American touring production began on 4 March 2014 in Cleveland, Ohio starring Diana DeGarmo as the Narrator and Ace Young as Joseph.
The 2016 UK touring production starred Joe McElderry as Joseph and Lucy Kay as the Narrator. The tour began in January 2016 and is scheduled to run through June 2017.
The story is based on the Biblical story of Joseph, found in the Book of Genesis. It is set in a frame in which a narrator is telling a story (sometimes to children, encouraging them to dream). She then tells the story of Joseph, another dreamer ("Prologue, '' "Any Dream Will Do ''). In the beginning of the main story Jacob and his 12 sons are introduced ("Jacob and Sons ''). Joseph 's brothers are jealous of him for his coat of many colours, a symbol of their father 's preference for him ("Joseph 's Coat ''). It is clear from Joseph 's dreams that he is destined to rule over them ("Joseph 's Dreams ''). To get rid of him and prevent the dreams from coming true, they attempt fratricide, but then they sell Joseph as a slave to some passing Ishmaelites ("Poor, Poor Joseph ''), who take him to Egypt.
Back home, his brothers, led by Reuben (Levi in the original Broadway production) and accompanied by their wives, break the news to Jacob that Joseph has been killed. They show his tattered coat smeared with his blood -- really goat blood -- as proof that what they say is true ("One More Angel in Heaven ''). After the bereft Jacob leaves, the brothers and their wives happily celebrate the loss of Joseph.
In Egypt, Joseph is the slave of Egyptian millionaire Potiphar. He rises through the ranks of slaves and servants until he is running Potiphar 's house. When Mrs. Potiphar makes advances, Joseph spurns her. She removes his shirt, feels his chest and back, squeezes his rear and blows him kisses. Potiphar overhears, barges in, sees the two together -- and jumps to conclusions ("Potiphar ''). Outraged, he throws Joseph in jail. Depressed, Joseph laments the situation ("Close Every Door '') -- but his spirits rise when he helps two prisoners put in his cell. Both are former servants of the Pharaoh and both have had bizarre dreams. Joseph interprets them. One cellmate, the Baker, will be executed, but the other, the Butler, will be returned to service. Upon hearing this, the rest of the prisoners surround Joseph and encourage him to go after his dreams ("Go, Go, Go Joseph '').
The Narrator tells of impending changes in Joseph 's fortunes ("A Pharaoh Story '') because the Pharaoh is having dreams that no one can interpret. Now freed, the Butler tells Pharaoh (acted in the style of Elvis Presley) of Joseph and his dream - interpretation skills ("Poor, Poor Pharaoh ''). Pharaoh orders Joseph to be brought in and the king tells him his dream involving seven fat cows, seven skinny cows, seven healthy ears of corn, and seven dead ears of corn ("Song of the King '').
Joseph interprets the dream as seven plentiful years of crops followed by seven years of famine ("Pharaoh 's Dreams Explained ''). An astonished Pharaoh puts Joseph in charge of carrying out the preparations needed to endure the impending famine, and Joseph becomes the most powerful man in Egypt, second only to Pharaoh himself ("Stone the Crows ''). (In the 2007 London revival, Pharaoh has a new song, "King of my Heart '').
Back home, the famine has caught up with Joseph 's brothers, who, led by Simeon, express regret at selling him and deceiving their father ("Those Canaan Days ''). They hear that Egypt still has food and decide to go there to beg for mercy and to be fed ("The Brothers Come to Egypt ''), not realising that they will be dealing with Joseph ("Grovel, Grovel ''). Joseph gives them sacks of food, but plants a golden cup in the sack of his youngest brother, Benjamin. When the brothers try to leave, Joseph stops them, asking about the "stolen cup ''. Each brother empties his sack, and it is revealed that Benjamin has the cup. Joseph then accuses Benjamin of robbery ("Who 's the Thief? ''). The other brothers, led by Judah, (Naphtali in the original Broadway Production) beg for mercy for Benjamin, imploring that Joseph take them prisoner and set Benjamin free ("Benjamin Calypso '').
Seeing their selflessness and penitence, Joseph reveals himself ("Joseph All the Time '') and sends for his father. The two are reunited ("Jacob in Egypt '') for a happy conclusion and Joseph dons his coloured coat once more ("Finale: Any Dream Will Do (Reprise) / Give Me My Coloured Coat '').
In some productions, the finale is followed by a rock / disco medley of most of the musical 's major numbers ("Joseph Megamix '').
Lloyd - Webber used a variety of musical styles, including parodies of French ballads ("Those Canaan Days ''), Elvis - inspired rock and roll ("Song of the King ''), western music ("One More Angel In Heaven ''), 1920s Charleston ("Potiphar ''), Calypso ("Benjamin Calypso ''), jazz ("Joseph 's Dreams ''), and 1950s rock ("Go, Go, Go Joseph '').
"Prologue '' was first included in the 1982 Broadway production; the use of "Any Dream Will Do '' at the start of the show (and the renaming of the closing version as per the above list) dates from the 1991 revival. The UK touring production circa 1983 - 1987 (produced by Bill Kenwright), included an additional song "I Do n't Think I 'm Wanted Back At Home '', which was originally part of Jacob 's Journey. Sung by the title character, the brothers jokingly push Joseph out of the family home, throwing a suitcase, then a cane and top hat at him, leaving Joseph to tap - dance through the number. The tune has been recycled into numbers in By Jeeves and The Likes of Us.
In 1999, a straight - to - video film of the same title starring Donny Osmond was released, directed by David Mallet. Osmond had toured North America in the role after opening the Toronto revival in 1992. In the film, Maria Friedman appears as the Narrator, Richard Attenborough as Jacob, Ian McNeice as Potiphar, Joan Collins as Mrs. Potiphar and Robert Torti as Pharaoh.
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who made the song can't help falling in love | Ca n't Help Falling in Love - wikipedia
"Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' is a pop ballad originally recorded by American singer Elvis Presley and published by Gladys Music, Presley 's publishing company. It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore and George David Weiss. The melody is based on "Plaisir d'amour '', a popular romance by Jean - Paul - Égide Martini (1784). It was featured in Presley 's 1961 film, Blue Hawaii. During the following four decades, it was recorded by numerous other artists, including Tom Smothers, Swedish pop group A-Teens, and the British reggae group UB40, whose 1993 version topped the U.S. and UK charts.
Elvis Presley 's version of the song topped the British charts in 1962. The single is certified Platinum by the RIAA, for US sales in excess of one million copies. In the United States, the song peaked at # 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and went to # 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart for six weeks.
During Presley 's late 1960s and 1970s live performances, the song was performed as the show 's finale. Most notably, it was also sung in the live segment of his 1968 NBC television special, and as the closer for his 1973 Global telecast, Aloha from Hawaii. A version with a faster arrangement was used as the closing for Presley 's final TV special, Elvis in Concert.
In addition to "Blue Hawaii '', the song has appeared in several films and TV shows, including:
In 1993, British reggae band UB40 recorded the song as the first single from their 1993 album Promises and Lies. The song was released in May 1993, in the majority of countries worldwide. It eventually climbed to # 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 after debuting at # 100, and remained there for seven weeks. It was also # 1 in the United Kingdom, Austria, Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and New Zealand.
The song appears on the soundtrack of the movie Sliver, the trailer for Fools Rush In and an episode of Hindsight. In the US, and on the Sliver soundtrack, the song title was listed as "Ca n't Help Falling in Love, '' rather than what appeared on the record sleeve. The single version of the song also has a slightly different backing rhythm and melody.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was the A-Teens 's first single from their first extended play Pop ' til You Drop!, as well as for the Lilo & Stitch movie soundtrack, which was originally scheduled to include several Presley tracks, the A-Teens picking it for inclusion in the soundtrack. It was later also featured as a bonus track on their third studio album, New Arrival for the European market. The video had thus tremendous exposure on several television channels, with the A-Teens eventually including the song in their third album. As a result, the song had two music videos, one to promote the Disney movie, the other for the album. It is also shown in the teen pop compilation album, Disney Girlz Rock.
The song did not chart in the United States but reached No. 12 in Sweden, No. 16 in Argentina, and No. 41 in Australia. Despite the success of the song overseas, it failed to attract the rest of the Latin American public, due to the fact that there was a Spanish version of the song, performed by the Argentine group, Bandana. In addition, the A-Teens ' version of the song was overshadowed by the promotion of Bandana 's version.
The video was directed by Gregory Dark and filmed in Los Angeles, California. It had two different versions. The "Disney Version '', as the fans named it, features scenes of the movie, and also new scenes of the A-Teens with beach costumes. The "A-Teens Version '' of the video, features the A-Teens on the white background with different close - ups and choreography, and scenes with puppies and different costumes.
Tracks marked + are not A-Teens tracks.
European 2 - track CD single
European / Australian CD maxi
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who played the blind girl in fantastic four | Alicia Masters - wikipedia
Alicia Reiss Masters is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is usually depicted as a supporting character to the superheroes the Fantastic Four and Silver Surfer. Created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, she first appeared in The Fantastic Four # 8 (Nov 1962).
Alicia is a blind sculptor who is able to create incredibly lifelike representations of real people by touch and memory alone; her sculptures of the Fantastic Four and other superheroes are frequently depicted. A caring, sensitive character, she has been a romantic interest and confidante of The Thing, a member of the Fantastic Four who is frequently ashamed of his monstrous appearance. She has also helped explain human life and emotion to the alien Silver Surfer. Actress Kat Green played her in the unreleased The Fantastic Four film from 1994, and then Kerry Washington portrayed her in the 2005 film Fantastic Four and the 2007 sequel Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer.
Alicia is introduced in Fantastic Four # 8, along with her stepfather, the supervillain known as the Puppet Master. She initially aids him out of obedience in his first scheme against the Fantastic Four, though she immediately senses the "gentle '' and "sensitive '' spirit of the Thing when she first feels his palpably monstrous face. Alicia turns on her stepfather when she realizes that he is mad and power - hungry, and accidentally causes him to fall to his apparent death out of a window. A subsequently published story explains that the Puppet Master had been responsible for her permanent blindness, which was caused by an explosion of radioactive clay during his fight with a rival.
Alicia Masters was a recurring character in early issues of Fantastic Four as the love interest of the Thing, serving as a plot device to cause him to resist changing back to a normal human form, for fear that Alicia would not love him as "plain Ben Grimm. '' The physically vulnerable Masters was also frequently used as a damsel in distress.
The character plays an integral role in one of the most acclaimed comic book stories of the Silver Age, "The Coming of Galactus, '' in Fantastic Four # 48 -- 50 (March -- May 1966). In that story arc, the Silver Surfer first comes to Earth as a herald to the powerful, world - destroying being Galactus, and crashes into Alicia 's apartment after fighting the Fantastic Four. Her passionate pleading with him about the value of life convinces him to reject his master and defend the Earth from destruction.
After the Thing chooses to remain on an alien planet where he could change back to human form, Alicia falls in love with the dashing Human Torch, another member of the Fantastic Four. The Thing returns to unhappily attend their wedding. In Fantastic Four # 300, Johny Storm and Alicia have their wedding, but it is nearly foiled by the Mad Thinker, the Wizard, and Alicia 's stepfather, the Puppet Master. These three villains planned to attack the wedding, but at the last moment Puppet Master stopped them, with the (unwilling) help of Dragon Man.
After several months, the Fantastic Four discovers that Alicia was kidnapped and replaced by Lyja, a Skrull espionage agent sent to infiltrate the Fantastic Four and set them up for her handler, Paibok the Power Skrull, to destroy them. The Fantastic Four defeats Paibok and retrieves Alicia. She was taken before Ben broke up with her, and her feelings for Ben never changed. This makes things difficult for both him and Johnny. The two of them had months to resolve things between them. Now Johnny has to come to grips with the fact that the real Alicia never loved with him, and that Lyja is the woman he loves. Ben has to deal with having gotten over Alicia, only to have her back and in love with him.
With her relationships with Ben and Johnny now complicated by Johnny 's marriage to ' Lyja ' and Ben 's prior attempts to resolve his old feelings for her after Lyja 's marriage, Alicia subsequently becomes romantically involved with the Silver Surfer and eventually leaves Earth with him, traveling through outer space at his side in an armored suit.
Alicia is frequently trusted as a babysitter for Franklin Richards, the son of Invisible Woman and Mr. Fantastic. During the year - long period in which the FF were missing ("Heroes Reborn ''), Alicia is seen as his primary caretaker.
In a 2007 storyline set in the aftermath of an apparent assassination of Captain America, Alicia designed the memorial to him.
Following the events of the 2008 "Secret Invasion '' storyline, Alicia is made part of a support group for people replaced by the Skrulls, as she has firsthand knowledge of what it is like being replaced and then returned after a long period of time.
After the Fantastic Four have disbanded following the collapse of the multiverse, Peter Parker purchases the Baxter Building to keep it safe until the team are ready to come back together, including a statue of the FF in the entrance hall that was made by Alicia.
In the alternate future of the 1999 miniseries Earth X, Alicia has married Ben Grimm. They have two children, Buzz and Chuck, who have Ben 's orange - rock skin. Like most of humanity, Alicia has been granted powers due to the release of a mutative agent.
In the 2005 storyline "House of M '', Alicia is part of the human resistance, struggling against the ruling class of mutants. She has spent some time as a sculptor, J. Jonah Jameson had commissioned one of himself for his home.
In the 2007 miniseries Fantastic Four: The End, which depicts a possible future of the Fantastic Four, Alicia is married to Ben Grimm and they have three children and live on Mars, where she uses her sculpture talents for terraforming.
The Ultimate Marvel version of the character is introduced into the modern revamp of the Fantastic Four, Ultimate Fantastic Four, in issue # 29, where she is a sculpture student at an arts college. She finds a depressed Ben in the park; her simple gesture of friendship instantly places her in mortal danger from Doctor Doom.
In A.I.M. 's pocket dimension of Earth - 13584, it is mentioned that Alicia Masters is dead. Thing even mistook Moonstone for Alicia at the time when the Dark Avengers were drawn into this pocket dimension.
The character appears in the game based on the movie, voiced by Cree Summer. In the story, the Thing and Mr. Fantastic must rescue her from the Mole Man 's minions. On one level of the game, her stepfather, the Puppet Master, brings Egyptian and prehistoric museum exhibits to life to attack the Fantastic Four, as he feels that association with the Thing will be dangerous for Alicia.
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who has died from the show welcome back kotter | Welcome Back, Kotter - wikipedia
Welcome Back, Kotter is an American sitcom starring Gabe Kaplan as a sardonic high school teacher in charge of a racially and ethnically diverse remedial class called the "Sweathogs ''. Recorded in front of a live studio audience, it originally aired on ABC from September 9, 1975, to May 17, 1979.
The show stars stand - up comedian and actor Gabriel "Gabe '' Kaplan as the title character, Gabe Kotter, a wisecracking teacher who returns to his alma mater, James Buchanan High School in Brooklyn, New York, to teach a remedial class of loafers, called "Sweathogs ''. The school 's principal is referred to, but rarely seen on - screen. The rigid vice principal, Michael Woodman (John Sylvester White), dismisses the Sweathogs as witless hoodlums, and only expects Kotter to contain them until they drop out or are otherwise banished. As a former remedial student, and a founding member of the original class of Sweathogs, Kotter befriends the current Sweathogs and stimulates their potential. A pupil - teacher rapport is formed, and the students often visit Kotter 's Bensonhurst apartment, sometimes via the fire - escape window, much to the chagrin of his wife, Julie (Marcia Strassman).
The fictional James Buchanan High is based on the Brooklyn high school that Kaplan attended in real life, New Utrecht High School, which is also shown in the opening credits. Many of the show 's characters were also based on people Kaplan knew during his teen years as a remedial student, several of whom were described in one of Kaplan 's stand - up comic routines entitled "Holes and Mellow Rolls ''. "Vinnie Barbarino '' was inspired by Eddie Lecarri and Ray Barbarino; "Freddie ' Boom Boom ' Washington '' was inspired by Freddie "Furdy '' Peyton; "Juan Epstein '' was partially inspired by Epstein "The Animal ''; however, "Arnold Horshack '' was unchanged.
Gabe Kotter is a flippant, but well - meaning teacher who returns to his alma mater, Buchanan High, to teach a group of remedial students known as the Sweathogs. Being a founding member of the original Sweathogs, Kotter has a special understanding of the potential of these supposedly "unteachable '' students. On his first day on the job, he launches into a Groucho Marx impersonation. Kotter is married to Julie, with whom he eventually has twin girls, Robin and Rachel. It is confirmed by Julie in the episode "Follow the Leader (part 1) '' that Gabe is Jewish. During season four, Kaplan had contract issues with the executive producer, and only appeared in a handful of episodes. In season four, the invisible principal John Lazarus retires, and Kotter becomes the vice-principal. Though he is said to maintain some social studies teaching duties, most of that season 's shows are filmed outside his classroom (# 11), or if in room 11, Mr. Woodman is teaching. To minimize Kotter 's absence, scenes were shot in either the school 's hallway, the schoolyard, or the principal 's waiting area. Season four ended the series.
Julie Kotter is Gabe 's wife and closest friend. Though she has a sense of humor, she often wishes Gabe would take matters more seriously. She is occasionally upset with the amount of time her husband spends with his students, and she is troubled that he allows them to visit their apartment regularly; in the two - part story arc "Follow the Leader '', the Sweathogs ' constant intrusions lead Julie to separate briefly from Gabe and even seriously consider divorce. Originally from Nebraska, with a college degree in anthropology, Julie eventually became a secretary, and later a substitute teacher at Buchanan after Gabe 's promotion to vice-principal. She makes several references to her "world famous tuna casserole '', a common meal at the Kotter dinner table, which Gabe and the Sweathogs dislike.
Michael Woodman is the curmudgeonly vice-principal (and later principal) of Buchanan High. He makes no secret of his dislike for the Sweathogs, whom he considers the bottom of the social register at his school. He refers to non-Sweathogs as "real '' students. When Kotter was a student at Buchanan, Woodman taught social studies, the same class Kotter returns to Buchanan to teach. His old age, and sometimes his diminutive height, are common jokes with the Sweathogs. Woodman was totally against Kotter 's unorthodox teaching methods and at one point even put Kotter in front of the school 's review board in an unsuccessful attempt to have him fired. As the series progresses, Woodman begins to tolerate them marginally. In the season one episode "No More Mr. Nice Guy '', Kotter is shown to be a gifted teacher, willing to wear historic costumes, and role - play in front of the class during his lessons.
Vinnie Barbarino is a cocky Italian - American, the "unofficial official '' leader and resident heartthrob of the Sweathogs. He has a need to be the center of attention, as seen when he admits to making it rain in the school gymnasium. In the two - episode "Follow the Leader '', Barbarino quits the Sweathogs and drops out of school in anger when Freddy Washington is chosen as the "leader '' of the group, though he returns as leader at the finish of the story. Barbarino 's prowess with women is a source of envy (and more often amusement) among his classmates. On occasion, he breaks out in song about his last name sung to the tune of "Barbara Ann ''. He was the first of the Sweathogs to move out on his own when he got a job as a hospital orderly. In the first episode of the series and fourth season, he has a girlfriend, Sally. Vinnie is Catholic (often describing his mother as a saint), and, as shown in "I 'm Having Their Baby '', is a Star Trek fan. Little is known about Vinnie 's home life other than that his parents argue a lot ("Follow the Leader (part 2) '') and take turns beating him when in a mutual rage. His mother 's name is Margie ("The Great Debate ''), and he shares a bed with his brother. The episode "Do n't Come Up And See Me Sometime '' implies that Vinnie is the older of the two. Travolta himself was a high school drop - out.
The class clown of the Sweathogs, Arnold Horshack, is completely comfortable with his oddball, if naïve, personality. Horshack was known for his unique observations and his wheezing laugh, similar to that of a hyena. (Palillo revealed on a 1995 episode of The Jenny Jones Show that it originated from the way his father breathed during the last two weeks of his life as he lay dying from lung cancer.) It is possible that academically he is the smartest Sweathog. He is the only central Sweathog character to be promoted out of remedial academics class, but he soon returns after feeling out of place. He has an affection for acting and enjoys old movies, particularly 1930s musicals. He eventually marries Mary Johnson, a co-worker and fellow Sweathog. Although his surname sounds like a term for a bordello, he claimed it is a "very old and respected name '' meaning "the cattle are dying. '' His middle name (and his mother 's maiden name) is "Dingfelder ''.
The hip, black student known as the athletic Sweathog for his skills on the basketball court, Washington claimed his nickname came from his habit of "pretending to play the bass '' and singing "Boom - boom - boom - boom! ''. His trademark phrase is, "Hi, there '' (spoken with a deep voice and a broad smile). Though often the voice of reason among his classmates, Washington nonetheless is a willing participant in the Sweathogs ' various antics and pranks. Freddie also finds success as a radio disc jockey along with another former Sweathog, Wally "The Wow '' (played by George Carlin). At one point, Washington challenges Barbarino for leadership of the Sweathogs, and even replaces him for a time until the group grows tired of his dictatorial style.
Washington has an older sister, who got divorced twice while living in Vermont ("The Longest Weekend ''), and a brother, Leroy. In "The Great Debate '' it is revealed that he has another brother, Douglas, and that his father 's name is Lincoln. Kotter uses his own past to bond with Freddie, because in addition to being a former Sweathog he was also a former star of Buchanan 's basketball team.
A fiercely proud Puerto Rican Jew (when asked if his mother was Puerto Rican, Juan replies that his mother 's maiden name was Bibbermann and that his grandfather saw Puerto Rico from the ship as he was making his way to America and decided to settle there instead of Miami, making him one of the earliest Puerto Rican Jews; Juan is thus Puerto Rican on his father 's side and Jewish on both parents ' sides), Epstein is one of the toughest students at Buchanan High, despite his short stature. He normally walks with a tough - man strut, wears a red handkerchief hanging out of his right back pocket, and was voted "Most Likely to Take a Life '' by his peers. In the season one episode, "One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing '', Epstein was said to be the sixth of ten children (When speaking on the phone to his mother (who had failed to notice that he had been missing for three days), she apparently failed to recognize his name and he had to further identify himself as "Number Six ''.), although he later mentions, in "I 'm Having Their Baby '', that his mother only gave birth eight times, implying two of them were twin births. Only four of his siblings are mentioned by name: his brothers Pedro, Irving, and Sanchez ("One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing ''), establishing that some of his siblings had Jewish names and others Puerto Rican names, and a younger sister, Carmen ("A Love Story ''). Epstein 's toughness was downplayed later on, and he became more of a wiseguy. He was also known to have a "buddy '' relationship with Principal Lazarus as he often refers to him by his first name, Jack. On a few occasions, when Kotter did his Groucho Marx impersonation, Epstein would jump in and impersonate Chico Marx or Harpo Marx. Epstein 's diminutive height, large hair, and fake excuse notes (always signed, "Epstein 's Mother ''), are common jokes associated with him.
Rosie Totsie is the femme fatale purported to have put the "sweat '' in Sweathog, though her reputation is largely exaggerated by the Sweathogs ' word of mouth. Her promiscuity is at least in part a reaction to the strict discipline enforced by her father, the Reverend Totsie. To restore her good name, and to prove a point, she fabricates a story about one of the Sweathogs getting her pregnant. The character was a favorite among male viewers but was phased out of the series at the end of the first season when Scott was picked to co-star in the syndicated Norman Lear comedy, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman. She reprised the role in a 1978 episode, "The Return of Hotsie Totsie '', in which it was revealed that she dropped out of school because she became pregnant and had to become a stripper to support her infant child.
A recurring non-Sweathog character in the earlier seasons, Borden is a Straight A student and editor of the Buchanan Bugle, the school newspaper. She was Barbarino 's tutor, and even dated him at one point. Despite her academic superiority, she can easily hold her own in a Dozens contest against any Sweathog.
Introduced as a regular character in the fourth and final season, Beau is a handsome, friendly, blond, silver - tongued southerner who transfers from New Orleans after being kicked out of several other schools. He ends up in Kotter 's class. The producers sought a heart throb who was not a direct knock - off of the "Italian - Stallion '' trend that was permeating Hollywood in the mid-1970s who would improve ratings in the South where the show 's New York setting was seen as unrelatable. They wanted to retain female viewers, but avoid a Travolta clone. Beau 's first reaction to the term "Sweathog '' is, "That sounds gross. '' He seems to have a way with women, as shown in later episodes. One of his running jokes involves imparting whimsical sayings, such as one about how a real man never steps on a pregnant alligator.
Welcome Back, Kotter 's first season was controversial. In Boston, the local ABC affiliate (WCVB - TV) initially refused to air the show. The city was going through a tumultuous school busing program that involved widespread protests and riots, and the local affiliate felt Kotter 's fictional integrated classroom would only add fuel to the fire. However, the show became an early ratings success and the affiliate relented, picking it up from its fifth episode.
Teachers in other cities had concerns about how Kotter would be portrayed, so producers allowed a union representative on the set to ensure the show protected the image of those in the profession. Kaplan opposed the idea, at one point asking a reporter if there was a junkman on the set of Sanford and Son to protect the reputation of junkmen.
Censor sentiments of Juvenile delinquency faded after the Sweathogs ' antics proved to be silly rather than criminal. Like Kaplan, Hegyes was a fan of the Marx Brothers. Hegyes claimed that he suggested that the Sweathogs be modeled after the Marx Brothers in order to reduce tension.
Ratings slipped greatly in the third season. Kaplan later attributed the decline to the age of the actors playing the Sweathogs, all then in their mid to late twenties, claiming that they were no longer believable as high school students. His idea was to have Kotter join the faculty of a community college attended by the Sweathogs; however, this storyline never materialized. In order to increase viewership, the Kotters had twin girls, but this did not prove to be enough to regain the show 's earlier momentum. The show introduced a female Sweathog, Angie Grabowski, played by Melonie Haller.
Major changes took place in the fourth and final season.
Shortly before the season began, the series was moved from its successful Thursday 8: 00 pm time slot to Monday 8: 00 pm to make way for the impending hit series Mork & Mindy.
Virtually the entire writing staff was fired after season 3, and replaced with veteran writers from family - based series (such as Bob Claver from Leave It To Beaver and The Munsters).
Travolta, who had already starred in box office hits such as Grease, Saturday Night Fever, and Carrie, began to focus more time on his film career. He was featured in eight episodes, earning $2,000 for each one, and he was billed as a special guest star.
Mr. Woodman was promoted to Principal of the school (Principal Lazarus quit to take a "less stressful '' job at a high - security prison), and Kotter was promoted to Vice-Principal, purposefully moving the show 's focus away from Kotter 's class.
Major off - screen disputes led Kaplan to break his contract and reduce his appearances. To help fill the voids, Stephen Shortridge joined the cast as smooth - talking Southerner Beau De LaBarre, and Kotter 's wife, Julie, became a school secretary and occasional fill - in teacher, despite having one - year - old twin daughters.
Knowing the series was in a nosedive, producer James Komack attempted to spin - off a newly married Arnold Horshack into a new sitcom (see section below).
The show enjoyed ratings success during its first two seasons, spawning a host of merchandising tie - ins including: lunch boxes, dolls, comic books, novels, and even a board game, advertised as "The ' Up Your Nose With A Rubber Hose ' Game '' in a commercial with a class full of Sweathog look - alikes featuring Steve Guttenberg as Barbarino. The Sweathogs (or at least an impressionist 's version of them) even made a crossover appearance with characters from the Happy Days universe on one track (the disco - themed "Fonzarelli Slide '') of a 1976 TV - promoted oldies compilation album.
In 2010, the cast, including: Gabe Kaplan, Marcia Strassman, John Travolta, Robert Hegyes, Lawrence Hilton - Jacobs, and Ellen Travolta were honored at the TV Land Award ceremonies that year. Co-star Ron Palillo was not in attendance.
The popular theme song, "Welcome Back '', written and recorded by former Lovin ' Spoonful frontman John Sebastian, became a No. 1 hit in the spring of 1976. The show was originally going to be called Kotter, but that was changed because of the theme song lyrics. Sebastian has said he tried to find a more general theme for the song after being unable to find any reasonable rhymes for Kotter.
Sebastian performed the song on Saturday Night Live (April 24, 1976 -- Season 1, Episode 18), and memorably flubbed the opening lyrics.
DC Comics published ten issues of a Welcome Back, Kotter comic book starting in 1976. Following its cancellation in 1978, a Limited Collectors ' Edition was issued, incorporating a 4 - page "On the Set '' section and photographs from the show.
A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s.
Mattel produced a series of 9 inch Welcome Back, Kotter action figures in 1977. Figures produced included Barbarino, Horshack, Epstein, Washington, and Mr. Kotter.
Warner Home Video released a 6 - episode Television Favorites collection on February 28, 2006. Due to the success of this release, Warner released the Complete first Season on DVD in Region 1 on June 12, 2007.
On May 7, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. Ultimately, they released Welcome Back, Kotter: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on August 26, 2014, and have since released the second, third, and fourth seasons as individual sets.
Kotter failed to receive any major awards, though it was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1976 after its first season; it lost to The Mary Tyler Moore Show. The series was also nominated for three technical Emmy Awards: Outstanding Achievement in Videotape Editing for a Series (to Editors Susan Jenkins and Manuel Martinez) in 1976, Outstanding Art Direction for a Comedy Series (to Art Directors Roy Christopher and James Shanahan) in 1978, and Outstanding Individual Achievement -- Creative Technical Crafts (to Dick Wilson for sound effects) in 1979.
Several noteworthy performers enjoyed guest stints on Kotter either during or prior to their widespread fame. James Woods guest starred in the first season ("The Great Debate '') as Alex Welles, a drama teacher who leads the school debate team ("the Turkeys '') in a competition against the Sweathogs. Pat Morita appears in the 1976 episode "Career Day '' as Mr. Takahashi. Comedian George Carlin was featured, as was John Astin. Other guest stars included Scott Brady, Ellen Travolta, Richard Moll, Della Reese, and Dinah Manoff who would work with John Travolta again in Grease.
Groucho Marx was set to have a brief walk - on role in one episode. He arrived on - set, but was deemed to be too sick to appear. Pictures of Marx with the cast were taken, but were never released because of his sickly appearance.
At least three spin - offs of Kotter were seriously considered, but only one ever became a series. The short - lived Mr. T and Tina starred Pat Morita as Taro Takahashi (Mr. T for short), a brilliant Japanese inventor whom he portrayed in one episode of Kotter. The show was not received well by critics and lasted for five episodes on ABC. There was also talk of developing a spin - off built around the Horshack character and his family, Rich Man, Poor Man; Horshack!, but it never went beyond the backdoor pilot stage, shown as an episode of Kotter. In the mid-1990s, Hegyes announced on The Jenny Jones Show that plans were in the works to create a spin - off featuring the Sweathogs (minus Travolta 's Barbarino) all grown up. The project, however, never got off the ground, and little information about it was ever made public.
Kaplan welcomed back Hegyes and Jacobs on his short - lived 1981 sitcom Lewis & Clark. Their characters joked that Kaplan seemed familiar and being a smart guy, "should become a teacher. ''
The Simpsons referenced the sitcom in the fourth - season episode "Selma 's Choice '' (episode 9F11), first aired on January 21, 1993. Marge is impressed to find one of the Sweathogs listed as a donor in the Springfield Sperm Bank 's "101 Frozen Pops '' catalog. She is disappointed, however, to learn from Selma that it 's not Horshack.
In 1997, Ron Palillo, Robert Hegyes, and Lawrence Hilton - Jacobs reprised their respective roles in a dream sequence in the Mr. Rhodes episode "The Welcome Back Show ''.
In the mid-2000s, WPIX - TV, Channel 11 in New York City, aired the series in its old Saturday night at 8 pm timeslot, pulling surprisingly strong ratings.
In 2012, both Ron Palillo and Robert Hegyes died. Other members of the cast who have died include Marcia Strassman in 2014, John Sylvester White in 1988, and Debralee Scott in 2005.
The show 's lunchbox was the subject of the season one finale of the podcast Mystery Show.
In March 2016, the show aired on Me - TV Sunday mornings at 8: 00 am and 8: 30 am Eastern Time. In September 2017, Antenna TV began airing the show weekdays at 6: 30 pm and 1: 30 am Eastern.
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what two european leaders built strong military dictatorships after world war 1 | History of the Soviet Union (1927 -- 1953) - Wikipedia
The history of the Soviet Union between 1927 and 1953 covers the period in Soviet history from establishment of Stalinism through victory in the Second World War and down to the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. He sought to destroy his enemies while transforming Soviet society with aggressive economic planning, in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture and rapid development of heavy industry. Stalin consolidated his power within the party and the state and fostered an extensive cult of personality. Soviet secret - police and the mass - mobilization Communist party served as Stalin 's major tools in molding Soviet society. Stalin 's brutal methods in achieving his goals, which included party purges, political repression of the general population, and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in Gulag labor camps and during man - made famine.
World War II, known as "the Great Patriotic War '' in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR, with about one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Union 's armies occupied Eastern Europe, where they established or supported puppet Communist regimes. By 1949, the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern (Soviet) Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact (created 1955) pitched against NATO (created 1949) in Europe. After 1945, Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. He continued his totalitarian rule until his death in 1953.
The mobilization of resources by state planning expanded the country 's industrial base. From 1928 to 1932, pig iron output, necessary for further development of the industrial infrastructure rose from 3.3 million to 6.2 million tons per year. Coal production, a basic fuel of modern economies and Stalinist industrialization, rose from 35.4 million to 64 million tons, and the output of iron ore rose from 5.7 million to 19 million tons. A number of industrial complexes such as Magnitogorsk and Kuznetsk, the Moscow and Gorky automobile plants, the Ural Mountains and Kramatorsk heavy machinery plants, and Kharkov, Stalingrad and Chelyabinsk tractor plants had been built or were under construction.
In real terms, the workers ' standards of living tended to drop, rather than rise during the industrialization. Stalin 's laws to "tighten work discipline '' made the situation worse: e.g., a 1932 change to the RSFSR labor law code enabled firing workers who had been absent without a reason from the work place for just one day. Being fired accordingly meant losing "the right to use ration and commodity cards '' as well as the "loss of the right to use an apartment '' and even blacklisted for new employment which altogether meant a threat of starving. Those measures, however, were not fully enforced, as managers were hard pressed to replace these workers. In contrast, the 1938 legislation, which introduced labor books, followed by major revisions of the labor law, were enforced. For example, being absent or even 20 minutes late were grounds for becoming fired; managers who failed to enforce these laws faced criminal prosecution. Later, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, 26 June 1940 "On the Transfer to the Eight - Hour Working Day, the Seven - day Work Week, and on the Prohibition of Unauthorized Departure by Laborers and Office Workers from Factories and Offices '' replaced the 1938 revisions with obligatory criminal penalties for quitting a job (2 -- 4 months imprisonment), for being late 20 minutes (6 months of probation and pay confiscation of 25 per cent), etc.
Based on these figures, the Soviet government declared that Five Year Industrial Production Plan had been fulfilled by 93.7 % in only four years, while parts devoted to heavy - industry part were fulfilled by 108 %. Stalin in December 1932 declared the plan a success to the Central Committee, since increases in the output of coal and iron would fuel future development.
During the second five - year plan (1933 -- 37), on the basis of the huge investment during the first plan, industry expanded extremely rapidly, and nearly reached the plan 's targets. By 1937, coal output was 127 million tons, pig iron 14.5 million tons, and there had been very rapid development of the armaments industry.
While making a massive leap in industrial capacity, the first Five Year Plan was extremely harsh on industrial workers; quotas were difficult to fulfill, requiring that miners put in 16 - to 18 - hour workdays. Failure to fulfill quotas could result in treason charges. Working conditions were poor, even hazardous. Due to the allocation of resources for industry along with decreasing productivity since collectivization, a famine occurred. In the construction of the industrial complexes, inmates of Gulag camps were used as expendable resources. But conditions improved rapidly during the second plan. Throughout the 1930s, industrialization was combined with a rapid expansion of technical and engineering education as well as increasing emphasis on munitions.
From 1921 until 1954, the police state operated at high intensity, seeking out anyone accused of sabotaging the system. The estimated numbers vary greatly. Perhaps, 3.7 million people were sentenced for alleged counter-revolutionary crimes, including 600,000 sentenced to death, 2.4 million sentenced to labor camps, and 700,000 sentenced to expatriation. Stalinist repression reached its peak during the Great Purge of 1937 -- 38, which removed many skilled managers and experts and considerably slowed industrial production in 1937
Under the NEP, Lenin had to tolerate the continued existence of privately owned agriculture. He decided to wait at least 20 years before attempting to place it under state control and in the meantime concentrate on industrial development. However, after Stalin 's rise to power, the timetable for collectivization was shortened to just five years. Demand for food intensified, especially in the USSR 's primary grain producing regions, with new, forced approaches implemented. Upon joining kolkhozes (collective farms), peasants had to give up their private plots of land and property. Every harvest, Kolkhoz production was sold to the state for a low price set by the state itself. However, the natural progress of collectivization was slow, and the November 1929 Plenum of the Central Committee decided to accelerate collectivization through force. In any case, Russian peasant culture formed a bulwark of traditionalism that stood in the way of the Soviet state 's goals.
Given the goals of the first Five Year Plan, the state sought increased political control of agriculture in order to feed the rapidly growing urban population and to obtain a source of foreign currency through increased cereal exports. Given its late start, the USSR needed to import a substantial number of the expensive technologies necessary for heavy industrialization.
By 1936, about 90 % of Soviet agriculture had been collectivized. In many cases, peasants bitterly opposed this process and often slaughtered their animals rather than give them to collective farms, even though the government only wanted the grain. Kulaks, prosperous peasants, were forcibly resettled to Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Russian Far North (a large portion of the kulaks served at forced labor camps). However, just about anyone opposing collectivization was deemed a "kulak ''. The policy of liquidation of kulaks as a class -- formulated by Stalin at the end of 1929 -- meant some executions, and even more deportation to special settlements and, sometimes, to forced labor camps.
Despite the expectations, collectivization led to a catastrophic drop in farm productivity, which did not return to the levels achieved under the NEP until 1940. The upheaval associated with collectivization was particularly severe in Ukraine and the heavily Ukrainian Volga region. Peasants slaughtered their livestock en masse rather than give them up. In 1930 alone, 25 % of the nation 's cattle, sheep, and goats, and one - third of all pigs were killed. It was not until the 1980s that the Soviet livestock numbers would return to their 1928 level. Government bureaucrats, who had been given a rudimentary education on farming techniques, were dispatched to the countryside to "teach '' peasants the new ways of socialist agriculture, relying largely on Marxist theoretical ideas that had little basis in reality. Those farmers who did know agriculture well, who were familiar with the local climates, soil types, and other factors, had all been sent off to the gulags or shot for being enemies of the state. Even after the state inevitably won and succeeding in imposing collectivization, the peasants did everything they could in the way of sabotage. They cultivated far smaller portions of their land and worked much less. The scale of the Ukrainian famine has led many Ukrainian scholars to argue that there was a deliberate policy of genocide against the Ukrainian people. Other scholars argue that the massive death totals were an inevitable result of a very poorly planned operation against all peasants, who had given little support to Lenin or Stalin. British historian Robert Service says,
Almost 99 % of all cultivated land had been pulled into collective farms by the end of 1937. The ghastly price paid by the peasantry has yet to be established with precision, but probably up to 5 million people died of persecution or starvation in these years. Ukrainians and Kazakhs suffered worse than most nations.
In Ukraine alone, the number of people who died in the famines is now estimated to be 3.5 million.
The USSR took over Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1940, which were lost to Germany in 1941, and then recovered in 1944. The collectivization of their farms began in 1948. Using terror, mass killings and deportations, most of the peasantry was collectivized by 1952. Agricultural production fell dramatically in all the other Soviet Republics.
In the period of rapid industrialization and mass collectivization preceding World War II, Soviet employment figures experienced exponential growth. 3.9 million jobs per annum were expected by 1923, but the number actually climbed to an astounding 6.4 million. By 1937, the number rose yet again, to about 7.9 million. Finally, in 1940 it reached 8.3 million. Between 1926 and 1930, the urban population increased by 30 million. Unemployment had been a problem in late Imperial Russia and even under the NEP, but it ceased being a major factor after the implementation of Stalin 's massive industrialization program. The sharp mobilization of resources used in order to industrialize the heretofore agrarian society created a massive need for labor; unemployment virtually dropped to zero. Wage setting by Soviet planners also contributed to the sharp decrease in unemployment, which dropped in real terms by 50 % from 1928 to 1940. With wages artificially depressed, the state could afford to employ far more workers than would be financially viable in a market economy. Several ambitious extraction projects were begun that endeavored to supply raw materials for both military hardware and consumer goods.
The Moscow and Gorky automobile plants produced automobiles for the public -- despite few Soviet citizens affording to buy a car -- and the expansion of steel production and other industrial materials made the manufacture of a greater number of cars possible. Car and truck production, for example, reached 200,000 in 1931.
The Soviet leadership believed that industrial workers needed to be educated in order to be competitive and so embarked on a program contemporaneous with industrialization to greatly increase the number of schools and the general quality of education. In 1927, 7.9 million students attended 118,558 schools. By 1933, the number rose to 9.7 million students in 166,275 schools. In addition, 900 specialist departments and 566 institutions were built and fully operational by 1933. Literacy rates increased substantially as a result, especially in the Central Asian republics.
The Soviet people also benefited from a type of social liberalization. Women were to be given the same education as men and, at least legally speaking, obtained the same rights as men in the workplace. Although in practice these goals were not reached, the efforts to achieve them and the statement of theoretical equality led to a general improvement in the socio - economic status of women. Stalinist development also contributed to advances in health care, which marked a massive improvement over the Imperial era. Stalin 's policies granted the Soviet people access to free health care and education. Widespread immunization programs created the first generation free from the fear of typhus and cholera. The occurrences of these diseases dropped to record - low numbers and infant mortality rates were substantially reduced, resulting in the life expectancy for both men and women to increase by over 20 years by the mid-to - late 1950s. Many of the more extreme social and political ideas that were fashionable in the 1920s such as anarchism, internationalism, and the belief that the nuclear family was a bourgeois concept, were abandoned. Schools began to teach a more nationalistic course with emphasis on Russian history and leaders, though Marxist underpinnings necessarily remained. Stalin also began to create a Lenin cult. During the 1930s, Soviet society assumed the basic form it would maintain until its collapse in 1991.
Urban women under Stalin, paralleling the western countries, were also the first generation of women able to give birth in a hospital with access to prenatal care. Education was another area in which there was improvement after economic development, also paralleling other western countries. The generation born during Stalin 's rule was the first near - universally literate generation. Some engineers were sent abroad to learn industrial technology, and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract. Transport links were also improved, as many new railways were built, although with forced labour, costing thousands of lives. Workers who exceeded their quotas, Stakhanovites, received many incentives for their work, although many such workers were in fact "arranged '' to succeed by receiving extreme help in their work, and then their achievements were used for propaganda.
Starting in the early 1930s, the Soviet government began an all - out war on organized religion in the country. Many churches and monasteries were closed and scores of clergymen were imprisoned or executed. The state propaganda machine vigorously promoted atheism and denounced religion as being an artifact of capitalist society. In 1937, Pope Pius XI decried the attacks on religion in the Soviet Union. By 1940, only a small number of churches remained open. It should be noted that the early anti-religious campaigns under Lenin were mostly directed at the Russian Orthodox Church, as it was a symbol of the czarist government. In the 1930s however, all faiths were targeted: minority Christian denominations, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism.
As this process unfolded, Stalin consolidated near - absolute power using the 1934 assassination of Sergey Kirov (which many suspect Stalin of having planned, although there is no evidence for this) as a pretext to launch the Great Purges against his suspected political and ideological opponents, most notably the old cadres and the rank and file of the Bolshevik Party. Trotsky had already been expelled from the party in 1927, exiled to Kazakhstan in 1928 and then expelled from the USSR entirely in 1929. Stalin used the purges to politically and physically destroy his other formal rivals (and former allies) accusing Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev of being behind Kirov 's assassination and planning to overthrow Stalin. Ultimately, those supposedly involved in this and other conspiracies numbered in the tens of thousands with various Old Bolsheviks and senior party members blamed with conspiracy and sabotage which were used to explain industrial accidents, production shortfalls and other failures of Stalin 's regime. Measures used against opposition and suspected opposition ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to execution to assassination (of Trotsky 's son Lev Sedov and likely of Sergey Kirov -- Trotsky himself was to die at the hands of one of Stalin 's assassins in 1940).
Several show trials were held in Moscow, to serve as examples for the trials that local courts were expected to carry out elsewhere in the country. There were four key trials from 1936 to 1938, The Trial of the Sixteen was the first (December 1936); then the Trial of the Seventeen (January 1937); then the trial of Red Army generals, including Marshal Tukhachevsky (June 1937); and finally the Trial of the Twenty One (including Bukharin) in March 1938. During these, the defendants were typically accused of things such as sabotage, spying, counter-revolution, and conspiring with Germany and Japan to invade and partition the Soviet Union. Most confessed to the charges. The initial trials in 1935 -- 36 were carried out by the OGPU under Genrikh Yagoda. The following year, he and his associates were removed from office and arrested. They were later tried and executed in 1938 -- 39. The secret police were renamed the NKVD and control given to Nikolai Yezhov, known as the "Bloody Dwarf ''.
The "Great Purge '' swept the Soviet Union in 1937. It was widely known as the "Yezhovschina '', the "Reign of Yezhov ''. The rate of arrests was staggering. In the armed forces alone, 34,000 officers were purged including many at the higher ranks. The entire Politburo and most of the Central Committee were purged, along with foreign communists who were living in the Soviet Union, and numerous intellectuals, bureaucrats, and factory managers. The total of people imprisoned or executed during the Yezhovschina numbered about two million. By 1938, the mass purges were starting to disrupt the country 's infrastructure, and Stalin began winding them down. Yezhov was gradually relieved of power. Yezhov was relieved of all powers in 1939, then tried and executed in 1940. His successor as head of the NKVD (from 1938 to 1945) was Lavrentiy Beria, a Georgian friend of Stalin 's. Arrests and executions continued into 1952, although nothing on the scale of the Yezhovschina ever happened again.
During this period, the practice of mass arrest, torture, and imprisonment or execution without trial, of anyone suspected by the secret police of opposing Stalin 's regime became commonplace. By the NKVD 's own count, 681,692 people were shot during 1937 -- 38 alone, and hundreds of thousands of political prisoners were transported to Gulag work camps. The mass terror and purges were little known to the outside world, and many western intellectuals continued to believe that the Soviets had created a successful alternative to a capitalist world that was suffering from the effects of the Great Depression. In 1936, the country adopted its first formal constitution, which on paper at least granted freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.
In March 1939, the 18th congress of the Communist Party was held in Moscow. Most of the delegates present at the 17th congress in 1934 were gone, and Stalin was heavily praised by Litvinov and the western democracies criticized for failing to adopt the principles of "collective security '' against Nazi Germany.
The young Soviet Union initially struggled with foreign relations, being the first socialist - run country in the world. The old great powers were not pleased to see the established world order rocked by an ideology claiming to be the harbinger of a world revolution. Indeed, many had actively opposed the very establishment of Soviet rule by meddling in the Russian Civil War. Slowly the international community had to accept, however, that the Soviet Union was there to stay. By 1933, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Japan, along with many other countries had recognized the Soviet government and established diplomatic ties. On November 16, 1933, the United States joined the list. Thus, by the 1930s, Soviet Russia was no longer an international pariah.
Franco - Soviet relations were initially hostile because the USSR officially opposed the World War I peace settlement of 1919 that France emphatically championed. While the Soviet Union was interested in conquering territories in Eastern Europe, France was determined to protect the fledgling nations there. This led to a rosy German -- Soviet relationship in the 1920s. However, Adolf Hitler 's foreign policy centered on a massive seizure of Eastern European and Russian lands for Germany 's own ends, and when Hitler pulled out of the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva in 1933, the threat hit home. Soviet Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov reversed Soviet policy regarding the Paris Peace Settlement, leading to a Franco - Soviet rapprochement. In May 1935, the USSR concluded pacts of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia; the Comintern was also instructed to form a united front with leftist parties against the forces of Fascism. The pact was undermined, however, by strong ideological hostility to the Soviet Union and the Comintern 's new front in France, Poland 's refusal to permit the Red Army on its soil, France 's defensive military strategy, and a continuing Soviet interest in patching up relations with Germany.
The Soviet Union also supplied military aid to the Republicans in Spain, but held back somewhat. Its support of the government also gave the Republicans a Communist taint in the eyes of anti-Bolsheviks in the UK and France, weakening the calls for Anglo - French intervention in the war.
In response to all of this the Nazi government promulgated an Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and later Italy and various Eastern European countries (such as Hungary), ostensibly to suppress Communist activity but more realistically to forge an alliance against the USSR.
When Nazi Germany entered Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union 's agreement with Czechoslovakia failed to amount to anything because of Poland and Romania 's refusals to permit a Soviet intervention. On April 17, 1939, Stalin suggested a revived military alliance with the UK and France. The Anglo - French military mission sent in August, however, failed to impress Soviet officials; it was sent by a slow ocean - going ship and consisted of low - ranking officers who gave only vague details about their militaries. Stalin favoured Germany.
Stalin arranged the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany on August 23, along with the German - Soviet Commercial Agreement to open economic relations. A secret appendix to the pact gave Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia and Finland to the USSR, and Western Poland and Lithuania to Nazi Germany. This reflected the Soviet desire of territorial gains.
Propaganda was also considered an important foreign relations tool. International exhibitions, the distribution of media such as films, e.g.: Alexander Nevski, and journals like USSR in Construction, as well as inviting prominent foreign individuals to tour the Soviet Union, were used as a method of gaining international influence.
Germany invaded Poland on September 1; the USSR followed on September 17. The Soviets quelled opposition by executing and arresting thousands. They sent hundreds of thousands to Siberia and other remote parts of the USSR. Estimates varying from the figure over 1.5 million. to the most conservative figures using recently found NKVD documents showing 309,000 to 381,220. in four major waves of deportations between 1939 and 1941.
With Poland, including part of the old Prussian state, being divided between two powers, the Soviet Union put forth its territorial demands to Finland for a minor part of the Karelian Isthmus, a naval base at Hanko (Hangö) peninsula and some islands in the Gulf of Finland. Finland rejected the demands and on November 30, the Soviet Union invaded Finland, thus triggering the Winter War. Despite outnumbering Finnish troops by over 2.5: 1, the war proved embarrassingly difficult for the Red Army, which was ill - equipped for the winter weather and lacking competent commanders since the purge of the Soviet high command. The Finns resisted fiercely, and received some support and considerable sympathy from the Allies. But in the spring of 1940, the snows melted, and a renewed Soviet offensive compelled them to surrender and relinquish the Karelian Isthmus and some smaller territories.
In 1940, the USSR occupied and illegally annexed Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. On June 14, 1941, the USSR performed first mass deportations from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.
On June 26, 1940 the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania and access to its oil fields urged King Carol II to do so. Under duress, with no prospect of aid from France or Britain, Carol complied. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertza region.
On June 22, 1941, Adolf Hitler abruptly broke the non-aggression pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Soviet intelligence was fooled by German disinformation and sent to Moscow false alarms about German invasion in April, May and the beginning of June. Despite the popular myth there was no warning "Germany will attack on 22 June without declaration of war '', moreover, Soviet intelligence reported that Germany would either invade the USSR after the fall of the British Empire or after an unacceptable ultimatum demanding German occupation of Ukraine during the German invasion of Britain. Like in Sino - Soviet conflict on Chinese Eastern Railway or Soviet -- Japanese border conflicts Soviet troops on western border received a directive undersigned by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and General of the Army Georgy Zhukov that ordered (as demanded by Stalin): "do not answer to any provocations '' and "do not undertake any (offensive) actions without specific orders '' -- which meant that Soviet troops could open fire only on their soil and forbade counter-attack on German soil.
The Nazi invasion caught the Soviet military unprepared. In the larger sense, Stalin expected invasion but not so soon. The Army had been decimated by the Purges; time was needed for a recovery of competence. As such, mobilization did not occur and the Soviet Army was tactically unprepared as of the invasion. The initial weeks of the war were a disaster, with tens of thousands of men being killed, wounded, or captured. Whole divisions disintegrated against the German onslaught.
It is said that Stalin, at first, refused to believe Nazi Germany had broken the treaty. However, new evidence shows Stalin held meetings with a variety of senior Soviet government and military figures, including Vyacheslav Molotov (People 's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), Semyon Timoshenko (People 's Commissar for Defense), Georgy Zhukov (Chief of Staff of the Red Army), Nikolay Kuznetsov (Commander of both North Caucasus and Baltic Military Districts), and Boris Shaposhnikov (Deputy People 's Commissar for Defense). All in all, on the very first day of the attack, Stalin held meetings with over 15 individual members of the Soviet government and military apparatus.
German troops reached the outskirts of Moscow in December 1941, but failed to capture it, due to staunch Soviet defence and counterattacks. At the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 -- 43, the Red Army inflicted a crushing defeat on the German army. Due to the unwillingness of the Japanese to open a second front in Manchuria, the Soviets were able to call dozens of Red Army divisions back from eastern Russia. These units were instrumental in turning the tide, because most of their officer corps had escaped Stalin 's purges. The Soviet forces soon launched massive counterattacks along the entire German line. By 1944, the Germans had been pushed out of the Soviet Union onto the banks of the Vistula river, just east of Prussia. With Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov attacking from Prussia, and Marshal Ivan Konev slicing Germany in half from the south, the fate of Nazi Germany was sealed. On May 2, 1945 the last German troops surrendered to the overjoyed Soviet troops in Berlin.
From the end of 1944 to 1949, large sections of eastern Germany came under the Soviet Union 's occupation and on 2 May 1945, the capital city Berlin was taken, while over fifteen million Germans were removed from eastern Germany and pushed into central Germany (later called German Democratic Republic) and western Germany (later called Federal Republic of Germany). Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Czech, etc., were then moved onto German land.
An atmosphere of patriotic emergency took over the Soviet Union during the war, and persecution of the Orthodox Church was halted. The Church was now permitted to operate with a fair degree of freedom, so long as it did not get involved in politics. In 1944, a new Soviet national anthem was written, replacing the Internationale, which had been used as the national anthem since 1918. These changes were made because it was thought that the people would respond better to a fight for their country than for a political ideology.
The Soviets bore the brunt of World War II because the West did not open up a second ground front in Europe until the invasion of Italy and the Battle of Normandy. Approximately 26.6 million Soviets, among them 18 million civilians, were killed in the war. Civilians were rounded up and burned or shot in many cities conquered by the Nazis. The retreating Soviet army was ordered to pursue a ' scorched earth ' policy whereby retreating Soviet troops were ordered to destroy civilian infrastructure and food supplies so that the Nazi German troops could not use them.
Stalin 's original declaration in March 1946 that there were 7 million war dead was revised in 1956 by Nikita Khrushchev with a round number of 20 million. In the late 1980s, demographers in the State Statistics Committee (Goskomstat) took another look using demographic methods and came up with an estimate of 26 -- 27 million. A variety of other estimates have been made. In most detailed estimates roughly two - thirds of the estimated deaths were civilian losses. However, the breakdown of war losses by nationality is less well known. One study, relying on indirect evidence from the 1959 population census, found that while in terms of the aggregate human losses the major Slavic groups suffered most, the largest losses relative to population size were incurred by minority nationalities mainly from European Russia, among groups from which men were mustered to the front in "nationality battalions '' and appear to have suffered disproportionately.
After the war, the Soviet Union occupied and dominated Eastern Europe, in line with their particular Marxist ideology.
Stalin was determined to punish those peoples he saw as collaborating with Germany during the war and to deal with the problem of nationalism, which would tend to pull the Soviet Union apart. Millions of Poles, Latvians, Georgians, Ukrainians and other ethnic minorities were deported to Gulags in Siberia. (Previously, following the 1939 annexation of eastern Poland, thousands of Polish Army officers, including reservists, had been executed in the spring of 1940, in what came to be known as the Katyn massacre.) In addition, in 1941, 1943 and 1944 several whole nationalities had been deported to Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia, including, among others, the Volga Germans, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Crimean Tatars, and Meskhetian Turks. Though these groups were later politically "rehabilitated '', some were never given back their former autonomous regions.
At the same time, in a famous Victory Day toast in May 1945, Stalin extolled the role of the Russian people in the defeat of the fascists: "I would like to raise a toast to the health of our Soviet people and, before all, the Russian people. I drink, before all, to the health of the Russian people, because in this war they earned general recognition as the leading force of the Soviet Union among all the nationalities of our country... And this trust of the Russian people in the Soviet Government was the decisive strength, which secured the historic victory over the enemy of humanity -- over fascism... ''
World War II resulted in enormous destruction of infrastructure and populations throughout Eurasia, from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, with almost no country left unscathed. The Soviet Union was especially devastated due to the mass destruction of the industrial base that it had built up in the 1930s. The USSR also experienced a major famine in 1946 -- 48 due to war devastation that cost an estimated 1 to 1.5 million lives as well as secondary population losses due to reduced fertility. However, the Soviet Union recovered its production capabilities and overcame pre-war capabilities, becoming the country with the most powerful land army in history by the end of the war, and having the most powerful military production capabilities.
Although the Soviet Union received aid and weapons from the United States under the Lend - Lease program, the Soviet production of war materials was greater than that of Nazi Germany because of rapid growth of Soviet industrial production during the interwar years (additional supplies from lend - lease accounted for about 10 -- 12 % of the Soviet Union 's own industrial output). The Second Five Year Plan raised steel production to 18 million tons and coal to 128 million tons. Before it was interrupted, the Third Five Year Plan produced no less than 19 million tons of steel and 150 million tons of coal.
The Soviet Union 's industrial output provided an armaments industry which supported their army, helping it resist the Nazi military offensive. According to Robert L. Hutchings, "One can hardly doubt that if there had been a slower buildup of industry, the attack would have been successful and world history would have evolved quite differently. '' For the laborers involved in industry, however, life was difficult. Workers were encouraged to fulfill and overachieve quotas through propaganda, such as the Stakhanovite movement.
Some historians, however, interpret the lack of preparedness of the Soviet Union to defend itself as a flaw in Stalin 's economic planning. David Shearer, for example, argues that there was "a command - administrative economy '' but it was not "a planned one ''. He argues that the Soviet Union was still suffering from the Great Purge, and was completely unprepared for the German invasion. Economist Holland Hunter, in addition, argues in his Overambitious First Soviet Five - Year Plan, that an array "of alternative paths were available, evolving out of the situation existing at the end of the 1920s... that could have been as good as those achieved by, say, 1936 yet with far less turbulence, waste, destruction and sacrifice. ''
In the aftermath of World War II, the Soviet Union extended its political and military influence over Eastern Europe, in a move that was seen by some as a continuation of the older policies of the Russian Empire. Some territories that had been lost by Soviet Russia in the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk (1918) were annexed by the Soviet Union after World War II: the Baltic states and eastern portions of interwar Poland. The Russian SFSR also gained the northern half of East Prussia (Kaliningrad Oblast) from Germany. The Ukrainian SSR gained Transcarpathia (as Zakarpattia Oblast) from Czechoslovakia, and Ukrainian populated Northern Bukovina (as Chernivtsi Oblast) from Romania. Finally, in the late 1940s, pro-Soviet Communist Parties won the elections in five countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria) and subsequently became People 's Democracies. These elections are generally regarded as rigged, and the Western powers did not recognize the elections as legitimate. For the duration of the Cold War, the countries of Eastern Europe became Soviet satellite states -- they were "independent '' nations, which were one - party Communist States whose General Secretary had to be approved by the Kremlin, and so their governments usually kept their policy in line with the wishes of the Soviet Union, although nationalistic forces and pressures within the satellite states played a part in causing some deviation from strict Soviet rule.
The wartime alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union was an aberration from the normal tenor of Russian -- U.S. relations. Strategic rivalry between the huge, sprawling nations goes back to the 1890s when, after a century of friendship, Americans and Russians became rivals over the development of Manchuria. Tsarist Russia, unable to compete industrially, sought to close off and colonize parts of East Asia, while Americans demanded open competition for markets.
Lasting Russian mistrust arose from the landing of U.S. troops in Soviet Russia in 1918, which became involved, directly and indirectly, in assisting the anti-Bolshevik Whites in the civil war.
In addition, the Soviets requested that the United States and Britain open a second front on the European continent; but the Allied invasion did not occur until June 1944, more than two years later. In the meantime, the Russians suffered horrendous casualties, more than 20 million dead, and the Soviets were forced to withstand the brunt of German strength. The allies claimed that a second front had been opened in 1943 in Italy and were not prepared to immediately assault Nazi - occupied France.
When the war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945, Soviet and Western (US, British, and French) troops were essentially facing each other along a line down the center of Europe ranging from Lübeck to Trieste. Aside from a few minor adjustments, this would be the "Iron Curtain '' of the Cold War. In hindsight, Yalta signified the agreement of both sides that they could stay there and that neither side would use force to push the other out. This tacit accord applied to Asia as well, as evinced by U.S. occupation of Japan and the division of Korea. Politically, therefore, Yalta was an agreement on the postwar status quo in which Soviet Union hegemony reigned over about one - third and the Allies over two - thirds.
The Soviets were able to use a well - organized ring of spies in the United States, to gain critical advantages during meetings with representatives of Britain and the United States. Several of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's advisors and cabinet members regularly reported their activities to NKVD handlers.
There were fundamental contrasts between the visions of the United States and the Soviet Union, between capitalism and socialism. Each vindicated in 1945 by previous disasters, those contrasts had been simplified and refined in national ideologies to represent two ways of life. Conflicting models of democratic centralism versus liberal democracy, of state planning against free enterprise, of full or partial employment, of equality versus economic freedom, were to compete for the allegiance of the developing and developed world in the postwar years.
Even so, the basic structures and tensions that marked the cold war were not yet in place in 1945 -- 46. Despite the necessary means of the United States to advance a different vision of postwar Europe, Joseph Stalin viewed the re-emergence of Germany and Japan as the Soviet Union 's chief threats, not the United States. At the time, the prospects of an Anglo - American front against the USSR seemed slim from Stalin 's standpoint. Economic advisers such as Eugen Varga reinforced this view, predicting a postwar crisis of overproduction in capitalist countries which would culminate by 1947 -- 48 in another great depression. For one, Stalin assumed that the capitalist camp would soon resume its internal rivalry over colonies and trade and not pose a threat to the Soviet Union.
Varga 's analysis was partly based on trends in U.S. federal expenditures. Due to the war effort mostly, in the first peacetime year of 1946, federal spending still amounted to $62 billion, or 30 % of GDP, up from 3 % of GDP in 1929, before the Great Depression, New Deal, and Second World War. Thus, Stalin assumed that the Americans would need to look to the Soviet Union, to maintain the same level of exports and state expenditures.
However, there would be no postwar crisis of overproduction. And, as Varga anticipated, the U.S. maintained a roughly comparable level of government spending in the postwar era. It was just maintained in a vastly different way. In the end, the postwar U.S. government would look a lot like the wartime government, with the military establishment, along with military - security, accounting for a significant share of federal expenditures.
The mild political liberalization that took place in the Soviet Union during the war quickly came to an end in 1945. The Orthodox Church was generally left unmolested after the war and was even allowed to print small amounts of religious literature, but persecution of minority religions was resumed. Stalin and the Communist Party were given full credit for the victory over Germany, and generals such as Zhukov were demoted to regional commands (Ukraine in his case). With the onset of the Cold War, anti-Western propaganda was stepped up, with the capitalist world depicted as a decadent place where crime, unemployment, and poverty were rampant.
Things such as the light bulb and the automobile were claimed to have been invented by Russians, and art and science were subjected to rigorous censorship. The former was only allowed to contain themes of socialist realism, and the latter was heavily influenced by the quack biologist Trofim Lysenko, who rejected the concept of Mendelian inheritance. Even the theory of relativity was dismissed as "bourgeoise idealism ''. Much of this censorship was the work of Andrei Zhdanov, known as Stalin 's "ideological hatchet man '', until his death from a heart attack in 1948. Stalin 's cult of personality reached its height in the postwar period, with his picture displayed in every school, factory, and government office, yet he rarely appeared in public. Postwar reconstruction proceeded rapidly, but as the emphasis was all on heavy industry and energy, living standards remained low, especially outside of the major cities.
In October 1952, the first postwar party congress convened in Moscow. Stalin did not feel up to delivering the main report and for most of the proceedings sat in silence while Nikita Khrushchev and Georgy Malenkov delivered the main speeches. He did suggest however that the party be renamed from "The All - Union Party of Bolsheviks '' to "The Communist Party of the Soviet Union '' on the grounds that "There was once a time when it was necessary to distinguish ourselves from the Mensheviks, but there are no Mensheviks anymore. We are the entire party now. '' Stalin also mentioned his advancing age (two months away from 73) and suggested that it might be time to retire. Predictably, no one at the congress would dare agree with it and the delegates instead pleaded for him to stay.
Terror by the secret police continued in the postwar period. Although nothing comparable to 1937 ever happened again, there were many smaller purges, including a mass purge of the Georgian party apparatus in 1951 -- 52. Stalin 's health also deteriorated precipitously after WWII. He suffered a stroke in the fall of 1945 and was ill for months. This was followed by another stroke in 1947. Stalin became less active in the day to day running of the state and instead of party meetings, preferred to invite the Politburo members to all - night dinners where he would watch movies and force them to get drunk and embarrass themselves or say something incriminating.
For decades, conspiracy theorists proposed that Stalin had been poisoned by Lavrentia Beria, possibly using warfarin, due to the symptoms he exhibited on his deathbed, including vomiting blood. In 2013, following the 60th anniversary of his death, the Russian State Archives finally made the autopsy findings public, showing conclusively that Stalin had not been poisoned, but died of natural causes, specifically a series of strokes caused by severe high blood pressure as well as gastric bleeding. He also suffered from fatty liver disease. The strokes had affected the part of the brain that controls respiration, which caused him to suffocate.
The United States, however, led by President Harry S. Truman since April 1945, was determined to shape the postwar world to America 's best interest. He saw the ravaged, war - torn Europe as a place to implant the American system -- capitalism, western democracy, constitutional rule -- and (according to Soviet thinking) extend American hegemony throughout the world. The Soviet Union was attempting the same thing, extending its own systems as far as it could reach, and with two opposite empires struggling for hegemony, relationships between the United States and the Soviet Union quickly soured.
The United States moved quickly to consolidate its position, as it was the only major industrial power in the world to emerge intact -- and even greatly strengthened from an economic perspective. It stood to gain more than any other country from opening up a global market for its exports and access to vital raw materials.
Truman could advance these principles with an economic powerhouse that produced 50 % of the world 's industrial goods and a vast military power that rested on a monopoly of the new atomic bomb (see also Soviet atomic bomb project). Such a power could mould and benefit from a recovering Europe, which in turn required a healthy Germany at its center; these aims were at the center of what the Soviet Union strove to avoid as the wartime alliance broke down.
The resolve of the United States to advance a different vision of the postwar world conflicted with Soviet interests. National security had been important to Soviet foreign policy since the 1920s, when the Communist Party adopted Stalin 's "Socialism in One Country '' and rejected Leon Trotsky 's ideas of "world revolution ''. Before the war, Stalin did not attempt to push Soviet boundaries beyond their full Tsarist extent.
In this sense, the aims of the Soviet Union may not have been aggressive expansionism but rather consolidation, i.e., attempting to secure the war - torn country 's western borders. Stalin, assuming that Japan and Germany could menace the Soviet Union once again by the 1960s, thus quickly imposed Moscow - dominated governments in the springboards of the Nazi onslaught: Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. Much of the rest of the world, however, viewed these moves as an aggressive attempt to expand Soviet influence and communist rule.
Disagreements over postwar plans first centered on Eastern and Central Europe. Having lost more than 20 million in the war, suffered German invasion, and suffered tens of millions of casualties due to onslaughts from the West three times in the preceding 150 years, first with Napoleon, Stalin was determined to destroy Germany 's capacity for another war by keeping it under tight control. U.S. aims were quite different.
Winston Churchill, an anti-Communist, condemned Stalin for cordoning off a new Russian empire with an "Iron Curtain. '' Afterwards, Truman finally refused to give the war - torn Soviet Union "reparations '' from West Germany 's industrial plants, Stalin retaliated by sealing off East Germany as a Communist state.
The Soviet Union 's historic lack of warm water maritime access, a perennial concern of Russian foreign policy well before the October Revolution, was yet another area where interests diverged between East and West. Stalin pressed the Turks for improved access out of the Black Sea through Turkey 's Dardanelles strait, which would allow Soviet passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Churchill had earlier recognized Stalin 's claims, but now the British and Americans forced the Soviet Union to pull back.
Soviet leadership policies were often more measured, however: the Soviet Union eventually withdrew from Northern Iran, at Anglo - American behest; Stalin did observe his 1944 agreement with Churchill and did not aid the communists in the struggle against government in Greece; in Finland he accepted a friendly, non-communist government; and Russian troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia by the end of 1945. However, a pro-Soviet government seized power in Czechoslovakia three years later.
An Anglo - American effort was made to support the Greek government in order to protect the free peoples against totalitarian regimes. This was articulated in the Truman Doctrine Speech of March 1947, which declared that the United States would spend as much as $400 million in efforts to "contain '' communism.
By successfully aiding Greece in 1947, Truman also set a precedent for the U.S. aid to anti-Communist regimes worldwide, even authoritarian ones at times. U.S. foreign policy moved into alignment with State Department officer George Kennan 's argument that the Soviets had to be "contained '' using "unalterable counterforce at every point '', until the breakdown of Soviet power occurred.
The United States launched massive economic reconstruction efforts, first in Western Europe and then in Japan (as well as in South Korea and Taiwan). The Marshall Plan began to pump $12 billion into Western Europe. The rationale was that economically stable nations were less likely to fall prey to Soviet influence, a view which was vindicated in the long run.
In response, Stalin blockaded Berlin in 1948. The city was within the Soviet zone, although subject to the control of all four major powers. The Soviets cut off all rail and road routes to West Berlin. Convinced that he could starve and freeze West Berlin into submission, no trucks or trains were allowed entry into the city. However, this decision backfired when Truman embarked on a highly visible move that would humiliate the Soviets internationally -- supplying the beleaguered city by air. Military confrontation threatened while Truman, with British help, flew supplies over East Germany into West Berlin during the 1948 -- 49 blockade. This costly aerial supplying of West Berlin became known as the Berlin Airlift.
Truman joined eleven other nations in 1949 to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the United States ' first "entangling '' European alliance in 170 years. Stalin replied to these moves by integrating the economies of Eastern Europe in his version of the Marshall Plan, exploding the first Soviet atomic device in 1949, and signing an alliance with Communist China in February 1950. However, the Warsaw Pact, Eastern Europe 's counterpart to NATO, was not created until 1955, two years after Stalin 's death.
U.S. officials quickly moved to expand the containment policy. In a secret 1950 document, NSC 68, they proposed to strengthen their alliance systems, quadruple defense spending, and embark on an elaborate propaganda campaign to persuade Americans to fight this costly Cold War. Truman ordered the development of a hydrogen bomb; in early 1950, the U.S. embarked on its first attempt to prop up colonialism in French Indochina in the face of mounting popular, communist - led resistance; and the United States embarked on what the Soviets considered a blatant violation of wartime treaties: plans to form a West German army.
The immediate post-1945 period may have been the historical high point for the popularity of communist ideology. In the late 1940s Communist parties won large shares of the vote in free elections in countries such as Belgium, France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, and Finland; and won significant popular support in Asia (Vietnam, India, and Japan) and throughout Latin America. In addition they won large support in China, Greece, and Iran, where free elections remained absent or constrained but where Communist parties enjoyed widespread appeal.
In response, the United States sustained a massive anti-communist ideological offensive. The United States aimed to contain communism through both aggressive diplomacy and interventionist policies. In retrospect, this initiative appears largely successful: Washington brandished its role as the leader of the "Free World '' at least as effectively as the Soviet Union brandished its position as the leader of the "progressive '' and "anti-imperialist '' camp.
In 1950, the Soviet Union protested against the fact that the Chinese seat at the United Nations Security Council was held by the Nationalist government of China, and boycotted the meetings. While the Soviet Union was absent, the UN passed a resolution condemning North Korean actions and offering military support to South Korea. After this incident the Soviet Union was never absent at the meetings of the Security Council.
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in which one or more of the following is the earth assumed to be the center of the universe | History of the center of the Universe - wikipedia
The center of the Universe is a concept that lacks a coherent definition in modern astronomy; according to standard cosmological theories on the shape of the universe, it has no center.
Historically, the center of the Universe had been believed to be a number of locations. Many mythological cosmologies included an axis mundi, the central axis of a flat Earth that connects the Earth, heavens, and other realms together. In the 4th century BCE Greece, the geocentric model was developed based on astronomical observation, proposing that the center of the Universe lies at the center of a spherical, stationary Earth, around which the sun, moon, planets, and stars rotate. With the development of the heliocentric model by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, the sun was believed to be the center of the Universe, with the planets (including Earth) and stars orbiting it.
In the early 20th century, the discovery of other galaxies and the development of the Big Bang theory led to the development of cosmological models of a homogeneous, isotropic Universe (which lacks a central point) that is expanding at all points.
In religion or mythology, the axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, columna cerului, center of the world) is a point described as the center of the world, the connection between it and Heaven, or both.
Mount Hermon was regarded as the axis mundi in Caananite tradition, from where the sons of God are introduced descending in 1 Enoch (1En6: 6). The ancient Greeks regarded several sites as places of earth 's omphalos (navel) stone, notably the oracle at Delphi, while still maintaining a belief in a cosmic world tree and in Mount Olympus as the abode of the gods. Judaism has the Temple Mount and Mount Sinai, Christianity has the Mount of Olives and Calvary, Islam has Mecca, said to be the place on earth that was created first, and the Temple Mount (Dome of the Rock). In Shinto, the Ise Shrine is the omphalos. In addition to the Kun Lun Mountains, where it is believed the peach tree of immortality is located, the Chinese folk religion recognizes four other specific mountains as pillars of the world.
Sacred places constitute world centers (omphalos) with the altar or place of prayer as the axis. Altars, incense sticks, candles and torches form the axis by sending a column of smoke, and prayer, toward heaven. The architecture of sacred places often reflects this role. "Every temple or palace -- and by extension, every sacred city or royal residence -- is a Sacred Mountain, thus becoming a Centre. '' The stupa of Hinduism, and later Buddhism, reflects Mount Meru. Cathedrals are laid out in the form of a cross, with the vertical bar representing the union of earth and heaven as the horizontal bars represent union of people to one another, with the altar at the intersection. Pagoda structures in Asian temples take the form of a stairway linking earth and heaven. A steeple in a church or a minaret in a mosque also serve as connections of earth and heaven. Structures such as the maypole, derived from the Saxons ' Irminsul, and the totem pole among indigenous peoples of the Americas also represent world axes. The calumet, or sacred pipe, represents a column of smoke (the soul) rising form a world center. A mandala creates a world center within the boundaries of its two - dimensional space analogous to that created in three - dimensional space by a shrine.
In medieval times some Christians thought of Jerusalem as the center of the world (Latin: umbilicus mundi, Greek: Omphalos), and was so represented in the so - called T and O maps. Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being "planted in the center of the earth. ''
The Flat Earth model is a belief that the Earth 's shape is a plane or disk covered by a firmament containing heavenly bodies. Most pre-scientific cultures have had conceptions of a Flat Earth, including Greece until the classical period, the Bronze Age and Iron Age civilizations of the Near East until the Hellenistic period, India until the Gupta period (early centuries AD) and China until the 17th century. It was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the Americas, and a flat Earth domed by the firmament in the shape of an inverted bowl is common in pre-scientific societies.
"Center '' is well - defined in a Flat Earth model. A flat earth would have a definite geographic center. There would also be a unique point at the exact center of a spherical firmament (or a firmament that was a half - sphere).
The Flat Earth model gave way to an understanding of a Spherical Earth. Aristotle (384 -- 322 BCE) provided observational arguments supporting the idea of a spherical Earth, namely that different stars are visible in different locations, travelers going south see southern constellations rise higher above the horizon, and the shadow of Earth on the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round, and spheres cast circular shadows while discs generally do not.
This understanding was accompanied by models of the Universe that depicted the Sun, Moon, stars, and naked eye planets circling the spherical Earth, including the noteworthy models of Aristotle (see Aristotelian physics) and Ptolemy. This geocentric model was the dominant model from the 4th century BCE until the 17th century CE.
Heliocentrism, or heliocentricism, is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around a relatively stationary Sun at the center of our Solar System. The word comes from the Greek (ἥλιος helios "sun '' and κέντρον kentron "center '').
The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BCE by Aristarchus of Samos, but had received no support from most other ancient astronomers.
Nicolaus Copernicus ' major theory of a heliocentric model was published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in 1543, the year of his death, though he had formulated the theory several decades earlier. Copernicus ' ideas were not immediately accepted, but they did begin a paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic geocentric model to a heliocentric model. The Copernican revolution, as this paradigm shift would come to be called, would last until Isaac Newton 's work over a century later.
Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler 's third law was published in 1619. The first law was "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. ''
On 7 January 1610 Galileo used his telescope, with optics superior to what had been available before. He described "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness '', all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars '' relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January. He had discovered three of Jupiter 's four largest satellites (moons). He discovered the fourth on 13 January.
His observations of the satellites of Jupiter created a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the solar system -- developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun '' from the centre of gravity of the solar system. For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World '', and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line '' (Newton adopted the "at rest '' alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).
Before the 1920s, it was generally believed that there were no galaxies other than our own (see for example The Great Debate). Thus, to astronomers of previous centuries, there was no distinction between a hypothetical center of the galaxy and a hypothetical center of the universe.
In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his work An original theory or new hypothesis of the Universe, correctly speculated that the Milky Way might be a body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces rotating about a Galactic Center, akin to the solar system but on a much larger scale. The resulting disk of stars can be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright 's idea about the structure of the Milky Way.
The 19th century astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler proposed the Central Sun Hypothesis, according to which the stars of the universe revolved around a point in the Pleiades.
In 1917, Heber Doust Curtis observed a nova within what then was called the "Andromeda Nebula ''. Searching the photographic record, 11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that novas in Andromeda were drastically fainter than novas in the Milky Way. Based on this, Curtis was able to estimate that Andromeda was 500,000 light - years away. As a result, Curtis became a proponent of the so - called "island Universes '' hypothesis, which held that objects previously believed to be spiral nebulae within the Milky Way were actually independent galaxies.
In 1920, the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took place, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula (M31) was an external galaxy, Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in our own Galaxy, as well as the significant Doppler shift. In 1922 Ernst Öpik presented a very elegant and simple astrophysical method to estimate the distance of M31. His result put the Andromeda Nebula far outside our Galaxy at a distance of about 450,000 parsec, which is about 1,500,000 ly. Edwin Hubble settled the debate about whether other galaxies exist in 1925 when he identified extragalactic Cepheid variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of M31. These were made using the 2.5 metre (100 in) Hooker telescope, and they enabled the distance of Great Andromeda Nebula to be determined. His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature was not a cluster of stars and gas within our Galaxy, but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from our own. This proved the existence of other galaxies.
Hubble also demonstrated that the redshift of other galaxies is approximately proportional to their distance from the Earth (Hubble 's law). This raised the appearance of our galaxy being in the center of an expanding Universe, however, Hubble rejected the findings philosophically:
... if we see the nebulae all receding from our position in space, then every other observer, no matter where he may be located, will see the nebulae all receding from his position. However, the assumption is adopted. There must be no favoured location in the Universe, no centre, no boundary; all must see the Universe alike. And, in order to ensure this situation, the cosmologist, postulates spatial isotropy and spatial homogeneity, which is his way of stating that the Universe must be pretty much alike everywhere and in all directions. ''
The redshift observations of Hubble, in which galaxies appear to be moving away from us at a rate proportional to their distance from us, are now understood to be a result of the metric expansion of space. This is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the Universe with time, and is an intrinsic expansion whereby the scale of space itself changes. As Hubble theorized, all observers anywhere in the Universe will observe a similar effect.
The Copernican principle, named after Nicolaus Copernicus, states that the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position. Hermann Bondi named the principle after Copernicus in the mid-20th century, although the principle itself dates back to the 16th - 17th century paradigm shift away from the geocentric Ptolemaic system.
The cosmological principle is an extension of the Copernican principle which states that the Universe is homogeneous (the same observational evidence is available to observers at different locations in the Universe) and isotropic (the same observational evidence is available by looking in any direction in the Universe). A homogeneous, isotropic Universe does not have a center.
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who sings the song jesus is just alright with me | Jesus Is Just Alright - wikipedia
"Jesus Is Just Alright '' is a gospel song written by Arthur Reid Reynolds and first recorded by Reynolds ' own group, The Art Reynolds Singers, on their 1966 album, Tellin ' It Like It Is.
The song 's title makes use of the American slang term "all - right '', which during the 1960s was used to describe something that was considered ' cool ' or very good. The song has been covered by a number of bands and artists over the years, including The Byrds, Underground Sunshine, The Doobie Brothers, Alexis Korner, The Ventures, DC Talk, Stryper, Shelagh McDonald, and Robert Randolph (featuring Eric Clapton).
The first cover version of the song was recorded by the Los Angeles band The Byrds on their 1969 album, Ballad of Easy Rider. The song was later recorded by The Doobie Brothers, who included it on their 1972 album, Toulouse Street. The Doobie Brothers ' version of the song was released as a single in November 1972 and it became a hit in the United States, peaking at No. 35 on the Billboard Hot 100. In 1992, the Christian rock and hip hop group, DC Talk, released a version of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' on their Free at Last album. The song has also been covered by Robert Randolph on his Colorblind album, with guest artist Eric Clapton and Stryper 's 2013 release, No More Hell to Pay.
The Byrds ' version of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' was recorded on June 17, 1969 during the sessions for the band 's eighth studio album, Ballad of Easy Rider. It was first released as part of that album but was subsequently issued as a single on December 15, 1969. The single stalled at No. 97 on the Billboard Hot 100 and failed to chart in the United Kingdom. Despite this lack of commercial success, The Doobie Brothers ' later hit version of the song featured an arrangement that was heavily influenced by The Byrds ' own recording.
The song was introduced to The Byrds by the band 's drummer, Gene Parsons, who had been present in the studio when The Art Reynolds Singers had recorded it. The Byrds had added the song to their live concert repertoire some months prior to the start of the Ballad of Easy Rider recording sessions and it had quickly become an audience favorite. In concert, The Byrds rendition of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' began with a wordless vocal introduction that built up and led into the first iteration of the song 's chorus. This distinctive vocal arrangement had been devised by Parsons but once the band were in the studio, record producer Terry Melcher dispensed with this extended intro, choosing instead to give the song a more pop - oriented arrangement.
"Jesus Is Just Alright '' became a staple of The Byrds ' concert repertoire between 1969 and 1971 but appears to have been performed only rarely after that. Additionally, the band performed the song on the U.S. television programs Memphis Talent Party and The Midnight Special in 1970 and 1972 respectively.
Besides its appearance on the Ballad of Easy Rider album, "Jesus Is Just Alright '' can also be found on several Byrds ' compilations, including The Best of The Byrds: Greatest Hits, Volume II, History of The Byrds, The Byrds, The Essential Byrds, and There Is a Season. Live recordings of the song are included on the expanded edition of The Byrds ' (Untitled) album as well as on Live at Royal Albert Hall 1971.
The Doobie Brothers ' version of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' was first released on their second album, Toulouse Street, in 1972. It was subsequently released in November 1972 as the second single from the album (b / w "Rockin ' Down the Highway '') and went on to become a U.S. hit, peaking at No. 35 on the Billboard Hot 100 in February 1973. The single featured a shorter, edited version of the song compared to the one included on the album. The Doobie Brothers ' version of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' was one of a number of religiously themed songs to reach the U.S. charts between 1969 and 1973, along with "Spirit in the Sky '' by Norman Greenbaum, "Put Your Hand in the Hand '' by Ocean, "Superstar '' by Murray Head, "Morning Has Broken '' by Cat Stevens, "Jubilation '' by Paul Anka, "Speak to the Sky '' by Rick Springfield, "Jesus Was a Capricorn '' by Kris Kristofferson, "My Sweet Lord '' by George Harrison and "I Knew Jesus (Before He Was a Star) '' by Glen Campbell. The song, along with its B - side, continue to be a staple of playlists on classic rock radio stations.
The band first became aware of "Jesus Is Just Alright '' after hearing The Byrds ' version and before long the song had been added to The Doobie Brothers ' own live repertoire. As a result, the song 's musical arrangement is very similar to the one used by The Byrds, although The Doobie Brothers ' rendition does include an extra bridge that the band added themselves. Although none of the individual band members were religiously inclined, the song went on to become very popular among Christians during the early 1970s, particularly those within the hippie counterculture that were involved with the Jesus movement.
In addition to its appearance on Toulouse Street, the song can also be found on a number of Doobie Brothers ' compilations, including Best of The Doobies, Listen to the Music: The Very Best of The Doobie Brothers, Long Train Runnin ': 1970 -- 2000, Greatest Hits, and The Very Best of The Doobie Brothers. Live recordings of the song appear on the Farewell Tour, Rockin ' down the Highway: The Wildlife Concert, and Live at Wolf Trap albums.
"Jesus Is Just Alright '' is a Dove Award - winning single by Christian rock and hip hop band, DC Talk. It was the lead single for their 1992 platinum - selling and Grammy Award - winning album, Free at Last. The band 's primary songwriter, TobyMac (Toby McKeehan), retained the song 's chorus but added a number of new verses consisting of his own lyrics. These lyrics were rapped, as was usual with DC Talk 's songs of the period, with the lead vocal alternating between McKeehan 's rapped verses and the sung chorus provided by Kevin Max (then known as Kevin Smith) and Michael Tait.
DC Talk 's version also includes subtle lyric alterations, with the line "Jesus is just alright '' being intermittently changed to "Jesus is still alright ''. Thus, DC Talk 's recording can be seen as something of an update on the previous version. McKeehan changed the line in an attempt to express his feeling that Jesus was still alright with him even if many others did not share his beliefs. The song 's lyrics also comment on the lack of acceptance and recognition that faith - based music often receives from mainstream radio. In addition to being musically based upon the earlier Byrds and Doobie Brothers ' recordings, DC Talk 's version of the song also features samples of Madonna 's hit single "Vogue '' and the Snap! song "The Power ''.
In the audio commentary of the Free at Last -- The Movie bonus DVD, Tait identified "Jesus Is Just Alright '' as the song that DC Talk have performed most in their live shows. It has been played at every concert since 1992 and is the only song to be played on each of their four major headlining tours: Free At Last (1994), Jesus Freak -- The Tour (Spring 1996), The Supernatural Experience (Spring 1999), and An Evening with DC Talk (Spring 2001).
The song 's music video was shot entirely in muted sepia - tone and featured DC Talk singing around three crosses in a desert, surrounded by musicians and dancers. It concludes with the band walking off into the desert sunset.
At the 24th GMA Dove Awards in 1994, "Jesus Is Just Alright '' was awarded the Dove Award for Best Rock Recorded Song. DC Talk also became one of the first contemporary Christian acts to perform on late - night television when, on November 12, 1993, the band performed "Jesus Is Just Alright '' on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.
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is the us post office a private company | United States Postal Service - Wikipedia
The United States Postal Service (USPS; also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution.
The U.S. Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, when Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The Post Office Department was created in 1792 from Franklin 's operation, elevated to a cabinet - level department in 1872, and transformed in 1971 into the U.S. Postal Service as an agency of the U.S. government.
The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees and operated 211,264 vehicles in 2014. The USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price and quality. The USPS still has exclusive access to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail '' and personal letterboxes in the United States, but now has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service and FedEx.
Since the early 1980s, many of the direct tax subsidies to the Post Office (with the exception of subsidies for costs associated with the disabled and overseas voters) have been reduced or eliminated in favor of indirect subsidies, in addition to the advantages associated with a government - enforced monopoly on the delivery of first - class mail. Since the 2006 all - time peak mail volume, after which Congress passed the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act (which mandated $5.5 billion per year to be paid into an account to fully prefund employee retirement health benefits, a requirement exceeding that of other government and private organizations), revenue dropped sharply due to recession - influenced declining mail volume, prompting the postal service to look to other sources of revenue while cutting costs to reduce its budget deficit. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, and its revenue was $67.8 billion in 2014 and $68.9 billion in 2015.
In the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, setting up a location in Boston where one could post a letter back home to England. Other attempts focused on a dedicated postal service between two of the larger colonies, such as Massachusetts and Virginia, but the available services remained limited in scope and disjointed for many years. For example, informal independently - run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672.
A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21 - year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service. On February 17, 1691, a grant of letters patent from the joint sovereigns, William III and Mary II, empowered him:
"to erect, settle, and establish within the chief parts of their majesties ' colonies and plantations in America, an office or offices for receiving and dispatching letters and pacquets, and to receive, send, and deliver the same under such rates and sums of money as the planters shall agree to give, and to hold and enjoy the same for the term of twenty - one years. ''
The patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later. Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692. Rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed postal laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neale 's patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies. The chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic.
Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies. Most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, the information hub of the new nation. News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, and to exchange news from newspapers between the thirteen states. Overthrowing the London - oriented imperial postal service in 1774 -- 1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office (USPO) was created on July 26, 1775, by decree of the Second Continental Congress. Benjamin Franklin headed it briefly.
Before the Revolution, individuals like Benjamin Franklin and William Goddard were the colonial postmasters who managed the mails then and were the general architects of a postal system that started out as an alternative to the Crown Post.
The official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department (USPOD). It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress "To establish post offices and post roads ''. The 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the entire country with low - cost access to information on public affairs, while establishing a right to personal privacy.
Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger. Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi. At the same time Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson, judge of Louisiana Territory, the largest territory in North America. Bruce Adamson wrote that: "Next to Benjamin Franklin, Rufus Easton was one of the most colorful people in United States Postal History. '' It was Easton who educated Abraham Lincoln 's Attorney General, Edward Bates. In 1815 Edward Bates moved into the Easton home and lived there for years at Third and Elm. Today this is the site of the Jefferson Memorial Park. In 1806 Postmaster General Gideon Granger wrote a three - page letter to Easton, begging him not to partake in a duel with vice-president Aaron Burr. Two years earlier it was Burr who had shot and killed Alexander Hamilton. Many years later in 1852, Easton 's son, Major - General Langdon Cheves Easton, was commissioned by William T. Sherman, at Fort Union to deliver a letter to Independence, Missouri. Sherman wrote: "In the Spring of 1852, General Sherman mentioned that the quartermaster, Major L.C. Easton, at Fort Union, New Mexico, had occasion to send some message east by a certain date, and contracted with Aubrey to carry it to the nearest post office (then Independence, Missouri), making his compensation conditional on the time consumed. He was supplied with a good horse, and an order on the outgoing trains for exchange. Though the whole route was infested with hostile Indians, and not a house on it, Aubrey started alone with his rifle. He was fortunate in meeting several outward - bound trains, and thereby made frequent changes of horses, some four or five, and reached Independence in six days, having hardly rested or slept the whole way. ''
To cover long distances, the Post Office used a hub - and - spoke system, with Washington as the hub and chief sorting center. By 1869, with 27,000 local post offices to deal with, it had changed to sorting mail en route in specialized railroad mail cars, called Railway Post Offices, or RPOs. The system of postal money orders began in 1864. Free mail delivery began in the larger cities in 1863.
The postal system played a crucial role in national expansion. It facilitated expansion into the West by creating an inexpensive, fast, convenient communication system. Letters from early settlers provided information and boosterism to encourage increased migration to the West, helped scattered families stay in touch and provide assistance, assisted entrepreneurs in finding business opportunities, and made possible regular commercial relationships between merchants in the west and wholesalers and factories back east. The postal service likewise assisted the Army in expanding control over the vast western territories. The widespread circulation of important newspapers by mail, such as the New York Weekly Tribune, facilitated coordination among politicians in different states. The postal service helped integrate established areas with the frontier, creating a spirit of nationalism and providing a necessary infrastructure.
The Post Office in the 19th century was a major source of federal patronage. Local postmasterships were rewards for local politicians -- often the editors of party newspapers. About three quarters of all federal civilian employees worked for the Post Office. In 1816 it employed 3341 men, and in 1841, 14,290. The volume of mail expanded much faster than the population, as it carried annually 100 letters and 200 newspapers per 1000 white population in 1790, and 2900 letters and 2700 newspapers per thousand in 1840.
The Post Office Department was enlarged during the tenure of President Andrew Jackson. As the Post Office expanded, difficulties were experienced due to a lack of employees and transportation. The Post Office 's employees at that time were still subject to the so - called "spoils '' system, where faithful political supporters of the executive branch were appointed to positions in the post office and other government corporations as a reward for their patronage. These appointees rarely had prior experience in postal service and mail delivery. This system of political patronage was replaced in 1883, after passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act.
In 1823, ten years after the Post Office had first begun to use steamboats to carry mail between post towns where no roads existed, waterways were declared post roads. Once it became clear that the postal system in the United States needed to expand across the entire country, the use of the railroad to transport the mail was instituted in 1832, on one line in Pennsylvania. All railroads in the United States were designated as post routes, after passage of the Act of July 7, 1838. Mail service by railroad increased rapidly thereafter.
An Act of Congress provided for the issuance of stamps on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. The 5 - cent stamp paid for a letter weighing less than 1 oz (28 g) and traveling less than 300 miles, the 10 - cent stamp for deliveries to locations greater than 300 miles, or twice the weight deliverable for the 5 - cent stamp.
In 1847, the U.S. Mail Steamship Company acquired the contract which allowed it to carry the U.S. mails from New York, with stops in New Orleans and Havana, to the Isthmus of Panama for delivery in California. The same year, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company had acquired the right to transport mail under contract from the United States Government from the Isthmus of Panama to California. In 1855, William Henry Aspinwall completed the Panama Railway, providing rail service across the Isthmus and cutting to three weeks the transport time for the mails, passengers and goods to California. This remained an important route until the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. Railroad companies greatly expanded mail transport service after 1862, and the Railway Mail Service was inaugurated in 1869.
Rail cars designed to sort and distribute mail while rolling were soon introduced. RMS employees sorted mail "on - the - fly '' during the journey, and became some of the most skilled workers in the postal service. An RMS sorter had to be able to separate the mail quickly into compartments based on its final destination, before the first destination arrived, and work at the rate of 600 pieces of mail an hour. They were tested regularly for speed and accuracy.
Parcel Post service began with the introduction of International Parcel Post between the USA and foreign countries in 1887. That same year, the U.S. Post Office (predecessor of the USPS) and the Postmaster General of Canada established parcel - post service between the two nations. A bilateral parcel - post treaty between the independent (at the time) Kingdom of Hawaii and the USA was signed on 19 December 1888 and put into effect early in 1889. Parcel - post service between the USA and other countries grew with the signing of successive postal conventions and treaties. While the Post Office agreed to deliver parcels sent into the country under the UPU treaty, it did not institute a domestic parcel - post service for another twenty - five years.
The advent of Rural Free Delivery (RFD) in the U.S. in 1896, and the inauguration of a domestic parcel post service by Postmaster General Frank H. Hitchcock in 1913, greatly increased the volume of mail shipped nationwide, and motivated the development of more efficient postal transportation systems. Many rural customers took advantage of inexpensive Parcel Post rates to order goods and products from businesses located hundreds of miles away in distant cities for delivery by mail. From the 1910s to the 1960s, many college students and others used parcel post to mail home dirty laundry, as doing so was less expensive than washing the clothes themselves.
After four - year - old Charlotte May Pierstorff was mailed from her parents to her grandparents in Idaho in 1914, mailing of people was prohibited. In 1917, the Post Office imposed a maximum daily mailable limit of two hundred pounds per customer per day after a business entrepreneur, W.H. Coltharp, used inexpensive parcel - post rates to ship more than eighty thousand masonry bricks some four hundred seven miles via horse - drawn wagon and train for the construction of a bank building in Vernal, Utah.
The advent of parcel post also led to the growth of mail order businesses that substantially increased rural access to modern goods over what was typically stocked in local general stores.
In 1912, carrier service was announced for establishment in towns of second and third class with $100,000 appropriated by Congress. From January 1, 1911, until July 1, 1967, the United States Post Office Department operated the United States Postal Savings System. An Act of Congress of June 25, 1910, established the Postal Savings System in designated Post Offices, effective January 1, 1911. The legislation aimed to get money out of hiding, attract the savings of immigrants accustomed to the postal savings system in their native countries, provide safe depositories for people who had lost confidence in banks, and furnish more convenient depositories for working people. The law establishing the system directed the Post Office Department to redeposit most of the money in the system in local banks, where it earned 2.5 percent interest.
The system paid 2 - percent interest per year on deposits. The half percent difference in interest was intended to pay for the operation of the system. Certificates were issued to depositors as proof of their deposit. Depositors in the system were initially limited to hold a balance of $500, but this was raised to $1,000 in 1916 and to $2,500 in 1918. The initial minimum deposit was $1. In order to save smaller amounts for deposit, customers could purchase a 10 - cent postal savings card and 10 - cent postal savings stamps to fill it. The card could be used to open or add to an account when its value, together with any attached stamps, amounted to one or more dollars, or it could be redeemed for cash. At its peak in 1947, the system held almost $3.4 billion in deposits, with more than four million depositors using 8,141 postal units.
The Post Office Department played a role during World War I, enacting the Espionage and Trading with the Enemy Acts. Also monitoring foreign mail and acting as counter-espionage to help secure allied victory.
On August 12, 1918, the Post Office Department took over airmail service from the United States Army Air Service (USAAS). Assistant Postmaster General, Otto Praeger, appointed Benjamin B. Lipsner to head the civilian - operated Air Mail Service. One of Lipsner 's first acts was to hire four pilots, each with at least 1,000 hours flying experience, paying them an average of $4,000 per year ($63.7 thousand today). The Post Office Department used new Standard JR - 1B biplanes specially modified to carry the mail while the war was still in progress, but following the war operated mostly World War I surplus military de Havilland DH - 4 aircraft.
During 1918, the Post Office hired an additional 36 pilots. In its first year of operation, the Post Office completed 1,208 airmail flights with 90 forced landings. Of those, 53 were due to weather and 37 to engine failure. By 1920, the Air Mail service had delivered 49 million letters. Domestic air mail became obsolete in 1975, and international air mail in 1995, when the USPS began transporting First - Class mail by air on a routine basis.
The Post Office was one of the first government departments to regulate obscene materials on a national basis. When the U.S. Congress passed the Comstock laws of 1873, it became illegal to send through the U.S. mail any material considered obscene or indecent, or which promoted abortion issues, birth control, or alcohol consumption.
On March 18, 1970, postal workers in New York City -- upset over low wages and poor working conditions, and emboldened by the Civil Rights movement -- organized a strike against the United States government. The strike initially involved postal workers in only New York City, but it eventually gained support of over 210,000 United States Post Office Department workers across the nation. While the strike ended without any concessions from the Federal government, it did ultimately allow for postal worker unions and the government to negotiate a contract which gave the unions most of what they wanted, as well as the signing of the Postal Reorganization Act by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970. The Act replaced the cabinet - level Post Office Department with a new federal agency, the United States Postal Service, and took effect on July 1, 1971.
The United States Postal Service employs some 617,000 workers, making it the third - largest civilian employer in the United States behind the federal government and Wal - Mart. In a 2006 U.S. Supreme Court decision, the Court noted: "Each day, according to the Government 's submissions here, the United States Postal Service delivers some 660 million pieces of mail to as many as 142 million delivery points. '' As of 2014, the USPS operates 31,000 post offices and locations in the U.S., and delivers 155 billion pieces of mail annually.
The USPS operates one of the largest civilian vehicle fleets in the world, with an estimated 211,264 vehicles, the majority of which are the easily identified Chevrolet / Grumman LLV (long - life vehicle), and the newer Ford / Utilimaster FFV (flex - fuel vehicle), originally also referred to as the CRV (carrier route vehicle). It is by geography and volume the globe 's largest postal system, delivering 40 % of the world 's mail. For every penny increase in the national average price of gasoline, the USPS spends an extra $8 million per year to fuel its fleet.
The number of gallons of fuel used in 2009 was 444 million, at a cost of US $1.1 billion. The fleet is notable in that many of its vehicles are right - hand drive, an arrangement intended to give drivers the easiest access to roadside mailboxes. Some Rural Letter Carriers use personal vehicles. Standard postal - owned vehicles do not have license plates. These vehicles are identified by a seven digit number displayed on the front and rear.
The Department of Defense and the USPS jointly operate a postal system to deliver mail for the military; this is known as the Army Post Office (for Army and Air Force postal facilities) and the Fleet Post Office (for Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard postal facilities).
In February 2013, the Postal Service announced that on Saturdays it would only deliver packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, and Express Mail, effective August 10, 2013. However, this change was reversed by federal law in the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013. They now deliver packages on Sunday -- only for Amazon.com. During the four weeks preceding Christmas since 2013, packages from all mail classes and senders were delivered on Sunday in some areas.
Parcels are also delivered on holidays, with the exception of Thanksgiving and Christmas.
In October 2016, the Postal Service released Future Ready, a five - year plan required by law starting in 1993. The plan outlines the Postal Service 's goals for the next five years.
1. Deliver a world - class customer experience.
2. Equip, empower, and engage employees.
3. Innovate faster to deliver value.
4. Invest in our future platforms.
In 2011, numerous media outlets reported that the USPS was going out of business. The USPS 's strategy came under fire as new technologies emerged and the USPS was not finding ways to generate new sources of revenue.
In 2016, the Postal Service collected $71.49 billion in revenue.
In 2016, the USPS had its fifth straight annual operating loss, in the amount of $5.59 billion, of which $5.8 billion was the accrual of unpaid mandatory retiree health payments.
First Class mail volume peaked in 2001 and has declined 29 % from 1998 to 2008, due to the increasing use of email and the World Wide Web for correspondence and business transactions.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages.
Lower volume means lower revenues to support the fixed commitment to deliver to every address once a day, six days a week. According to an official report on November 15, 2012, the U.S. Postal Service lost $15.9 billion its 2012 fiscal year.
In response, the USPS has increased productivity each year from 2000 to 2007, through increased automation, route re-optimization, and facility consolidation. Despite these efforts, the organization saw an $8.5 billion budget shortfall in 2010, and was losing money at a rate of about $3 billion per quarter in 2011.
On December 5, 2011 the USPS announced it would close more than half of its mail processing centers, eliminate 28,000 jobs and reduce overnight delivery of First - Class Mail. This will close down 252 of its 461 processing centers. (At peak mail volume in 2006, the USPS operated 673 facilities.) As of May 2012, the plan was to start the first round of consolidation in summer 2012, pause from September to December, and begin a second round in February 2014; 80 % of first class mail would still be delivered overnight through the end of 2013. New delivery standards were issued in January 2015, and the majority of single - piece (not presorted) first - class mail is now being delivered in two days instead of one. Large commercial mailers can still have first - class mail delivered overnight if delivered directly to a processing center in the early morning, though as of 2014 this represented only 11 % of first - class mail. Unsorted first - class mail will continued to be delivered anywhere in the contiguous United States within three days.
In July 2011, the USPS announced a plan to close about 3,700 small post offices. Various representatives in Congress protested, and the Senate passed a bill that would have kept open all post offices further than 10 miles from the next office. In May 2012, the service announced it had modified its plan. Instead, rural post offices would remain open with reduced retail hours (some as little as two hours per day) unless there was a community preference for a different option. In a survey of rural customers, 20 % preferred the "Village Post Office '' replacement (where a nearby private retail store would provide basic mail services with expanded hours), 15 % preferred merger with another Post Office, and 11 % preferred expanded rural delivery services. Approximately 40 % of postal revenue already comes from online purchases or private retail partners including Walmart, Staples, Office Depot, Walgreens, Sam 's Club, Costco, and grocery stores. The National Labor Relations Board agreed to hear the American Postal Workers Union 's arguments that these counters should be manned by postal employees who earn far more and have "a generous package of health and retirement benefits ''.
On January 28, 2009, Postmaster General John E. Potter testified before the Senate that, if the Postal Service could not readjust its payment toward the contractually funding earned employee retiree health benefits, as mandated by the Postal Accountability & Enhancement Act of 2006, the USPS would be forced to consider cutting delivery to five days per week during June, July, and August.
H.R. 22, addressing this issue, passed the House of Representatives and Senate and was signed into law on September 30, 2009. However, Postmaster General Potter continued to advance plans to eliminate Saturday mail delivery.
On June 10, 2009, the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA) was contacted for its input on the USPS 's current study of the effect of five - day delivery along with developing an implementation plan for a five - day service plan. A team of Postal Service headquarters executives and staff has been given a time frame of sixty days to complete the study. The current concept examines the effect of five - day delivery with no business or collections on Saturday, with Post Offices with current Saturday hours remaining open.
On Thursday, April 15, 2010, the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform held a hearing to examine the status of the Postal Service and recent reports on short and long term strategies for the financial viability and stability of the USPS entitled "Continuing to Deliver: An Examination of the Postal Service 's Current Financial Crisis and its Future Viability. '' At which, PMG Potter testified that by the year 2020, the USPS cumulative losses could exceed $238 billion, and that mail volume could drop 15 percent from 2009.
In February 2013, the USPS announced that in order to save about $2 billion per year, Saturday delivery service would be discontinued except for packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, Express Mail, and mail delivered to Post Office boxes, beginning August 10, 2013. However the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013, passed in March, reversed the cuts to Saturday delivery.
The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006 (PAEA) obligates the USPS to fund the present value of earned retirement obligations (essentially past promises which have not yet come due) within a ten - year time span. In contrast, private businesses in the United States have no legal obligation to pay for retirement costs at promise - time rather than retirement - time, but about one quarter do.
The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is the main bureaucratic organization responsible for the human resources aspect of many federal agencies and their employees. The PAEA created the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefit Fund (PSRHB) after Congress removed the Postal Service contribution to the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Most other employees that contribute to the CSRS have 7 % deducted from their wages.
On September 30, 2014, the USPS failed to make a $5.7 billion payment on this debt, the fourth such default.
Congress has limited rate increases for First - Class Mail to the cost of inflation, unless approved by the Postal Regulatory Commission. A 3 ¢ surcharge above inflation increased the 1 oz (28 g) rate to 49 ¢ in January, 2014, but this was approved by the Commission for two years only.
Comprehensive reform packages considered in the 113th Congress include S. 1486 and H.R. 2748. These include the efficiency measure, supported by Postmaster General Patrick Donahoe of ending door - to - door delivery of mail for some or most of the 35 million addresses that currently receive it, replacing that with either curbside boxes or nearby "cluster boxes ''. This would save $4.5 billion per year out of the $30 billion delivery budget; door - to - door city delivery costs annually on average $353 per stop, curbside $224, and cluster box $160 (and for rural delivery, $278, $176, and $126, respectively).
S. 1486, also with the support of Postmaster Donahoe, would also allow the USPS to ship alcohol in compliance with state law, from manufacturers to recipients with ID to show they are over 21. This is projected to raise approximately $50 million per year. (Shipping alcoholic beverages is currently illegal under 18 U.S.C. § 1716 (f).)
In 2014, the Postal Service was requesting reforms to worker 's compensation, moving from a pension to defined contribution retirement savings plan, and paying senior retiree health care costs out of Medicare funds, as is done for private - sector workers.
The Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service sets policy, procedure, and postal rates for services rendered, and has a similar role to a corporate board of directors. Of the eleven members of the Board, nine are appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate (see 39 U.S.C. § 202). The nine appointed members then select the United States Postmaster General, who serves as the board 's tenth member, and who oversees the day - to - day activities of the service as Chief Executive Officer (see 39 U.S.C. § § 202 -- 203). The ten - member board then nominates a Deputy Postmaster General, who acts as Chief Operating Officer, to the eleventh and last remaining open seat.
The independent Postal Regulatory Commission (formerly the Postal Rate Commission) is also controlled by appointees of the President confirmed by the Senate. It oversees postal rates and related concerns, having the authority to approve or reject USPS proposals.
The USPS is often mistaken for a government - owned corporation (e.g., Amtrak) because it operates much like a business. It is, however, an "establishment of the executive branch of the Government of the United States '', (39 U.S.C. § 201) as it is controlled by Presidential appointees and the Postmaster General. As a government agency, it has many special privileges, including sovereign immunity, eminent domain powers, powers to negotiate postal treaties with foreign nations, and an exclusive legal right to deliver first - class and third - class mail. Indeed, in 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision that the USPS was not a government - owned corporation, and therefore could not be sued under the Sherman Antitrust Act.
The U.S. Supreme Court has also upheld the USPS 's statutory monopoly on access to letter boxes against a First Amendment freedom of speech challenge; it thus remains illegal in the U.S. for anyone, other than the employees and agents of the USPS, to deliver mailpieces to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail ''.
The Postal Service also has a Mailers ' Technical Advisory Committee and local Postal Customer Councils, which are advisory and primarily involve business customers.
Article I, section 8, Clause 7 of the United States Constitution grants Congress the power to establish post offices and post roads, which has been interpreted as a de facto Congressional monopoly over the delivery of first class residential mail -- which has been defined as non-urgent residential letters (not packages). Accordingly, no other system for delivering first class residential mail -- public or private -- has been tolerated, absent Congress 's consent.
The mission of the Postal Service is to provide the American public with trusted universal postal service. While not explicitly defined, the Postal Service 's universal service obligation (USO) is broadly outlined in statute and includes multiple dimensions: geographic scope, range of products, access to services and facilities, delivery frequency, affordable and uniform pricing, service quality, and security of the mail. While other carriers may claim to voluntarily provide delivery on a broad basis, the Postal Service is the only carrier with a legal obligation to provide all the various aspects of universal service.
Proponents of universal service principles claim that since any obligation must be matched by the financial capability to meet that obligation, the postal monopoly was put in place as a funding mechanism for the USO, and it has been in place for over a hundred years. It consists of two parts: the Private Express Statutes (PES) and the mailbox access rule. The PES refers to the Postal Service 's monopoly on the delivery of letters, and the mailbox rule refers to the Postal Service 's exclusive access to customer mailboxes.
Proponents of universal service principles further claim that eliminating or reducing the PES or mailbox rule would affect the ability of the Postal Service to provide affordable universal service. If, for example, the PES and the mailbox rule were to be eliminated, and the USO maintained, then either billions of dollars in tax revenues or some other source of funding would have to be found.
Some proponents of universal service principles suggest that private communications that are protected by the veil of government promote the exchange of free ideas and communications. This separates private communications from the ability of a private for - profit or non-profit organization to corrupt. Security for the individual is in this way protected by the United States Post Office, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity, as well as government employees being much less likely to be instructed by superiors to engage in nefarious spying. It is seen by some as a dangerous step to extract the universal service principle from the post office, as the untainted nature of private communications is preserved as assurance of the protection of individual freedom of privacy.
However, as the recent notice of a termination of mail service to residents of the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness indicates, mail service has been contracted to private firms such as Arnold Aviation for many decades. KTVB - TV reported:
"We can not go out every week and pick up our mail... it 's impossible '', said Heinz Sippel. "Everyone gets their mail. Why ca n't we? '' said Sue Anderson. Getting mail delivered, once a week, by airplane is not a luxury, it 's a necessity for those who live in Idaho 's vast wilderness -- those along the Salmon and Selway rivers. It 's a service that 's been provided to them for more than half a century -- mostly by Ray Arnold of Arnold Aviation.
The decision was reversed; U.S. Postmaster General John Potter indicated that acceptable service to back country customers could not be achieved in any other fashion than continuing an air mail contract with Arnold Aviation to deliver the mail.
The Postal Act of 2006 required the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) to submit a report to the President and Congress on universal postal service and the postal monopoly in December 2008. The report must include any recommended changes. The Postal Service report supports the requirement that the PRC is to consult with and solicit written comments from the Postal Service. In addition, the Government Accountability Office is required to evaluate broader business model issues by 2011.
On October 15, 2008, the Postal Service submitted a report to the PRC on its position related to the Universal Service Obligation (USO). It said no changes to the USO and restriction on mailbox access were necessary at this time, but increased regulatory flexibility was required to ensure affordable universal service in the future. In 2013, the Postal Service announced that starting August 2013, Saturday delivery would be discontinued.
Obligations of the USO include uniform prices, quality of service, access to services, and six - day delivery to every part of the country. To assure financial support for these obligations, the postal monopoly provides the Postal Service the exclusive right to deliver letters and restricts mailbox access solely for mail. The report argued that eliminating or reducing either aspect of the monopoly "would have a devastating impact on the ability... to provide the affordable universal service that the country values so highly. '' Relaxing access to the mailbox would also pose security concerns, increase delivery costs, and hurt customer service, according to the Post Office. The report notes:
Most of these alternatives are not actually free in some communities. For example, in the Chicago metropolitan area and many other major metros one must get a background check from police and pay a daily fee for the right to solicit or post commercial messages on private property.
Regarding the monopoly on delivery of letters, the report notes that the monopoly is not complete, as there is an exception for letters where either the amount paid for private carriage of the letter equals at least six times the current rate for the first ounce of a single - piece First - Class Mail letter (also known as the "base rate '' or "base tariff '') or the letter weighs at least 12.5 ounces.
The Postal Service said that the USO should continue to be broadly defined and there should be no changes to the postal monopoly. Any changes would have far - reaching effects on customers and the trillion dollar mailing industry. "A more rigidly defined USO would... ultimately harm the American public and businesses, '' according to the report, which cautions that any potential change must be studied carefully and the effects fully understood.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States.
A variety of other transportation companies in the United States move cargo around the country, but either have limited geographic scope for delivery points, or specialize in items too large to be mailed. Many of the thousands of courier companies focus on same - day delivery, for example, by bicycle messenger.
Although USPS and FedEx are direct competitors, USPS contracts with FedEx for air transport of 2 -- 3 Day Priority Mail and Priority Mail Express (typically delivered overnight).
The Post Office Department owned and operated the first public telegraph lines in the United States, starting in 1844 from Washington to Baltimore, and eventually extending to New York, Boston, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. In 1847 the telegraph system was privatized, except for a period during World War I, when it was used to accelerate the delivery of letters arriving at night.
Between 1942 and 1945 "V - Mail '' (for "Victory Mail '') service was available for military mail. Letters were converted into microfilm and reprinted near the destination, to save room on transport vehicles for military cargo.
From 1982 to 1985 Electronic Computer Originated Mail, known as E-COM was accepted for bulk mailings. Text was transmitted electronically to one of 25 post offices nationwide. The Postal Service would print the mail and put it in special envelopes bearing a blue E-COM logo. Delivery was assured within 2 days.
To improve accuracy and efficiency, the Postal Service introduced the Intelligent Mail program to complement the ZIP code system. This system, which was intended to replace the depreciated POSTNET system, allows bulk mailers to use pre-printed bar codes to assist in mail delivery and sorting. Additional features, called Enhanced, or Full - Service, Intelligent Mail Barcodes allow for mail tracking of bulk mail through the postal system up to the final delivery Post Office.
Critics of the universal service requirement and the statutory postal monopoly include several professional economists advocating for the privatization of the mail delivery system, or at least a relaxation of the universal service model that currently exists. Rick Geddes argued in 2000:
Furthermore, some economists have argued that because public enterprises may pursue objectives different than profit maximization, they might have more of an incentive than profit - maximizing firms to behave anticompetitively through policies such as predatory pricing, misstating costs, and creating barriers to entry. To resolve those issues, one economist proposes a cost - allocation model that would determine the optimal allocation of USPS 's common costs by finding the share of costs that would maximize USPS profits from its competitive products. Postal regulators could use such a cost model to ensure that the Postal Service is not abusing its statutory monopoly by subsidizing price cuts in competitive product markets with revenue obtained from the monopolized market.
The United States Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) is one of the oldest law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Founded by Benjamin Franklin, its mission is to protect the Postal Service, its employees, and its customers from crime and protect the nation 's mail system from criminal misuse.
Postal Inspectors enforce over 200 federal laws providing for the protection of mail in investigations of crimes that may adversely affect or fraudulently use the U.S. Mail, the postal system or postal employees.
The USPIS has the power to enforce the USPS monopoly by conducting search and seizure raids on entities they suspect of sending non-urgent mail through overnight delivery competitors. According to the American Enterprise Institute, a private conservative think tank, the USPIS raided Equifax offices in 1993 to ascertain if the mail they were sending through Federal Express was truly "extremely urgent. '' It was found that the mail was not, and Equifax was fined $30,000.
Lastly, the PIS oversees the activities of the Postal Police Force who patrol in and around selected high - risk postal facilities in major metropolitan areas in the United States and its territories.
The United States Postal Service Office of Inspector General (OIG) was authorized by law in 1996. Prior to the 1996 legislation, the Postal Inspection Service performed the duties of the OIG. The Inspector General, who is independent of postal management, is appointed by and reports directly to the nine presidentially appointed, Senate -- confirmed members of the Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service.
The primary purpose of the OIG is to prevent, detect and report fraud, waste and program abuse, and promote efficiency in the operations of the Postal Service. The OIG has "oversight '' responsibility for all activities of the Postal Inspection Service.
All mailable articles (e.g., letters, flats, machinable parcels, irregular parcels, etc.) shipped within the United States must comply with an array of standards published in the USPS Domestic Mail Manual (DMM). Before addressing the mailpiece, one must first comply with the various mailability standards relating to attributes of the actual mailpiece such as: minimum / maximum dimensions and weight, acceptable mailing containers, proper mailpiece sealing / closure, utilization of various markings, and restrictions relating to various hazardous (e.g., explosives, flammables, etc.) and restricted (e.g., cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, etc.) materials, as well as others articulated in § 601 of the DMM.
The USPS specifies the following key elements when preparing the face of a mailpiece:
Domestic First - Class Mail costs 49 ¢ for envelopes (34 ¢ for post cards) and upwards, depending on the weight and dimensions of the letter and the class.
Mail going to naval vessels is known as the Fleet Post Office (FPO) and to Army or Air Force installations use the city abbreviation APO (Army Post Office or Air Force Post Office).
Undeliverable mail that could not be readily returned, including mail without a return address, is treated as dead mail at a Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia or Saint Paul, Minnesota.
The USPS maintains a list of proper abbreviations.
The format of a return address is similar. Though some style manuals recommend using a comma between the city and state name when typesetting addresses in other contexts, for optimal automatic character recognition, the Post Office does not recommend this when addressing mail. The official recommendation is to use all upper case block letters with proper formats and abbreviations, and leave out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP + 4 code. If the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand - processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their postal addressing standards.
Postal address verification tools and services are offered by the USPS and third party companies to help ensure mail is deliverable by fixing formatting, appending information such as ZIP code and validating the address is a valid delivery point. Customers can look up ZIP codes and verify addresses using USPS Web Tools available on the official USPS website and Facebook page, as well as on third - party sites.
Delivery Point Validation (DPV) provides the highest level of address accuracy checking. In a DPV process, the address is checked against the AMS data file to ensure that it exists as an active delivery point. The USPS does not offer DPV validation on their website however there are companies that offer services to perform DPV verification.
The actual postage can be paid via:
All unused U.S. postage stamps issued since 1861 are still valid as postage at their indicated value. Stamps with no value shown or denominated by a letter are also still valid, although the value depends upon the particular stamp. For some stamps issued without a printed value, the current value is the original value. But some stamps beginning in 1988 or earlier, including "Forever Stamps '' that were issued beginning in April 2007, and all 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps beginning 2011 - 01 - 21, the value is the current value of a 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps. (The USPS calls these "Forever Stamps ''. The generic name is non-denominated postage.)
Forever stamps are sold at the First - Class Mail postage rate at the time of purchase, but will always be valid for First - Class Mail (1 oz and under), no matter how rates rise in the future. Britain has had a similar stamp since 1989. The cost of mailing a 1 oz (28 g) First - Class letter increased to 49 cents on January 26, 2014.
A postage meter is a mechanical device used to create and apply physical evidence of postage (or franking) to mailed matter. Postage meters are regulated by a country 's postal authority; for example, in the United States, the United States Postal Service specifies the rules for the creation, support, and use of postage meters. A postage meter imprints an amount of postage, functioning as a postage stamp, a cancellation and a dated postmark all in one. The meter stamp serves as proof of payment and eliminates the need for adhesive stamps.
In addition to using standard stamps, postage can now be printed in the form of an electronic stamp, or e-stamp, from a personal computer using a system called Information Based Indicia. This online PC Postage method relies upon application software on the customer 's computer contacting a postal security device at the office of the postal service.
Electronic Verification System (eVS) is the Postal Service 's integrated mail management technology that centralizes payment processing and electronic postage reports. Part of an evolving suite of USPS electronic payment services called PostalOne!, eVS allows mailers shipping large volumes of parcels through the Postal Service a way to circumvent use of hard - copy manifests, postage statements and drop - shipment verification forms. Instead, mailers can pay postage automatically through a centralized account and track payments online.
Beginning in August 2007, the Postal Service began requiring mailers shipping Parcel Select packages using a permit imprint to use eVS for manifesting their packages.
All U.S. postage stamps issued under the former United States Post Office Department and other postage items that were released before 1978 are not subject to copyright, but stamp designs since 1978 are copyrighted. The United States Copyright Office in section 313.6 (C) (1) of the Third Edition of the Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices holds that "Works prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Postal Service... are not considered works of the U.S. Government '' and are therefore eligible for registration. Thus, the USPS holds copyright to such materials released since 1978 under Title 17 of the United States Code. Written permission is required for use of copyrighted postage stamp images, although under USPS rules, permission is "generally '' not required for "educational use '', "news reporting '' or "philatelic advertising use, '' but users must cite USPS as the source of the image and include language such as "© United States Postal Service. All rights reserved. ''
As of April 2011, domestic postage levels for low - volume mailers include:
The Post Office will not deliver packages heavier than 70 pounds (32 kg) or if the length (the package 's longest dimension) plus the girth (the measurement around the package at its largest point in the two shorter dimensions) is greater than 108 inches (270 cm) combined (130 inches (330 cm) for Parcel Post)
Discounts are available for large volumes of mail. Depending on the postage level, certain conditions might be required or optional for an additional discount:
In addition to bulk discounts on Express, Priority, and First - Class Mail, the following postage levels are available for bulk mailers:
Depending on the type of mail, additional services are available for an additional fee:
In May 2007, the USPS restructured international service names to correspond with domestic shipping options. Formerly, USPS International services were categorized as Airmail (Letter Post), Economy (Surface) Parcel Post, Airmail Parcel Post, Global Priority, Global Express, and Global Express Guaranteed Mail. The former Airmail (Letter Post) is now First - Class Mail International, and includes small packages weighing up to four pounds (1.8 kg). Economy Parcel Post was discontinued for international service, while Airmail Parcel Post was replaced by Priority Mail International. Priority Mail International Flat - Rate packaging in various sizes was introduced, with the same conditions of service previously used for Global Priority. Global Express is now Express Mail International, while Global Express Guaranteed is unchanged. The international mailing classes with a tracking ability are Express, Express Guaranteed, and Priority (except that tracking is not available for Priority Mail International Flat Rate Envelopes or Priority Mail International Small Flat Rate Boxes).
One of the major changes in the new naming and services definitions is that USPS - supplied mailing boxes for Priority and Express mail are now allowed for international use. These services are offered to ship letters and packages to almost every country and territory on the globe. The USPS provides much of this service by contracting with a private parcel service, FedEx.
The USPS provides an M - bag service for international shipment of printed matter; previously surface M - bags existed, but with the 2007 elimination of surface mail, only airmail M - bags remain. The term "M - bag '' is not expanded in USPS publications; M - bags are simply defined as "direct sacks of printed matter... sent to a single foreign addressee at a single address ''; however, the term is sometimes referred to informally as "media bag '', as the bag can also contain "discs, tapes, and cassettes '', in addition to books, for which the usual umbrella term is "media ''; some also refer to them as "mail bags ''.
Military mail is billed at domestic rates when being sent from the United States to a military outpost, and is free when sent by deployed military personnel. The overseas logistics are handled by the Military Postal Service Agency in the Department of Defense. Outside of forward areas and active operations, military mail First - Class takes 7 -- 10 days, Priority 10 -- 15 days, and Parcel Post about 24 days.
Three independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have a special relationship with the United States Postal Service:
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In 2007, the US Postal Service discontinued its outbound international surface mail ("sea mail '') service, mainly because of increased costs. Returned undeliverable surface parcels had become an expensive problem for the USPS. The discontinuation has been criticized by independent booksellers, by other small businesses which ship internationally, by the Peace Corps, and by military personnel. Domestic surface mail (now "Retail Ground '' or "Commercial Parcel Select '') remains available.
Alternatives to international surface mail include:
Processing of standard sized envelopes and cards is highly automated, including reading of handwritten addresses. Mail from individual customers and public postboxes is collected by mail carriers into plastic tubs, which are taken to one of approximately 251 Processing and Distribution Centers (P&DC) across the United States. Each P&DC sorts mail for a given region (typically with a radius of around 200 miles (320 km)) and connects with the national network for interregional mail. The USPS has consolidated mail sorting for large regions into the P&DCs on the basis that most mail is addressed to faraway destinations, but for cities at the edge of a P&DC 's region, this means all locally addressed mail must now travel long distances (that is, to and from the P&DC for sorting) to reach nearby addresses.
At the P&DC, mail is emptied into hampers which are then automatically dumped into a Dual Pass Rough Cull System (DPRCS). As mail travels through the DPRCS, large items, such as packages and mail bundles, are removed from the stream. As the remaining mail enters the first machine for processing standard mail, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System (AFCS), pieces that passed through the DPRCS but do not conform to physical dimensions for processing in the AFCS (e.g., large envelopes or overstuffed standard envelopes) are automatically diverted from the stream. Mail removed from the DPRCS and AFCS is manually processed or sent to parcel sorting machines.
In contrast to the previous system, which merely canceled and postmarked the upper right corner of the envelope, thereby missing any stamps which were inappropriately placed, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System locates indicia (stamp or metered postage mark), regardless of the orientation of the mail as it enters the machine, and cancels it by applying a postmark. Detection of indicia enables the AFCS to determine the orientation of each mailpiece and sort it accordingly, rotating pieces as necessary so all mail is sorted right - side up and faced in the same direction in each output bin.
Mail is output by the machine into three categories: mail already affixed with a bar code and addressed (such as business reply envelopes and cards); mail with machine printed (typed) addresses; and mail with handwritten addresses. Additionally, machines with a recent Optical Character Recognition (OCR) upgrade have the capability to read the address information, including handwritten, and sort the mail based on local or outgoing ZIP codes.
Mail with typed addresses goes to a Multiline Optical Character Reader (MLOCR) which reads the ZIP Code and address information and prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelope. Mail (actually the scanned image of the mail) with handwritten addresses (and machine - printed ones that are not easily recognized) goes to the Remote Bar Coding System. It also corrects spelling errors and, where there is an error, omission, or conflict in the written address, identifies the most likely correct address.
When it has decided on a correct address, it prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelopes, similarly to the MLOCR system. RBCS also has facilities in place, called Remote Encoding Centers, that have humans look at images of mail pieces and enter the address data. The address data is associated with the image via an ID Tag, a fluorescent barcode printed by mail processing equipment on the back of mail pieces.
Processed mail is imaged by the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking (MICT) system to allow easier tracking of hazardous substances. Images are taken at more than 200 mail processing centers, and are destroyed after being retained for 30 days.
If a customer has filed a change of address card and his or her mail is detected in the mailstream with the old address, the mailpiece is sent to a machine that automatically connects to a Computerized Forwarding System database to determine the new address. If this address is found, the machine will paste a label over the former address with the current address. The mail is returned to the mailstream to forward to the new location.
Mail with addresses that can not be resolved by the automated system are separated for human intervention. If a local postal worker can read the address, he or she manually sorts it out according to the ZIP code on the article. If the address can not be read, mail is either returned to the sender (First - Class Mail with a valid return address) or is sent to the Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia (formerly known as the dead letter office). At this office, the mail is opened to try to find an address to forward to. If an address is found, the contents are resealed and delivered. Otherwise, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; if they are not claimed, they are either destroyed or auctioned off at the monthly Postal Service Unclaimed Parcel auction to raise money for the service.
Once the mail is bar coded, it is automatically sorted by a Delivery Bar Code Sorter (DBCS) that reads the bar code, identifies the destination of the mailpiece, and sends it to an appropriate tray that corresponds to the next segment of its journey.
Regional mail is either trucked to the appropriate local post office, or kept in the building for carrier routes served directly from the P&DC. Out - of - region mail is trucked to the airport and then flown, usually as baggage on commercial airlines, to the airport nearest the destination station. At the destination P&DC, mail is once again read by a DBCS which sorts items to local post offices; this includes grouping mailpieces by individual mail carrier.
At the carrier route level, 95 % of letters arrive pre-sorted; the remaining mail must be sorted by hand. The Post Office is working to increase the percentage of automatically sorted mail, including a pilot program to sort "flats ''.
FedEx provides air transport service to USPS for Priority and Express Mail. Priority Mail and Express Mail are transported from Priority Mail processing centers to the closest FedEx - served airport, where they are handed off to FedEx. FedEx then flies them to the destination airport and hands them back to USPS for transport to the local post office and delivery.
Although its customer service centers are called post offices in regular speech, the USPS recognizes several types of postal facilities, including the following:
While common usage refers to all types of postal facilities as "substations '', the USPS Glossary of Postal Terms does not define or even list that word. Post Offices often share facilities with other governmental organizations located within a city 's central business district. In those locations, often Courthouses and Federal Buildings, the building is owned by the General Services Administration while the U.S. Postal Services operates as a tenant. The USPS retail system has approximately 36,000 post offices, stations, and branches.
In the year 2004, the USPS began deploying Automated Postal Centers (APCs). APCs are unattended kiosks that are capable of weighing, franking, and storing packages for later pickup as well as selling domestic and international postage stamps. Since its introduction, APCs do not take cash payments -- they only accept credit or debit cards. Similarly, traditional vending machines are available at many post offices to purchase stamps, though these are being phased out in many areas. Due to increasing use of Internet services, as of June 2009, no retail post office windows are open 24 hours; overnight services are limited to those provided by an Automated Postal Center.
In February 2006, the USPS announced that they plan to replace the nine existing facility - types with five processing facility - types:
Over a period of years, these facilities are expected to replace Processing & Distribution Centers, Customer Service Facilities, Bulk Mail Centers, Logistic and Distribution Centers, annexes, the Hub and Spoke Program, Air Mail Centers, and International Service Centers.
The changes are a result of the declining volumes of single - piece First - Class Mail, population shifts, the increase in drop shipments by advertising mailers at destinating postal facilities, advancements in equipment and technology, redundancies in the existing network, and the need for operational flexibility.
The United States Postal Service does not directly own or operate any aircraft or trains, although both were formerly operated. The mail and packages are flown on airlines with which the Postal Service has a contractual agreement. The contracts change periodically. Contract airlines have included: UPS, Emery Worldwide, Ryan International Airlines, FedEx Express, American Airlines, United Airlines, and Express One International. The Postal Service also contracts with Amtrak to carry some mail between certain cities such as Chicago and Minneapolis -- Saint Paul.
The last air delivery route in the continental U.S., to residents in the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness, was scheduled to be ended in June 2009. The weekly bush plane route, contracted out to an air taxi company, had in its final year an annual cost of $46,000, or $2400 / year per residence, over ten times the average cost of delivering mail to a residence in the United States. This decision has been reversed by the U.S. Postmaster General.
Private US parcel forwarding or US mail forwarding companies focusing on personal shopper, relocation, Ex-pat and mail box services often interface with the United States Postal Service for transporting of mail and packages for their customers.
From 1810, mail was delivered seven days a week. In 1828, local religious leaders noticed a decline in Sunday - morning church attendance because of local post offices ' doubling as gathering places. These leaders appealed to the government to intervene and close post offices on Sundays. The government, however, declined, and mail was delivered 7 days a week until 1912.
Today, U.S. Mail (with the exception of Express Mail) is not delivered on Sunday, except in a few towns in which the local religion has had an effect on the policy, such as Loma Linda, California, which has a significant Seventh - day Adventist population and where U.S. Mail is delivered Sunday through Friday, with the exception of observed federal holidays.
Saturday delivery was temporarily suspended in April 1957, because of lack of funds, but quickly restored.
Budget problems prompted consideration of dropping Saturday delivery starting around 2009. This culminated in a 2013 announcement that regular mail services would be cut to five days a week, which was reversed by Congress before it could take effect. (See the section Revenue decline and planned cuts.)
Originally, mail was not delivered to homes and businesses, but to post offices. In 1863, "city delivery '' began in urban areas with enough customers to make this economical. This required streets to be named, houses to be numbered, with sidewalks and lighting provided, and these street addresses to be added to envelopes. The number of routes served expanded over time. In 1891, the first experiments with Rural Free Delivery began in less densely populated areas. There is currently an effort to reduce direct delivery in favor of mailbox clusters.
To compensate for high mail volume and slow long - distance transportation which saw mail arrive at post offices throughout the day, deliveries were made multiple times a day. This ranged from twice for residential areas to up to seven times for the central business district of Brooklyn, New York. In the late 19th century, mail boxes were encouraged, saving carriers the time it took to deliver directly to the addressee in person; in the 1910s and 1920s, they were phased in as a requirement for service. In the 1940s, multiple daily deliveries began to be reduced, especially on Saturdays. By 1990, the last twice - daily deliveries in New York City were eliminated.
Today, mail is delivered once a day on - site to most private homes and businesses. The USPS still distinguishes between city delivery (where carriers generally walk and deliver to mailboxes hung on exterior walls or porches, or to commercial reception areas) and rural delivery (where carriers generally drive). With "curbside delivery '', mailboxes are at the ends of driveways, on the nearest convenient road. "Central point delivery '' is used in some locations, where several nearby residences share a "cluster '' of individual mailboxes in a single housing.
Some customers choose to use post office boxes for an additional fee, for privacy or convenience. This provides a locked box at the post office to which mail is addressed and delivered (usually earlier in the day than home delivery). Customers in less densely populated areas where there is no city delivery and who do not qualify for rural delivery may receive mail only through post office boxes. High - volume business customers can also arrange for special pick - up.
Another option is the old - style general delivery, for people who have neither post office boxes nor street addresses. Mail is held at the post office until they present identification and pick it up.
Some customers receive free post office boxes if the USPS declines to provide door - to - door delivery to their location or a nearby box. People with medical problems can request door - to - door delivery. Homeless people are also eligible for post office boxes at the discretion of the local postmaster, or can use general delivery.
From 1885 to 1997, a service called special delivery was available, which caused a separate delivery to the final location earlier in the day than the usual daily rounds.
In December 2012, the USPS began a limited one - year trial of same - day deliveries directly from retailers or distribution hubs to residential addresses in the same local area, a service it dubbed "Metro Post ''. The trial was initially limited to San Francisco and the only retailer to participate in the first few weeks was 1 - 800 - FLOWERS.
In March 2013, the USPS faced new same - day competition for e-commerce deliveries from Google Shopping Express.
In November 2013, the Postal Service began regular package delivery on Sundays for Amazon customers in New York and Los Angeles, which it expanded to 15 cities in May 2014. Amazon Sunday delivery has now been expanded to most major markets as of September, 2015.
Other competition in this area includes online grocers such as AmazonFresh, Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway.
Residential customers can fill out a form to forward mail to a new address, and can also send pre-printed forms to any of their frequent correspondents. They can also put their mail on "hold '', for example, while on vacation. The Post Office will store mail during the hold, instead of letting it overflow in the mailbox. These services are not available to large buildings and customers of a commercial mail receiving agency, where mail is subsorted by non-Post Office employees into individual mailboxes.
Postal money orders provide a safe alternative to sending cash through the mail, and are available in any amount up to $1000. Like a bank cheque, money orders are cashable only by the recipient. Unlike a personal bank check, they are prepaid and therefore can not be returned because of insufficient funds. Money orders are a declining business for the USPS, as companies like PayPal, PaidByCash and others are offering electronic replacements.
From 1911 to 1967, the Postal Service also operated the United States Postal Savings System, not unlike a savings and loan association with the amount of the deposit limited.
A January 2014 report by the Inspector General of the USPS suggested that the agency could earn $8.9 billion per year in revenue by providing financial services, especially in areas where there are no local banks but there is a local post office, and to customers who currently do not have bank accounts.
The Postal Service is the nation 's second - largest civilian employer. As of 2011, it employed 574,000 personnel, divided into offices, processing centers, and actual post offices. The United States Postal Service would rank 29th on the 2010 Fortune 500 list, if considered a private company.
Labor unions representing USPS employees include: The American Postal Workers Union (APWU), which represents postal clerks and maintenance, motor vehicle, mail equipment shops, material distribution centers, and operating services and facilities services employees, postal nurses, and IT and accounting; the National Association of Letter Carriers (NALC), which represents city letter carriers; the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA), which represents rural letter carriers; and the National Postal Mail Handlers Union (NPMHU).
USPS employees are divided into three major crafts according to the work they engage in:
Other non-managerial positions in the USPS include:
Though the USPS employs many individuals, as more Americans send information via email, fewer postal workers are needed to work dwindling amounts of mail. Post offices and mail facilities are constantly downsizing, replacing craft positions with new machines and consolidating mail routes through the MIARAP (Modified Interim Alternate Route Adjustment Process) agreement. A major round of job cuts, early retirements, and a construction freeze were announced on March 20, 2009.
In the early 1990s, widely publicized workplace shootings by disgruntled employees at USPS facilities led to a Human Resource effort to provide care for stressed workers and resources for coworker conflicts. Due to media coverage, postal employees gained a reputation among the general public as more likely to be mentally ill. The USPS Commission on a Safe and Secure Workplace found that "Postal workers are only a third as likely as those in the national workforce to be victims of homicide at work. '' In the documentary Murder by Proxy: How America Went Postal, it was argued that this number failed to factor out workers killed by external subjects rather than by fellow employees.
This series of events in turn has influenced American culture, as seen in the slang term "going postal '' (see Patrick Sherrill for information on his August 20, 1986, rampage) and the computer game Postal. Also, in the opening sequence of Naked Gun 331⁄3: The Final Insult, a yell of "Disgruntled postal workers '' is heard, followed by the arrival of postal workers with machine guns. In an episode of Seinfeld, the mailman character, Newman, explained in a dramatic monologue that postal workers "go crazy and kill everyone '' because the mail never stops. In The Simpsons episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday, '' Nelson Muntz asks Postmaster Bill if he has "ever gone on a killing spree ''; Bill replies, "The day of the gun - toting, disgruntled postman shooting up the place went out with the Macarena ''.
The series of massacres led the US Postal Service to issue a rule prohibiting the possession of any type of firearms (except for those issued to Postal Inspectors) in all designated USPS facilities.
In 2016, a video footage was released showing a group of police officers from the New York City Police Department (NYPD) arresting a US Postal Service officer while he was in the middle of his deliveries. The footage showed that the officers were dressed in civilian clothing. The NYPD is reportedly investigating alleged disorderly conduct.
Unions of the U.S. Postal Service
History
International associations
Mail bag types
Workplace violence
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when was the last time it snowed in ireland | Climate of Ireland - wikipedia
The climate of Ireland is mild, moist and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. Ireland 's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate, or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system, a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. The country receives generally cool summers and mild winters. It is considerably warmer than other areas on its latitude, because it lies in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, and as a result is warmed by the North Atlantic Current all year.
As a small island downwind of a large ocean, the climate of Ireland is profoundly impacted by that ocean. The Atlantic overturning circulation, which includes ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Current, moves heat northwards, which is then carried by the prevailing winds towards Ireland.
The prevailing wind blows from the southwest, breaking on the high mountains of the west coast. Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life, with Valentia Island, off the west coast of County Kerry, getting almost twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east (1,400 mm or 55.1 in vs. 762 mm or 30.0 in).
January and February are the coldest months of the year, and mean daily air temperatures fall between 4 and 7 ° C (39.2 and 44.6 ° F) during these months. July and August are the warmest, with mean daily temperatures of 14 to 16 ° C (57.2 to 60.8 ° F), whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from 17 to 18 ° C (62.6 to 64.4 ° F) near the coast, to 19 to 20 ° C (66.2 to 68.0 ° F) inland. The sunniest months are May and June, with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day. Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European Continent, they do occur. Atlantic depressions, occurring mainly in the months of December, January and February, can occasionally bring winds of up to 160 km / h or 99 mph to Western coastal counties, with the winter of 2013 / 14 being the stormiest on record. The summer months, and particularly around late July / early August, thunderstorms can develop.
Ireland experiences a lack of temperature extremes compared to other areas at similar latitudes. There is regional variation, with inland areas being cooler in winter and warmer in summer than their coastal counterparts.
The warmest areas are found along the southwest coast. Valentia Island has the highest average temperature, at 10.9 ° C.
The coldest areas are found inland. Mullingar has the lowest average temperature, at 9.3 ° C
The highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was 33.3 ° C at Kilkenny Castle, on 26 June 1887. The lowest temperature was - 19.1 ° C at Markree Castle on 16 January 1881.
Six of the warmest ten years in Ireland have occurred since 1990. Due to climate change, it is estimated that the temperatures will rise everywhere of up to 3.4 degrees by the end of the century.
Extreme heat and cold are both rare throughout the country. Summer temperatures exceed 30 ° C usually once or twice every decade (2016, 2013, 2006, 2005, 2003, 1995, 1990, 1989, 1983, 1976 and 1975 are recent examples), although they commonly reach the high 20s most summers, while severe freezes occur only occasionally in winter, with temperatures below - 10 ° C being very uncommon in the lowlands, and temperatures below freezing uncommon in many coastal areas, although temperatures in the Wicklow Mountains are said to reach - 10 ° C annually.
Air frost occurs frequently in the winter, with most areas seeing over 40 days of air frost every year. In northern areas, air frost occurs on average 10.2 days every January, the month in which air frost occurs most frequently. In the Sperrins and the Glens of Antrim air frost occurs around 80 days a year. The pattern is similar with ground frost, with on average around 100 days of ground frost in the lowlands and over 140 in the mountains. The number of frost days in Ireland have declined massively over the past decade. The largest season decrease has been known to take place in winter. (4)
Frost is rarer along the coast, in urban areas and also in western and southern areas.
Roches Point, County Cork receives the least number of days with air frost, with an average of 7.0 days with air frost recorded annually.
Kilkenny, County Kilkenny receives the highest number of days with air frost, with an average of 53.0 days with air frost recorded annually.
In Dublin, Dublin Airport records air frost on average 24.3 days per year, while Casement Aerodrome (which is further inland) records air frost on average 41.3 days per year.
The sunniest months are May and June. During these months sunshine duration averages between 5 and 61⁄2 hours per day over most of the country. The southeast gets the most sunshine, averaging over 7 hours a day in early summer. December is the most overcast month, with an average daily sunshine ranging from about 1 hour in the north to almost 2 hours in the southeast. Over the year as a whole most areas get an average of between 31⁄4 and 33⁄4 hours of sunshine each day. Irish skies are completely covered by cloud roughly half of the time.
The sunniest part of the island is the southeast coast. Rosslare, County Wexford is the sunniest area, and receives on average 4.38 hours of sunshine per day (1,598.41 hours per year).
The cloudiest (i.e. least sunny) parts of the island are generally the west and northwest of the country. However, Birr, County Offaly, in the midlands, is the most cloudy (overcast) station, receiving on average 3.2 hours of sunshine per day, considerably less than the stations at Malin Head in the north or Belmullet in the west. Inland areas tend to receive less sunshine than coastal areas due to the convective development of clouds over land. Cloud develops because of vertical air currents caused by thermal heating of the ground.
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation on the island, and is extremely common throughout Ireland, although some parts of the west coast receive over four times as much rain as the east coast. Rainfall in Ireland normally comes from Atlantic frontal systems which travel northeast over the island, bringing cloud and rain. Most of the eastern half of the country has between 750 and 1,000 mm (29.5 and 39.4 in) of rainfall in the year. Rainfall in the west generally averages between 1,000 and 1,250 mm (39.4 and 49.2 in). In many mountainous districts rainfall exceeds 3,000 mm (118.1 in) per year. The wettest months almost everywhere are December and January. April is the driest month generally, but in many southern parts June is the driest.
The average number of "wet days '' (days with more than 1 mm (0.039 in) of rain) ranges from about 151 days a year along the east and southeast coasts, to about 225 days a year in parts of the west.
The wettest weather station is Valentia Island, which receives 1,430.1 mm (56.30 in) of rain per year, on average.
The driest weather station is Casement Aerodrome, which receives 711.4 mm (28.01 in) of rain per year, on average.
The weather station with the highest number of "wet days '' is Belmullet, with 193 days per year, while the station with the lowest number of "wet days '' is Dublin Airport, with 128 days per year.
Source:
Severe cold weather is uncommon in Ireland with the majority of winter precipitation coming in the form of rain, although hills and mountainous regions in the country can commonly see up to 30 days of snowfall annually, with the Wicklow Mountains sometimes seeing 50 or more days of snowfall annually. Most low - lying regions of the island only see a few days of lying snow per year (from December to March inclusive), or may see no snow at all during some winters.
However, there are preparations for snow and ice, including the distribution of grit, salt, and other snow - treatable minerals. In late 2011, the Irish Government set up "Winter - Ready '', in order to prepare the country for such severe weather.
Due to the variability of Ireland 's weather (which is mainly because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, as well as Ireland 's northerly latitude and vulnerability to Siberian / Arctic winds) weather during the winter months is difficult to predict, with the aforementioned factors making both extremely low temperatures and relatively mild temperatures possible.
The snowiest weather station is Clones, County Monaghan, which receives, on average, nearly 30 days of snow and / or sleet per year. Of these, 10.8 days have snow lying at 09: 00. The least snowy weather station is Valentia Island, County Kerry; which receives, on average, 5.6 days of snow and / or sleet per year. Of these, 0.8 days have snow lying at 09: 00.
Hail, like snow and sleet, is also rare in Ireland; however, it can occur at any time of the year. It is most common in spring during thunderstorms.
Malin Head, County Donegal receives the most hail, with an average of 48.4 days per year.
Roches Point, County Cork receives the least hail, with an average of 8.0 days per year.
Thunderstorms are quite rare in Ireland. They are more likely to happen late in summer, although they can occur at any time of the year.
Cork Airport, County Cork experiences the least thunder; receiving it 3.7 days per year on average.
Valentia Island, County Kerry experiences the most thunder; receiving it 7.1 days per year on average.
Generally, the coast tends to be windier than inland areas; and the west tends to be windier than the east.
The station with the highest mean wind speed is Malin Head, County Donegal; averaging at 16.3 kn (30.2 km / h; 18.8 mph). Malin Head also receives the most gale - force winds, recording them on average 66.0 days per year.
The station with the lowest mean wind speed is Kilkenny, County Kilkenny; averaging at 6.5 kn (12.0 km / h; 7.5 mph).
The station that records the lowest number of gale - force winds is Birr, County Offaly; recording them on average 1.2 days per year.
The highest wind speed ever recorded in Ireland was 103 kn (191 km / h; 119 mph) at Fastnet Lighthouse, County Cork on 16 October 2017.
Tornadoes are very rare in Ireland, with around less than ten reported every year - mostly in August.
Fog is more common inland and on higher altitudes; mainly during winter and during the morning at times of high pressure.
The foggiest station is that at Cork Airport, County Cork, which has 99.5 days of fog per year.
The least foggy station is that at Valentia Island, County Kerry, which has 8.9 days of fog per year.
Visibility is generally very good, because of the proximity of industry to the coast, allowing breezes to disperse any smog. Mist and fog often occur, as well as coastal fog in the east, but it is generally not long - lasting. However, in winter, it can be slow to clear.
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when does the new farmer's almanac come out | Farmers ' Almanac - wikipedia
Farmers ' Almanac is an annual North American periodical that has been in continuous publication since 1818. Published by Geiger of Lewiston, Maine, it is famous for its long - range weather predictions and astronomical data, along with a blend of humor, trivia, and advice on gardening, cooking, fishing, and human interest. Conservation, sustainable living, and simple living are core values of the publication and its editors, and these themes are heavily promoted in every edition.
In addition to the popular U.S. version, the Almanac Publishing Company also publishes the Canadian Farmers ' Almanac and a promotional version that businesses can personalize and distribute to customers. The total annual distribution of all Farmers ' Almanac editions is more than 4 million copies.
The Farmers ' Almanac was founded in Morristown, New Jersey, in 1818 by editor David Young and publisher Jacob Mann; this was, coincidentally, two years following the "year without a summer '' which was an ecological disaster for farmers in northeastern America.
Astronomer Samuel Hart Wright succeeded Young in 1851, and is in turn succeeded by his son, Berlin Hart Wright, in 1875.
Ray Geiger served as the Farmers ' Almanac 's longest - running editor, from 1934 until shortly before his death in 1994. From 1949, the Farmers ' Almanac 's is published by Almanac Publishing Company and distributed by Geiger Bros. In 1955, Geiger moved production of the Farmers ' Almanac from Newark, New Jersey, to its current headquarters in Lewiston, Maine.
Ray Geiger was succeeded by his son, Peter Geiger, in 1994. The farmersalmanac.com website was launched in 1997. The Almanac Publishing Company partnered with Buy the Farm LLC, based in Savannah, Georgia for the purposes of publishing in video, television and new media, establishing "Farmer 's Almanac TV '' by 2006.
Predictions for each edition are made as far as two years in advance. The U.S. retail edition of the Farmers ' Almanac weather predictions for seven U.S. climatic zones, defined by the publishers, in the continental United State. Predictions cover 16 months, from the previous September (when the almanac for the new year is released) through December of the publication year.
The Farmers ' Almanac will only state publicly that their method is a "top secret mathematical and astronomical formula, that relies on sunspot activity, tidal action, planetary position and many other factors. '' The Almanac 's forecaster is referred to by the pseudonym Caleb Weatherbee. According to the publishers, the true identity of the forecaster is kept secret to prevent him or her from being "badgered ''.
Publishers point to "many longtime Almanac followers claim that our forecasts are 80 % to 85 % accurate '' on their website. Professional meteorologists refute this pointing to historical results of below 50 percent accuracy rate. "The ability to predict events that far in advance is zero, '' according to Penn State meteorologist Paul Knight
Most editions of the Farmer 's Almanac include a "human crusade, '' advocating for a change in some accepted social practice or custom. Previous crusades have included: "How Much Daylight Are We Really Saving, '' a recommendation for a revised Daylight Saving Time schedule (2007); "Why is Good Service So Hard to Schedule, '' recommending that service providers offer more specific timeframes when scheduling home visits (2006); "A Kinder, Gentler Nation, '' urging readers to exercise more common courtesy (2003); "Saturday: The Trick to Making Halloween a Real Treat, '' advocating that the observance of Halloween be moved to the last Saturday in October (1999); "A Cure for Doctors ' Office Delays, '' demanding more prompt medical service and calling for a "Patients ' Bill of Rights '' (1996); and "Pennies Make No Sense, '' which sought to eliminate the penny, and to permanently replace the dollar bill with less costly - to - produce dollar coins (1989).
Other pieces that have attracted attention over the years include:
In 2003, the Farmers ' Almanac partnered with Buy the Farm LLC a Savannah, Georgia - based production company, to create Farmers ' Almanac TV. The show -- which featured segments in over a dozen lifestyle categories, including home and garden, sustainable living, cooking, natural cures, and weather -- debuted on public television in the spring of 2006, bringing to life stories of grassroots living in both rural and urban America.
Farmers ' Almanac TV filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in May 2009, in Chatham County, Georgia.
The Old Farmers ' Almanac has also been referenced in numerous television shows and movies, including The Office, MASH, Twin Peaks, The Dukes of Hazzard, Wings, Cold Case, The Last Starfighter, and Father of the Bride. Popular culture does not always distinguish between the Farmers ' Almanac and the older Old Farmer 's Almanac, so it is not always clear to which publication a particular reference is meant to allude.
The Old Farmer 's Almanac was used in Young Mr. Lincoln, a movie about the future president starring Henry Fonda. Lincoln referenced the Almanac as a young lawyer in a court case that helped to acquit his client.
Country singer Randy Travis has a song titled "The Family Bible and The Farmer 's Almanac '' on his CD A Man Ai n't Made of Stone. The song is about his farmer grandfather and what a wise man he was, yet the only two books he owned were the ones told in the title. He got all the life advice he needed from those two books.
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who invented the first gear driven calculating machine | Mechanical calculator - wikipedia
A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a mechanical device used to perform automatically the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator.
Surviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 reveal that he designed and had built the earliest of the modern attempts at mechanizing calculation. His machine was composed of two sets of technologies: first an abacus made of Napier 's bones, to simplify multiplications and divisions first described six years earlier in 1617, and for the mechanical part, it had a dialed pedometer to perform additions and subtractions. A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the same dial, and that it could be damaged if a carry had to be propagated over a few digits (like adding 1 to 999). Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death eleven years later in 1635.
Two decades after Schickard 's supposedly failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these particular problems with his invention of the mechanical calculator. Co-opted into his father 's labour as tax collector in Rouen, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the large amount of tedious arithmetic required.; it was called Pascal 's Calculator or Pascaline.
Thomas ' arithmometer, the first commercially successful machine, was manufactured two hundred years later in 1851; it was the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. For forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale.
The comptometer, introduced in 1887, was the first machine to use a keyboard which consisted of columns of nine keys (from 1 to 9) for each digit. The Dalton adding machine, manufactured from 1902, was the first to have a 10 key keyboard. Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901. In 1961, a comptometer type machine, the Anita mk7 from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years.
Charles Babbage designed two new kinds of mechanical calculators, which were so big that they required the power of a steam engine to operate, and that were too sophisticated to be built in his lifetime. The first one was an automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine, which could automatically compute and print mathematical tables. In 1855, Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine. The second one was a programmable mechanical calculator, his analytical engine, which Babbage started to design in 1834; "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom '' making it infinitely programmable. In 1937, Howard Aiken convinced IBM to design and build the ASCC / Mark I, the first machine of its kind, based on the architecture of the analytical engine; when the machine was finished some hailed it as "Babbage 's dream come true ''.
The desire to economize time and mental effort in arithmetical computations, and to eliminate human liability to error, is probably as old as the science of arithmetic itself. This desire has led to the design and construction of a variety of aids to calculation, beginning with groups of small objects, such as pebbles, first used loosely, later as counters on ruled boards, and later still as beads mounted on wires fixed in a frame, as in the abacus. This instrument was probably invented by the Semitic races and later adopted in India, whence it spread westward throughout Europe and eastward to China and Japan. After the development of the abacus, no further advances were made until John Napier devised his numbering rods, or Napier 's Bones, in 1617. Various forms of the Bones appeared, some approaching the beginning of mechanical computation, but it was not until 1642 that Blaise Pascal gave us the first mechanical calculating machine in the sense that the term is used today.
A short list of other precursors to the mechanical calculator must include a group of mechanical analog computers which, once set, are only modified by the continuous and repeated action of their actuators (crank handle, weight, wheel, water...). Before common era, there are odometers and the Antikythera mechanism, an out of place, unique, geared astronomical clock, followed more than a millennium later by early mechanical clocks, geared astrolabes and followed in the 15th century by pedometers; These machines were all made of toothed gears linked by some sort of carry mechanisms. These machines always produce identical results for identical initial settings unlike a mechanical calculator where all the wheels are independent but are also linked together by the rules of arithmetic.
The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of its first machines, including Pascal 's calculator, in 1642. Blaise Pascal had invented a machine which he presented as being able to perform computations that were previously thought to be only humanly possible, but he was n't successful in creating an industry.
In a sense, Pascal 's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal.
The 17th century also saw the invention of some very powerful tools to aid arithmetic calculations like Napier 's bones, logarithmic tables and the slide rule which, for their ease of use by scientists in multiplying and dividing, ruled over and impeded the use and development of mechanical calculators until the production release of the arithmometer in the mid 19th century.
Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator with a sophisticated carry mechanism in 1642. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes he introduced his calculator to the public. He built twenty of these machines in the following ten years. This machine could add and subtract two numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition. Since, unlike Schickard 's machine, the Pascaline dials could only rotate in one direction zeroing it after each calculation required the operator to dial in all 9s and then (method of re-zeroing) propagate a carry right through the machine. This suggests that the carry mechanism would have proved itself in practice many times over. This is a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 17th and 18th century criticisms of the machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet it was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time.
Pascal 's invention of the calculating machine, just three hundred years ago, was made while he was a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by seeing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father 's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions...
In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started working on adding direct multiplication to what he understood was the working of Pascal 's calculator. However, it is doubtful that he had ever fully seen the mechanism and the method could not have worked because of the lack of reversible rotation in the mechanism. Accordingly, he eventually designed an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner; it used his Leibniz wheels, was the first two - motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of the first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706. Only the machine built in 1694 is known to exist, it was rediscovered at the end of the 19th century having been forgotten in an attic in the University of Göttingen.
In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry.
Leibniz had invented his namesake wheel and the principle of a two motion calculator, but after forty years of development he was n't able to produce a machine that was fully operational; this makes Pascal 's calculator the only working mechanical calculator in the 17th century. Leibniz was also the first person to describe a pinwheel calculator. He once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used. ''
Schickard, Pascal and Leibniz were inevitably inspired by the role of clockwork which was highly celebrated in the seventeenth century. However, simple minded application of interlinked gears was insufficient for any of their purposes. Schickard introduced the use of a single toothed "mutilated gear '' to enable the carry to take place. Pascal improved on that with his famous weighted sautoir. Leibniz went even further in relation to the ability to use a moveable carriage to perform multiplication more efficiently, albeit at the expense of a fully working carry mechanism.
... I devised a third which works by springs and which has a very simple design. This is the one, as I have already stated, that I used many times, hidden in the plain sight of an infinity of persons and which is still in operating order. Nevertheless, while always improving on it, I found reasons to change its design...
When, several years ago, I saw for the first time an instrument which, when carried, automatically records the numbers of steps by a pedestrian, it occurred to me at once that the entire arithmetic could be subjected to a similar kind of machinery so that not only counting but also addition and subtraction, multiplication and division could be accomplished by a suitably arranged machine easily, promptly, and with sure results
The principle of the clock (input wheels and display wheels added to a clock like mechanism) for a direct entry calculating machine could n't be implemented to create a fully effective calculating machine without additional innovation with the technological capabilities of the 17th century. because their gears would jam when a carry had to be moved several places along the accumulator. The only 17th century calculating clocks that have survived to this day do not have a machine wide carry mechanism and therefore can not be called fully effective mechanical calculators. A much more successful calculating clock was built by the Italian Giovanni Poleni in the 18th century and was a two - motion calculating clock (the numbers are inscribed first and then they are processed).
The 18th century saw the first mechanical calculator that could perform a multiplication automatically; designed and built by Giovanni Poleni in 1709 and made of wood, it was the first successful calculating clock. For all the machines built in this century, division still required the operator to decide when to stop a repeated subtraction at each index, and therefore these machines were only providing a help in dividing, like an abacus. Both pinwheel calculators and Leibniz wheel calculators were built with a few unsuccessful attempts at their commercialization.
The mechanical calculator industry started in 1851 when Thomas de Colmar released his simplified Arithmomètre which was the first machine that could be used daily in an office environment.
For 40 years, the arithmometer was the only mechanical calculator available for sale and was sold all over the world. By then, in 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two licensed arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883). Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers in three years.
The 19th century also saw the designs of Charles Babbage calculating machines, first with his difference engine, started in 1822, which was the first automatic calculator since it continuously used the results of the previous operation for the next one, and second with his analytical engine, which was the first programmable calculator, using Jacquard 's cards to read program and data, that he started in 1834, and which gave the blueprint of the mainframe computers built in the middle of the 20th century.
The cash register, invented by James Ritty in 1879, addressed the old problems of disorganization and dishonesty in business transactions. It was a pure adding machine coupled with a printer, a bell and a two sided display that showed the paying party and the store owner, if he wanted to, the amount of money exchanged for the current transaction.
The cash register was easy to use and, unlike genuine mechanical calculators, was needed and quickly adopted by a great number of businesses. "Eighty four companies sold cash registers between 1888 and 1895, only three survived for any length of time ''.
In 1890, 6 years after John Patterson started NCR Corporation, 20,000 machines had been sold by his company alone against a total of roughly 3,500 for all genuine calculators combined.
By 1900, NCR had built 200,000 cash registers and there were more companies manufacturing them, compared to the "Thomas / Payen '' arithmometer company that had just sold around 3,300 and Burroughs had only sold 1,400 machines.
Two different classes of mechanisms had become established by this time, reciprocating and rotary. The former type of mechanism was operated typically by a limited - travel hand crank; some internal detailed operations took place on the pull, and others on the release part of a complete cycle. The illustrated 1914 machine is this type; the crank is vertical, on its right side. Later on, some of these mechanisms were operated by electric motors and reduction gearing that operated a crank and connecting rod to convert rotary motion to reciprocating.
The latter, type, rotary, had at least one main shaft that made one (or more) continuous revolution (s), one addition or subtraction per turn. Numerous designs, notably European calculators, had handcranks, and locks to ensure that the cranks were returned to exact positions once a turn was complete.
The first half of the 20th century saw the gradual development of the mechanical calculator mechanism.
The Dalton adding - listing machine introduced in 1902 was the first of its type to use only ten keys, and became the first of many different models of "10 - key add - listers '' manufactured by many companies.
In 1948 the miniature Curta calculator, which was held in one hand for operation, was introduced after being developed by Curt Herzstark in 1938. This was an extreme development of the stepped - gear calculating mechanism. It subtracted by adding complements; between the teeth for addition were teeth for subtraction.
From the early 1900s through the 1960s, mechanical calculators dominated the desktop computing market (see History of computing hardware). Major suppliers in the USA included Friden, Monroe, and SCM / Marchant. (Some comments about European calculators follow below.) These devices were motor - driven, and had movable carriages where results of calculations were displayed by dials. Nearly all keyboards were full -- each digit that could be entered had its own column of nine keys, 1... 9, plus a column - clear key, permitting entry of several digits at once. (See the illustration below of a Marchant Figurematic.) One could call this parallel entry, by way of contrast with ten - key serial entry that was commonplace in mechanical adding machines, and is now universal in electronic calculators. (Nearly all Friden calculators, as well as some rotary (German) Diehls had a ten - key auxiliary keyboard for entering the multiplier when doing multiplication.) Full keyboards generally had ten columns, although some lower - cost machines had eight. Most machines made by the three companies mentioned did not print their results, although other companies, such as Olivetti, did make printing calculators.
In these machines, addition and subtraction were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but multiplication and division were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Friden made a calculator that also provided square roots, basically by doing division, but with added mechanism that automatically incremented the number in the keyboard in a systematic fashion. The last of the mechanical calculators were likely to have short - cut multiplication, and some ten - key, serial - entry types had decimal - point keys. However, decimal - point keys required significant internal added complexity, and were offered only in the last designs to be made. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the 1948 Curta continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.
Typical European four - operation machines use the Odhner mechanism, or variations of it. This kind of machine included the Original Odhner, Brunsviga and several following imitators, starting from Triumphator, Thales, Walther, Facit up to Toshiba. Although most of these were operated by handcranks, there were motor - driven versions. Hamann calculators externally resembled pinwheel machines, but the setting lever positioned a cam that disengaged a drive pawl when the dial had moved far enough.
Although Dalton introduced in 1902 first ten - key printing adding (two operations, the other being subtraction) machine, these feature were not present in computing (four operations) machines for many decades. Facit - T (1932) was the first 10 - key computing machine sold in large numbers. Olivetti Divisumma - 14 (1948) was the first computing machine with both printer and a 10 - key keyboard.
Full - keyboard machines, including motor - driven ones, were also built until the 1960s. Among the major manufacturers were Mercedes - Euklid, Archimedes, and MADAS in Europe; in the USA, Friden, Marchant, and Monroe were the principal makers of rotary calculators with carriages. Reciprocating calculators (most of which were adding machines, many with integral printers) were made by Remington Rand and Burroughs, among others. All of these were key - set. Felt & Tarrant made Comptometers, as well as Victor, which were key - driven.
The basic mechanism of the Friden and Monroe, described above, was a modified Leibniz wheel (better known, perhaps informally, in the USA as a "stepped drum '' or "stepped reckoner ''). The Friden had an elementary reversing drive between the body of the machine and the accumulator dials, so its main shaft always rotated in the same direction. The Swiss MADAS was similar. The Monroe, however, reversed direction of its main shaft to subtract.
The earliest Marchants were pinwheel machines, but most of them were remarkably - sophisticated rotary types. They ran at 1,300 addition cycles per minute if the (+) bar is held down. Others were limited to 600 cycles per minute, because their accumulator dials started and stopped for every cycle; Marchant dials moved at a steady and proportional speed for continuing cycles. Most Marchants had a row of nine keys on the extreme right, as shown in the photo of the Figurematic. These simply made the machine add for the number of cycles corresponding to the number on the key, and then shifted the carriage one place. Even nine add cycles took only a short time.
In a Marchant, near the beginning of a cycle, the accumulator dials moved downward "into the dip '', away from the openings in the cover. They engaged drive gears in the body of the machine, which rotated them at speeds proportional to the digit being fed to them, with added movement (reduced 10: 1) from carries created by dials to their right. At the completion of the cycle, the dials would be misaligned like the pointers in a traditional watt - hour meter. However, as they came up out of the dip, a constant - lead disc cam realigned them by way of a (limited - travel) spur - gear differential. As well, carries for lower orders were added in by another, planetary differential. (The machine shown has 39 differentials in its (20 - digit) accumulator!).
In any mechanical calculator, in effect, a gear, sector, or some similar device moves the accumulator by the number of gear teeth that corresponds to the digit being added or subtracted -- three teeth changes the position by a count of three. The great majority of basic calculator mechanisms move the accumulator by starting, then moving at a constant speed, and stopping. In particular, stopping is critical, because to obtain fast operation, the accumulator needs to move quickly. Variants of Geneva drives typically block overshoot (which, of course, would create wrong results).
However, two different basic mechanisms, the Mercedes - Euklid and the Marchant, move the dials at speeds corresponding to the digit being added or subtracted; a (1) moves the accumulator the slowest, and a (9), the fastest. In the Mercedes - Euklid, a long slotted lever, pivoted at one end, moves nine racks ("straight gears '') endwise by distances proportional to their distance from the lever 's pivot. Each rack has a drive pin that is moved by the slot. The rack for (1) is closest to the pivot, of course. For each keyboard digit, a sliding selector gear, much like that in the Leibniz wheel, engages the rack that corresponds to the digit entered. Of course, the accumulator changes either on the forward or reverse stroke, but not both. This mechanism is notably simple and relatively easy to manufacture.
The Marchant, however, has, for every one of its ten columns of keys, a nine - ratio "preselector transmission '' with its output spur gear at the top of the machine 's body; that gear engages the accumulator gearing. When one tries to work out the numbers of teeth in such a transmission, a straightforward approach leads one to consider a mechanism like that in mechanical gasoline pump registers, used to indicate the total price. However, this mechanism is seriously bulky, and utterly impractical for a calculator; 90 - tooth gears are likely to be found in the gas pump. Practical gears in the computing parts of a calculator can not have 90 teeth. They would be either too big, or too delicate.
Given that nine ratios per column implies significant complexity, a Marchant contains a few hundred individual gears in all, many in its accumulator. Basically, the accumulator dial has to rotate 36 degrees (1 / 10 of a turn) for a (1), and 324 degrees (9 / 10 of a turn) for a (9), not allowing for incoming carries. At some point in the gearing, one tooth needs to pass for a (1), and nine teeth for a (9). There is no way to develop the needed movement from a driveshaft that rotates one revolution per cycle with few gears having practical (relatively small) numbers of teeth.
The Marchant, therefore, has three driveshafts to feed the little transmissions. For one cycle, they rotate 1 / 2, 1 / 4, and 1 / 12 of a revolution. (2). The 1 / 2 - turn shaft carries (for each column) gears with 12, 14, 16, and 18 teeth, corresponding to digits 6, 7, 8, and 9. The 1 / 4 - turn shaft carries (also, each column) gears with 12, 16, and 20 teeth, for 3, 4, and 5. Digits (1) and (2) are handled by 12 and 24 - tooth gears on the 1 / 12 - revolution shaft. Practical design places the 12th - rev. shaft more distant, so the 1 / 4 - turn shaft carries freely - rotating 24 and 12 - tooth idler gears. For subtraction, the driveshafts reversed direction.
In the early part of the cycle, one of five pendants moves off - center to engage the appropriate drive gear for the selected digit. If possible, see John Wolff 's website (3) for a superb collection of photos with some accompanying explanations. He has similar sets of photos for several other notable calculators.
Some machines had as many as 20 columns in their full keyboards. The monster in this field was the Duodecillion made by Burroughs for exhibit purposes.
For sterling currency, £ / s / d (and even farthings), there were variations of the basic mechanisms, in particular with different numbers of gear teeth and accumulator dial positions. To accommodate shillings and pence, extra columns were added for the tens digit (s), 10 and 20 for shillings, and 10 for pence. Of course, these functioned as radix - 20 and radix - 12 mechanisms.
A variant of the Marchant, called the Binary - Octal Marchant, was a radix - 8 (octal) machine. It was sold to check very early vacuum - tube (valve) binary computers for accuracy. (Back then, the mechanical calculator was much more reliable than a tube / valve computer.)
As well, there was a twin Marchant, comprising two pinwheel Marchants with a common drive crank and reversing gearbox. (4) The article at the link describes them and shows a twin Brunsviga (side - by - side machines). Twin machines were relatively rare, and apparently were used for surveying calculations (The CORDIC algorithm was invented later, but these machine might be able to execute it.) At least one triple machine (Brunsviga (?)) was made. It is likely that a given accumulator could be engaged with either half of the twin.
The Facit calculator, and one similar to it, are basically pinwheel machines, but the array of pinwheels moves sidewise, instead of the carriage. The pinwheels are biquinary; digits 1 through 4 cause the corresponding number of sliding pins ot extend from the surface; digits 5 through 9 also extend a five - tooth sector as well as the same pins for 6 through 9.
The keys operate cams that operate a swinging lever to first unlock the pin - positioning cam that is part of the pinwheel mechanism; further movement of the lever (by an amount determined by the key 's cam) rotates the pin - positioning cam to extend the necessary number of pins. (5)
Stylus - operated adders with circular slots for the stylus, and side - by - side wheels, as made by Sterling Plastics (USA), had an ingenious anti-overshoot mechanism to ensure accurate carries.
Mechanical calculators continued to be sold, though in rapidly decreasing numbers, into the early 1970s, with many of the manufacturers closing down or being taken over. Comptometer type calculators were often retained for much longer to be used for adding and listing duties, especially in accounting, since a trained and skilled operator could enter all the digits of a number in one movement of the hands on a Comptometer quicker than was possible serially with a 10 - key electronic calculator. In fact, it was quicker to enter larger digits in two strokes using only the lower - numbered keys; for instance, a 9 would be entered as 4 followed by 5. Some key - driven calculators had keys for every column, but only 1 through 5; they were correspondingly compact. The spread of the computer rather than the simple electronic calculator put an end to the Comptometer. Also, by the end of the 1970s, the slide rule had become obsolete.
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where is the 2018 civic type r made | Honda Civic Type R - wikipedia
The Honda Civic Type R (Japanese: ホンダ ・ シビック タイプ R, Honda Shibikku Taipuāru) is the highest performance version of the Honda Civic made by Honda Motor Company of Japan. It features a lightened and stiffened body, specially tuned engine and upgraded brakes and chassis. Red is used in the badge interior to give it a special sporting distinction and to separate it from other Honda models. In Japan, there is a one - make series of Honda Type R cars where a privateer can purchase an off - road Type R and compete in a series championship, which is a stepping stone for many aspiring racing drivers.
The first Civic to receive the ' Type R ' name was based on the 6th - generation fan - base ' EK ' Civic. The contributing base model was the JDM Civic 3 - door hatchback called SiR, code named EK4. Like its big brother the Integra Type R DC2 / JDM DB8, the Civic SiR 's transformation into a Type R was achieved by working on the base model and improving it to Honda 's idea of a car capable of high performance on the circuit.
The first Civic to receive the Type R badge was introduced in August 1997, as the EK9. The EK9 shared many characteristics with the Integra Type R DC2 / JDM DB8 such as omission of sound deadening and other weight reduction measures, a hand - ported B16B engine, front helical limited - slip differential and close ratio gearbox. The B16B engine boasted one of the highest power output per litre of all time for a naturally aspirated engine with 185 PS (136 kW; 182 bhp) at 8,200 rpm and 160 N ⋅ m (118 lb ⋅ ft) at 7,500 rpm of torque from 1.6 L (1,595 cc) of displacement. For the first time, a strategically seam welded monocoque chassis was used to improve chassis rigidity. The interior featured red seats, red door cards, red Type R floor mats, a titanium shift knob, and a Momo leather - wrapped steering wheel.
In 1998, the Civic Type R Motor Sports edition was released. It came with steel wheels, no air conditioning, no power windows, no power steering, no radio, and came with the standard Type R interior.
Type Rx model was given a CD player, body coloured retractable electric door mirrors, power windows, auto air conditioning, keyless entry unlock system, aluminium sports pedals, and a carbon type centre panel.
In 2000, Honda tuning company Spoon Sports designed a N1 racing version of the Type R that had the B16B redline increased from 8,400 rpm to 11,000 rpm.
In 2001 Honda introduced the next generation of the Civic Type R as a unique 3 - door hatchback to the UK market, which was manufactured in Swindon, England. This European Domestic Market Civic Type R featured a 200 PS (147 kW; 197 hp) 2.0 L i - VTEC engine (K20A2) and the regular Type R treatment of seam welding, close ratio 6 - speed transmission and uprated brakes, but did not include some of the other higher - end features, such as the helical LSD and red Recaro race - seats, that were standard in the previous generation EK9. However, Honda of Japan marketed a JDM (Japanese domestic market) version of the EP3 (which was exclusively manufactured in Swindon, UK and was shipped to Japan), which retained the highly renowned helical LSD similar to that of the EK9 and red Recaro race - seats. Other differences included a more track - oriented chassis / undercarriage settings as compared to the EDM, as well as a 215 PS (158 kW; 212 hp) i - VTEC engine (K20A) had a fully balanced crankshaft assembly with different intake manifold, exhaust manifold, higher - lift camshafts, higher - compression pistons, chrome - moly flywheel and ECU programming. All of the Japan - spec K20A Type - R powertrain were built in Japan and shipped to the Swindon plant to be installed in the Japan - spec Type - R EP3. The JDM EP3 was also available in the traditional Type R championship white while the EDM was not. The EDM has more relaxed gear ratios and some high rpm torque traded for low rpm torque compared to the JDM.
In 2004 the EP3 was updated with many improvements -- revised EPS with quicker steering, revised suspension settings, projector headlamps (JDM came equipped with halogens only while the EDM came with an option for HIDs with self - leveling motors), lighter clutch and flywheel assembly etc. Based on Honda literature, this facelifted (FL) model was targeted at addressing customers ' and critics ' feedback such as understeer on the limit (due to the front MacPherson strut setup), numb steering response and lack of low end torque.
The base price for the 2001 Civic Type R (EP3) in the United Kingdom was of £ 23,100 (about US $ 34,650).
Performance (all figures are manufacturer claims)
0 -- 60 mph (97 km / h) in 5.8 / 6.5 seconds (JDM / EDM pre-FL), 5.8 / 6.4 secs (JDM / EDM FL) 0 -- 100 mph (62 mph) in 15.1 / 16 secs (JDM / EDM FL) Top speed 141 mph (227 km / h) and 146 mph (235 km / h) (JDM / EDM)
Mugen Motorsports made an upgraded version of the JDM Civic Type R, with a sport exhaust system and engine tuning, special Mugen Grille, and anti-roll bars for pro racing activities.
In 2003 Honda celebrated 30 years of the Civic badge by offering a special edition 30th Anniversary Civic Type R. This special edition features red bucket seats from Recaro, air conditioning, privacy glass on the rear windows, a leather MOMO steering wheel and red carpet and door cards. The 30th Anniversary models in the UK were available in Nighthawk Black, Satin Silver and Milano Red. Only 300 of these models were produced, 100 in each colour.
In 2005 Honda introduced the Premier edition which had Recaro Trendline seats (similar to those found in the Anniversary Edition, only in red and black rather than all red), a darker shade of fabric on the rear seat centre sections, a MOMO Steering Wheel, Red Carpet, Door Linings, "Type R '' embossed into the front brake calipers and black privacy glass on the rear windows. Air conditioning was an option. They were available in Milano Red, Nighthawk Black, Cosmic Grey and Satin Silver.
In 2004 Honda introduced the "C Package '' option (¥ 330,000 JPY) to Japan 's Civic Type R line - up which included an additional colour, Satin Silver Metallic, HID lighting, rear privacy glass, automatic air conditioner and outside air temperature sensor.
The third generation Civic Type R was offered in two distinct forms: one developed for the European market and one for the Japanese domestic market, matching the availability of their regular 8th generation counterpart.
The Japanese market Civic Type R (FD2) went on sale on 30 March 2007. For the first time, the JDM Civic Type R was sold as a four - door sports sedan rather than a three - door hot hatch. The FD2 Type R was bigger, wider and heavier than the EP3 Type R. The wheelbase grew from 2,570 mm (101.2 in) to 2,700 mm (106.3 in), giving the FD2R more stability in high speed cornering. The Japanese model 's engine output is higher than the European version 's, with 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) being developed at 8000 rpm and 215 N ⋅ m (159 lb ⋅ ft) of torque peaking at 6100 rpm (versus 201 PS (148 kW; 198 hp) at 7800 rpm and 193 N ⋅ m (142 lb ⋅ ft) at 5600 rpm for the European model). The base engine itself is borrowed from the Accord Euro R CL7 with its longer intake manifold. Changes have been made to the block in terms of mounting points for ancillary parts making it different from previous K20A. New technology such as drive - by - wire throttle and porting of the intake valve ports using techniques from the NSX are implemented. Honda says mid-range is increased by 10 PS (7 kW; 10 hp). Drive is fed through a close - ratio six - speed gearbox, and a helical limited slip differential is fitted as standard. The front brake discs are 320 mm (12.6 in) diameter and fitted with four pot Brembo calipers. Tire size is 225 / 40 R18 running on Bridgestone Potenza RE070.
Honda claims the chassis is 50 % more rigid than the previous Japan - only prefacelift DC5 Integra Type R and 25 % more rigid than the previous Japan - only facelift DC5 Integra Type R, and the new model features an independent rear suspension rather than the torsion beam configuration used on the latest European Civic Type - R. To save weight, aluminium is used extensively and bonded with adhesive instead of welded. Though the chassis is larger and more rigid than JDM Integra Type R, it is only 70 kg (154 lb) heavier.
Exterior wise, the front bumper is wider and different from the standard Civic designed aerodynamically. The rear bumper features a diffuser built into the bumper and completing the aero package with a huge rear wing. Inside, the trademark black and red bucket seats are no longer made by Recaro as with previous versions, but designed in house by Honda. Also gone is the Momo made steering wheel, instead replaced by a Honda made version. The familiar red - on - black colour scheme or black - on - black scheme is offered on Championship White and Super Platinum Metallic Silver while a black - on - black scheme with red stitching is for the Vivid Blue Pearl only.
In October 2008, the Civic received a minor face lift. The standard and hybrid versions now had a similar front bumper as the Type R while the head lamps gets a smoked tint and also redesigned tail lamps changes the round insets into octagons. The Type R also received new colours, with Premium White Pearl, Premium Deep Violet Pearl and Crystal Black Pearl being added and the Vivid Blue Pearl color was dropped.
In back to back tests the Civic Type R (FD2) was on average 1 second quicker than the Integra Type - R (DC5) at the Tsukuba Circuit and four seconds faster at the longer Suzuka Circuit.
In a back to back test on the United Kingdom TV program Fifth Gear, the FD2 Type - R was three seconds quicker than the equivalent FN2 UK version around Castle Combe Circuit in the wet.
Only about 13,000 units of FD2 Civic Type R were produced until it ceased production in August 2010 due to failure to meet the upcoming emission requirements. Following the previous success following the introduction of the FN2 Civic Type R from Europe in 2009, another batch of FN2 Type R with minor updates were available in fall 2010. The FN2 Type R has 197 hp (147 kW) vs the 222 hp (166 kW) output in the FD2 Type R.
In addition to Civic Type R, 300 Honda Civic Mugen RR cars available exclusively in Milano Red had also been produced for Japanese market, which reduced weight to 1,255 kg (2,767 lb) using CFRP bumpers and aluminium for the bonnet. The engine is rated at 240 PS (177 kW; 237 hp) at 8000 rpm and 218 N ⋅ m (161 lb ⋅ ft) torque at 7000 rpm achieved through Mugen parts such as camshafts, exhaust system and ECU. Other exclusive items that make this a collector 's item are Recaro SP - X seats and other Mugen items inside while special 18 inch Mugen 7 - spoke wheels come equipped as standard. This version cost ¥ 4,777,500 (4,550,000 + tax) (US $ 38,750) and went on sale in Japan on 13 September 2007.
Mugen also debuted the Civic Type - RR Experimental Spec concept car at the 2008 Tokyo Auto Salon, which featured a 2157 cc K20A engine rated with horsepower of 260 PS (191 kW; 256 hp) at 8250 rpm and torque of 237 N ⋅ m (175 lb ⋅ ft) at 6750 rpm. Weight is further reduced using an aluminium hood (4.6 kg (10 lb)), as well as a new titanium exhaust system (7.6 kg (17 lb)). The interior was also updated with more carbon fiber parts. The car also features Intelligent - Tire Condition Monitoring System (i - TCMS) and Recaro seats.
The Honda Civic Mugen RR Advanced Concept was debuted at the 2009 Tokyo Auto Salon, based on the face - lifted FD2. It has a weight of 1,095 kg (2,414 lb). Brake disc size was increased to 340 mm (13.4 in) diameter (320 mm (12.6 in) in Type R / RR).
A race version called Honda Civic Mugen RC was also been produced, designed for the 2008 Honda Exciting Cup Civic One - Make Race - Civic Series. The engine is the stock K20A engine from FD2 Honda Civic Type R. It came in the following models:
The Civic Mugen RC was built in Mugen 's M - TEC factory.
The European market Civic Type R is offered only as a three - door hatchback and uses a different chassis and internal layout (notably tank placement below the driver 's seat), which will serve as base for the next European Jazz. The rear suspension, formerly a double wishbone setup, has been changed to a less complex torsion beam axle. The drive train is largely the same as the outgoing model, offering 201 PS (148 kW; 198 hp) at 7,800 rpm and 193 N ⋅ m (142 lb ⋅ ft) of torque at 5,600 rpm, with 90 percent of peak torque is available from 2,500 rpm. It runs on 225 / 40 R18 Y88 Bridgestone Potenza RE050A tyres, while optional 19 - inch Rage alloys run on Yokohama Advan Sport 225 / 35 ZR19 88Y tyres. The car has a curb weight of 1,320 kg (2,910 lb).
The suggested retail price (MSRP) for the Civic Type R in 2007 was £ 17,627, or about US $ 35,254 at the exchange rate when launched.
Type R GT includes, dual zone climate control (Left: right independent), rain sensing windscreen wipers, refrigerated glove box, automatic headlights with dusk sensor, front fog lights, power folding door mirrors, cruise control, front and rear curtain airbags. It is finished in the same four colours as the standard FN2, and a new addition the range, deep sapphire blue pearl. As often, names and trims vary even within domain markets down to local ones, and a Heritage version replaces GT version in some of them, adding Xenon / HID lights to the mix. The topping Heritage Navi version adds Bluetooth telephone system and voice recognition DVD satellite navigation. A more radical version dubbed Race differs from the Heritage by removing components (incl. HID, AC, fog lights, audio system, sound proofing, some airbags) to reduce weight as much as 40 kg (88 lb). Finally, together with the 2009 revision to all 8th generation EDM Civic variants (adding for example a USB iPod - compatible plug to the audio system), a special edition called Championship White comes in the eponymous Honda colour, with matching white 18 '' wheels (19 '' white optional). This edition adds an exclusive limited slip differential to a Heritage trim level, which Honda touted at the Paris Motor Show as helping the car shave off more than a second to its undisclosed Tsukuba lap time. Models made from 1 March 2010 had LSDs fitted as standard.
Production for the European market finished in October 2010 due to the engine not meeting Euro V emissions regulations which came into effect in 2011. Over 12,000 Civic Type Rs were sold in the UK since January 2007, Honda continued to export the car to the Australian market into 2011. It was also exported to Japan and marketed as Civic Type - R EURO in limited edition in fall 2010, following a successful run in November 2009.
Top Gear Magazine awarded the European Civic Type R its ' Hot Hatch of 2007 ', praising the car 's controls and comparing it favourably as a driver 's car to its rivals, the Stig qualifying it as ' an utter gem '. However the television show Top Gear later criticized the new FN2 Chassis version, due to the different suspension and added weight. Jeremy Clarkson said it "just does n't feel that quick '' and that "all the poise and controllability that you used to get in the old car is just sort of... gone ''.
The FN2 Civic Type R was available in Australia from mid-2007 until 2011.
In Singapore, the FN2 Civic Type R Hatchback (European version) was sold by authorized dealer, while the FD2 sedan was sold thru parallel importers.
The FD2 Civic Type R was officially launched to the Malaysian market on 2 August 2007.
The FD2 sedan was initially the only model available in Japan, but as of November 2009, Honda imported the European FN2 hatchback in limited numbers (about 2,010 units), giving it the name Civic Type R EURO. A second batch of 1,500 was imported in fall 2010 due to the initial sales success, with the colour Crystal Black Pearl added.
In September 2012, there were rumours about the confirmation of the next - generation Honda Civic Type R at the Paris Motor Show. A preview did n't take place until the Geneva Motor Show in March 2014. It was revealed as the first factory turbocharged Civic Type R.
In January 2015, Honda announced that the production - ready model of the 4th Generation Civic Type R would debut at the 85th Geneva Motor Show alongside the European debut of the NSX. In March 2015, Honda debuted the production 4th generation Civic Type R at the Geneva Motor Show.
The Honda Civic Type R is powered by K20C1 Direct Fuel Injection 1,996 cc (2.0 L; 121.8 cu in) turbocharged Inline - four engine with Earth Dreams Technology, producing 228 kW (310 PS; 306 bhp) at 6,500 rpm and maximum torque of 400 N ⋅ m (295 lb ⋅ ft) at 2,500 -- 4,500 rpm. The engine is mated to a 6 - speed manual transmission with a factory equipped plate - style limited - slip differential. Honda states that the Type R reaches 0 -- 62 mph (100 km / h) in 5.7 seconds.
The engine is manufactured at Honda 's Anna Engine Plant in Ohio before being exported to the UK.
A full refill of an empty fuel tank is 50 L (13 US gal) and fuel consumption is 30.1 / 46.3 mpg and 38.7 mpg combined. Combined CO2 is 170g / km and the Civic Type R has achieved Euro 6 Emission Standard.
The Civic Type R is equipped with dual front airbags, front side airbags and front and rear side curtain airbags. For braking performance, it is fitted with front brake of 13.8 inch vented and drilled disk and rear brake of 12 inch solid disk. Anti-lock braking system, electronic brake - force distribution, hill start assist, and vehicle stability assist are standard across the variants.
The Civic Type R FK2 was available in a range of five different colours.
The final 100 FK2 Type Rs were released only in the UK as Black Editions.
The British got to witness its sale as of July 2015 with price tags of GBP 29,995 for the base Type R model and £ 32,295 for the Type R GT model. Although they both were priced differently, differences are limited to additional equipment and amenities. Key specifications related to power figures remain the same for both variants.
In July 2015, Swindon, England (HUM) started exporting the FK2 Civic Type R to Japan for the first time. However, Japan will only receive 750 units.
The 2016 Honda Civic Type R was sold in Hong Kong through official dealerships. Import car dealers were also offering grey market Japanese FK2 imports. Due to strong demand, FK2s reserved through official dealers had a car delivery wait time of 4 months.
The Civic Type R Prototype was unveiled in September 2016 at the Paris Motor Show, and the production version unveiled at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show, ahead of the model 's European launch in the summer. The new car builds on Honda 's heritage in developing high - performance hatchbacks.
The design is based on the Civic hatchback, with a winged carbon fibre splitter with red accent line, slatted ducts, diamond - mesh air intakes, red ' H ' badge above a new air vent at the nose of the car, new intake on the bonnet, an air scoop sited centrally in a trapezoidal recess, smoked lenses for the LED headlights and indicators and side repeaters, carbon fibre side skirts, 20 - inch piano black alloy wheels with red accents, 245 / 30 R20 high - performance tyres, enlarged wheel arches, carbon fibre diffuser runs below the wider rear bumper, 3 tailpipes with a pair of directional strakes at each side, central tailpipe in bright metallic red, unique peaks at the roof flanks point backwards.
On 3 April 2017, the pre-production Type R achieved a lap time of 7: 43.80 on the Nürburgring Nordschleife, almost 7 seconds faster than its predecessor, setting a new record for FWD cars.
The Civic Type R went on sale in the United States on 14 June 2017, marking the first time the Civic Type R name was sold in the U.S market. It comes with a starting price of $33,900 and is available in 5 colors.
In the UK, Civic Type R demonstrator models were available for consumer test drives in August 2017, with official delivery and sale dates coinciding with national vehicle registration plate changes on 1 September. The base model was available at launch for £ 30,995, with the more optioned GT model retailing for £ 32,995.
The Civic Type R was launched in Indonesia during the 2017 Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show on 10 August 2017, with a starting price of IDR 995 million (around US $74,500 as of August 2017) at selected Honda dealers.
In Singapore, the Civic Type R was officially launched by the local distributor on 27 July 2017 in limited numbers.
In Malaysia, the Civic Type R was launched on October 2017 during the Malaysia Autoshow with a price of RM320, 000.
The FK8 Civic Type R has won many accolades and awards. It was crowned Top Gear Magazines Hot Hatch of the Year 2017, it was also voted International Editors ' Choice and overall Car of the Year 2017.
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what is the liquid in blood culture bottles | Blood culture - wikipedia
Blood culture is a microbiological culture of blood. It is employed to detect infections that are spreading through the bloodstream (such as bacteremia, septicemia amongst others). This is possible because the bloodstream is usually a sterile environment.
Blood cultures were pioneered in the early 20th century.
When a patient shows signs or symptoms of a systemic infection, results from a blood culture can verify that an infection is present, and they can identify the type (or types) of microorganism that is responsible for the infection. For example, blood tests can identify the causative organisms in severe pneumonia, puerperal fever, pelvic inflammatory disease, neonatal epiglottitis, sepsis, and fever of unknown origin (FUO). However, negative growths do not exclude infection.
The usual risks of venipuncture and the occurrence of false positive results approximately 3 % + of the time, can lead to inappropriate treatment.
A minimum of 10 ml of blood is taken through venipuncture and injected into two or more "blood bottles '' with specific media for aerobic and anaerobic organisms. A common medium used for anaerobes is thioglycollate broth.
The blood is collected using aseptic technique. This requires that both the tops of the culture bottles and the venipuncture site of the patient are cleaned prior to collection by swabbing with 70 % isopropyl alcohol (povidone and left to dry before venipuncture).
To maximise the diagnostic yield of blood cultures, multiple sets of cultures (each set consisting of aerobic and anaerobic vials filled with 3 -- 10 mL) may be ordered by medical staff. A common protocol used in US hospitals includes the following:
Ordering multiple sets of cultures increases the probability of discovering a pathogenic organism in the blood and reduces the probability of having a positive culture due to skin contaminants.
After inoculating the culture vials, advisably with new needles and not the ones used for venipuncture, the vials are sent to the clinical pathology microbiology department. Here the bottles are entered into a blood culture machine, which incubates the specimens at body temperature. The blood culture instrument reports positive blood cultures (cultures with bacteria present, thus indicating the patient is "bacteremic ''). Most cultures are monitored for five days, after which negative vials are removed.
If a vial is positive, a microbiologist will perform a Gram stain on the blood for a rapid, general identification of the bacteria, which the microbiologist will report to the attending physician of the bacteremic patient. The blood is also subcultured or "subbed '' onto agar plates to isolate the pathogenic organism for culture and susceptibility testing, which takes up to three days. This culture and sensitivity (C&S) process identifies the species of bacteria. Antibiotic sensitivities are then assessed on the bacterial isolate to inform clinicians with respect to appropriate antibiotics for treatment.
Some guidelines for infective endocarditis recommend taking up to six sets of blood for culture (around 60 ml).
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the dream of olwen theme from the film while i live | While I Live - wikipedia
While I Live is a 1947 British drama film, directed by John Harlow. While I Live is best remembered for its musical theme "The Dream of Olwen '' composed by Charles Williams, reprised at intervals throughout the film, which became hugely popular in its time and is still regularly performed. The film itself became widely known as The Dream of Olwen. It was based on a play by Robert Bell, in which also Sonia Dresdel also starred.
In 1922 in Cornwall, a prodigious young pianist and composer Olwen Trevelyan (Audrey Fildes) is struggling with the ending of a piano tone poem she is composing. Driven to complete the piece by her domineering elder sister Julia (Sonia Dresdel), Olwen becomes agitated and despondent, and one night sleepwalks to the edge of a cliff near their home. Julia follows her and shouts her name but Olwen, abruptly awakened, loses her balance and falls to her death on the rocks below. Julia is unable to come to terms with Olwen 's death and the guilt of her own role in it, over the years becoming a reclusive, obsessive figure whose main raison d'être is to keep Olwen 's memory alive. Olwen 's final composition gains her posthumous recognition, and each year on the anniversary of her death it is broadcast on the radio.
On the 25th anniversary of Olwen 's death, Julia is listening to the broadcast when she hears a frantic knocking at the door and opens it to admit an unknown young woman (Carol Raye), who immediately walks up to the piano and begins expertly playing along with the piece on the radio. The young woman claims to have lost her memory and to have no idea of who she is or how she came to chance upon the isolated house, yet she seems to have a familiarity with the surroundings and the history of the Trevelyan family. Struck by her physical resemblance to Olwen, Julia offers her refuge and, also seeing behavioural traits reminiscent of Olwen, becomes convinced that the woman is the reincarnation of her dead sister. A local faith healer Nehemiah (Tom Walls), who also claims second sight, becomes involved and it seems increasingly as though history is repeating itself, culminating when the young woman too is found standing precariously on the edge of the cliff from which Olwen fell.
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who sang today i started loving you again | Today I Started Loving you Again - Wikipedia
"Today I Started Loving You Again '' is a song written by Merle Haggard and Bonnie Owens. Haggard first recorded it as a B - side to his number 1 hit "The Legend of Bonnie and Clyde '', but it failed to chart. The song was later recorded by Al Martino, followed by many other artists, including Martina McBride, Charlie McCoy, David Peters, Kenny Rogers and the First Edition, Bettye Swann, Connie Smith, Sammi Smith, Bobby Bland, Emmylou Harris and Dolly Parton. More recently it was recorded by Jeff Carson and Merle Haggard for Carson 's 1997 Album Butterfly Kisses.
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one was named after jonathon swift on martian moon | Lilliput and Blefuscu - wikipedia
Lilliput and Blefuscu are two fictional island nations that appear in the first part of the 1726 novel Gulliver 's Travels by Jonathan Swift. The two islands are neighbours in the South Indian Ocean, separated by a channel eight hundred yards wide. Both are inhabited by tiny people who are about one - twelfth the height of ordinary human beings. Both kingdoms are empires, i.e. realms ruled by a self - styled emperor. The capital of Lilliput is Mildendo.
Swift gives the location of Lilliput and Blefuscu as Latitude 30 ° 2 ′ S, to the northwest of Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania). Because this area is actually occupied by Australia, and on the basis of other textual evidence, some have concluded that Swift intended to place Lilliput in the Pacific Ocean, to the northeast, not northwest, of Van Diemen 's Land. However, as the map (see illustration) indicates, mainland Australia had been barely explored by Europeans at that time.
Lilliput is said to extend 5,000 blustrugs, or twelve miles in circumference. Blefuscu is located northeast of Lilliput, across an 800 - yard channel. The only cities mentioned by Swift are Mildendo, the capital of Lilliput, and Blefuscu, capital of Blefuscu.
A modernised Lilliput is the setting of a 1958 sequel children 's novel, Castaways in Lilliput, by Henry Winterfeld. This book provides more geographical detail: other cities in addition to Mildendo include Plips (a major city and cathedral town), Wiggywack (a suburb of Mildendo and seat of the Island Council), Tottenham (on the west coast), and Allenbeck (at the mouth of a river on the west coast).
Lilliput is said to be ruled by an Emperor, Golbasto Momarem Evlame Gurdilo Shefin Mully Ully Gue. He is assisted by a first minister (who carries a white staff) and several other officials (who later bring articles of impeachment against Gulliver on grounds of treason): the galbet or high admiral, Skyresh Bolgolam; the lord high treasurer, Flimnap; the general, Limnoc; the chamberlain, Lalcom; and the grand justiciary, Balmuff. Blefuscu is also ruled by an Emperor, who is not named.
Both nations follow the teachings of a prophet, Lustrog, as recorded in their scripture, known as the Blundecral ("which is their Alcoran '', an older term for the Quran of Islam). Sectarian divisions exist in the debate between "Little - Endians '' and "Big - Endians '' (see below).
Lilliput and Blefuscu were intended as, and understood to be, satirical portraits of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of France, respectively, as they were in the early 18th century. Only the internal politics of Lilliput are described in detail; these are parodies of British politics, in which the great central issues of the day are belittled and reduced to unimportance.
For instance, the two major political parties of the day were the Whigs and the Tories. The Tories are parodied as the Tramecksan or "High - Heels '' (due to their adhesion to the high church party of the Church of England, and their exalted views of royal supremacy), while the Whigs are represented as the Slamecksan or "Low - Heels '' (the Whigs inclined toward low church views, and believed in parliamentary supremacy). These issues, generally considered to be of fundamental importance to the constitution of Great Britain, are reduced by Swift to a difference in fashions.
The Emperor of Lilliput is described as a partisan of the Low - Heels, just as King George I employed only Whigs in his administration; the Emperor 's heir is described as having "one of his heels higher than the other '', which describes the encouragement by the Prince of Wales (the future George II) of the political opposition during his father 's life; once he ascended the throne, however, George II was as staunch a favorer of the Whigs as his father had been.
The novel further describes an intra-Lilliputian quarrel over the practice of breaking eggs. Traditionally, Lilliputians broke boiled eggs on the larger end; a few generations ago, an Emperor of Lilliput, the Present Emperor 's great - grandfather, had decreed that all eggs be broken on the smaller end after his son cut himself breaking the egg on the larger end. The differences between Big - Endians (those who broke their eggs at the larger end) and Little - Endians had given rise to "six rebellions... wherein one Emperor lost his life, and another his crown ''. The Lilliputian religion says an egg should be broken on the convenient end, which is now interpreted by the Lilliputians as the smaller end. The Big - Endians gained favour in Blefuscu.
The Big - Endian / Little - Endian controversy reflects, in a much simplified form, British quarrels over religion. England had been, less than 200 years previously, a Catholic (Big - Endian) country; but a series of reforms beginning in the 1530s under King Henry VIII (ruled 1509 -- 1547), Edward VI (1547 -- 1553), and Queen Elizabeth I (1558 -- 1603) had converted most of the country to Protestantism (Little - Endianism), in the episcopalian form of the Church of England. At the same time, revolution and reform in Scotland (1560) had also converted that country to Presbyterian Protestantism, which led to fresh difficulties when England and Scotland were united under one ruler, James I (1603 -- 25).
Religiously inspired revolts and rebellions followed, in which, indeed, one king, Charles I (1625 -- 49) lost his life, and his son James II lost his crown and fled to France (1685 -- 1688). Some of these conflicts were between Protestants and Catholics; others were between different branches of Protestantism. Swift does not clearly distinguish between these different kinds of religious strife.
Swift has his Lilliputian informant blame the "civil commotions '' on the propaganda of the Emperor of Blefuscu, i.e. the King of France; this primarily reflects the encouragement given by King Louis XIV of France to James II in pursuit of his policies to advance the toleration of Catholicism in Great Britain. He adds that "when (the commotions) were quelled, the (Big - Endian) exiles always fled for refuge to that empire (Blefuscu / France) ''. This partially reflects the exile of King Charles II on the Continent (in France, Germany, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Dutch Republic) from 1651 to 1660, but more particularly the exile of the Catholic King James II from 1688 -- 1701. James II was dead by the time Swift wrote Gulliver 's Travels, but his heir James Francis Edward Stuart, also Catholic, maintained his pretensions to the British throne from a court in France (primarily at Saint - Germain - en - Laye) until 1717, and both Jameses were regarded as a serious threat to the stability of the British monarchy until the end of the reign of George II. The court of the Pretender attracted those Jacobites, and their Tory sympathizers, whose political activity precluded them staying safely in Great Britain; notable among them was Swift 's friend, the Anglican Bishop of Rochester Francis Atterbury, who was exiled to France in 1722.
Swift 's Lilliputian claims that the machinations of "Big - Endian exiles '' at the court of the Emperor of Blefuscu have brought about a continuous war between Lilliput and Blefuscu for "six and thirty moons '' (Lilliputians calculate time in ' moons ', not years; their time - scale, while not one - twelfth the size of normal humans, appears to be somewhat faster, since the emperor was stated to be "past his prime '' before he was thirty.) This is an allusion to the wars fought under King William III and Queen Anne against France under Louis XIV, the War of the Grand Alliance (1689 -- 97) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 -- 13). In both cases, the claims of the exiled House of Stuart were marginal to other causes of war, but were an important propaganda point in Great Britain itself, as both James II and James Francis Edward were accused of allying with foreigners to force Catholicism on the British people.
In the novel, Gulliver washes up on the shore of Lilliput and is captured by the inhabitants while asleep. He offers his services to the Emperor of Lilliput in his war against Blefuscu, and succeeds in capturing the (one - twelfth sized) Blefuscudian fleet. Despite a triumphant welcome, he soon finds himself at odds with the Emperor of Lilliput, as he declines to conquer the rest of Blefuscu for him and to force the Blefuscudians to adopt Little - Endianism.
Gulliver 's position reflects the decision of the Tory government to withdraw from the War of the Spanish Succession. Britain 's allies considered the important objects of the war to have been met, and that the larger claims which the Whigs claimed were excessive. The withdrawal was seen by the Whigs as a betrayal of British interests. Swift (a Tory) is here engaged in an apology.
Gulliver is, after further adventures, condemned as a traitor by the Council of Lilliput, and condemned to be blinded; he escapes his punishment by fleeing to Blefuscu. This condemnation parallels that issued to the chief ministers of the Tory government that had made peace with France, Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, who was impeached and imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1715 to 1717; and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, who, after his political fall, received vague threats of capital punishment and fled to France in 1715, where he remained until 1723.
In chapter 4 of Gulliver 's Travels, Gulliver alludes to his plans to publish a treatise on the empire of Lilliput. In 1728, John Arbuthnot wrote An account of the state of learning in the empire of Lilliput: Together with the history and character of Bullum the Emperor 's Library - Keeper; this purported to be transcribed from Gulliver 's description. Arbuthnot used this work to satirise Richard Bentley, master of Trinity College, Cambridge but also described the early history of Lilliput and Blefuscu. At one time (Gulliver is told), Blefuscu was a commonwealth and had its own language and an extensive literature. Lilliput, meanwhile, was divided among several petty kingdoms. The first emperor of Blefuscu attacked and subdued Lilliput, but later the Lilliputians won their independence and set up their own emperor.
Winterfeld 's sequel children 's chapter book Castaways in Lilliput provides further details of Lilliputian history. The Emperor of Gulliver 's time, Mully Ully Gue, is said to have reigned 1657 -- 1746. (This contradicts Swift 's account, in which the Emperor is only 28 years old and has reigned about seven years when Gulliver arrives in 1699.) His descendant, Alice, is the reigning Queen in the 1950s when three Australian children visit the island. The monetary system has apparently also been changed, the sprug of Swift 's novel replaced by the onze, equal to ten dimelings or 100 bims. Technology has kept pace with the outside world, so the Lilliputians have trains, automobiles, helicopters, telephones, and telegraphs.
Winterfeld describes the flag of Lilliput as having blue and white stripes with a golden crown on a red field. These symbols are also painted on the police helicopters.
Swift presents a number of Lilliputian words and phrases, and further states that the official languages of Lilliput and Blefuscu are about as far apart as typical European languages. Arbuthnot explains further that Blefuscu originally had its own language and an extensive literature, but during the period when it occupied Lilliput, the Blefuscudian language was much altered by contact with Lilliputian. Blefuscudian remained an old language of scholarship. In T.H. White 's sequel, Mistress Masham 's Repose, the protagonist Maria studies the Lilliputian language from a book owned by her professor friend. This is a rare copy of Gulliver 's 1735 treatise: A General Description of the Empire of Lilliput, from its first Erection, through a long Series of Princes; with a Particular Account of their Wars and Politicks, Laws, Learning, & Religion, their Plants and Animals, their peculiar Manners and Customs, with other Matters very curious and useful, to which is added a Brief Vocabulary of their Language, with its English Correspondencies. In Winterfeld 's sequel, English has become the official language, due to a decision of the Council of the Island in 1751.
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how many ships are in the russian navy | List of active Russian Navy ships - wikipedia
This List of active Russian Navy ships presents a picture which can never be fully agreed upon in the absence of greater data availability and a consistent standard for which ships are considered operational or not. The Soviet Navy, and the Russian Navy which inherited its traditions, had a different attitude to operational status than many Western navies. Ships went to sea less, and maintained capability for operations while staying in harbour. The significant changes which followed the collapse of the Soviet Union then complicated the picture enormously. Determining which ships are operational or in refit can be difficult. Jane 's Fighting Ships has noted in recent editions that some ships have little capability, but remain flying an ensign so that crews are entitled to be paid.
Jane 's Fighting Ships online edition, dated 8 March 2010, added "There are large numbers of most classes ' in reserve ', and flying an ensign so that skeleton crews may still be paid. (Their listing reflected) only those units assessed as having some realistic operational capability or some prospect of returning to service after refit. ''
(summary)
Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza N.G. Kuznetsov (Kuznetsov - class)
Pyotr Velikiy (Kirov - class)
Varyag (Slava - class)
Smetlivy (Kashin class)
Admiral Vinogradov (Udaloy class)
Admiral Chabanenko (Udaloy II class)
Nastoychivy (Sovremenny class)
Ladnyy (Krivak class)
Neustrashimy (Neustrashimy class)
Admiral Grigorovich (Grigorovich class)
Dagestan (Gepard class)
Koryeyets (Grisha class)
(Nanuchka class)
R - 29 (Tarantul class)
Kalmykiya (Parchim class)
Samum (Bora class)
Volgodonsk (Buyan class)
Velikiy Ustug (Buyan - M class)
Stoykiy (Steregushchy class)
(Alligator class)
(Ropucha class)
(Zubr class)
(Serna class)
(Dyugon class)
(Ondatra class)
(Moma class)
(Vishnya class)
(Balzam class)
(Marshal Nedelin class)
(Grachonok class)
(Raptor class)
(Shmel class)
(Natya class)
(Sonya class)
(Gorya class)
(Lida class)
(Aleksandrit class)
(Delta III - class)
(Typhoon - class)
(Delta IV - class)
(Borey - class)
(Oscar II - class)
(Sierra I - class)
(Sierra II - class)
(Victor III - class)
(Akula - class)
(Yasen - class)
(Kilo - class)
(Improved Kilo - class)
(Lada - class)
Orenburg silhouette (Delta III - class)
(Delta IV - class silhouette)
Sarov silhouette (Sarov - class)
(summary)
(Kirov - class)
(Kara - class)
(Sovremenny - class)
(Grisha - class)
(Ivan Rogov - class)
(Typhoon - class)
(Oscar II - class)
(Sierra I - class)
(Akula - class)
(Tango - class)
(Kilo - class)
In State Arms Program 2011 - 2020 is planned to build up to 20 submarines
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when was the first plastic easter egg made | Easter egg - wikipedia
Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are decorated eggs that are usually used as gifts on the occasion of Easter. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in colored foil, hand - carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate. However, real eggs continue to be used in Eastern European tradition. Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion. '' This custom of the Easter egg can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Russia and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. This Christian use of eggs may have been influenced by practices in "pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as amid the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete ''.
The practice of decorating eggshells as part of spring rituals is ancient, with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old. In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago. These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean.
The Christian custom of Easter eggs, specifically, started among the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs with red colouring "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion ''. The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce. The blessing is for consumption as a food, rather than decorated.
Lord, let the grace of your blessing + come upon these eggs, that they be healthful food for your faithful who eat them in thanksgiving for the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns with you forever and ever.
Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that "use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe. '' Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dying the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow.
Influential 19th century folklorist and philologist Jacob Grimm speculates, in the second volume of his Deutsche Mythologie, that the folk custom of Easter eggs among the continental Germanic peoples may have stemmed from springtime festivities of a Germanic goddess known in Old English as Ēostre (namesake of modern English Easter) and possibly known in Old High German as * Ostara (and thus namesake of Modern German Ostern ' Easter '):
Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird 's nest.
The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent in the West. Historically, it was traditional to use up all of the household 's eggs before Lent began. Eggs were originally forbidden during Lent as well as on other traditional fast days in Western Christianity (this tradition still continues among the Eastern Christian Churches). Likewise, in Eastern Christianity, meat, eggs, and dairy are all prohibited during the Lenten fast.
This established the tradition of Pancake Day being celebrated on Shrove Tuesday. This day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins, is also known as Mardi Gras, a French phrase which translates as "Fat Tuesday '' to mark the last consumption of eggs and dairy before Lent begins.
In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household 's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week.
During Lent, since chickens would not stop producing eggs during this time, a larger than usual store might be available at the end of the fast. This surplus, if any, had to be eaten quickly to prevent spoiling. Then, with the coming of Easter, the eating of eggs resumes. Some families cook a special meatloaf with eggs in it to be eaten with the Easter dinner.
One would have been forced to hard boil the eggs that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the Spanish dish hornazo (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard - boiled eggs as a primary ingredient. In Hungary, eggs are used sliced in potato casseroles around the Easter period.
Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus.
In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful. The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it.
Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so - called święconka, i.e. blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday.
During Paschaltide, in some traditions the Pascal greeting with the Easter egg is even extended to the deceased. On either the second Monday or Tuesday of Pascha, after a memorial service people bring blessed eggs to the cemetery and bring the joyous paschal greeting, "Christ has risen '', to their beloved departed (see Radonitza).
In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion). These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga. They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast. Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread).
In Egypt, it 's a tradition to decorate boiled eggs during Sham el - Nessim holiday, which falls every year after the Eastern Christian Easter.
The dying of Easter eggs in different colours is commonplace, with colour being achieved through boiling the egg in natural substances (such as, onion peel (brown colour), oak or alder bark or walnut nutshell (black), beet juice (pink) etc.), or using artificial colourings.
A greater variety of colour was often provided by tying on the onion skin with different coloured woollen yarn. In the North of England these are called pace - eggs or paste - eggs, from a dialectal form of Middle English pasche. They were usually eaten after an egg - jarping (egg tapping) competition.
In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ -- the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead.
When boiling them with onion skins leaves can be attached prior to dying to create leaf patterns. The leaves are attached to the eggs before they are dyed with a transparent cloth to wrap the eggs with like inexpensive muslin or nylon stockings, leaving patterns once the leaves are removed after the dyeing process. These eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.
Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax - resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb pysaty, "to write '', as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax.
Decorating eggs for Easter using wax resistant batik is a popular method in some other eastern European countries.
In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and / or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying ' Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is ', breaking and eating them. This also happens in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other 's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future.
In Germany, eggs decorate trees and bushes as Easter egg trees, and in several areas public wells as Osterbrunnen.
There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have krashanky on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the krashanky equalled the number of departed family members.
Ukrainian Easter eggs
Easter eggs from Sorbs
Easter eggs from Lithuania
Perforated egg from Germany, Sleeping Beauty
Norwegian Easter eggs
Easter eggs from Greece
Perforated eggs
Easter eggs from France
American Easter egg from the White House Washington, D.C.
Pace eggs boiled with onion skins and leaf patterns.
Easter eggs decorated with straw
Easter egg from Poland
An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard - boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find. The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors. When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg.
The central European Slavic nations (Czechs and Slovaks etc.) have a tradition of gathering eggs by gaining them from the females in return of whipping them with a pony - tail shaped whip made out of fresh willow branches and splashing them with water, by the Ruthenians called polivanja, which is supposed to give them health and beauty.
Cascarones, a Latin American tradition now shared by many US States with high Hispanic demographics, are emptied and dried chicken eggs stuffed with confetti and sealed with a piece of tissue paper. The eggs are hidden in a similar tradition to the American Easter egg hunt and when found the children (and adults) break them over each other 's heads.
In order to enable children to take part in egg hunts despite visual impairment, eggs have been created that emit various clicks, beeps, noises, or music so that visually impaired children can easily hunt for Easter eggs.
Egg rolling is also a traditional Easter egg game played with eggs at Easter. In the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries children traditionally rolled eggs down hillsides at Easter. This tradition was taken to the New World by European settlers, and continues to this day each Easter with an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn. Different nations have different versions of the game.
In the North of England, during Eastertide, a traditional game is played where hard boiled pace eggs are distributed and each player hits the other player 's egg with their own. This is known as "egg tapping '', "egg dumping '', or "egg jarping ''. The winner is the holder of the last intact egg. The annual egg jarping world championship is held every year over Easter in Peterlee Cricket Club.
It is also practiced in Italy (where is called scuccetta), Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Ukraine, Russia, and other countries. In parts of Austria, Bavaria and German - speaking Switzerland it is called Ostereiertitschen or Eierpecken. In parts of Europe it is also called epper, presumably from the German name Opfer, meaning "offering '' and in Greece it is known as tsougrisma. In South Louisiana, this practice is called pocking eggs and is slightly different. The Louisiana Creoles hold that the winner eats the eggs of the losers in each round.
In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings.
Egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them without damaging any eggs which originated in Germany. In the UK the dance is called the hop - egg.
The Pace Egg plays are traditional village plays, with a rebirth theme. The drama takes the form of a combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life. The plays take place in England during Easter.
In 1873 J.S. Fry & Sons of England introduced the first chocolate Easter egg in Britain.
In Western cultures, the giving of chocolate eggs is now commonplace, with 80 million Easter eggs sold in the UK alone. Formerly, the containers Easter eggs were sold in contained large amounts of plastic, although in the United Kingdom this has gradually been replaced with recyclable paper and cardboard.
Chocolate Easter egg
Chocolate Easter egg bunny
Easter egg with candy.
Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny with Easter eggs
Kinder Surprise egg, manufacted by Ferrero SpA
In the Indian state of Goa, the Goan Catholic dish Marzipan is used to make easter eggs. In the Philippines, mazapán de pili (Spanish for "pili marzipan '') is made from pili nuts.
Marzipan easter eggs
The jewelled Easter eggs made by the Fabergé firm for the two last Russian Tsars are regarded as masterpieces of decorative arts. Most of these creations themselves contained hidden surprises such as clock - work birds, or miniature ships.
In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries ' folk traditions, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common.
Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a 27 - foot (9 m) sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta.
Fabergé egg
Giant easter egg, Bariloche, Argentina
Giant pysanka from Vegreville, Alberta, Canada
Giant easter egg or pisanica in Zagreb, Croatia
Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin
While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ.
A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene 's efforts to spread the Gospel. According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with "Christ has risen, '' whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, "Christ has no more risen than that egg is red. ''
After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red. Red Easter eggs ', known as kokkina avga (κόκκινα αυγά) in Greece and krashanki in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods. Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first - dyed red egg at the home 's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them.
The egg is widely used as a symbol of the start of new life, just as new life emerges from an egg when the chick hatches out.
Painted eggs are used at the Iranian spring holidays, the Nowruz that marks the first day of spring or Equinox, and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous / following day depending on where it is observed. The painted eggs symbolize fertility and are displayed on the Nowruz table, called Haft - Seen together with various other symbolic objects. There are sometimes one egg for each member of the family. The ancient Zoroastrians painted eggs for Nowruz, their New Year celebration, which falls on the Spring equinox. The tradition continues among Persians of Islamic, Zoroastrian, and other faiths today. The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years. The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king.
The Neo-Pagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter. While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara there are no historical accounts that the celebration of Ostara included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication. Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival.
There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares ' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers ' nests.
In Judaism, a hard - boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice. The children 's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half - piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden bread will be awarded a prize. In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location.
Media related to Easter eggs at Wikimedia Commons
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do guns have to be registered in arizona | Gun laws in Arizona - wikipedia
Firearm laws in Arizona regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Arizona in the United States.
Arizona gun laws are found mostly in Title 13, Chapter 31 of the Arizona Revised Statutes. There is no registration or licensing of non-NFA firearms in Arizona. Section 13 - 3108 subsection B prohibits any political subdivision of the state from enacting any laws requiring licensing or registration. According to state law, a person must be 18 years of age to purchase any non-NFA firearm from any source; however, there is a federal age limit of 21 years on handgun purchases from federal firearms licensees.
On foot, any adult person who is not a "prohibited possessor '' may openly carry a loaded firearm visible to others. Generally, a person must be at least 18 years of age to possess or openly carry a firearm. However, this does not apply to:
The law does not expressly require openly carried weapons to be in a holster, case or scabbard; however, the open carrying of weapons not in a holster, case or scabbard while on foot in a populated area could be construed as reckless display or, if others feel threatened by such, even assault with a deadly weapon.
In a vehicle, any adult person who is not a prohibited possessor may openly carry a loaded firearm in a vehicle whether in a holster, case, compartment, or in plain view. Persons under 21 may openly carry a loaded or unloaded firearm in a vehicle only if it is in plain view, i.e. discernible from the ordinary observation of a person located outside and within the immediate vicinity of the vehicle.
In Arizona, anyone who is not prohibited from owning a firearm and is at least 21 years old can carry a concealed weapon without a permit as of July 29, 2010. Arizona was the third state in modern U.S. history (after Vermont and Alaska, followed by Wyoming) to allow the carrying of concealed weapons without a permit, and it is the first state with a large urban population to do so.
Arizona is classified as a "shall issue '' state. Even though Arizona law allows concealed carry by adults without permit, concealed carry permits are still available and issued by the Concealed Weapons Permit Unit of the Arizona Department of Public Safety for purposes of reciprocity with other states or for carrying firearms in certain regulated places. Requirements for issuance include taking a training class (provided by a licensed third party) or hunter education class, submitting a finger print card, and paying a $60 fee. Applicants must be at least 21 years of age. New permits are valid for five years. Renewing a permit requires only an application and finger print card. However, effective December 31, 2007 the finger print card requirement for renewal is scheduled to end. Arizona recognizes all valid out - of - state carry permits.
The Arizona legislature has largely preempted political subdivisions (counties, cities) to choose what laws that they want. Political subdivisions may regulate the carrying of weapons by juveniles or by their own employees or contractors when such employees or contractors are acting within the course and scope of their employment or contract. They may also bar the carrying of weapons at public establishments and events by those who do not have concealed carry permits. Public establishments and events where carry by non-permit holders is prohibited must provide secure storage for weapons on - site, which must be readily accessible upon entry and allow for immediate retrieval upon exit.
Native American reservations, which comprise over a quarter of the land area of the state, may have gun laws identical to or more restrictive than state law. Some tribal governments in Arizona may not recognize Arizona law on the concealed carrying of firearms without a permit while on tribal land.
All Arizona tribes recognize federal law, including the "safe passage '' provision of the federal Firearm Owners Protection Act Act (FOPA). FOPA provides that, notwithstanding any state, tribal, or local law, and while making a continuous journey, a person who is not a prohibited possessor is entitled to transport a firearm or ammunition for any lawful purpose from any place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm to any other place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm or ammunition if, during such transportation the firearm is unloaded, and neither the firearm nor any ammunition being transported is readily accessible or is directly accessible from the passenger compartment of such transporting vehicle. In vehicles without a trunk, the unloaded firearm or ammunition must be in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console. Recent U.S. Court of Appellate rulings have confirmed that FOPA ` s protections only apply to unloaded firearms not readily accessible to the traveler, and many tribal governments have strict laws with respect to firearms being carried or transported on tribal lands. For example, in the event of a vehicle stop, Navajo Nation police will seize any loaded firearm found to be accessible to the driver or passenger. and confiscated firearms are not returnable unless the owner can establish proof of ownership of the firearm and ammunition by presenting a bill of sale or other evidence at the police station at a later date.
It is generally illegal to discharge a firearm within or into the limits of any municipality. However, this prohibition does not apply to persons discharging firearms in the following circumstances:
According to the Arizona Gun Owners Guide by Alan Korwin, while discharging a firearm using blanks within the limits of a municipality is not expressly prohibited by law, disturbing the peace (ARS 13 - 2904) or other charges could still apply.
State law prohibits the carrying of firearms in certain areas. These prohibited areas include:
In addition, political subdivisions have limited power to prohibit the carrying of firearms in certain areas as described above. Carrying a firearm at a jail, correctional facility, juvenile secure care facility, or in a hydroelectric or nuclear power generating station is a felony. Carrying a firearm in any other prohibited area, absent any other concomitant criminal conduct, is a misdemeanor. Carrying a firearm on private property or in a private establishment where it has been forbidden by the owner or another person having lawful control over the property is not expressly prohibited by law, but is held to constitute misdemeanor trespass. Carrying a firearm at a public college or university where it has been prohibited by the governing board is not expressly prohibited by law, but is held to violate provisions of ARS 13 - 2911, which prohibits "interference with or disruption of an educational institution ''. The restrictions pertaining to licensed liquor establishments do not apply to liquor stores or other stores that sell only closed containers of alcohol for consumption off the premises.
State law prohibits the possession of firearms and other deadly weapons by certain categories of "prohibited possessors ''. According to current statute, these categories are defined as follows:
Notably, the prohibition against owning a firearm by a person found to be a danger to himself or others or persistently or acutely disabled or gravely disabled continues in effect even after the expiration of the mental health court order itself (365 days). Instead, a person whose right to possess a firearm was forfeited as part of a mental health order must have that right judicially restored by filing a petition with the court requesting a hearing and a court order restoring the right to possess a firearm.
Arizona appellate courts have ruled that ARS 1 - 244 bars the retroactive application of changes to the prohibited possessor statute unless there is an express legislative declaration of retroactive intent. Although the statute has been amended numerous times during its history, no such retroactive declarations have ever been passed into law. Thus, the possession of deadly weapons by some individuals may be governed by older versions of the statute which are either more or less restrictive than the one currently in force. For example, persons found to constitute a danger to self or others or to be persistently or acutely disabled or gravely disabled prior to September 30, 2009 do not need to petition the courts for a restoration of rights, as statutes in effect prior to that date either did not prohibit their possession of deadly weapons or prohibited such possession only temporarily, during their term of court - ordered treatment.
State law prohibits the possession certain types of firearms and other deadly weapons by any citizen. These weapons are defined as follows:
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when is the next pokemon episode coming out | List of Pokémon: Sun & Moon episodes - wikipedia
The twentieth season of the long running Pokémon animated series is known as Pocket Monsters: Sun & Moon (ポケットモンスター サン & ムーン, Poketto Monsutā: San & Mūn) in Japan and internationally as Pokémon: Sun and Moon (advertised as Pokémon the Series: Sun & Moon). This season follows the continuing adventures of Ash Ketchum and Pikachu as they travel to the Alola region, go to Pokémon school, participate in the island trials, and learn how to use the power of Z - moves.
The season premiered in Japan on November 17, 2016 on TV Tokyo. The season premiered in the United States on May 12, 2017 on Disney XD. This is after a preview of the first two episodes on December 5, 2016 on Disney XD. This is the first season to air on Disney XD. The sneak peek of the first two episodes of the season premiered in the UK on CITV on November 20, 2016. Episodes 3 to 8 premiered in April 2017 as part of the Easter holiday lineup. The season premiered in Canada on Teletoon on March 17, 2017. The season premiered in Australia on 9Go! on July 17, 2017.
The Japanese opening song is "Alola!! '' (アローラ!!, Arōra!!) by Rica Matsumoto with Ikue Otani. The Japanese opening song was "Aim to Be a Pokémon Master (20th Anniversary) '' (めざせ ポケモン マスター (20th Anniversary), Mezase Pokémon Master (20th Anniversary)) by Rica Matsumoto for episodes 30 through 43. The opening song for the English dub is "Under the Alolan Sun '' by Jannel Candrice and The Sad Truth.
The English episode numbers are based on their first airing in the United States in syndication on Disney XD. Other English - speaking nations largely follow either this order or the Japanese order.
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when is moses first mentioned in the bible | Moses - Wikipedia
Moses (/ ˈmoʊzɪz, - zɪs /) was a prophet in the Abrahamic religions. According to the Hebrew Bible, he was adopted by an Egyptian princess, and later in life became the leader of the Israelites and lawgiver, to whom the authorship of the Torah, or acquisition of the Torah from Heaven is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew (מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, lit. "Moses our Teacher ''), he is the most important prophet in Judaism. He is also an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and a number of other Abrahamic religions.
According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when his people, the Israelites, an enslaved minority, were increasing in numbers and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might ally themselves with Egypt 's enemies. Moses ' Hebrew mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites. Through the Pharaoh 's daughter (identified as Queen Bithia in the Midrash), the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile river and grew up with the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slavemaster (because the slavemaster was smiting a Hebrew), Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian, where he encountered The Angel of the Lord, speaking to him from within a burning bush on Mount Horeb (which he regarded as the Mountain of God).
God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery. Moses said that he could not speak eloquently, so God allowed Aaron, his brother, to become his spokesperson. After the Ten Plagues, Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea, after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten Commandments. After 40 years of wandering in the desert, Moses died within sight of the Promised Land on Mount Nebo.
Scholarly consensus sees Moses as a legendary figure and not a historical person. Rabbinic Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses corresponding to 1391 -- 1271 BCE; Jerome gives 1592 BCE, and James Ussher 1571 BCE as his birth year. In the Book of Deuteronomy, Moses was mentioned as "the man of God. ''
The Biblical account of Moses ' birth provides him with a folk etymology to explain the ostensible meaning of his name. He is said to have received it from the Pharaoh 's daughter: "he became her son. She named him Moses (Moshe), saying, ' I drew him out (meshitihu) of the water. ' '' This explanation links it to a verb mashah, meaning "to draw out '', which makes the Pharaoh 's daughter 's declaration a play on words. The princess made a grammatical mistake which is prophetic of his future role in legend, as someone who will "draw the people of Israel out of Egypt through the waters of the Red Sea. ''
Several etymologies have been proposed. An Egyptian root msy, "child of '', has been considered as a possible etymology, arguably an abbreviation of a theophoric name, as for example in Egyptian names like Thutmoses (Thoth created him) and Ramesses (Ra created him), with the god 's name omitted. Abraham Yahuda, based on the spelling given in the Tanakh, argues that it combines "water '' or "seed '' and "pond, expanse of water '', thus yielding the sense of "child of the Nile '' (mw - še).
The Hebrew etymology in the Biblical story may reflect an attempt to cancel out traces of Moses ' Egyptian origins. The Egyptian character of his name was recognized as such by ancient Jewish writers like Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. Philo linked Mōēsēs (Μωησής) to the Egyptian (Coptic) word for water (mou / μῶυ), while Josephus, in his Antiquities of the Jews, claimed that the second element, - esês, meant ' those who are saved '. The problem of how an Egyptian princess, known to Josephus as Thermutis (identified as Tharmuth) and in later Jewish tradition as Bithiah, could have known Hebrew puzzled medieval Jewish commentators like Abraham ibn Ezra and Hezekiah ben Manoah, known also as Hizkuni. Hizkuni suggested she either converted or took a tip from Jochebed.
The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob, but a new pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel. At this time Moses was born to his father Amram, son of Kehath the Levite, who entered Egypt with Jacob 's household; his mother was Jochebed (also Yocheved), who was kin to Kehath. Moses had one older (by seven years) sister, Miriam, and one older (by three years) brother, Aaron. The Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born would be drowned in the river Nile, but Moses ' mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bulrushes by the riverbank, where the baby was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh 's daughter, and raised as an Egyptian. One day after Moses had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew. Moses, in order to escape the Pharaoh 's death penalty, fled to Midian (a desert country south of Judah), where he married Zipporah.
There, on Mount Horeb, God appeared to Moses as a burning bush revealed to Moses his name YHWH (probably pronounced Yahweh) and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his chosen people (Israel) out of bondage and into the Promised Land (Canaan). During the journey, God tried to kill Moses, but Zipporah saved his life. Moses returned to carry out God 's command, but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse, and only after God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did the Pharaoh relent. Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt, but there God hardened the Pharaoh 's heart once more, so that he could destroy the Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations.
From Egypt, Moses led the Israelites to biblical Mount Sinai, where he was given the Ten Commandments from God, written on stone tablets. However, since Moses remained a long time on the mountain, some of the people feared that he might be dead, so they made a statue of a golden calf and worshiped it, thus disobeying and angering God and Moses. Moses, out of anger, broke the tablets, and later ordered the elimination of those who had worshiped the golden statue, which was melted down and fed to the idolaters. He also wrote the ten commandments on a new set of tablets. Later at Mount Sinai, Moses and the elders entered into a covenant, by which Israel would become the people of YHWH, obeying his laws, and YHWH would be their god. Moses delivered the laws of God to Israel, instituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses ' brother Aaron, and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship. In his final act at Sinai, God gave Moses instructions for the Tabernacle, the mobile shrine by which he would travel with Israel to the Promised Land.
From Sinai, Moses led the Israelites to the Desert of Paran on the border of Canaan. From there he sent twelve spies into the land. The spies returned with samples of the land 's fertility, but warned that its inhabitants were giants. The people were afraid and wanted to return to Egypt, and some rebelled against Moses and against God. Moses told the Israelites that they were not worthy to inherit the land, and would wander the wilderness for forty years until the generation who had refused to enter Canaan had died, so that it would be their children who would possess the land.
When the forty years had passed, Moses led the Israelites east around the Dead Sea to the territories of Edom and Moab. There they escaped the temptation of idolatry, received God 's blessing through Balaam the prophet, and massacred the Midianites, who by the end of the Exodus journey had become the enemies of the Israelites. Moses was twice given notice that he would die before entry to the Promised Land: in Numbers 27: 13, once he had seen the Promised Land from a viewpoint on Mount Abarim, and again in Numbers 31: 1 once battle with the Midianites had been won.
On the banks of the Jordan River, in sight of the land, Moses assembled the tribes. After recalling their wanderings he delivered God 's laws by which they must live in the land, sang a song of praise and pronounced a blessing on the people, and passed his authority to Joshua, under whom they would possess the land. Moses then went up Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah, looked over the promised land of Israel spread out before him, and died, at the age of one hundred and twenty. More humble than any other man (Num. 12: 3), "there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom YHWH knew face to face '' (Deuteronomy 34: 10). The New Testament states that after Moses ' death, Michael the Archangel and the Devil disputed over his body (Epistle of Jude 1: 9).
Moses is honoured among Jews today as the "lawgiver of Israel '', and he delivers several sets of laws in the course of the four books. The first is the Covenant Code (Exodus 20: 19 -- 23: 33), the terms of the covenant which God offers to the Israelites at biblical Mount Sinai. Embedded in the covenant are the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments, Exodus 20: 1 -- 17) and the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20: 22 -- 23: 19). The entire Book of Leviticus constitutes a second body of law, the Book of Numbers begins with yet another set, and the Book of Deuteronomy another.
Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of those four books and the Book of Genesis, which together comprise the Torah, the first and most revered section of the Hebrew Bible.
The modern scholarly consensus is that the figure of Moses is legendary, and not historical, although a "Moses - like figure may have existed somewhere in the southern Transjordan in the mid-late 13th century B.C. '' Certainly no Egyptian sources mention Moses or the events of Exodus - Deuteronomy, nor has any archaeological evidence been discovered in Egypt or the Sinai wilderness to support the story in which he is the central figure. The story of his discovery picks up a familiar motif in ancient Near Eastern mythological accounts of the ruler who rises from humble origins: Thus Sargon of Akkad 's Akkadian account of his origins runs;
My mother, the high priestess, conceived; in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me.
The tradition of Moses as a lawgiver and culture hero of the Israelites may go back to the 7th - century BCE sources of the Deuteronomist, which might conserve earlier traditions. Kenneth Kitchen, described as a distinguished but lonely voice among British Egyptologists on the subject, argues that there is an historic core behind the Exodus, with Egyptian corvée labour exacted from Hebrews during the imperialist control exercised by the Egyptian Empire over Canaan from the time of the Thutmosides down to the revolt against Merneptah and Rameses III. Kitchen argued that there is a lack of factual evidence to deny his existence. Martin Noth called the Deuteronomic description of Moses ' burial a '' lone historical tradition. '' William Albright believed in the essential historicity of the biblical tales of Moses and the Exodus, accepting however that the core narrative had been overlaid by legendary accretions. Biblical minimalists such as Philip R. Davies and Niels Peter Lemche regard all biblical books, and the stories of an Exodus, united monarchy, exile and return as fictions composed by a social elite in Yehud in the Persian period or even later, the purpose being to legitimize a return to indigenous roots.
Despite the imposing fame associated with Moses, no source mentions him until he emerges in texts associated with the Babylonian exile. A theory developed by Cornelius Tiele in 1872, which had proved influential, argued that Yahweh was a Midianite god, introduced to the Israelites by Moses, whose father - in - law Jethro was a Midianite priest. It was to such a Moses that Yahweh reveals his real name, hidden from the Patriarchs who knew him only as El Shaddai. Against this view is the modern consensus that most of the Israelites were native to Palestine. Martin Noth argued that the Pentateuch uses the figure of Moses, originally linked to legends of a Transjordan conquest, as a narrative bracket or late reductional device to weld together 4 of the 5, originally independent, themes of that work. Manfred Görg and Rolf Krauss, the latter in a somewhat sensationalist manner, have suggested that the Moses story is a distortion or transmogrification of the historical pharaoh Amenmose (ca. 1200 BCE), who was dismissed from office and whose name was later simplified to msy (Mose). Aidan Dodson regards this hypothesis as "intriguing, but beyond proof. ''
The name King Mesha of Moab has been linked to that of Moses. Mesha also is associated with narratives of an exodus and a conquest, and several motifs in stories about him are shared with the Exodus tale and that regarding Israel 's war with Moab (2 Kings 3). Moab rebels against oppression, like Moses, leads his people out of Israel, as Moses does from Egypt, and his first - born son is slaughtered at the wall of Kir - hareseth as the firstborn of Israel are condemned to slaughter in the Exodus story, "an infernal passover that delivers Mesha while wrath burns against his enemies ''.
An Egyptian version of the tale that crosses over with the Moses story is found in Manetho who, according to the summary in Josephus, wrote that a certain Osarseph, a Heliopolitan priest, became overseer of a band of lepers, when Amenophis, following indications by Amenhotep, son of Hapu, had all the lepers in Egypt quarantined in order to cleanse the land so that he might see the gods. The lepers are bundled into Avaris, the former capital of the Hyksos, where Osarseph prescribes for them everything forbidden in Egypt, while proscribing everything permitted in Egypt. They invite the Hyksos to reinvade Egypt, rule with them for 13 years -- Osarseph then assumes the name Moses - and are then driven out.
Non-biblical writings about Jews, with references to the role of Moses, first appear at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, from 323 BCE to about 146 BCE. Shmuel notes that "a characteristic of this literature is the high honour in which it holds the peoples of the East in general and some specific groups among these peoples. ''
In addition to the Judeo - Roman or Judeo - Hellenic historians Artapanus, Eupolemus, Josephus, and Philo, a few non-Jewish historians including Hecataeus of Abdera (quoted by Diodorus Siculus), Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon of Alexandria, Tacitus and Porphyry also make reference to him. The extent to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is unknown. Moses also appears in other religious texts such as the Mishnah (c. 200 CE), Midrash (200 -- 1200 CE), and the Quran (c. 610 -- 53).
The figure of Osarseph in Hellenistic historiography is a renegade Egyptian priest who leads an army of lepers against the pharaoh and is finally expelled from Egypt, changing his name to Moses.
The earliest existing reference to Moses in Greek literature occurs in the Egyptian history of Hecataeus of Abdera (4th century BCE). All that remains of his description of Moses are two references made by Diodorus Siculus, wherein, writes historian Arthur Droge, he "describes Moses as a wise and courageous leader who left Egypt and colonized Judaea. '' Among the many accomplishments described by Hecataeus, Moses had founded cities, established a temple and religious cult, and issued laws:
After the establishment of settled life in Egypt in early times, which took place, according to the mythical account, in the period of the gods and heroes, the first... to persuade the multitudes to use written laws was Mneves (Moses), a man not only great of soul but also in his life the most public - spirited of all lawgivers whose names are recorded.
Droge also points out that this statement by Hecataeus was similar to statements made subsequently by Eupolemus.
The Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria (2nd century BCE), portrayed Moses as a cultural hero, alien to the Pharaonic court. According to theologian John Barclay, the Moses of Artapanus "clearly bears the destiny of the Jews, and in his personal, cultural and military splendor, brings credit to the whole Jewish people. ''
Jealousy of Moses ' excellent qualities induced Chenephres to send him with unskilled troops on a military expedition to Ethiopia, where he won great victories. After having built the city of Hermopolis, he taught the people the value of the ibis as a protection against the serpents, making the bird the sacred guardian spirit of the city; then he introduced circumcision. After his return to Memphis, Moses taught the people the value of oxen for agriculture, and the consecration of the same by Moses gave rise to the cult of Apis. Finally, after having escaped another plot by killing the assailant sent by the king, Moses fled to Arabia, where he married the daughter of Raguel (Jethro), the ruler of the district.
Artapanus goes on to relate how Moses returns to Egypt with Aaron, and is imprisoned, but miraculously escapes through the name of YHWH in order to lead the Exodus. This account further testifies that all Egyptian temples of Isis thereafter contained a rod, in remembrance of that used for Moses ' miracles. He describes Moses as 80 years old, "tall and ruddy, with long white hair, and dignified. ''
Some historians, however, point out the "apologetic nature of much of Artapanus ' work, '' with his addition of extra-biblical details, such as his references to Jethro: the non-Jewish Jethro expresses admiration for Moses ' gallantry in helping his daughters, and chooses to adopt Moses as his son.
Strabo, a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher, in his Geographica (c. 24 CE), wrote in detail about Moses, whom he considered to be an Egyptian who deplored the situation in his homeland, and thereby attracted many followers who respected the deity. He writes, for example, that Moses opposed the picturing of the deity in the form of man or animal, and was convinced that the deity was an entity which encompassed everything -- land and sea:
35. An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed a portion of the country called the Lower Egypt, being dissatisfied with the established institutions there, left it and came to Judaea with a large body of people who worshipped the Divinity. He declared and taught that the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments, in representing the Divinity under the likeness of wild beasts and cattle of the field; that the Greeks also were in error in making images of their gods after the human form. For God (said he) may be this one thing which encompasses us all, land and sea, which we call heaven, or the universe, or the nature of things...
36. By such doctrine Moses persuaded a large body of right - minded persons to accompany him to the place where Jerusalem now stands...
In Strabo 's writings of the history of Judaism as he understood it, he describes various stages in its development: from the first stage, including Moses and his direct heirs; to the final stage where "the Temple of Jerusalem continued to be surrounded by an aura of sanctity. '' Strabo 's "positive and unequivocal appreciation of Moses ' personality is among the most sympathetic in all ancient literature. '' His portrayal of Moses is said to be similar to the writing of Hecataeus who "described Moses as a man who excelled in wisdom and courage. ''
Egyptologist Jan Assmann concludes that Strabo was the historian "who came closest to a construction of Moses ' religion as monotheistic and as a pronounced counter-religion. '' It recognized "only one divine being whom no image can represent... (and) the only way to approach this god is to live in virtue and in justice. ''
The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56 -- 120 CE) refers to Moses by noting that the Jewish religion was monotheistic and without a clear image. His primary work, wherein he describes Jewish philosophy, is his Histories (c. 100), where, according to Arthur Murphy, as a result of the Jewish worship of one God, "pagan mythology fell into contempt. '' Tacitus states that, despite various opinions current in his day regarding the Jews ' ethnicity, most of his sources are in agreement that there was an Exodus from Egypt. By his account, the Pharaoh Bocchoris, suffering from a plague, banished the Jews in response to an oracle of the god Zeus - Amun.
A motley crowd was thus collected and abandoned in the desert. While all the other outcasts lay idly lamenting, one of them, named Moses, advised them not to look for help to gods or men, since both had deserted them, but to trust rather in themselves, and accept as divine the guidance of the first being, by whose aid they should get out of their present plight.
In this version, Moses and the Jews wander through the desert for only six days, capturing the Holy Land on the seventh.
The Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, influenced Longinus, who may have been the author of the great book of literary criticism, On the Sublime. The date of composition is unknown, but it is commonly assigned to the late Ist century C.E.
The writer quotes Genesis in a "style which presents the nature of the deity in a manner suitable to his pure and great being, '' however he does not mention Moses by name, calling him ' no chance person ' (οὐχ ὁ τυχὼν ἀνήρ) but "the Lawgiver '' (θεσμοθέτης, thesmothete) of the Jews, '' a term that puts him on a par with Lycurgus and Minos. Aside from a reference to Cicero, Moses is the only non-Greek writer quoted in the work, contextually he is put on a par with Homer, and he is described "with far more admiration than even Greek writers who treated Moses with respect, such as Hecataeus and Strabo.
In Josephus ' (37 -- c. 100 CE) Antiquities of the Jews, Moses is mentioned throughout. For example Book VIII Ch. IV, describes Solomon 's Temple, also known as the First Temple, at the time the Ark of the Covenant was first moved into the newly built temple:
When King Solomon had finished these works, these large and beautiful buildings, and had laid up his donations in the temple, and all this in the interval of seven years, and had given a demonstration of his riches and alacrity therein;... he also wrote to the rulers and elders of the Hebrews, and ordered all the people to gather themselves together to Jerusalem, both to see the temple which he had built, and to remove the ark of God into it; and when this invitation of the whole body of the people to come to Jerusalem was everywhere carried abroad,... The Feast of Tabernacles happened to fall at the same time, which was kept by the Hebrews as a most holy and most eminent feast. So they carried the ark and the tabernacle which Moses had pitched, and all the vessels that were for ministration to the sacrifices of God, and removed them to the temple... Now the ark contained nothing else but those two tables of stone that preserved the ten commandments, which God spake to Moses in Mount Sinai, and which were engraved upon them...
According to Feldman, Josephus also attaches particular significance to Moses ' possession of the "cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. '' He also includes piety as an added fifth virtue. In addition, he "stresses Moses ' willingness to undergo toil and his careful avoidance of bribery. Like Plato 's philosopher - king, Moses excels as an educator. ''
Numenius, a Greek philosopher who was a native of Apamea, in Syria, wrote during the latter half of the 2nd century CE. Historian Kennieth Guthrie writes that "Numenius is perhaps the only recognized Greek philosopher who explicitly studied Moses, the prophets, and the life of Jesus... '' He describes his background:
Numenius was a man of the world; he was not limited to Greek and Egyptian mysteries, but talked familiarly of the myths of Brahmins and Magi. It is however his knowledge and use of the Hebrew scriptures which distinguished him from other Greek philosophers. He refers to Moses simply as "the prophet '', exactly as for him Homer is the poet. Plato is described as a Greek Moses.
The Christian saint and religious philosopher Justin Martyr (103 -- 165 CE) drew the same conclusion as Numenius, according to other experts. Theologian Paul Blackham notes that Justin considered Moses to be "more trustworthy, profound and truthful because he is older than the Greek philosophers. '' He quotes him:
I will begin, then, with our first prophet and lawgiver, Moses... that you may know that, of all your teachers, whether sages, poets, historians, philosophers, or lawgivers, by far the oldest, as the Greek histories show us, was Moses, who was our first religious teacher.
Most of what is known about Moses from the Bible comes from the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The majority of scholars consider the compilation of these books to go back to the Persian period, 538 -- 332 BCE, but based on earlier written and oral traditions. There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash, as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law, the Mishnah and the Talmud. Moses is also given a number of bynames in Jewish tradition. The Midrash identifies Moses as one of seven biblical personalities who were called by various names. Moses ' other names were: Jekuthiel (by his mother), Heber (by his father), Jered (by Miriam), Avi Zanoah (by Aaron), Avi Gedor (by Kohath), Avi Soco (by his wet - nurse), Shemaiah ben Nethanel (by people of Israel). Moses is also attributed the names Toviah (as a first name), and Levi (as a family name) (Vayikra Rabbah 1: 3), Heman, Mechoqeiq (lawgiver) and Ehl Gav Ish (Numbers 12: 3). In another exegesis, Moses had ascended to the first heaven until the seventh, even visited Paradise and Hell alive, after he saw the Divine vision in Mount Horeb.
Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria, such as Eupolemus, attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet, similar to legends of Thoth. Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses not only with Thoth / Hermes, but also with the Greek figure Musaeus (whom he called "the teacher of Orpheus ''), and ascribed to him the division of Egypt into 36 districts, each with its own liturgy. He named the princess who adopted Moses as Merris, wife of Pharaoh Chenephres.
Jewish tradition considers Moses to be the greatest prophet who ever lived. Despite his importance, Judaism stresses that Moses was a human being, and is therefore not to be worshipped. Only God is worthy of worship in Judaism.
To Orthodox Jews, Moses is called Moshe Rabbenu, ` Eved HaShem, Avi haNeviim zya "a: "Our Leader Moshe, Servant of God, Father of all the Prophets (may his merit shield us, amen) ''. In the orthodox view, Moses received not only the Torah, but also the revealed (written and oral) and the hidden (the ` hokhmat nistar teachings, which gave Judaism the Zohar of the Rashbi, the Torah of the Ari haQadosh and all that is discussed in the Heavenly Yeshiva between the Ramhal and his masters).
Arising in part from his age of death (120 according to Deut. 34: 7) and that "his eye had not dimmed, and his vigor had not diminished, '' the phrase "may you live to 120 '' has become a common blessing among Jews, especially since 120 is elsewhere stated as the maximum age for Noah 's descendants (one interpretation of Genesis 6: 3).
Moses is mentioned more often in the New Testament than any other Old Testament figure. For Christians, Moses is often a symbol of God 's law, as reinforced and expounded on in the teachings of Jesus. New Testament writers often compared Jesus ' words and deeds with Moses ' to explain Jesus ' mission. In Acts 7: 39 -- 43, 51 -- 53, for example, the rejection of Moses by the Jews who worshipped the golden calf is likened to the rejection of Jesus by the Jews that continued in traditional Judaism.
Moses also figures in several of Jesus ' messages. When he met the Pharisee Nicodemus at night in the third chapter of the Gospel of John, he compared Moses ' lifting up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness, which any Israelite could look at and be healed, to his own lifting up (by his death and resurrection) for the people to look at and be healed. In the sixth chapter, Jesus responded to the people 's claim that Moses provided them manna in the wilderness by saying that it was not Moses, but God, who provided. Calling himself the "bread of life '', Jesus stated that He was provided to feed God 's people.
Moses, along with Elijah, is presented as meeting with Jesus in all three Gospel accounts of the Transfiguration of Jesus in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9, respectively. Jesus refers to the scribes and the Pharisees of the Temple as "seated in the chair of Moses '' (Greek: επι της μωυσεως καθεδρας, epi tēs Mōuseōs kathedras)
His relevance to modern Christianity has not diminished. Moses is considered to be a saint by several churches; and is commemorated as a prophet in the respective Calendars of Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Lutheran churches on September 4. In Eastern Orthodox liturgics for September 4, Moses is commemorated as the "Holy Prophet and God - seer Moses, on Mount Nebo ''. The Orthodox Church also commemorates him on the Sunday of the Forefathers, two Sundays before the Nativity.
The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates him as one of the Holy Forefathers in their Calendar of Saints on July 30.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (colloquially called Mormons) generally view Moses in the same way that other Christians do. However, in addition to accepting the biblical account of Moses, Mormons include Selections from the Book of Moses as part of their scriptural canon. This book is believed to be the translated writings of Moses, and is included in the Pearl of Great Price.
Latter - day Saints are also unique in believing that Moses was taken to heaven without having tasted death (translated). In addition, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery stated that on April 3, 1836, Moses appeared to them in the Kirtland Temple (located in Kirtland, Ohio) in a glorified, immortal, physical form and bestowed upon them the "keys of the gathering of Israel from the four parts of the earth, and the leading of the ten tribes from the land of the north. ''
Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual and his life is narrated and recounted more than that of any other Islamic prophet. In general, Moses is described in ways which parallel the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and "his character exhibits some of the main themes of Islamic theology, '' including the "moral injunction that we are to submit ourselves to God. ''
Moses is defined in the Quran as both prophet (nabi) and messenger (rasul), the latter term indicating that he was one of those prophets who brought a scripture and law to his people.
Huston Smith describes an account in the Quran of meetings in heaven between Moses and Muhammad, which Huston states were "one of the crucial events in Muhammad 's life, '' and resulted in Muslims observing 5 daily prayers.
Moses is mentioned 502 times in the Quran; passages mentioning Moses include 2. 49 -- 61, 7. 103 -- 160, 10. 75 -- 93, 17. 101 -- 104, 20. 9 -- 97, 26. 10 -- 66, 27. 7 -- 14, 28. 3 -- 46, 40. 23 -- 30, 43. 46 -- 55, 44. 17 -- 31, and 79. 15 -- 25. and many others. Most of the key events in Moses ' life which are narrated in the Bible are to be found dispersed through the different Surahs of the Quran, with a story about meeting Khidr which is not found in the Bible.
In the Moses story related by the Quran, Jochebed is commanded by God to place Moses in an ark and cast him on the waters of the Nile, thus abandoning him completely to God 's protection. The Pharaoh 's wife Asiya, not his daughter, found Moses floating in the waters of the Nile. She convinced the Pharaoh to keep him as their son because they were not blessed with any children. The Quran 's account has emphasized Moses ' mission to invite the Pharaoh to accept God 's divine message as well as give salvation to the Israelites. According to the Quran, Moses encourages the Israelites to enter Canaan, but they are unwilling to fight the Canaanites, fearing certain defeat. Moses responds by pleading to Allah that he and his brother Aaron be separated from the rebellious Israelites. After which the Israelites are made to wander for 40 years.
According to Islamic tradition, Moses is buried at Maqam El - Nabi Musa, Jericho.
Moses is one of the most important of God 's messengers in the Bahá'í Faith being designated a Manifestation of God. An epithet of Moses in Baha'i scriptures is the One Who Conversed with God.
Important figures in the Baha'i religion, such as Abdul'l - Baha, have highlighted the fact that Moses, like Abraham, had none of the makings of a great man of history, but through God 's assistance he was able achieve many great things. He is described as having been "for a long time a shepherd in the wilderness, '' of having had a stammer, and of being "much hated and detested '' by the Pharaoh and the ancient Egyptians of his time. He is said to have been raised in an oppressive household, and to have been known, in Egypt, as a man who had committed murder -- though he had done so in order to prevent an act of cruelty.
Nevertheless, like Abraham, through the assistance of God, he achieved great things and gained renown even beyond the Levant. Chief among these achievements was the freeing of his people, the Hebrews, from bondage in Egypt and leading "them to the Holy Land. '' He is viewed as the one who bestowed on Israel ' the religious and the civil law ' which gave them "honour among all nations, '' and which spread their fame to different parts of the world.
Furthermore, through the law, Moses is believed to have led the Hebrews ' to the highest possible degree of civilization at that period. ' Abdul'l - Baha asserts that the ancient Greek philosophers regarded "the illustrious men of Israel as models of perfection. '' Chief among these philosophers, he says, was Socrates who "visited Syria, and took from the children of Israel the teachings of the Unity of God and of the immortality of the soul. ''
Moses is further described as paving the way for Bahá'u'lláh and his ultimate revelation, and as a teacher of truth, whose teachings were in line with the customs of his time.
In a metaphorical sense in the Christian tradition, a "Moses '' has been referred to as the leader who delivers the people from a terrible situation. Among the Presidents of the United States known to have used the symbolism of Moses were Harry S. Truman, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, who referred to his supporters as "the Moses generation. ''
In subsequent years, theologians linked the Ten Commandments with the formation of early democracy. Scottish theologian William Barclay described them as "the universal foundation of all things... the law without which nationhood is impossible.... Our society is founded upon it. Pope Francis addressed the United States Congress in 2015 stating that all people need to "keep alive their sense of unity by means of just legislation... (and) the figure of Moses leads us directly to God and thus to the transcendent dignity of the human being.
References to Moses were used by the Puritans, who relied on the story of Moses to give meaning and hope to the lives of Pilgrims seeking religious and personal freedom in America. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth colony and first signer of the Mayflower Compact, which he wrote in 1620 during the ship Mayflower 's three - month voyage. He inspired the Pilgrims with a "sense of earthly grandeur and divine purpose, '' notes historian Jon Meacham, and was called the "Moses of the Pilgrims. '' Early American writer James Russell Lowell noted the similarity of the founding of America by the Pilgrims to that of ancient Israel by Moses:
Next to the fugitives whom Moses led out of Egypt, the little shipload of outcasts who landed at Plymouth are destined to influence the future of the world.
Following Carver 's death the following year, William Bradford was made governor. He feared that the remaining Pilgrims would not survive the hardships of the new land, with half their people having already died within months of arriving. Bradford evoked the symbol of Moses to the weakened and desperate Pilgrims to help calm them and give them hope: "Violence will break all. Where is the meek and humble spirit of Moses? '' William G. Dever explains the attitude of the Pilgrims: "We considered ourselves the ' New Israel, ' particularly we in America. And for that reason we knew who we were, what we believed in and valued, and what our ' manifest destiny ' was. ''
On July 4, 1776, immediately after the Declaration of Independence was officially passed, the Continental Congress asked John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin to design a seal that would clearly represent a symbol for the new United States. They chose the symbol of Moses leading the Israelites to freedom. The Founding Fathers of the United States inscribed the words of Moses on the Liberty Bell: "Proclaim Liberty thro ' all the Land to all the Inhabitants thereof. '' (Leviticus 25)
Upon the death of George Washington in 1799, two thirds of his eulogies referred to him as "America 's Moses, '' with one orator saying that "Washington has been the same to us as Moses was to the Children of Israel. ''
Benjamin Franklin, in 1788, saw the difficulties that some of the newly independent American states were having in forming a government, and proposed that until a new code of laws could be agreed to, they should be governed by "the laws of Moses, '' as contained in the Old Testament. He justified his proposal by explaining that the laws had worked in biblical times: "The Supreme Being... having rescued them from bondage by many miracles, performed by his servant Moses, he personally delivered to that chosen servant, in the presence of the whole nation, a constitution and code of laws for their observance.
John Adams, 2nd President of the United States, stated why he relied on the laws of Moses over Greek philosophy for establishing the United States Constitution: "As much as I love, esteem, and admire the Greeks, I believe the Hebrews have done more to enlighten and civilize the world. Moses did more than all their legislators and philosophers. Swedish historian Hugo Valentin credited Moses as the "first to proclaim the rights of man. ''
Historian Gladys L. Knight describes how leaders who emerged during and after the period in which slavery in the United States was legal often personified the Moses symbol. "The symbol of Moses was empowering in that it served to amplify a need for freedom. '' Therefore, when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in 1865 after the passage of the amendment to the Constitution outlawing slavery, Black Americans said they had lost "their Moses ''. Lincoln biographer Charles Carleton Coffin writes, "The millions whom Abraham Lincoln delivered from slavery will ever liken him to Moses, the deliverer of Israel. '' Similarly, Harriet Tubman, who rescued approximately seventy enslaved family and friends, was also described as the "Moses '' of her people.
In the 1960s, a leading figure in the civil rights movement was Martin Luther King Jr., who was called "a modern Moses, '' and often referred to Moses in his speeches: "The struggle of Moses, the struggle of his devoted followers as they sought to get out of Egypt. This is something of the story of every people struggling for freedom. ''
Literature
Art
Michelangelo 's statue of Moses in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, is one of the most familiar masterpieces in the world. The horns the sculptor included on Moses ' head are the result of a mistranslation of the Hebrew Bible into the Latin Vulgate Bible with which Michelangelo was familiar. The Hebrew word taken from Exodus means either a "horn '' or an "irradiation. '' Experts at the Archaeological Institute of America show that the term was used when Moses "returned to his people after seeing as much of the Glory of the Lord as human eye could stand, '' and his face "reflected radiance. '' In early Jewish art, moreover, Moses is often "shown with rays coming out of his head. ''
Another author explains, "When Saint Jerome translated the Old Testament into Latin, he thought no one but Christ should glow with rays of light -- so he advanced the secondary translation. However, writer J. Stephen Lang points out that Jerome 's version actually described Moses as "giving off hornlike rays, '' and he "rather clumsily translated it to mean ' having horns. ' '' It has also been noted that he had Moses seated on a throne, yet Moses was never given the title of a King nor ever sat on such thrones.
Moses is depicted in several U.S. government buildings because of his legacy as a lawgiver. In the Library of Congress stands a large statue of Moses alongside a statue of the Paul the Apostle. Moses is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas - reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. The plaque 's overview states: "Moses (c. 1350 -- 1250 B.C.) Hebrew prophet and lawgiver; transformed a wandering people into a nation; received the Ten Commandments. ''
The other twenty - two figures have their profiles turned to Moses, which is the only forward - facing bas - relief.
Moses appears eight times in carvings that ring the Supreme Court Great Hall ceiling. His face is presented along with other ancient figures such as Solomon, the Greek god Zeus and the Roman goddess of wisdom, Minerva. The Supreme Court Building 's east pediment depicts Moses holding two tablets. Tablets representing the Ten Commandments can be found carved in the oak courtroom doors, on the support frame of the courtroom 's bronze gates and in the library woodwork. A controversial image is one that sits directly above the Chief Justice of the United States ' head. In the center of the 40 - foot - long Spanish marble carving is a tablet displaying Roman numerals I through X, with some numbers partially hidden.
Film and television
Thomas Paine and Numbers 31: 13 - 18 In the late eighteenth century, the deist Thomas Paine commented at length on Moses ' Laws in The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, and 1807). Paine considered Moses to be a "detestable villain '', and cited Numbers 31: 13 -- 18 as an example of his "unexampled atrocities ''. In the passage, the Jewish army had returned from conquering the Midianites, and Moses has gone down to meet it:
And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all the princes of the congregation, went forth to meet them without the camp; and Moses was wroth with the officers of the host, with the captains over thousands, and captains over hundreds, which came from the battle; and Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive? behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the Lord in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the Lord. Now, therefore, kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known a man by lying with him; but all the women - children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.
The prominent atheist Richard Dawkins also made reference to these verses in his 2006 book, The God Delusion, concluding that Moses was "not a great role model for modern moralists ''.
However, some Jewish sources defend Moses ' role. The Chasam Sofer emphasizes that this war was not fought at Moses ' behest, but was commanded by God as an act of revenge against the Midianite women, who, according to the Biblical account, had seduced the Israelites and led them to sin. In Legend of the Jews, Phinehas son of Eleazar defend their innocent action in leaving the women remain alive because Moses instructed them to take revenge "only to the Midianites, '' without mentioning "Midianite women. '' As God had also commanded them to be a holy nation, the "polluted '' or unvirgin women should not be preferred among sons of Israel, therefore the "pure '' or virgin women are more sacred for themselves.
Rabbi Joel Grossman argued that the story is a "powerful fable of lust and betrayal '', and that Moses ' execution of the women was a symbolic condemnation of those who seek to turn sex and desire to evil purposes. Alan Levin, an educational specialist with the Reform movement, has similarly suggested that the story should be taken as a cautionary tale, to "warn successive generations of Jews to watch their own idolatrous behavior ''.
Informational notes
Citations
I want to preach this morning from the subject, ' The Birth of a New Nation. ' And I would like to use as a basis for our thinking together, a story that has long since been stenciled on the mental sheets of succeeding generations. It is the story of the Exodus, the story of the flight of the Hebrew people from the bondage of Egypt, through the wilderness and finally, to the Promised Land.... The struggle of Moses, the struggle of his devoted followers as they sought to get out of Egypt.
And I 've looked over. And I 've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land.
Further reading
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two ways to conserve water electricity and soil | Water conservation - wikipedia
Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably manage the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet the current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and affluence all affect how much water is used. Factors such as climate change have increased pressures on natural water resources especially in manufacturing and agricultural irrigation. Many US cities have already implemented policies aimed at water conservation, with much success.
The goals of water conservation efforts include:
The key activities that benefit water conservation (save water) are as follows:
One strategy in water conservation is rain water harvesting. Digging ponds, lakes, canals, expanding the water reservoir, and installing rain water catching ducts and filtration systems on homes are different methods of harvesting rain water. Harvested and filtered rain water could be used for toilets, home gardening, lawn irrigation, and small scale agriculture.
Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources. When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants, chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources form contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.
An additional strategy to water conservation is practicing sustainable methods of utilizing groundwater resources. Groundwater flows due to gravity and eventually discharges into streams. Excess pumping of groundwater leads to a decrease in groundwater levels and if continued it can exhaust the resource. Ground and surface waters are connected and overuse of groundwater can reduce and, in extreme examples, diminish the water supply of lakes, rivers, and streams. In coastal regions, over pumping groundwater can increase saltwater intrusion which results in the contamination of groundwater water supply. Sustainable use of groundwater is essential in water conservation.
A fundamental component to water conservation strategy is communication and education outreach of different water programs. Developing communication that educates science to land managers, policy makers, farmers, and the general public is another important strategy utilized in water conservation. Communication of the science of how water systems work is an important aspect when creating a management plan to conserve that system and is often used for ensuring the right management plan to be put into action.
Water conservation programs involved in social solutions are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns, tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing. Cities in dry climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in new homes to reduce outdoor water usage. Most urban outdoor water use in California is residential, illustrating a reason for outreach to households as well as businesses.
One fundamental conservation goal is universal metering. The prevalence of residential water metering varies significantly worldwide. Recent studies have estimated that water supplies are metered in less than 30 % of UK households, and about 61 % of urban Canadian homes (as of 2001). Although individual water meters have often been considered impractical in homes with private wells or in multifamily buildings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that metering alone can reduce consumption by 20 to 40 percent. In addition to raising consumer awareness of their water use, metering is also an important way to identify and localize water leakage. Water metering would benefit society in the long run it is proven that water metering increases the efficiency of the entire water system, as well as help unnecessary expenses for individuals for years to come. One would be unable to waste water unless they are willing to pay the extra charges, this way the water department would be able to monitor water usage by public, domestic and manufacturing services.
Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70 % of the world 's fresh water use. The agricultural sector of most countries is important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water - efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.
New technology poses a few new options for consumers, features such and full flush and half flush when using a toilet are trying to make a difference in water consumption and waste. Also available are modern shower heads that help reduce wasting water: Old shower heads are said to use 5 - 10 gallons per minute, while new fixtures available are said to use 2.5 gallons per minute and offer equal water coverage.
The Home Water Works website contains useful information on household water conservation. Contrary to popular view, experts suggest the most efficient way is replacing toilets and retrofitting washers.
Water - saving technology for the home includes:
Many water - saving devices (such as low - flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water - saving technology for businesses includes:
For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production. An evaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction factors can be used to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using center - pivot or lateral - moving sprinklers, has the potential for a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation is the most expensive and least - used type, but offers the ability to deliver water to plant roots with minimal losses. However, drip irrigation is increasingly affordable, especially for the home gardener and in light of rising water rates. Using drip irrigation methods can save up to 30,000 gallons of water per year when replacing irrigation systems that spray in all directions. There are also cheap effective methods similar to drip irrigation such as the use of soaking hoses that can even be submerged in the growing medium to eliminate evaporation.
As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules. Usually large gains in efficiency are possible through measurement and more effective management of the existing irrigation system. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report notes that "(i) mproved soil organic matter from the use of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability to absorb water during torrential rains '', which is a way to optimize the use of rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season.
Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40 % of the world 's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and exponential population growth, has made water reuse a necessary method for conserving water. There are a variety of methods used in the treatment of waste water to ensure that it safe to use for irrigation of food crops and / or drinking water.
Seawater desalination requires more energy than the desalination of fresh water. Despite this, many seawater desalination plants have been built in response to water shortages around the world. This makes it necessary to evaluate the impacts of seawater desalination and to find ways to improve desalination technology. Current research involves the use of experiments to determine the most effective and least energy intensive methods of desalination.
Sand filtration is another method used to treat water. Recent studies show that sand filtration needs further improvements, but it is approaching optimization with its effectiveness at removing pathogens from water. Sand filtration is very effective at removing protozoa and bacteria, but struggles with removing viruses. Large - scale sand filtration facilities also require large surface areas to accommodate them.
The removal of pathogens from recycled water is of high priority because wastewater always contains pathogens capable of infecting humans. The levels of pathogenic viruses have to be reduced to a certain level in order for recycled water to not pose a threat to human populations. Further research is necessary to determine more accurate methods of assessing the level of pathogenic viruses in treated wastewater.
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why do deep sea fish have large eyes | Deep sea fish - wikipedia
Deep - sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters, that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea. The lanternfish is, by far, the most common deep - sea fish. Other deep sea fishes include the flashlight fish, cookiecutter shark, bristlemouths, anglerfish, viperfish, and some species of eelpout.
Only about 2 % of known marine species inhabit the pelagic environment. This means that they live in the water column as opposed to the benthic organisms that live in or on the sea floor. Deep - sea organisms generally inhabit bathypelagic (1000 -- 4000m deep) and abyssopelagic (4000 -- 6000m deep) zones. However, characteristics of deep - sea organisms, such as bioluminescence can be seen in the mesopelagic (200 -- 1000m deep) zone as well. The mesopelagic zone is the disphotic zone, meaning light there is minimal but still measurable. The oxygen minimum layer exists somewhere between a depth of 700m and 1000m deep depending on the place in the ocean. This area is also where nutrients are most abundant. The bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones are aphotic, meaning that no light penetrates this area of the ocean. These zones make up about 75 % of the inhabitable ocean space.
The epipelagic zone (0 -- 200m) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs. This is also known as the photic zone. Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water, the deep sea, about 90 % of the ocean volume, is in darkness. The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment, with temperatures that rarely exceed 3 ° C (37.4 ° F) and fall as low as − 1.8 ° C (28.76 ° F) (with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350 ° C, or 662 ° F), low oxygen levels, and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres (between 2 and 100 megapascals).
In the deep ocean, the waters extend far below the epipelagic zone, and support very different types of pelagic fishes adapted to living in these deeper zones.
In deep water, marine snow is a continuous shower of mostly organic detritus falling from the upper layers of the water column. Its origin lies in activities within the productive photic zone. Marine snow includes dead or dying plankton, protists (diatoms), fecal matter, sand, soot and other inorganic dust. The "snowflakes '' grow over time and may reach several centimetres in diameter, travelling for weeks before reaching the ocean floor. However, most organic components of marine snow are consumed by microbes, zooplankton and other filter - feeding animals within the first 1,000 metres of their journey, that is, within the epipelagic zone. In this way marine snow may be considered the foundation of deep - sea mesopelagic and benthic ecosystems: As sunlight can not reach them, deep - sea organisms rely heavily on marine snow as an energy source.
Some deep - sea pelagic groups, such as the lanternfish, ridgehead, marine hatchetfish, and lightfish families are sometimes termed pseudoceanic because, rather than having an even distribution in open water, they occur in significantly higher abundances around structural oases, notably seamounts and over continental slopes. The phenomenon is explained by the likewise abundance of prey species which are also attracted to the structures.
Hydrostatic pressure increases by 1 atmosphere for every 10m in depth. Deep - sea organisms have the same pressure within their bodies as is exerted on them from the outside, so they are not crushed by the extreme pressure. Their high internal pressure, however, results in the reduced fluidity of their membranes because molecules are squeezed together. Fluidity in cell membranes increases efficiency of biological functions, most importantly the production of proteins, so organisms have adapted to this circumstance by increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids of the cell membranes. In addition to differences in internal pressure, these organisms have developed a different balance between their metabolic reactions from those organisms that live in the epipelagic zone. David Wharton, author of Life at the Limits: Organisms in Extreme Environments, notes "Biochemical reactions are accompanied by changes in volume. If a reaction results in an increase in volume, it will be inhibited by pressure, whereas, if it is associated with a decrease in volume, it will be enhanced ''. This means that their metabolic processes must ultimately decrease the volume of the organism to some degree.
Most fish that have evolved in this harsh environment are not capable of surviving in laboratory conditions, and attempts to keep them in captivity have led to their deaths. Deep - sea organisms contain gas - filled spaces (vacuoles). Gas is compressed under high pressure and expands under low pressure. Because of this, these organisms have been known to blow up if they come to the surface.
The fish of the deep - sea are among the strangest and most elusive creatures on Earth. In this deep dark unknown lie many unusual creatures that have yet to be studied. Since many of these fish live in regions where there is no natural illumination, they can not rely solely on their eyesight for locating prey and mates and avoiding predators; deep - sea fish have evolved appropriately to the extreme sub-photic region in which they live. Many of these organisms are blind and rely on their other senses, such as sensitivities to changes in local pressure and smell, to catch their food and avoid being caught. Those that are n't blind have large and sensitive eyes that can use bioluminescent light. These eyes can be as much as 100 times more sensitive to light than human eyes. Also, to avoid predation, many species are dark to blend in with their environment.
Many deep - sea fish are bioluminescent, with extremely large eyes adapted to the dark. Bioluminescent organisms are capable of producing light biologically through the agitation of molecules of luciferin, which then produce light. This process must be done in the presence of oxygen. These organisms are common in the mesopelagic region and below (200m and below). More than 50 % of deep - sea fish as well as some species of shrimp and squid are capable of bioluminescence. About 80 % of these organisms have photophores -- light producing glandular cells that contain luminous bacteria bordered by dark colorings. Some of these photophores contain lenses, much like those in the eyes of humans, which can intensify or lessen the emanation of light. The ability to produce light only requires 1 % of the organism 's energy and has many purposes: It is used to search for food and attract prey, like the anglerfish; claim territory through patrol; communicate and find a mate; and distract or temporarily blind predators to escape. Also, in the mesopelagic where some light still penetrates, some organisms camouflage themselves from predators below them by illuminating their bellies to match the color and intensity of light from above so that no shadow is cast. This tactic is known as counter illumination.
The lifecycle of deep - sea fish can be exclusively deep water although some species are born in shallower water and sink upon maturation. Regardless of the depth where eggs and larvae reside, they are typically pelagic. This planktonic -- drifting -- lifestyle requires neutral buoyancy. In order to maintain this, the eggs and larvae often contain oil droplets in their plasma. When these organisms are in their fully matured state they need other adaptations to maintain their positions in the water column. In general, water 's density causes upthrust -- the aspect of buoyancy that makes organisms float. To counteract this, the density of an organism must be greater than that of the surrounding water. Most animal tissues are denser than water, so they must find an equilibrium to make them float. Many organisms develop swim bladders (gas cavities) to stay afloat, but because of the high pressure of their environment, deep - sea fishes usually do not have this organ. Instead they exhibit structures similar to hydrofoils in order to provide hydrodynamic lift. It has also been found that the deeper a fish lives, the more jelly - like its flesh and the more minimal its bone structure. They reduce their tissue density through high fat content, reduction of skeletal weight -- accomplished through reductions of size, thickness and mineral content -- and water accumulation makes them slower and less agile than surface fish.
Due to the poor level of photosynthetic light reaching deep - sea environments, most fish need to rely on organic matter sinking from higher levels, or, in rare cases, hydrothermal vents for nutrients. This makes the deep - sea much poorer in productivity than shallower regions. Also, animals in the pelagic environment are sparse and food does n't come along frequently. Because of this, organisms need adaptations that allow them to survive. Some have long feelers to help them locate prey or attract mates in the pitch black of the deep ocean. The deep - sea angler fish in particular has a long fishing - rod - like adaptation protruding from its face, on the end of which is a bioluminescent piece of skin that wriggles like a worm to lure its prey. Some must consume other fish that are the same size or larger than them and they need adaptations to help digest them efficiently. Great sharp teeth, hinged jaws, disproportionately large mouths, and expandable bodies are a few of the characteristics that deep - sea fishes have for this purpose. The gulper eel is one example of an organism that displays these characteristics.
Fish in the different pelagic and deep water benthic zones are physically structured, and behave in ways, that differ markedly from each other. Groups of coexisting species within each zone all seem to operate in similar ways, such as the small mesopelagic vertically migrating plankton - feeders, the bathypelagic anglerfishes, and the deep water benthic rattails. ``
Ray finned species, with spiny fins, are rare among deep sea fishes, which suggests that deep sea fish are ancient and so well adapted to their environment that invasions by more modern fishes have been unsuccessful. The few ray fins that do exist are mainly in the Beryciformes and Lampriformes, which are also ancient forms. Most deep sea pelagic fishes belong to their own orders, suggesting a long evolution in deep sea environments. In contrast, deep water benthic species, are in orders that include many related shallow water fishes.
Below the epipelagic zone, conditions change rapidly. Between 200 metres and about 1000 metres, light continues to fade until there is almost none. Temperatures fall through a thermocline to temperatures between 3.9 ° C (39 ° F) and 7.8 ° C (46 ° F). This is the twilight or mesopelagic zone. Pressure continues to increase, at the rate of one atmosphere every 10 metres, while nutrient concentrations fall, along with dissolved oxygen and the rate at which the water circulates. ''
Sonar operators, using the newly developed sonar technology during World War II, were puzzled by what appeared to be a false sea floor 300 -- 500 metres deep at day, and less deep at night. This turned out to be due to millions of marine organisms, most particularly small mesopelagic fish, with swimbladders that reflected the sonar. These organisms migrate up into shallower water at dusk to feed on plankton. The layer is deeper when the moon is out, and can become shallower when clouds pass over the moon. This phenomenon has come to be known as the deep scattering layer.
Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swimbladder. The swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the messoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 50 ° F (10 ° C) and 69 ° F (20 ° C), thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change.
These fish have muscular bodies, ossified bones, scales, well developed gills and central nervous systems, and large hearts and kidneys. Mesopelagic plankton feeders have small mouths with fine gill rakers, while the piscivores have larger mouths and coarser gill rakers. The vertically migratory fish have swimbladders.
Mesopelagic fish are adapted for an active life under low light conditions. Most of them are visual predators with large eyes. Some of the deeper water fish have tubular eyes with big lenses and only rod cells that look upwards. These give binocular vision and great sensitivity to small light signals. This adaptation gives improved terminal vision at the expense of lateral vision, and allows the predator to pick out squid, cuttlefish, and smaller fish that are silhouetted against the gloom above them.
Mesopelagic fish usually lack defensive spines, and use colour to camouflage themselves from other fish. Ambush predators are dark, black or red. Since the longer, red, wavelengths of light do not reach the deep sea, red effectively functions the same as black. Migratory forms use countershaded silvery colours. On their bellies, they often display photophores producing low grade light. For a predator from below, looking upwards, this bioluminescence camouflages the silhouette of the fish. However, some of these predators have yellow lenses that filter the (red deficient) ambient light, leaving the bioluminescence visible.
The brownsnout spookfish, a species of barreleye, is the only vertebrate known to employ a mirror, as opposed to a lens, to focus an image in its eyes.
Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65 % of all deep sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. The estimated global biomass of lanternfish is 550 - 660 million metric tonnes, several times the entire world fisheries catch. Lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world 's oceans. Sonar reflects off the millions of lanternfish swim bladders, giving the appearance of a false bottom.
Bigeye tuna are an epipelagic / mesopelagic species that eats other fish. Satellite tagging has shown that bigeye tuna often spend prolonged periods cruising deep below the surface during the daytime, sometimes making dives as deep as 500 metres. These movements are thought to be in response to the vertical migrations of prey organisms in the deep scattering layer.
The stoplight loosejaw has a lower jaw one - quarter as long as its body. The jaw has no floor and is attached only by a hinge and a modified tongue bone. Large fang - like teeth in the front are followed by many small barbed teeth.
The stoplight loosejaw is also one of the few fishes that produce red bioluminescence. As most of their prey can not perceive red light, this allows it to hunt with an essentially invisible beam of light.
Long - snouted lancetfish. Lancetfish are ambush predators which spend all their time in the mesopelagic zone. They are among the largest mesopelagic fishes (up to 2 metres).
The daggertooth paralyses other mesopelagic fish when it bites them with its dagger - like teeth.
Below the mesopelagic zone it is pitch dark. This is the midnight (or bathypelagic zone), extending from 1000 metres to the bottom deep water benthic zone. If the water is exceptionally deep, the pelagic zone below 4000 metres is sometimes called the lower midnight (or abyssopelagic zone).
Conditions are somewhat uniform throughout these zones; the darkness is complete, the pressure is crushing, and temperatures, nutrients and dissolved oxygen levels are all low.
Bathypelagic fish have special adaptations to cope with these conditions -- they have slow metabolisms and unspecialized diets, being willing to eat anything that comes along. They prefer to sit and wait for food rather than waste energy searching for it. The behaviour of bathypelagic fish can be contrasted with the behaviour of mesopelagic fish. Mesopelagic fish are often highly mobile, whereas bathypelagic fish are almost all lie - in - wait predators, normally expending little energy in movement.
The dominant bathypelagic fishes are small bristlemouth and anglerfish; fangtooth, viperfish, daggertooth and barracudina are also common. These fishes are small, many about 10 centimetres long, and not many longer than 25 cm. They spend most of their time waiting patiently in the water column for prey to appear or to be lured by their phosphors. What little energy is available in the bathypelagic zone filters from above in the form of detritus, faecal material, and the occasional invertebrate or mesopelagic fish. About 20 percent of the food that has its origins in the epipelagic zone falls down to the mesopelagic zone, but only about 5 percent filters down to the bathypelagic zone.
Bathypelagic fish are sedentary, adapted to outputting minimum energy in a habitat with very little food or available energy, not even sunlight, only bioluminescence. Their bodies are elongated with weak, watery muscles and skeletal structures. Since so much of the fish is water, they are not compressed by the great pressures at these depths. They often have extensible, hinged jaws with recurved teeth. They are slimy, without scales. The central nervous system is confined to the lateral line and olfactory systems, the eyes are small and may not function, and gills, kidneys and hearts, and swimbladders are small or missing.
These are the same features found in fish larvae, which suggests that during their evolution, bathypelagic fish have acquired these features through neoteny. As with larvae, these features allow the fish to remain suspended in the water with little expenditure of energy.
Despite their ferocious appearance, these beasts of the deep are mostly miniature fish with weak muscles, and are too small to represent any threat to humans.
The swimbladders of deep sea fish are either absent or scarcely operational, and bathypelagic fish do not normally undertake vertical migrations. Filling bladders at such great pressures incurs huge energy costs. Some deep sea fishes have swimbladders which function while they are young and inhabit the upper epipelagic zone, but they wither or fill with fat when the fish move down to their adult habitat.
The most important sensory systems are usually the inner ear, which responds to sound, and the lateral line, which responds to changes in water pressure. The olfactory system can also be important for males who find females by smell. Bathypelagic fish are black, or sometimes red, with few photophores. When photophores are used, it is usually to entice prey or attract a mate. Because food is so scarce, bathypelagic predators are not selective in their feeding habits, but grab whatever comes close enough. They accomplish this by having a large mouth with sharp teeth for grabbing large prey and overlapping gill rakers which prevent small prey that have been swallowed from escaping.
It is not easy finding a mate in this zone. Some species depend on bioluminescence. Others are hermaphrodites, which doubles their chances of producing both eggs and sperm when an encounter occurs. The female anglerfish releases pheromones to attract tiny males. When a male finds her, he bites on to her and never lets go. When a male of the anglerfish species Haplophryne mollis bites into the skin of a female, he releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair to the point where the two circulatory systems join up. The male then atrophies into nothing more than a pair of gonads. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available.
Many forms other than fish live in the bathypelagic zone, such as squid, large whales, octopuses, sponges, brachiopods, sea stars, and echinoids, but this zone is difficult for fish to live in.
The pelican eel uses its mouth like a net by opening its large mouth and swimming at its prey. It has a luminescent organ at the tip of its tail to attract prey.
The black swallower, with its distensible stomach, is notable for its ability to swallow, whole, bony fishes ten times its mass.
Female Haplophryne mollis anglerfish trailing attached males which have atrophied into a pair of gonads, for use when the female is ready to spawn.
Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65 % of all deep - sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. With an estimated global biomass of 550 - 660 million metric tons, several times the entire world fisheries catch, lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world 's oceans. In the Southern Ocean, Myctophids provide an alternative food resource to krill for predators such as squid and the king penguin. Although these fish are plentiful and prolific, currently only a few commercial lanternfish fisheries exist: These include limited operations off South Africa, in the sub-Antarctic, and in the Gulf of Oman.
A 2006 study by Canadian scientists has found five species of deep - sea fish -- blue hake, spiny eel -- to be on the verge of extinction due to the shift of commercial fishing from continental shelves to the slopes of the continental shelves, down to depths of 1600 meters. The slow reproduction of these fish -- they reach sexual maturity at about the same age as human beings -- is one of the main reasons that they can not recover from the excessive fishing.
Media related to Deep sea fish at Wikimedia Commons
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where will the next world cup be held 2022 | 2022 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2022 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to be the 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Qatar in 2022. This will be the first World Cup ever to be held in the Arab world and the first in a Muslim - majority country. This will be the first World Cup held entirely in geographical Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan (the 2018 competition in Russia featured one geographically Asian venue, Yekaterinburg). In addition the tournament will be the last to involve 32 teams, with an increase to 48 teams scheduled for the 2026 tournament.
This will also mark the first World Cup not to be held in May, June, or July; the tournament is instead scheduled for late November until mid-December. It is to be played in a reduced timeframe of around 28 days, with the final being held on 18 December 2022, which is also Qatar National Day.
Accusations of corruption have been made relating to how Qatar won the right to host the event. A FIFA internal investigation and report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing, but the chief investigator Michael J. Garcia has since described FIFA 's report on his inquiry as "materially incomplete and erroneous ''. On 27 May 2015, Swiss federal prosecutors opened an investigation into corruption and money laundering related to the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. On 6 August 2018, former FIFA president Sepp Blatter claimed that Qatar had used "black ops '', suggesting that the bid committee had cheated to win the hosting rights. Qatar has faced strong criticism due to the treatment of foreign workers involved in preparation for the World Cup, with Amnesty International referring to "forced labour '' and stating that workers have been suffering human rights abuses, despite worker welfare standards being drafted in 2014.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, eleven bids were made for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian Football Association failed to submit a letter of Indonesian government guarantee to support the bid. Indonesian officials had not ruled out a bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, until Qatar took the 2022 cup. During the bidding process, all non-UEFA nations gradually withdrew their 2018 bids, thus making the UEFA nations ineligible for the 2022 bid.
In the end, there were five bids for the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea and the United States. The twenty - two member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Two FIFA executive committee members were suspended before the vote in relation to allegations of corruption regarding their votes. The decision to host the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which was graded as having "high operational risk '', generated criticism from media commentators. It has been criticised as many to be part of the FIFA corruption scandals.
The voting patterns were as follows:
There have been allegations of bribery and corruption in the selection process involving members of FIFA 's executive committee. These allegations are being investigated by FIFA. (See § Bidding corruption allegations, below.)
Qatar is the smallest nation by area ever to have been awarded a FIFA World Cup -- the next smallest by area is Switzerland, host of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which is more than three times as large as Qatar and only needed to host 16 teams instead of the current 32.
On 12 April 2018, CONMEBOL requested that FIFA expand the 2022 FIFA World Cup from 32 to 48 teams, four years before the 2026 FIFA World Cup as initially planned. FIFA President Gianni Infantino expressed willingness to consider the request. However, the FIFA congress rejected the request shortly before the beginning of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Infantino said the global football governing body would not discuss the possibility of having a 48 - team World Cup, and that they would first discuss the matter with the host country.
The qualification process for the 2022 World Cup has not yet been announced. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, Qatar is obliged by the AFC to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If they reach the final stage, their choice on whether to continue with World Cup qualifying is subject to FIFA approval. If the hosts choose not to compete, the next - ranked team will advance instead. For the first time after the initial two tournaments of 1930 and 1934, the World Cup will be hosted by a country whose national team has never played a finals match before.
The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. The committee decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments:
The qualifying draw is scheduled to take place in July 2019.
The first five proposed venues for the World Cup were unveiled at the beginning of March 2010. The stadiums aim to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to 20 ° C (36 ° F), and the upper tiers of the stadiums will be disassembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure. Qatar aims to build the stadiums with the highest sustainability and environmental standards. The stadiums will be equipped with cooling systems that are environmentally friendly overcoming the challenging environmental nature of the country. The plan is to build Zero Waste stadiums using environmentally friendly materials, harmless equipment, and ecologically sustainable solutions through the implementation of renewable and low energy solutions. Qatar aspires to be compliant and certified by the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS) for all the world cup stadiums. All of the five stadium projects launched have been designed by German architect Albert Speer & Partners. Leading football clubs in Europe wanted the World Cup to take place from 28 April to 29 May rather than the typical June and July staging, due to concerns about the heat.
A report released on 9 December 2010 quoted FIFA President Sepp Blatter as stating that other nations could host some matches during the World Cup. However, no specific countries were named in the report. Blatter added that any such decision must be taken by Qatar first and then endorsed by FIFA 's executive committee. Prince Ali bin Al Hussein of Jordan told the Australian Associated Press that holding games in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and possibly Saudi Arabia would help to incorporate the people of the region during the tournament.
According to a report released in April 2013 by Merrill Lynch, the investment banking division of Bank of America, the organisers in Qatar have requested FIFA to approve a smaller number of stadiums due to the growing costs. Bloomberg.com said that Qatar wishes to cut the number of venues to eight or nine from the twelve originally planned.
Although as of April 2017, FIFA had yet to finalise the number of stadiums Qatar must have ready in five years ' time, Qatar 's Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy said it expected there would be eight.
The final draw is scheduled to take place in April 2022.
A number of groups and media outlets have expressed concern over the suitability of Qatar to host the event, with regard to interpretations of human rights, particularly worker conditions, the rights of fans in the LGBT community because the status of homosexuality is illegal in Qatar, climatic conditions and accusations of Qatar for supporting terrorism both diplomatically and financially. Hassan Abdulla al Thawadi, chief executive of the Qatar 2022 World Cup bid, said the Muslim state would also permit alcohol consumption during the event, drinking in public is not permitted as Qatar 's legal system is based on Sharia.
The selection of Qatar as the host country has been controversial; FIFA officials were accused of corruption and allowing Qatar to "buy '' the World Cup, the treatment of construction workers was called into question by human rights groups, and the high costs needed to make the plans a reality were criticised. The climate conditions caused some to call hosting the tournament in Qatar infeasible, with initial plans for air - conditioned stadiums giving way to a potential date switch from summer to winter. Sepp Blatter, who was FIFA President when Qatar was selected, later remarked that awarding the World Cup to Qatar was a "mistake '' because of the extreme heat.
The issue of migrant workers ' rights has also attracted attention, with an investigation by The Guardian newspaper claiming that many workers are denied food and water, have their identity papers taken away from them, and that they are not paid on time or at all, making some of them in effect slaves. The Guardian has estimated that up to 4,000 workers may die due to lax safety and other causes by the time the competition is held. These claims are based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese workers and over 700 Indian workers have died since 2010, when Qatar 's bid as World Cup 's host was won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year. Given that there are half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the Indian government says that is quite a normal number of deaths. In the United Kingdom, in any group of half a million 25 - to 30 - year - old men, an average of 300 die each year, a higher rate than among Indian workers in Qatar.
In 2015, a crew of four journalists from the BBC were arrested and held for two days after they attempted to report on the condition of workers in the country. The reporters had been invited to visit the country as guests of the Government of Qatar.
The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2015 the International Trade Union Confederation 's claim that over 1,200 workers had died while working on infrastructure and real - estate projects related to the World Cup, and the Qatar Government 's counter-claim that none had. The BBC later reported that this often - cited figure of 1,200 workers having died in World Cup construction in Qatar between 2011 and 2013 is not correct, and that the 1,200 number is instead representing deaths from all Indians and Nepalese working in Qatar, not just of those workers involved in the preparation for the World Cup, and not just of construction workers. Most Qatar nationals avoid doing manual work or low - skilled jobs; additionally, they are given preference at the workplace. Michael van Praag, president of Royal Dutch Football Association, requested the FIFA Executive Committee to pressure Qatar over those allegations to ensure better workers ' conditions. He also stated that a new vote on the attribution of the World Cup to Qatar would have to take place if the corruption allegations were to be proved.
In March 2016, Amnesty International accused Qatar of using forced labour and forcing the employees to live in poor conditions and withholding their wages and passports. It accused FIFA of failing to stop the stadium being built on "human right abuses ''. Migrant workers told Amnesty about verbal abuse and threats they received after complaining about not being paid for up to several months. Nepali workers were even denied leave to visit their family after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
In October 2017, the International Trade Union Confederation said that Qatar has signed an agreement to improve the situation of more than 2 million migrant workers in the country. According to the ITUC, the agreement provided for establishing substantial reforms in labour system, including ending the Al - Kafala system. The ITUC also stated that the agreement would positively affect the general situation of workers, especially of those who work on the 2022 FIFA World Cup infrastructure projects. The workers will no longer need their employer 's permission to leave the country or change their jobs.
Owing to the climate in Qatar, concerns were expressed over holding the World Cup in its traditional timeframe of June and July. In October 2013, a task force was commissioned to consider alternative dates and report after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. On 24 February 2015, the FIFA Task Force proposed that the tournament be played from late November to late December 2022, to avoid the summer heat between May and September and also avoid clashing with the 2022 Winter Olympics in February and Ramadan in April.
The notion of staging the tournament in November is controversial since it would interfere with the regular season schedules of some domestic leagues around the world. Commentators have noted the clash with the Western Christmas season is likely to cause disruption, whilst there is concern about how short the tournament is intended to be. FIFA executive committee member Theo Zwanziger said that awarding the 2022 World Cup to Qatar 's desert state was a "blatant mistake ''. Frank Lowy, chairman of Football Federation Australia, said that if the 2022 World Cup were moved to November and thus upset the schedule of the A-League, they would seek compensation from FIFA. Richard Scudamore, chief executive of the Premier League, stated that they would consider legal action against FIFA because a move would interfere with the Premier League 's popular Christmas and New Year fixture programme. On 19 March 2015, FIFA sources confirmed that the 2022 World Cup final would be played on 18 December.
Qatar has faced growing pressure over its hosting of the World Cup in relation to allegations over the role of former top football official Mohammed bin Hammam played in securing the bid. A former employee of the Qatar bid team alleged that several African officials were paid $1.5 million by Qatar. She retracted her claims, but later said she was coerced to do so by Qatari bid officials. More suspicions emerged in March 2014 when it was discovered that disgraced former CONCACAF president Jack Warner and his family were paid almost $2 million from a firm linked to Qatar 's successful campaign. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating Warner and his alleged links to the Qatari bid.
Five of FIFA 's six primary sponsors, Sony, Adidas, Visa, Hyundai and Coca - Cola, have called upon FIFA to investigate the claims. The Sunday Times published bribery allegations based on a leak of millions of secret documents. Jim Boyce, Vice President of FIFA, has gone on record stating he would support a re-vote to find a new host if the corruption allegations are proven. FIFA completed a lengthy investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing. Despite the claims, the Qataris insist that the corruption allegations are being driven by envy and mistrust while Sepp Blatter said it is fueled by racism in the British media.
In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA 's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.
On 7 June 2015, Phaedra Almajid, the former media officer for the Qatar bid team, claimed that the allegations would result in Qatar not hosting the World Cup. In an interview published on the same day, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit and Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled. ''
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who maintains gaap rules why is this separate from the responsibilities of government | Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (United States) - wikipedia
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, also called GAAP or US GAAP, is the accounting standard adopted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). While the SEC previously stated that it intends to move from US GAAP to the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), the latter differ considerably from GAAP and progress has been slow and uncertain. More recently, the SEC has acknowledged that there is no longer a push to move more U.S companies to IFRS so the two sets of standards will "continue to coexist '' for the foreseeable future.
The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has published US GAAP in Extensible Business Reporting Language (XBRL) beginning in 2008.
Auditors took the leading role in developing GAAP for business enterprises.
Accounting standards have historically been set by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) subject to Securities and Exchange Commission regulations. The AICPA first created the Committee on Accounting Procedure in 1939 and replaced that with the Accounting Principles Board in 1959. In 1973, the Accounting Principles Board was replaced by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) under the supervision of the Financial Accounting Foundation with the Financial Accounting Standards Advisory Council serving to advise and provide input on the accounting standards. Other organizations involved in determining United States accounting standards include the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), formed in 1984; and the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), formed in 1990.
Circa 2008, the FASB issued the FASB Accounting Standards Codification, which reorganized the thousands of US GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics.
In 2008, the Securities and Exchange Commission issued a preliminary "roadmap '' that may lead the United States to abandon Generally Accepted Accounting Principles in the future, and to join more than 100 countries around the world instead in using the London - based International Financial Reporting Standards. As of 2010, the convergence project was underway with the FASB meeting routinely with the IASB. The SEC expressed their aim to fully adopt International Financial Reporting Standards in the U.S. by 2014. With the convergence of the U.S. GAAP and the international IFRS accounting systems, as the highest authority over International Financial Reporting Standards, the International Accounting Standards Board is becoming more important in the United States.
Financial reporting should provide information that is:
To achieve basic objectives and implement fundamental qualities GAAP has three basic assumptions, four basic principles, and five basic constraints.
Under the AICPA 's Code of Professional Ethics under Rule 203 -- Accounting Principles, a member must depart from GAAP if following it would lead to a material misstatement on the financial statements, or otherwise be misleading. In the departure, the member must disclose, if practical, the reasons why compliance with the accounting principle would result in a misleading financial statement. Under Rule 203 - 1 - Departures from Established Accounting Principles, the departures are rare, and usually take place when there is new legislation, the evolution of new forms of business transactions, an unusual degree of materiality, or the existence of conflicting industry practices.
These organizations influence the development of GAAP in the United States.
In the United States, GAAP derives, in order of importance, from:
The Codification is effective for interim and annual periods ending after September 15, 2009. All existing accounting standards documents are superseded as described in FASB Statement No. 168, The FASB Accounting Standards Codification and the Hierarchy of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. All other accounting literature not included in the Codification is nonauthoritative.
The Codification reorganizes the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics and displays all topics using a consistent structure. It also includes relevant Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), guidance that follows the same topical structure in separate sections in the Codification.
To prepare users for the change, the AICPA has provided a number of tools and training resources.
While the Codification does not change GAAP, it introduces a new structure -- one that is organized in an easily accessible, user - friendly online research system. The FASB expects that the new system will reduce the amount of time and effort required to research an accounting issue, mitigate the risk of noncompliance with standards through improved usability of the literature, provide accurate information with real - time updates as new standards are released, and assist the FASB with the research efforts required during the standard - setting process.
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what is the average income in the netherlands | List of European countries by Average wage - wikipedia
This is a map and list of countries containing monthly (annual divided by 12 months) gross and net income (after taxes) average wages for full - time employees in Europe in their local currency and in euros. The chart below reflects the average (mean) wage as reported by various data providers. The salary distribution is right - skewed, therefore more than 50 % of people earn less than the average gross salary. These figures will shrink after income tax is applied. In certain countries, actual incomes may exceed those listed in the table due to the existence of grey economies. In some countries, social security, contributions for pensions, public schools, and health are included in these taxes.
The countries and territories have a net average monthly salary of:
The countries and territories on the map have gross average monthly salaries (taxable income) of:
The countries and territories on the map have a net average monthly salary (adjusted for living costs in PPP) of:
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who among these was the first to become a cheif minister before any of the three | List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh - Wikipedia
The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh is the chief executive of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. As per the Constitution of India, the Governor of Andhra Pradesh is the state 's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister 's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.
Andhra Pradesh was created in 1956 by the merger of the Telangana region of Hyderabad State into Andhra State. Two chief ministers each from the Indian National Congress party had served these predecessor states. The first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh was Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, later the sixth President of India. Including him, 13 out of 16 chief ministers belonged to the Congress party. Among these is P.V. Narasimha Rao, who went on to become the ninth Prime Minister of India. The remaining three chief ministers were from the Telugu Desam Party, including N. Chandrababu Naidu, the longest - serving Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (over eleven years). Naidu is also the current incumbent, serving since 8 June 2014, a few days after Telangana was officially carved out of Andhra Pradesh into a separate state.
Hyderabad State included nine Telugu districts of Telangana, four Kannada districts in Gulbarga division and four Marathi districts in Aurangabad division.
Andhra State consisted of Kosta and Rayalaseema regions. This state was carved out of Madras state in 1953.
On 1 November 1956, Hyderabad State ceased to exist; its Gulbarga and Aurangabad divisions were merged into Mysore State and Bombay State respectively. Its remaining Telugu - speaking portion, Telangana, was added to Andhra State to form the new state of Andhra Pradesh.
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when do the washington huskies play in their bowl game | List of Washington Huskies bowl games - wikipedia
The Washington Huskies college football team competes as part of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), representing the University of Washington in the North Division of the Pac - 12 Conference (Pac - 12). Since the establishment of the team in 1889, Washington has appeared in 38 bowl games. Included in these games are 14 appearances in the Rose Bowl Game, one in the Orange Bowl and one Bowl Championship Series (BCS) game appearance. Through the history of the program, nine separate coaches have led the Huskies to bowl games with Don James having the most appearances with 14. With a loss in their most recent bowl game, the 2017 Fiesta Bowl, Washington 's overall bowl record stands at 18 wins, 19 losses and 1 tie (18 -- 19 -- 1). The Pac - 8 did not allow a second bowl team from the conference until 1975.
Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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is the chang river the same as the yangtze river | Yangtze - wikipedia
The Yangtze (English: / ˈjæŋtsi / or / ˈjɑːŋtsi /), which is 6,380 km (3,964 mi) long, is the longest river in Asia and the third - longest in the world. The river is the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It drains one - fifth of the land area of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and its river basin is home to nearly one - third of the country 's population. The Yangtze is the sixth - largest river by discharge volume in the world.
The English name Yangtze derives from the Chinese name Yángzǐ Jiāng (listen), which refers to the lowest 435 km (270 mi) of the river between Nanjing and Shanghai. The whole river is known in China as Cháng Jiāng (listen; literally: "Long River '').
The Yangtze plays a large role in the history, culture and economy of China. The prosperous Yangtze River Delta generates as much as 20 % of the PRC 's GDP. The Yangtze River flows through a wide array of ecosystems and is habitat to several endemic and endangered species including the Chinese alligator, the narrow - ridged finless porpoise, the Chinese paddlefish, the (possibly extinct) Yangtze River dolphin or baiji, and the Yangtze sturgeon. For thousands of years, the river has been used for water, irrigation, sanitation, transportation, industry, boundary - marking and war. The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest hydro - electric power station in the world.
In recent years, the river has suffered from industrial pollution, agricultural run - off, siltation, and loss of wetland and lakes, which exacerbates seasonal flooding. Some sections of the river are now protected as nature reserves. A stretch of the upstream Yangtze flowing through deep gorges in western Yunnan is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In mid-2014, the Chinese government announced it was building a multi-tier transport network, comprising railways, roads and airports, to create a new economic belt alongside the river.
Because the source of the Yangtze was not ascertained until modern times, the Chinese have given different names to lower and upstream sections of the river.
"Yangtze '' was actually the name of Chang Jiang for the lower part from Nanjing to the river mouth at Shanghai. However, due to the fact that Christian missionaries carried out their activities mainly in this area and were familiar with the name of this part of Chang Jiang, "Yangtze river '' was used to refer to the whole Chang Jiang in the English language.
In modern Chinese, Yangtze is still used to refer to the lower part of Chang Jiang from Nanjing to the river mouth. Yangtze never stands for the whole Chang Jiang.
Chang Jiang (长江 / 長江) is the modern Chinese name for the lower 2,884 km (1,792 mi) of the Yangtze from its confluence with the Min River at Yibin in Sichuan Province to the river mouth at Shanghai. Chang Jiang literally means the "Long River. '' In Old Chinese, this stretch of the Yangtze was simply called Jiang / Kiang 江, a character of phono - semantic compound origin, combining the water radical 氵 with the homophone 工 (now pronounced gōng, but * kʕoŋ in Old Chinese). Krong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue. Similar to * krong in Proto - Vietnamese and krung in Mon, all meaning "river '', it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer kôngkea (water).
By the Han Dynasty, Jiang had come to mean any river in Chinese, and this river was distinguished as the "Great River '' 大江 (Dàjiāng). The epithet 長 (of which the modern, simplified version 长), means "long '', was first formally applied to the river during the Six Dynasties period.
Various sections of Chang Jiang have local names. From Yibin to Yichang, the river through Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality is also known as the Chuan Jiang (川江, p Chuānjiāng) or "Sichuan River. ''
In the Hubei Province, the river is also called the Jing Jiang (荆江, p Jīngjiāng) or the "Jing River '' after Jingzhou. In Anhui Province, the river takes on the local name Wan Jiang after the shorthand name for Anhui, wan (皖). And Yangzi Jiang t 揚子江 s 扬子江, p Yángzǐjiāng) or the "Yangzi River '', from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou. The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called Yangzi or Yangzijin (揚子 or 揚子 津, p Yángzǐ or Yángzǐjīn). Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze Delta region applied this local name to the Å river. The dividing site between upstream and midstream is considered to be at Yichang and that between midstream and downstream at Hukou (Jiujiang).
The Jinsha River (金沙 江, lit. "Gold Dust '' or "Golden - Sanded River '') is the name for 2,308 km (1,434 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai Province. From antiquity until the Ming Dynasty, this stretch of the river was believed to be a tributary of the Yangtze while the Min River was thought to be the main course of the river above Yibin. In the Tribute to Yu, written in the fifth century BCE, this section is called the Hei Shui 黑 水 or the "Black Water. '' The name "Jinsha '' originates in the Song dynasty when the river attracted large numbers of gold prospectors. Gold prospecting along the Jinsha continued to this day. Prior to the Song dynasty, other names were used including, for example Lújiāng (瀘 江) from the Three Kingdoms period.
The Tongtian River (通 天河, lit. "River Passing Through Heaven '') describes the 813 km (505 mi) section from Yushu up to the confluence with the Dangqu River. The name comes from a fabled river in the Journey to the West. In antiquity, it was called the Yak River. In Mongolian, this section is known as the Murui - ussu (lit. "Winding Stream ''). and sometimes confused with the nearby Baishui.
The Tuotuo River (沱 沱 河, p Tuótuó Hé, lit. "Tearful River '' is the official headstream of the Yangtze, and flows 358 km (222 mi) from the glaciers of the Gelaindong Massif in the Tanggula Mountains of southwestern Qinghai to the confluence with the Dangqu River to form the Tongtian River.) In Mongolian, this section of the river known as the Ulaan Mörön or the "Red River ''.
The Tuotuo is one of three main headstreams of the Yangtze. The Dangqu River (当 曲, p Dāngqū) is the actual geographic headwater of the Yangtze. The name is derived the Classical Tibetan for "Marsh River '' (འདམ ་ ཆུ, w ' Dam Chu). The Chumar River (楚 玛 尔 河) is the Chinese name for the northern headwater of the Yangtze, which flows from the Hoh Xil Mountains in Qinghai into the Tongtian. Chumar is Tibetan for the "Red River. ''
The river was called Quian (江) and Quianshui (江水) by Marco Polo and appeared on the earliest English maps as Kian or Kiam, all recording dialects which preserved forms of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 江 as Kæwng. By the mid-19th century, these romanizations had standardized as Kiang; Dajiang, e.g., was rendered as "Ta - Kiang ''. "Keeang - Koo '', "Kyang Kew '', "Kian - ku '', and related names derived from mistaking the Chinese term for the mouth of the Yangtze (江口, p Jiāngkǒu) as the name of the river itself.
The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century, apparently owing to a former name of the Dam Chu or Min and to analogy with the Yellow River, but it was frequently explained in early English references as a ' translation ' of Jiang, Jiangkou, or Yangzijiang. Very common in 18th - and 19th - century sources, the name fell out of favor due to growing awareness of its lack of any connection to the river 's Chinese names and to the irony of its application to such a muddy waterway.
Matteo Ricci 's 1615 Latin account included descriptions of the "Iansu '' and "Iansuchian ''. The posthumous account 's translation of the name as "Son of the Ocean '' shows that Ricci, who by the end of his life was fluent in literary Chinese, was introduced to it as the homophonic 洋子 江 rather than the ' proper ' 揚子江. Further, although railroads and the Shanghai concessions subsequently turned it into a backwater, Yangzhou was the lower river 's principal port for much of the Qing Dynasty, directing Liangjiang 's important salt monopoly and connecting the Yangtze with the Grand Canal to Beijing. (That connection also made it one of the Yellow River 's principal ports between the floods of 1344 and the 1850s, during which time the Yellow River ran well south of Shandong and discharged into the ocean only a few hundred kilometres away from the mouth of the Yangtze.) By 1800, English cartographers such as Aaron Arrowsmith had adopted the French style of the name as Yang - tse or Yang - tse Kiang. The British diplomat Thomas Wade emended this to Yang - tzu Chiang as part of his formerly popular romanization of Chinese, based on the Beijing dialect instead of Nanjing 's and first published in 1867. The spellings Yangtze and Yangtze Kiang was a compromise between the two methods adopted at the 1906 Imperial Postal Conference in Shanghai, which established postal romanization. Hanyu Pinyin was adopted by the PRC 's First Congress in 1958, but it was not widely employed in English outside mainland China prior to the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979; since that time, the spelling Yangzi has also been used.
The source and upper reaches of the Yangtze are located in ethnic Tibetan areas of Qinghai. In Tibetan, the Tuotuo headwaters are the Machu (རྨ ་ ཆུ ་, w rMa - chu, literally "Red River '' or (perhaps "Wound - (like Red) River? '')). The Tongtian is the Drichu (འབྲི ་ ཆུ ་, w ' Bri Chu, literally "River of the Female Yak ''; transliterated into Chinese as 直 曲, p Zhíqū).
The river originates from several tributaries in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, two of which are commonly referred to as the "source ''. Traditionally, the Chinese government has recognized the source as the Tuotuo tributary at the base of a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Tanggula Mountains. This source is found at 33 ° 25 ′ 44 '' N 91 ° 10 ′ 57 '' E / 33.42889 ° N 91.18250 ° E / 33.42889; 91.18250 and while not the furthest source of the Yangtze, it is the highest source at 5,342 m (17,526 ft) above sea level. The true source of the Yangtze, hydrologically the longest river distance from the sea, is at Jari Hill at the head of the Dam Qu tributary, approximately 325 km (202 mi) southeast of Geladandong. This source was only discovered in the late 20th century and lies in wetlands at 32 ° 36 ′ 14 '' N 94 ° 30 ′ 44 '' E / 32.60389 ° N 94.51222 ° E / 32.60389; 94.51222 and 5,170 m (16,960 ft) above sea level just southeast of Chadan Township in Zadoi County, Yushu Prefecture, Qinghai. As the historical spiritual source of the Yangtze, the Geladandong source is still commonly referred to as the source of the Yangtze since the discovery of the Jari Hill source.
These tributaries join and the river then runs eastward through Qinghai (Tsinghai), turning southward down a deep valley at the border of Sichuan (Szechwan) and Tibet to reach Yunnan. In the course of this valley, the river 's elevation drops from above 5,000 m (16,000 ft) to less than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The headwaters of the Yangtze are situated at an elevation of about 4,900 m (16,100 ft). In its descent to sea level, the river falls to an altitude of 305 m (1,001 ft) at Yibin, Sichuan, the head of navigation for riverboats, and to 192 m (630 ft) at Chongqing (Chungking). Between Chongqing and Yichang (I - ch'ang), at an altitude of 40 m (130 ft) and a distance of about 320 km (200 mi), it passes through the spectacular Yangtze Gorges, which are noted for their natural beauty but are dangerous to shipping.
It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain.
After entering Hubei, the Yangtze receives water from a number of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan, it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi.
At the northern tip of Jiangxi, Lake Poyang, the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu provinces, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai.
Four of China 's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou County, where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai.
The origin of the Yangtze River has been dated by some geologists to about 45 million years ago in the Eocene, but this dating has been disputed..
The glaciers of the Tanggula Mountains, the traditional source of the Yangtze River
The Tuotuo River, a headwater stream of the Yangtze River, known in Tibetan as Maqu, or the "Red River ''
The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石 鼓) in Yunnan Province, where the river turns 180 degrees from south - to north - bound
The Jinsha River in Yunnan
The Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang downstream from Shigu
Qutang Gorge, one of the Three Gorges
Wu Gorge, one of the Three Gorges
Xiling Gorge, one of the Three Gorges
The Yangtze flows into the East China Sea and was navigable by ocean - going vessels up 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from its mouth even before the Three Gorges Dam was built. As of June 2003, this dam spans the river, flooding Fengjie, the first of a number of towns affected by the massive flood control and power generation project. This is the largest comprehensive irrigation project in the world and has a significant impact on China 's agriculture. Its proponents argue that it will free people living along the river from floods that have repeatedly threatened them in the past and will offer them electricity and water transport -- though at the expense of permanently flooding many existing towns (including numerous ancient cultural relics) and causing large - scale changes in the local ecology.
Opponents of the dam point out that there are three different kinds of floods on the Yangtze River: floods which originate in the upper reaches, floods which originate in the lower reaches, and floods along the entire length of the river. They argue that the Three Gorges dam will actually make flooding in the upper reaches worse and have little or no impact on floods which originate in the lower reaches. Twelve hundred years of low water marks on the river were recorded in the inscriptions and the carvings of carp at Baiheliang, now submerged.
The Yangtze is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts and high - tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley 's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China, connecting the interior with the coast.
The river is one of the world 's busiest waterways. Traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation reached 795 million tons in 2005. River cruises several days long, especially through the beautiful and scenic Three Gorges area, are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China.
Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of it. The huge river system receives water from both southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the 1998 Yangtze River Floods, but more disastrous were the 1954 Yangtze River Floods, which killed around 30,000 people.
Although the mouth of the Yellow River has fluctuated widely north and south of the Shandong peninsula within the historical record, the Yangtze has remained largely static. Based on studies of sedimentation rates, however, it is unlikely that the present discharge site predates the late Miocene (c. 11 Ma). Prior to this, its headwaters drained south into the Gulf of Tonkin along or near the course of the present Red River.
The Yangtze River is important to the cultural origins of southern China and Japan. Human activity has been verified in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27,000 years ago, and by the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze was a major population center occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures, both among the earliest cultivators of rice. By the 3rd millennium BC, the successor Liangzhu culture showed evidence of influence from the Longshan peoples of the North China Plain. A study of Liangzhu remains found a high prevalence of haplogroup O 1, linking it to Austronesian and Daic populations; the same study found the rare haplogroup O 3d at a Daxi site on the central Yangtze, indicates possible connection with the Hmong, although "only small traces '' of haplogroup O3d remains in Hmong today. What is now thought of as Chinese culture developed along the more fertile Yellow River basin; the "Yue '' people of the lower Yangtze possessed very different traditions -- blackening their teeth, cutting their hair short, tattooing their bodies, and living in small settlements among bamboo groves -- and were considered barbarous by the northerners.
The Central Yangtze valley was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures. Later on it was the earliest part of the Yangtze valley to be integrated into the North Chinese cultural sphere. North Chinese people were active there from the Bronze Age.
In the lower Yangtze, two Yue tribes, the Gouwu in southern Jiangsu and the Yuyue in northern Zhejiang, display increasing Zhou (i.e., North Chinese) influence from the 9th century BC. Traditional accounts credit these changes to northern refugees (Taibo and Zhongyong in Wu and Wuyi in Yue) who assumed power over the local tribes, though these are generally assumed to be myths invented to legitimate them to other Zhou rulers. As the kingdoms of Wu and Yue, they were famed as fishers, shipwrights, and sword - smiths. Adopting Chinese characters, political institutions, and military technology, they were among the most powerful states during the later Zhou. In the middle Yangtze, the state of Jing seems to have begun in the upper Han River valley a minor Zhou polity, but it adapted to native culture as it expanded south and east into the Yangtze valley. In the process, it changed its name to Chu.
Whether native or nativizing, the Yangtze states held their own against the northern Chinese homeland: some lists credit them with three of the Spring and Autumn period 's Five Hegemons and one of the Warring States ' Four Lords. They fell in against themselves, however. Chu 's growing power led its rival Jin to support Wu as a counter. Wu successfully sacked Chu 's capital Ying in 506 BC, but Chu subsequently supported Yue in its attacks against Wu 's southern flank. In 473 BC, King Goujian of Yue fully annexed Wu and moved his court to its eponymous capital at modern Suzhou. In 333 BC, Chu finally united the lower Yangtze by annexing Yue, whose royal family was said to have fled south and established the Minyue kingdom in Fujian. Qin was able to unite China by first subduing Ba and Shu on the upper Yangtze in modern Sichuan, giving them a strong base to attack Chu 's settlements along the river.
The state of Qin conquered the central Yangtze region, previous heartland of Chu, in 278 BC, and incorporated the region into its expanding empire. Qin then used its connections along the Yangtze River the Xiang River to expand China into Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, setting up military commanderies along the main lines of communication. At the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, these southern commanderies became the independent Nanyue Empire under Zhao Tuo while Chu and Han vied with each other for control of the north.
From the Han Dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River became more and more important to China 's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive. The Qin and Han empires were actively engaged in the agricultural colonization of the Yangtze lowlands, maintaining a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods. By the Song dynasty, the area along the Yangtze had become among the wealthiest and most developed parts of the country, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided 1⁄3 -- 1⁄2 of the nation 's revenues.
The Yangtze has long been the backbone of China 's inland water transportation system, which remained particularly important for almost two thousand years, until the construction of the national railway network during the 20th century. The Grand Canal connects the lower Yangtze with the major cities of the Jiangnan region south of the river (Wuxi, Suzhou, Hangzhou) and with northern China (all the way from Yangzhou to Beijing). The less well known ancient Lingqu Canal, connecting the upper Xiang River with the headwaters of the Guijiang, allowed a direct water connection from the Yangtze Basin to the Pearl River Delta.
Historically, the Yangtze became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. This occurred notably during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Southern Song. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period.
The Yangtze was the site of naval battles between the Song dynasty and Jurchen Jin during the Jin -- Song wars. In the Battle of Caishi of 1161, the ships of the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang clashed with the Song fleet on the Yangtze. Song soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulphur using trebuchets at the Jurchen warships. The battle was a Song victory that halted the invasion by the Jin. The Battle of Tangdao was another Yangtze naval battle from the same year.
Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911 -- 12, 1927 -- 37, and 1945 -- 49.
The first merchant steamer in China, the Jardine, was built to order for the firm of Jardine Matheson in 1835. She was a small vessel intended for use as a mail and passenger carrier between Lintin Island, Macao and Whampoa. However, after several trips, the Chinese authorities, for reasons best known to themselves, prohibited her entrance into the river. Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary who personified gunboat diplomacy, decided to wage war on China mainly on the "suggestions '' of Jardine Matheson. In mid-1840, a large fleet of warships appeared on the China coast, and with the first cannon fire aimed at a British ship, the Royal Saxon, the British started the First Opium War. The Imperial Government, forced to surrender, gave in to the demands of the British. British military was vastly superior during the conflict. British warships, constructed using such innovations as steam power combined with sail and the use of iron in shipbuilding, wreaked havoc on coastal towns; such ships (like the Nemesis) were not only virtually indestructible using contemporary available weapons, but also highly mobile and able to support a gun platform with very heavy guns. In addition, the British troops were armed with modern rifled muskets and cannons, unlike the Qing forces. After the British took Canton, they sailed up the Yangtze and took the tax barges, a devastating blow to the Empire as it slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to just a small fraction of what it had been.
In 1842, the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanjing signed on a gunboat in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five ports to Britain, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing empire also recognized Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects extraterritorial privileges in treaty ports.
The US, at the same time, wanting to protect its interests and expand trade, ventured the USS Wachusett six - hundred miles up the river to Hankow sometime in the 1860s, while the USS Ashuelot, a sidewheeler, made her way up the river to Yichang in 1874. The first USS Monocacy, a sidewheel gunboat, began charting the Yangtze River in 1871. The first USS Palos, an armed tug, was on Asiatic Station into 1891, cruising the Chinese and Japanese coasts, visiting the open treaty ports and making occasional voyages up the Yangtze River. From June to September 1891, anti-foreign riots up the Yangtze forced the warship to make an extended voyage as far as Hankow, 600 miles upriver. Stopping at each open treaty port, the gunboat cooperated with naval vessels of other nations and repairing damage. She then operated along the north and central China coast and on the lower Yangtze until June 1892. The cessation of bloodshed with the Taiping Rebellion, Europeans put more steamers on the river. The French engaged the Chinese in war over the rule of Vietnam. The Sino - French Wars of the 1880s emerged with the Battle of Shipu having French cruisers in the lower Yangtze.
The China Navigation Company was an early shipping company founded in 1876 in London, initially to trade up the Yangtze River from their Shanghai base with passengers and cargo. Chinese coastal trade started shortly after and in 1883 a regular service to Australia was initiated. Most of the company 's ships were seized by Japan in 1941 and services did not resume until 1946. Robert Dollar was a later shipping magnate, who became enormously influential moving Californian and Canadian lumber to the Chinese and Japanese market.
Yichang, or Ichang, 1,600 km (990 mi) from the sea, is the head of navigation for river steamers; oceangoing vessels may navigate the river to Hankow, a distance of almost 1,000 km (620 mi) from the sea. For about 320 km (200 mi) inland from its mouth, the river is virtually at sea level.
The Chinese Government, too, had steamers. It had its own naval fleet, the Nanyang Fleet, which fell prey to the French fleet. The Chinese would rebuild its fleet, only to be ravaged by another war with Japan (1895), Revolution (1911) and ongoing inefficiency and corruption. Chinese companies ran their own steamers, but were second tier to European operations at the time.
Steamers came late to the upper river, the section stretching from Yichang to Chongqing. Freshets from Himalayan snowmelt created treacherous seasonal currents. But summer was better navigationally and the three gorges, described as an "150 - mile passage which is like the narrow throat of an hourglass '', posed hazardous threats of crosscurrents, whirlpools and eddies, creating significant challenges to steamship efforts. Furthermore, Chongqing is 700 -- 800 feet above sea level, requiring powerful engines to make the upriver climb. Junk travel accomplished the upriver feat by employing 70 - 80 trackers, men hitched to hawsers who physically pulled ships upriver through some of the most risky and deadly sections of the three gorges. Achibald John Little took an interest in Upper Yangtze navigation when in 1876, the Chefoo Convention opened Chongqing to consular residence but stipulated that foreign trade might only commence once steamships had succeeded in ascending the river to that point. Little formed the Upper Yangtze Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. and built Kuling but his attempts to take the vessel further upriver than Yichang were thwarted by the Chinese authorities who were concerned about the potential loss of transit duties, competition to their native junk trade and physical damage to their crafts caused by steamship wakes. Kuling was sold to China Merchants Steam Navigation Company for lower river service. In 1890, the Chinese government agreed to open Chongqing to foreign trade as long as it was restricted to native crafts. In 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki provided a provision which opened Chongqing fully to foreign trade. Little took up residence in Chongqing and built Leechuan, to tackle the gorges in 1898. In March Leechuan completed the upriver journey to Chongqing but not without the assistance of trackers. Leechuan was not designed for cargo or passengers and if Little wanted to take his vision one step further, he required an expert pilot. In 1898, Little persuaded Captain Samuel Cornell Plant to come out to China to lend his expertise. Captain Plant had just completed navigation of Persia 's Upper Karun River and took up Little 's offer to assess the Upper Yangtze on Leechuan at the end of 1898. With Plant 's design input, Little had SS Pioneer built with Plant in command. In June 1900, Plant was the first to successfully pilot a merchant steamer on the Upper Yangtze from Yichang to Chongqing. Pioneer was sold to British Royal Navy after its first run due to threat from the Boxer Rebellion and renamed HMS Kinsha. Germany 's steamship effort that same year on SS Suixing ended in catastrophe. On Suixing 's maiden voyage, the vessel hit a rock and sunk, killing its captain and ending realistic hopes of regular commercial steam service on the Upper Yangtze. In 1908, local Sichuan merchants and their government partnered with Captain Plant to form Sichuan Steam Navigation Company becoming the first successful service between Yichang and Chongqing. Captain Plant designed and commanded its two ships, SS Shutung and SS Shuhun. Other Chinese vessels came onto the run and by 1915, foreign ships expressed their interest too. Plant was appointed by Chinese Maritime Customs Service as First Senior River Inspector in 1915. In this role, Plant installed navigational marks and established signaling systems. He also wrote Handbook for the Guidance of Shipmasters on the Ichang - Chungking Section of the Yangtze River, a detailed and illustrated account of the Upper Yangtze 's currents, rocks, and other hazards with navigational instruction. Plant trained hundreds of Chinese and foreign pilots and issued licenses and worked with the Chinese government to make the river safer in 1917 by removing some of the most difficult obstacles and threats with explosives. In August 1917, British Asiatic Petroleum became the first foreign merchant steamship on the Upper Yangtze. Commercial firms, Robert Dollar Company, Jardine Matheson, Butterfield and Swire and Standard Oil added their own steamers on the river between 1917 - 1919. Between 1918 - 1919, Sichuan warlord violence and escalating civil war put Sichuan Steam Navigational Company out of business. Shutung was commandeered by warlords and Shuhun was brought down river to Shanghai for safekeeping. In 1921, when Captain Plant died tragically at sea while returning home to England, a Plant Memorial Fund was established to perpetuate Plant 's name and contributions to Upper Yangtze navigation. The largest shipping companies in service, Butterfield & Swire, Jardine Matheson, Standard Oil, Mackenzie & Co., Asiatic Petroleum, Robert Dollar, China Merchants S.N. Co. and British - American Tobacco Co., contributed alongside international friends and Chinese pilots. In 1924, a 50 - foot granite pyramidal obelisk was erected in Xintan, on the site of Captain Plant 's home, in a Chinese community of pilots and junk owners. One face of the monument is inscribed in Chinese and another in English. Though recently relocated to higher ground ahead of the Three Gorges Dam, the monument still stands overlooking the Upper Yangtze River near Yichang, a rare collective tribute to a westerner in China.
Until 1881, the India and China coastal and river services were operated by several companies. In that year, however, these were merged into the Indo - China Steam Navigation Company Ltd, a public company under the management of Jardine 's. The Jardine company pushed inland up the Yangtsze River on which a specially designed fleet was built to meet all requirements of the river trade. For many years, this fleet gave unequalled service. Jardine 's established an enviable reputation for the efficient handling of shipping. As a result, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company invited the firm to attend to the Agency of their Shire Line which operated in the Far East. Standard Oil ran the tankers Mei Ping, Mei An and Mei Hsia, which were all destroyed on December 12, 1937 when Japanese warplanes bombed and sank the U.S.S. Panay. One of the Standard Oil captains who survived this attack had served on the Upper River for 14 years.
With the Treaty Ports, the European powers and Japan were allowed to sail navy ships into China 's waters. The British, Americans, and French did this. A full international fleet featured on Chinese waters: Austro - Hungarian, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and German navy ships came to Shanghai and the treaty ports. The Japanese engaged in open warfare with the Chinese over conquest of the Chinese Qing Empire in the First Sino - Japanese War in 1894 - 1895, and with Russia over Qing Empire territory in the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 - 1905. Incidentally, both the French and Japanese navies were heavily involved in running opium and narcotics to Shanghai, where it was refined into morphine. It was then transhipped by liner back to Marseille and France (i.e. French Connection) for processing in Germany and eventual sale in the U.S. or Europe.
In 1909 the gunboat USS Samar changed station to Shanghai, where she regularly patrolled the lower Yangtze River up to Nanking and Wuhu. Following an anti-foreign riots in Changsha in April 1910, which destroyed a number of missions and merchant warehouses, Samar sailed up the Yangtze River to Hankow and then Changsa to show the flag and help restore order. The gunboat was also administratively assigned to the Asiatic Fleet that year, which had been reestablished by the Navy to better protect, in the words of the Bureau of Navigation, "American interests in the Orient. '' After returning to Shanghai in August, she sailed up river again the following summer, passing Wuhu in June but then running aground off Kichau on July 1, 1911.
After staying stuck in the mud for two weeks, Samar broke free and sailed back down river to coal ship. Returning upriver, the gunboat reached Hankow in August and Ichang in September where she wintered over owing to both the dry season and the outbreak of rebellion at Wuchang in October 1911. Tensions eased and the gunboat turned downriver in July 1912, arriving at Shanghai in October. Samar patrolled the lower Yangtze after fighting broke out in the summer 1913, a precursor to a decade of conflict between provincial warlords in China. In 1919, she was placed on the disposal list at Shanghai following a collision with a Yangtze River steamer that damaged her bow.
The Spanish boats were replaced in the 1920s by USS Luzon and USS Mindanao were the largest, USS Oahu and USS Panay next in size, and USS Guam and USS Tutuila the smallest. China in the first fifty years of the 20th century, was in low - grade chaos. Warlords, revolutions, natural disasters, civil war and invasions contributed. Yangtze boats were involved in the Nanking incident of 1927 when the Communists and Nationalists broke into open war. The Chiang Kai - shek 's massacre of the Communists in Shanghai in 1927 furthered the unrest, U.S. Marines with tanks were landed. River steamers were popular targets for both Nationalists and Communists, and peasants who would take periodic pot - shots at vessels. During the course of service the second USS Palos protected American interests in China down the entire length of the Yangtze, at times convoying U.S. and foreign vessels on the river, evacuating American citizens during periods of disturbance and in general giving credible presence to U.S. consulates and residences in various Chinese cities. In the period of great unrest in central China in the 1920s, Palos was especially busy patrolling the upper Yangtze against bands of warlord soldiers and outlaws. The warship engaged in continuous patrol operations between Ichang and Chungking throughout 1923, supplying armed guards to merchant ships, and protecting Americans at Chungking while that city was under siege by a warlord army.
The British Royal Navy had a series of Insect - class gunboats which patrolled between Chungking and Shanghai. Cruisers and destroyers and Fly - class gunboats also patrolled. The most infamous incident was when Panay and HMS Bee in 1937, were dive - bombed by Japanese aeroplanes during the notorious Nanking Massacre. The Westerners were forced to leave the Yangtze River with the Japanese takeover in 1941. The former steamers were either sabotaged or pressed into Japanese or Chinese service. Probably the most curious incident involved HMS Amethyst in 1949 during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and People 's Liberation Army forces; and led to the award of the Dickin Medal to the ship 's cat Simon.
Tens of millions of people live in the floodplain of the Yangtze valley, an area that naturally floods every summer and is habitable only because it is protected by river dikes. The floods large enough to overflow the dikes have caused great distress to those who live and farm there. Floods of note include 1931, 1935, 1954, 1998.
The 1931 Central China floods or the Central China floods of 1931 were a series of floods that occurred in the Republic of China. The floods are generally considered among the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded, and almost certainly the deadliest of the 20th century (when pandemics and famines are discounted). Estimates of the total death toll range from 145,000 to between 3.7 million and 4 million.
The Yangtze again flooded in 1935, causing great loss of life.
From June to September 1954, the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province. Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954, the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June. Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it, the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou, Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan. The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000, including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster.
The 1998 Yangtze River floods (1998 年 中国 洪水) was a major flood that lasted from middle of June to the beginning of September 1998 in the People 's Republic of China at the Yangtze River. The event was considered the worst Northern China flood in 40 years. In the summer of 1998, China experienced massive flooding of parts of the Yangtze River, resulting in 3,704 dead, 15 million homeless and $26 billion in economic loss. Other sources report a total loss of 4150 people, and 180 million people were affected. A staggering 25 million acres (100,000 km) were evacuated, 13.3 million houses were damaged or destroyed. The floods caused $26 billion in damages.
Beginning in the 1950s dams and thousands of kilometres of dikes were built for flood control, land reclamation, irrigation and for the control of diseases vectors such as blood flukes that caused Schistosomiasis. More than a hundred lakes were thus cut off from the main river. There were gates between the lakes that could be opened during floods. However, farmers and settlements encroached on the land next to the lakes although it was forbidden to settle there. When floods came, it proved impossible to open the gates since it would have caused substantial destruction. Thus the lakes partially or completely dried up. For example, Baidang Lake shrunk from 100 square kilometers (39 sq mi) in the 1950s to 40 square kilometers (15 sq mi) in 2005. Zhangdu Lake dwindled to one quarter of its original size. Natural fisheries output in the two lakes declined sharply. Only a few large lakes, such as Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake, remained connected to the Yangtze. Cutting off the other lakes that had served as natural buffers for floods increased the damage done by floods further downstream. Furthermore, the natural flow of migratory fish was obstructed and biodiversity across the whole basin decreased dramatically. Intensive farming of fish in ponds spread using one type of carp who thrived in eutrophic water conditions and who feeds on algae, causing widespread pollution. The pollution was exacerbated by the discharge of waste from pig farms as well as of untreated industrial and municipal sewage. In September 2012, the Yangtze river near Chongqing turned red from pollution. The erection of the Three Gorges Dam has created an impassable "iron barrier '' that has led to a great reduction in the biodiversity of the river. Yangtze sturgeon use seasonal changes in the flow of the river to signal when is it time to migrate. However, these seasonal changes will be greatly reduced by dams and diversions. Other animals facing immediate threat of extinction are the Baiji Dolphin, narrow - ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze Alligator. These animals numbers went into freefall from the combined effects of accidental catches during fishing, river traffic, habitat loss and pollution. In 2006 the baiji dolphin became extinct; the world lost an entire genus.
The Yangtze River produces the majority of the world 's ocean pollution, according to The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch environmental research foundation that focuses on ocean pollution. Together with 9 other rivers, the Yangtze transports 90 % of all the plastic that reaches the oceans.
In 2002 a pilot program was initiated to reconnect lakes to the Yangtze with the objective to increase biodiversity and to alleviate flooding. The first lakes to be reconnected in 2004 were Zhangdu Lake, Honghu Lake, and Tian'e - Zhou in Hubei province on the middle Yangtze. In 2005 Baidang Lake in Anhui Province was also reconnected.
Reconnecting the lakes improved water quality and fish were able to migrate from the river into the lake, replenishing their numbers and genetic stock. The trial also showed that reconnecting the lake reduced flooding. The new approach also benefitted the farmers economically. Pond farmers switched to natural fish feed, which helped them breed better quality fish that can be sold for more, increasing their income by 30 %. Based on the successful pilot project, other provincial governments emulated the experience and also reestablished connections to lakes that had previously been cut off from the river. In 2005 a Yangtze Forum has been established bringing together 13 riparian provincial governments to manage the river from source to sea. In 2006 China 's Ministry of Agriculture made it a national policy to reconnect the Yangtze River with its lakes. As of 2010, provincial governments in five provinces and Shanghai set up a network of 40 effective protected areas, covering 16,500 km (6,400 sq mi). As a result, populations of 47 threatened species increased, including the critically endangered Yangtze alligator. In the Shanghai area, reestablished wetlands now protect drinking water sources for the city. It is envisaged to extend the network throughout the entire Yangtze to eventually cover 102 areas and 185,000 km (71,000 sq mi). The mayor of Wuhan announced that six huge, stagnating urban lakes including the East Lake (Wuhan) would be reconnected at the cost of US $2.3 billion creating China 's largest urban wetland landscape.
Until 1957, there were no bridges across the Yangtze River from Yibin to Shanghai. For millennia, travelers crossed the river by ferry. On occasions, the crossing may have been dangerous, as evidenced by the Zhong'anlun disaster (October 15, 1945).
The river stood as a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou, and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train from Wuchang or Nanjing West.
After the founding of the People 's Republic in 1949, Soviet engineers assisted in the design and construction of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, a dual - use road - rail bridge, built from 1955 to 1957. It was the first bridge across the Yangtze River. The second bridge across the river was built a single - track railway bridge built upstream in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, also a road - rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze, in Nanjing. It was built after the Sino - Soviet Split and did not receive foreign assistance. Road - rail bridges were then built in Zhicheng (1971) and Chongqing (1980).
Bridge - building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing - Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable - stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze.
A number of power line crossings have also been built across the river.
Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, the first bridge crossing Yangtze, was completed in 1957.
The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, a beam bridge, was completed in 1968.
The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge, an arch bridge, was completed in 1992.
The Yichang Yangtze Highway Bridge, a suspension bridge near the Gezhouba Dam lock, was completed in 1996.
The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, between Nantong and Suzhou, was one of the longest cable - stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008.
The Caiyuanba Bridge, an arch bridge in Chongqing, was completed in 2007.
The cable - stayed Anqing Yangtze River Bridge at Anqing, was completed in 2005.
As of 2007, there are two dams built on the Yangtze river: Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam. The Three Gorges Dam is the largest power station in the world by installed capacity, at 22.5 GW. Several dams are operating or are being constructed on the upper portion of the river, the Jinsha River. Among them, the Xiluodu Dam is the third largest power stations in the world, and the Baihetan Dam, planned to be commissioned in 2021, will be the second largest after the Three Gorges Dam.
The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries. The major tributaries (listed from upstream to downstream) with the locations of where they join the Yangtze are:
Gan River in Jiangxi Province
Han River in Hubei Province
Lake Dongting and the Yuan, Zi, Li, and Xiang Rivers in Hunan Province
Wu River in Guizhou Province
Jialing River in eastern Sichuan Province and Chongqing Municipality
Min River in central Sichuan
Yalong River in western Sichuan
The Yangtze River has a high species richness, including many endemics. A high percentage of these are seriously threatened by human activities.
As of 2011, 416 fish species are known from the Yangtze basin, including 362 that strictly are freshwater species. The remaining are also known from salt or brackish waters, such as the river 's estuary or the East China Sea. This makes it one of the most species rich rivers in Asia and by far the most species rich in China (in comparison, the Pearl River has almost 300 fish species and the Yellow River 150). 178 fish species are endemic to the Yangtze River Basin. Many are only found in some section of the river basin and especially the upper reach (above Yichang, but below the headwaters in the Qinghai - Tibet Plateau) is rich with 279 species, including 147 Yangtze endemics and 97 strict endemics (found only in this part of the basin). In contrast, the headwaters, where the average altitude is above 4,500 m (14,800 ft), are only home to 14 highly specialized species, but 8 of these are endemic to the river. The largest orders in the Yangtze are Cypriniformes (280 species, including 150 endemics), Siluriformes (40 species, including 20 endemics), Perciformes (50 species, including 4 endemics), Tetraodontiformes (12 species, including 1 endemic) and Osmeriformes (8 species, including 1 endemic). No other order has more than four species in the river and one endemic.
Many Yangtze fish species have declined drastically and 65 were recognized as threatened in the 2009 Chinese red list. Among these are two that are considered entirely extinct (Anabarilius liui liui and Atrilinea macrolepis), two that are extinct in the wild (Anabarilius polylepis and Schizothorax parvus) and five that are critically endangered (Chinese paddlefish, Euchiloglanis kishinouyei, Megalobrama elongata, Schizothorax longibarbus and Leiocassis longibarbus). Additionally, both the Yangtze sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon are considered critically endangered by the IUCN. The survival of these two sturgeon may rely on the continued release of captive bred specimens. The Chinese sturgeon and Chinese paddlefish are the largest fish in the river and among the largest freshwater fish in the world, reaching lengths of 5 m (16 ft) and 7 m (23 ft) respectively. Although listed as critically endangered rather than extinct by both the Chinese red list and IUCN, the continued survival of the Chinese paddlefish is questionable. Surveys conducted between 2006 and 2008 by ichthyologists failed to catch any, but two probable specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. The last definite record was a 3.6 m - long (12 ft) specimen caught during illegal fishing in 2007; despite attempts to keep it alive, it died shortly afterwards.
The largest threats to the Yangtze native fish are overfishing and habitat loss (such as building of dams and land reclamation), but pollution, destructive fishing practices (such as fishing with dynamite or poison) and introduced species also cause problems. About ⁄ of the total freshwater fisheries in China are in the Yangtze Basin, but a drastic decline in size of several important species has been recorded, as highlighted by data from lakes in the river basin. Some experts recommend a 10 - year fishing moratorium to allow the remaining populations to recover. Dams present another serious problem, as several species in the river perform breeding migrations and most of these are non-jumpers, meaning that normal fish ladders designed for salmon are ineffective. For example, the Gezhouba Dam blocked the migration of the paddlerfish and two sturgeon, while also effectively splitting the Chinese high fin banded shark population into two and causing the extirpation of the Yangtze population of the Japanese eel. In an attempt of minimizing the effect of the dams, the Three Gorges Dam has released water to mimic the (pre-dam) natural flooding and trigger the breeding of carp species downstream. In addition to dams already built in the Yangtze basin, several large dams are planned and these may present further problems for the native fauna.
While many fish species native to the Yangtze are seriously threatened, others have become important in fish farming and introduced widely outside their native range. A total of 26 native fish species of the Yangtze basin are farmed. Among the most important are four Asian carp: grass carp, black carp, silver carp and bighead carp. Other species that support important fisheries include northern snakehead, Chinese perch, Takifugu pufferfish (mainly in the lowermost sections) and predatory carp.
Due to commercial use of the river, tourism, and pollution, the Yangtze is home to several seriously threatened species of large animals (in addition to fish): the narrow - ridged finless porpoise, baiji (Yangtze River dolphin), Chinese alligator, Yangtze giant softshell turtle and Chinese giant salamander. This is the only other place besides the United States that is native to an alligator and paddlefish species. In 2010, the Yangtze population of finless porpoise was 1000 individuals. In December 2006, the Yangtze River dolphin was declared functionally extinct after an extensive search of the river revealed no signs of the dolphin 's inhabitance. In 2007, a large, white animal was sighted and photographed in the lower Yangtze and was tentatively presumed to be a baiji. However, as there have been no confirmed sightings since 2004, the baiji is presumed to be functionally extinct at this time. "Baijis were the last surviving species of a large lineage dating back seventy million years and one of only six species of freshwater dolphins ''. It has been argued that the extinction of the Yangtze River dolphin was a result of the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, a project that has affected many species of animals and plant life found only in the gorges area.
Numerous species of land mammals are found in the Yangtze valley, but most of these are not directly associated with the river. Three exceptions are the semi-aquatic Eurasian otter, water deer and Père David 's deer.
In addition to the very large and exceptionally rare Yangtze giant softshell turtle, several smaller turtle species are found in the Yangtze basin, its delta and valleys. These include the Chinese box turtle, yellow - headed box turtle, Pan 's box turtle, Yunnan box turtle, yellow pond turtle, Chinese pond turtle, Chinese stripe - necked turtle and Chinese softshell turtle, which all are considered threatened.
More than 160 amphibian species are known from the Yangtze basin, including the worlds largest, the critically endangered Chinese giant salamander. It has declined drastically due to hunting (it is considered a delicacy), habitat loss and pollution. The polluted Dian Lake, which is part of the upper Yangtze watershed (via Pudu River), is home to several highly threatened fish, but was also home to the Yunnan lake newt. This newt has not been seen since 1979 and is considered extinct. In contrast, the Chinese fire belly newt from the lower Yangtze basin is one of the few Chinese salamander species to remain common and it is considered Least Concern by the IUCN.
The Yangtze basin contains a large number of freshwater crab species, including several endemics. A particularly rich genus in the river basin is the potamid Sinopotamon. The Chinese mitten crab is catadromous (migrates between fresh and saltwater) and it has been recorded up to 1,400 km (870 mi) up the Yangtze, which is the largest river in its native range. It is a commercially important species in its native range where it is farmed, but the Chinese mitten crab has also been spread to Europe and North America where considered invasive.
The freshwater jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbii, now an invasive species in large parts of the world, originates from the Yangtze.
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when does season 5 of the haves and have nots start | List of the Haves and the Have Nots episodes - Wikipedia
The Haves and the Have Nots is an American primetime television soap opera created, executive produced, written and directed by Tyler Perry. The premise of the series is loosely based on Perry 's 2011 play The Haves and the Have Nots.
The series follows three families and their lifestyles as they intersect with one another in Savannah, Georgia: the rich and powerful Cryer and Harrington families (dubbed "The Haves '') and the poor and destitute Young family (dubbed "The Have Nots '').
The fifth episode in Season 2 of The Haves and the Have Nots, "Why Did n't You Tell Me? '' was not only a series high episode in ratings, but the most watched television program in all of cable for the night. The episode brought in 3.4 million viewers. Among all OWN programming since the network 's January 2011 debut, only a March 2012 Oprah 's Next Chapter interview with Bobbi Kristina has drawn more viewers (3.5 million) than the February - 4 - 2014 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots. On Tuesday, March 11, 2014, however, a season 2 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots -- following a hiatus within the season -- set a record for all of OWN programming, scoring the highest ratings in the station 's history. The record - breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers. Additionally, the episode came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night.
Candace and Jeffrey disagree on what to do with Quincy 's body when interrupted by a knock on the door. The Cryer and Harrington clan face repercussions.
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what was the primary objective of green revolution in india | Green Revolution in India - Wikipedia
The Green Revolution in India refers to a period of time when agriculture in India improved due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, tractors, pump sets, etc., in agriculture. The key leadership role played by the Indian agricultural scientist Vehla Swaminathan Banda together with many others including GS Kalkat, earned him the popularly used title ' Father of Green Revolution of India '. The Green Revolution allowed developing countries, like India, to overcome poor agricultural productivity. Within India, this started in the early 1960s and led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh during the early phase. The main development was higher - yielding varieties of wheat, for developing rust resistant strains of wheat.
49 % of people in India are employed in agriculture. The introduction of high - yielding varieties of seeds after 1965 and the increased use of fertilizers and irrigation are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to make India self - sufficient in food grains. The program was started with the help of the United States - based Rockefeller Foundation and was based on high - yielding varieties of wheat, rice, and other grains that had been developed in Mexico and in the Philippines. Of the high - yielding seeds, wheat produced the best results. Production of coarse grains -- the staple diet of the poor -- and pulses -- the main source of protein -- lagged behind, resulting in reduced per capita availability.
The total area under the high - yielding - varieties program was a negligible 1.9 million hectares in fiscal year 1960. Since then, growth has been spectacular, increasing to nearly 15.4 million hectares by FY 1970, 43.1 million hectares by FY 1980, and 63.9 million hectares by FY 1990. The rate of growth decreased significantly in the late 1980s, however, as additional suitable land was not available (see table 32, Appendix).
The major benefits of the Green Revolution were experienced mainly in northern and northwestern India between 1965 and the early 1980s; the program resulted in a substantial increase in the production of food grains, mainly wheat and rice. Food - grain yields continued to increase throughout the 1980s, but the dramatic changes in the years between 1965 and 1980 were not duplicated. By FY 1980, almost 75 percent of the total cropped area under wheat was sown with high - yielding varieties. For rice the comparable figure was 45 percent. In the 1980s, the area under high - yielding varieties continued to increase, but the rate of growth overall was slower. The eighth plan aimed at making high - yielding varieties available to the whole country and developing more productive strains of other crops.
The Green Revolution created wide regional and interstate disparities. The plan was implemented only in areas with assured supplies of water and the means to control it, large inputs of fertilizers, and adequate farm credit. These inputs were easily available in at least parts of the states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh; thus, yields increased most in these states. In other states, such as Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, in areas where these inputs were not assured, the results were limited or negligible, leading to considerable variation in crop yields within these states. The Green Revolution also increased income disparities: higher income growth and reduced incidence of poverty were found in the states where yields increased the most and lower income growth and little change in the incidence of poverty in other states.
The main development was higher - yielding varieties of wheat, for developing rust resistant strains of wheat. The introduction of high - yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the country self - sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India. The methods adopted included the use of high - yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds with modern farming methods.
The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self - sufficiency of India. Along with high - yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilised the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation).
Famines in India were very frequent during the period 1940s to 1970s. Due to faulty distribution of food, and because farmers did not receive the true value for their labour, the majority of the population did not get enough food. Malnutrition and starvation was a huge problem.
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the money lenders. They took loans from zamindars, who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers). Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under loans.
Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a growing population, often food grains were imported -- draining scarce foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and India could achieve self - sufficiency and self - reliability.
Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India 's dependence on food imports.
A main criticism of the effects of the green revolution is the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying Monsanto BT cotton seeds -- sold on the idea that these seeds produced ' natural insecticides '. In reality, they need to still pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which might lead to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers have difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they have a bad harvest.
Indian environmentalist Vandana Shiva notes that this is the "second Green Revolution ''. The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest -- notably MNCs like Monsanto. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India 's farmland.
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides has polluted waterway, killed beneficial insects and wild life. It has caused over-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices have led to eventually soil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to loss of biodiversity of farmers. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals. (1)
Green revolution spread only in irrigated and high - potential rain fed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry - land areas is simply ruled out.
The states like Punjab, Haryana, Western UP etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.
The new agriculture strategy involving use of HYV seeds was initially limited to wheat, maize and bajra. The other major crop i.e. rice responded much later. The progress of developing and application of HYV seeds in other crops especially commercial crops like oilseeds, jute etc. has been very slow. In fact, in certain period a decline in the output of commercial crops is witnessed because of diversion of area under commercial crop to food crop production. The basic factor for non-spread of green revolution to many crops was that in the early 1960s the severe shortage in food grains existed and imports were resorted to overcame the shortage. Government initiated green revolution to increase food grain productivity and non-food grain crops were not covered. The substantial rise in one or two food grain crop can not make big difference in the total agricultural production. Thus new technology contributed insignificantly in raising the overall agricultural production due to limited crop coverage. So it is important that the revolutionary efforts should be made in all major crops.
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who is currently the most listened to artist on spotify | List of most streamed artists on Spotify - wikipedia
No. 1 is (Drake (musician) Drake)) with 63 million monthly listeners.)
This list enumerates the streams artists ' song accrued on the Spotify Global Top 200, which is less than the artist 's total streams.
This list enumerates the number of streams artists ' albums (LP & EP) have accrued on Spotify.
(billions)
Timeline of artists who have held the peak position each month as the most streamed artist since September 2015, when the feature was first made public.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2017 was Ed Sheeran with 6.3 billion streams that year. This was his second year topping the list.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2016 was Drake with 4.7 billion streams that year. He topped the list for a second year in a row.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2015 was Drake with 1.8 billion streams that year.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2014 was Ed Sheeran with 860 million streams that year.
Spotify 's most streamed artists of 2013 were Macklemore & Ryan Lewis.
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tarak mehta ka ulta chasma actors original name | Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah - Wikipedia
Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (commonly referred to as: TMKOC) (English: Taarak Mehta 's Inverted Spectacles) is India 's longest running sitcom serial. It is produced by Neela Tele Films Private Limited. The show went on air on July 28, 2008. It airs from Monday to Friday on SAB TV. Reruns of the show started on Sony Pal on November 2, 2015.
The show is based on the column Duniya Ne Undha Chashma written by real - life columnist and journalist / playwright Taarak Mehta for Gujarati weekly magazine Chitralekha.
Gokuldham Society is a residential society in Powder Galli, Goregaon, Mumbai with four wings: A Wing, B Wing, C Wing and D Wing. Although the society has more than 50 flats, the show revolves around the lives of eight families:
There are also other recurring characters including Sundarlal (brother of Jethalal 's wife Daya, from Ahmedabad, Gujarat) and his friends. Abdul, the shopkeeper of the provisions store located outside the society entrance, reporter Rita Shrivastav from ' Kal Tak ' a news channel, Inspector Chalu Pandey, Asit Kumarr Modi as himself, Jethalal 's shop assistants - Natwarlal Prabhashankar Udhaiwala (Natu Kaka) and his nephew Baagheshwar Dadu Udhaiwala (Baagha), who are often bent on doing the wrong job, and Baagha 's fiancée Bawri Dhondulal Kanpuria.
The members of the society and other characters have a good psychological bond of love and sympathy for one another that makes them live like members of one family. They are often seen celebrating festivals and participating in events together. Although they are shown to live the lives of typical Indian families, the characters, more often than not Jethalal Gada, tend to find themselves in trouble, cropping up from routine activities that intensify in a comical manner.
The quirks of the individual characters seek to enhance the humour quotient of the show. Whatever the nature of the problem that a member of the society encounters, all the other members stand by them to extend every possible help. In an episode, the resolution of the problem that a character faces is usually followed by a moral message at the end by Taarak Mehta, which is meant for all the characters of the show as well as the viewers.
The Tapu Sena is a five - member group of children residing in Gokuldham Society: Tapu (the leader of Tapu Sena), Goli, Gogi, Pinku and Sonu. These children have played significant roles, providing a fun young tone to the show. Usually, the group becomes a nuisance for the other members of the society because of their mischief, while at other times, it draws praises from the members by doing something laudable. The society secretary, Atmaram Tukaram Bhide is especially annoyed with the Tapu Sena for playing cricket in the society compound as sometimes they break the window glasses, or just cause a problem as shown in some episodes. Since the beginning of the show, the Tapu Sena has, with their childlike activities, characterized the typical frolicsome Indian children. As the children grow up and mature, the stories are tailored to suit their ages.
The major part of the shooting is done in Mumbai. However, some parts of the show have also been shot in places such as Gujarat, New Delhi, Goa and in foreign locations such as London, Brussels, Paris and Hong Kong.
To celebrate Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah completing 1,000 episodes on 6 November 2012, the director "decided to shoot the film on a different canvas as he does not want the audience to feel that they are watching yet another episode of the serial. ''
In October 2013, Joshi and Vakani participated in a promotional event held in New Jersey at the Expo Center.
In February 2015, Joshi, Vakani, and Lodha hosted the red carpet at the 60th Britannia Filmfare awards to promote the ' Clean India ' campaign.
In 2010, the show beat Balika Vadhu to become the most watched television programme in India. The show has constantly achieved high ratings throughout its run, irrespective of the Indian Premier League. In the first week of 2017, the show stood in fourth position with 6,004 TVT ratings. In the fourth week, the show entered the top five and stood in fifth position with 6,059 TVT ratings. In March 2017, the show remained within the top five shows urban rural metrics. In the 25th week of 2017, the show stood at the top spot with 6,092 TVT ratings. In the 26th week of 2017, the show stood at third spot with 6,049 TVT ratings. It is the longest running scripted show on Indian television.In the 1st week of 2018 the show topped the trp chart with 6961 tvt ratings.
Polish Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Culture and National Heritage, Piotr Glinski visited the sets of Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah in February 2016.
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how far is charleston sc below sea level | Charleston, South Carolina - wikipedia
Charleston is the oldest and largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina 's coastline and is located on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers. Charleston had an estimated population of 134,385 in 2016. The estimated population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 761,155 residents in 2016, the third - largest in the state and the 78th - largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States.
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II of England. Its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the fifth - largest city in North America within ten years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by London. Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries. Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but the port city remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census. The only major American city to have a majority - enslaved population, antebellum Charleston was controlled by an oligarchy of white planters and merchants who successfully forced the federal government to revise its 1828 and 1832 tariffs during the Nullification Crisis and launched the Civil War by seizing the Arsenal, Castle Pinckney, and Fort Sumter from their federal garrisons.
Known for its rich history, well - preserved architecture, distinguished restaurants, and mannerly people, Charleston is a popular tourist destination and has received a large number of accolades, including "America 's Most Friendly (City) '' by Travel + Leisure in 2011 and in 2013 and 2014 by Condé Nast Traveler, and also "the most polite and hospitable city in America '' by Southern Living magazine. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the "World 's Best City '' by Travel + Leisure.
The city proper consists of six distinct areas: the Peninsula or Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula.
The incorporated city fit into 4 -- 5 square miles (10 -- 13 km) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island. The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has a total area of 127.5 square miles (330.2 km), of which 109.0 square miles (282.2 km) is land and 18.5 square miles (47.9 km) is covered by water. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River.
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles (3.2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivan 's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south. The entrance itself is about 1 mile (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 feet (5 m) deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline. There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep.
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot, humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long. Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November. Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow (≥ 0.1 in or 0.25 cm) only occurs several times per decade at the most, with the last such event occurring December 26, 2010. However, 6.0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, the largest single - day fall on record, contributing to a single - storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in (20 cm) snowfall.
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 ° F (40 ° C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944, and the lowest was 7 ° F (− 14 ° C) on February 14, 1899. At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 ° F (41 ° C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 ° F (− 14 ° C) on January 21, 1985. Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area -- most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm). The dewpoint in June to August ranges from 67.8 to 71.4 ° F (19.9 to 21.9 ° C).
The Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester. As of the 2013 U.S. Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 712,239 people. North Charleston is the second - largest city in the Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area and ranks as the third - largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next - largest cities. These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston - North Charleston Urban Area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010. The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123).
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed. Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts. When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St. Philip and St. Michael, now also includes parts of St. James ' Parish, St. George 's Parish, St. Andrew 's Parish, and St. John 's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes.
After Charles II was restored to the English throne in 1660, he granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663. It took seven years before the group arranged for settlement expeditions. In 1670, Governor William Sayle brought over several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda, which lies due east of Charleston although closer to Cape Hatteras in North Carolina. These settlers established Charles Town at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River a few miles northwest of the present - day city center. Charles Town became English - speaking America 's first comprehensively planned town with governance, settlement, and development were to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke. Because the Carolina 's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period, with the British Crown disallowing the one attempt to do so in the 1720s. Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day - to - day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip 's and St Michael 's Anglican parishes.
At the time of contact, the area was inhabited by the Cusabo Indians. The settlers declared war on them in October 1671. The Charlestonians initially allied with the Westo, a slaving northern tribe that had grown powerful trading for guns with the colonists in Virginia. The Westo had made enemies of nearly every other tribe in the region, however, and the English turned on them in 1679. Destroying them by 1680, the settlers were able to use their improved relations with the Cusabo and other tribes to trade, recapture runaway slaves, and engage in slaving raids of Spanish - allied areas.
The Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the Lords Proprietors, proclaimed that it would soon become a "great port towne ''. Instead, the initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village -- established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers around 1672 -- thrived; this settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680. (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing.) Not only was this location more defensible, but it also offered access to a fine natural harbor which accommodated trade with the West Indies. The new town was the 5th - largest in North America by 1690. On Carolina 's southern coast, transportation between the early communities by river and sea was so convenient that Charleston was the only court needed until the late 1750s, but difficulty in transport and communications with the north meant its settlers were effectively independent of Charles Town as late as the governorship of Philip Ludwell; even then, the north was controlled through an appointed deputy governor. On December 7, 1710, the Lords Proprietors decided to separate the Province of North Carolina from Charles Town 's government, although they continued to own and control both regions.
A smallpox outbreak hit in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699 whose ensuing fire destroyed about a third of the town. During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15 % of the remaining inhabitants. Charles Town saw between 5 and 8 major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century. It developed a deserved reputation as one of the least healthy locations in British North America for whites, although mistaken observations over the period led some doctors to think that blacks had a natural immunity to the disease. In fact, both black and white locals appear to have developed a general immunity to the disease by 1750, with future outbreaks (lasting until 1871) tending to only kill new arrivals, prompting its local name "stranger 's fever ''. Malaria -- locally known as "country fever '' since yellow fever was largely confined to Charles Town and the coast -- was endemic and, though not causing so much public panic, was also a major health problem through most of the city 's history before dying out in the 1950s.
Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson. The early settlement was often subject to attack from sea and land. Both Spain and France contested England 's claims to the region. Native Americans and pirates both raided it, though the Yamasee War of the 1710s did not quite reach it. Charles Town was besieged by the pirate "Blackbeard '' for several days in May 1718; his pirates plundered merchant ships and seized the passengers and crew of the Crowley. Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson.
Around 1719, the town 's name began to be generally written Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade. Charlestown was a center for inland colonization of South Carolina, but remained the southernmost point of English settlement on the American mainland until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732. The first settlers primarily came from England and its colonies on Barbados and Bermuda. Protestant French, Scottish, Irish, and Germans immigrated, as did hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi. As late as 1830, Charleston continued to house the largest and wealthiest Jewish community in America. Because of the struggles of the English Reformation and particularly because the papacy long recognized James II 's son as the rightful king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, openly practicing Roman Catholics were prohibited from settling in South Carolina throughout the colonial period. (Catholic emancipation did not proceed in earnest until after the onset of the American Revolution.)
By 1708, however, the majority of the colony 's population were black Africans. They had been brought to Charlestown on the Middle Passage, first as "servants '' and then as slaves. Of the estimated 400,000 Africans transported to North America for sale as slaves, 40 % are thought to have landed at Sullivan 's Island off Charlestown, a "hellish Ellis Island of sorts ''. With no official monument marking this role, the writer Toni Morrison organized a privately funded commemorative bench. The Bakongo, Mbundu, Wolof, Mende, and Malinke peoples formed the largest groups. Free people of color also arrived from the West Indies, where wealthy whites took black consorts and color lines were (especially early on) looser among the working class. South Carolina continued to have a black majority until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century.
At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco, but the early economy developed around the deerskin trade, using alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material used for Europeans ' buckskin pants, gloves, and bookbindings. Records show an average annual export of 54,000 skins for the years from 1699 to 1715. During the height of the trade from 1739 to 1761, 5,239,350 lb (2,376,530 kg) of deerskin were exported through Charlestown, representing between 0.5 -- 1.25 million deer. To a lesser extent, beaver pelts were also exported. At the same time, the Indians were used to enslave one another. From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies but also to Boston and other cities in British North America. The Lowcountry planters did not keep these slaves themselves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt, and instead used the proceeds of their sale to purchase black African slaves for their own plantations. The slaveraiding -- and the European firearms it introduced -- helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession but also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony, after which the practice was largely abandoned.
The area 's unsuitability for tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops. The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast '' who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the Gullah. Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas 's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747. Within three years, British subsidies and high demand had already made it a leading export.
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town 's taverns. Runaways and minor rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act requiring all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays), but before it had fully taken effect the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out. The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak and the rebels killed over forty whites before being stopped by the colonial militia. The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10 - year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown, relying on the communities they already possessed. The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring one white for every ten blacks on any plantation and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read. Drums were banned owing to Africans ' use of them for signaling, although slaves continued to be permitted string and other instruments. When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion meant that slaves from the Congo and Angola were avoided.
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic trade of England 's southern colonies. Even with the decade - long moratorium, its customs processed around 40 % of the African slaves brought to North America between 1700 and 1775. The plantations and the economy based on them made it the wealthiest city in British North America and the largest south of Philadelphia. Its 11,000 inhabitants -- half slaves -- made it the 4th - largest port after Boston, New York, and Philadelphia in 1770. The money also paid for cultural and social development. Charlestown saw America 's first theater building in 1736 at the site of today 's Dock Street Theater. St Michael 's was erected in 1753. Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews. The Library Society was established in 1748 by well - born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. This group also helped establish the town 's college in 1770, the first in the colony. Until its transition to state ownership in 1970, it remained the oldest municipally supported college in the United States.
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange. As part of the Southern theater of the American Revolution, the British attacked the town in force three times, generally assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support. The loyalty of the white southerners had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somerset case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the Abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore 's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of the planter 's slaves; these efforts did however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists.
The Battle of Sullivan 's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col. Moultrie 's militia regiment on June 28, 1776; this was the British Royal Navy 's first defeat in a century. The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie 's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory 's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day.
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Gen. Clinton, who began his siege of Charleston on April 1, 1780 with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships. Bombardment began on March 11. The rebels, led by Gen. Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them. After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck 's Corner and Lenud 's Ferry, Lincoln 's surrender on May 12 became the greatest American defeat of the war.
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local elites by refusing to restore full civil government. General Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis 's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege. General Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town 's inhabitants. Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to oppose British forays. One such foray in August led to a British victory at the Combahee River, but Charlestown was finally evacuated in December 1782. Gen. Greene presented the leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag.
From the summer of 1782, French planters fleeing the Haitian Revolution began arriving in the port with their slaves. The major outbreak of yellow fever that occurred in Philadelphia the next year probably spread there from an epidemic these refugees brought to Charleston, although it was not publicly reported at the time. Over the 19th century, the health officials and newspapers of the town came under repeated criticism from Northerners, fellow Southerners, and one another for covering up epidemics as long as possible in order to keep up the city 's maritime traffic. The distrust and mortal risk meant that between July and October each year communication nearly shut down between the city and the surrounding countryside, which was less susceptible to yellow fever.
The spelling Charleston was adopted in 1783 as part of the city 's formal incorporation.
Although Columbia replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney 's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times. The development made short - staple cotton profitable and opened the upland Piedmont region to slave - based cotton plantations, previously restricted to the sea islands and Lowcountry. Britain 's Industrial Revolution -- initially built upon its textile industry -- took up the extra production ravenously and it was swiftly Charleston 's major export commodity. The Bank of South Carolina, the second - oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798. Branches of the First and Second Bank of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817.
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority slave population. The city 's commitment to slavery was the primary focus of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades ''. American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American ships long refused to permit British inspection and smuggling remained common. The 19th century saw the city 's first dedicated slave markets, mostly near Chalmers & State Streets.
Slave - ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town 's freedmen and other people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so. Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact -- mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the violent slave revolution that established Haiti -- the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color. Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored. Punishment was handled out of sight by the city 's Work House, whose fees netting the municipal government thousands a year. In 1820, a state law mandated that each individual act of freeing a slave henceforth legislative approval, effectively halting the practice.
The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well. The high cost of 19th - century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4 % of the free population controlled half of the wealth and the lower half of the free population -- unable to compete with owned or rented slaves -- held no wealth at all. The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves. All the slaveholders taken together made up 82 % of the city 's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor. Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence '' and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy 's walled estates.
In the 1810s, the town 's churches intensified their discrimination against their black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist 's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its black burial ground. 4,376 black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel. State and city laws prohibited black literacy, limited black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church 's parishioners be white. In June 1818, 140 black church members were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and leaned on it in 1821. In 1822, members of the church led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned a uprising and escape to Haiti -- initially for Bastille Day -- that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master. Over the next month, the city 's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr. organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement. In a sign of Charleston 's antipathy to abolitionists, a white co-conspirator pled for leniency from the court on the grounds that his involvement had been motivated only by greed and not by any sympathy with the slaves ' cause. Governor Thomas Bennett Jr. had pressed for more compassionate and Christian treatment of slaves but his own had been found involved Vesey 's planned uprising. Hamilton was able to successfully campaign for more restrictions on both free and enslaved blacks: South Carolina required free black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9: 15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal which later formed the Citadel 's first campus. The AME congregation built a new church but the city banned it and all black worship services in 1834, following Nat Turner 's 1831 rebellion in Virginia. The estimated 10 % of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque, although they were sometimes permitted beef rations in place of pork.
In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston 's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with. '' This federal action became known as the Charleston incident. The state 's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs.
On 27 April 1838, a massive fire broke out around 9: 00 in the evening. It raged until noon the next day, damaging over 1,000 buildings, a loss estimated at $3 million at the time. In efforts to put the fire out, all the water in the city pumps was used up. The fire ruined businesses, several churches, a new theater, and the entire market except for the fish section. Most famously, Charleston 's Trinity Church was burned. Another important building that fell victim was the new hotel that had been recently built. Many houses were burnt to the ground. The damaged buildings amounted to about one - fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city. The fire rendered penniless many who were wealthy. Several prominent store owners died attempting to save their establishments. When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred. In many ways, the fire helped put Charleston on the map as a great cultural and architectural center. Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration. This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture. The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion.
By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold. The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant. However, the domestic trade was booming. More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt. Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston.
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860 to secede from the Union. On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor.
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861 when shore batteries under the command of General Beauregard opened fire on the US Army - held Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. After a 34 - hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city.
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage. Although Admiral Du Pont 's naval assault on the town 's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy 's blockade shut down most commercial traffic. Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864. The early submarine H.L. Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864.
General Gillmore 's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T. Sherman 's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure. Union troops moved into the city within the month. The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years. The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak.
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction. The war had shattered the city 's prosperity, but the African - American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city. Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches. They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes -- all previously banned -- and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites. Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well. At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18 % of the city 's black population and 8 % of its total population. Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina 's Republican Party and its legislators. Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26 % of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876.
By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents. As the city 's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions. In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston 's African American population. Gen. Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university - preparatory school, Porter - Gaud School.
In 1875, blacks made up 57 % of the city 's and 73 % of the county 's population. With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique '' in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation '', as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction. In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting.
Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments. After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by white Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts. Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street in September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election. The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks. The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature. Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed.
On August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda. It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($1.6 billion in 2016 dollars), at a time when all the city 's buildings were valued around $24 million ($6.5 billion in 2016 dollars).
Investment in the city continued. The William Enston Home, a planned community for the city 's aged and infirm, was built in 1889. An elaborate public building, the United States Post Office and Courthouse, was completed by the federal government in 1896 in the heart of the city. The Democrat - dominated state legislature passed a new constitution in 1895 that disfranchised blacks, effectively excluding them entirely from the political process, a second - class status that was maintained for more than six decades in a state that was majority black until about 1930.
Charleston 's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham 's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s.
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city 's economy.
The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement. It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie. Its story is recounted in Tom Dent 's book Southern Journey (1996).
Joseph P. Riley, Jr., was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city. Riley worked to revive Charleston 's economic and cultural heritage. The last 30 years of the 20th century had major new investments in the city, with a number of municipal improvements and a commitment to historic preservation to restore the city 's unique fabric. There was an effort to preserve working - class housing of African Americans on the historic peninsula, but the neighborhood has gentrified, with rising prices and rents. From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula 's population has shifted from two - thirds black to two - thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks. Many African Americans have moved to the less - expensive suburbs in these decades.
The city 's commitments to investment were not slowed down by Hurricane Hugo and continue to this day. The eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three - quarters of the homes in Charleston 's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees. The hurricane caused over $2.8 billion in damage. The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009.
On June 17, 2015, 21 - year - old Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people. Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack. The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev. Daniel Simmons Sr., 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev. Depayne Middleton - Doctor, 49; Rev. Sharonda Coleman - Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26. The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof 's online postings. On July 10, 2015, the Confederate battle flag was removed from the South Carolina State House. A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner.
On the weekend of October 3 -- 5, 2015, a massive low pressure front settled over Charleston. Simultaneously, Hurricane Joaquin was passing off shore. This combination of low pressure and tropical moisture caused extensive rain, tidal flows and flooding in the Greater Charleston Area. Scientists reported that the tide in Charleston Harbor was higher than during Hurricane Hugo (1989). Damage was significant. Local tourism suffered, but only for the weekend.
In 2010, the racial makeup of Charleston was 70.2 % White, 25.4 % African American, 1.6 % Asian, and 1.5 % of two or more races; in addition, 2.9 % of the population was Hispanic or Latino, of any race.
Given Charleston 's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community. Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents. However, rapid development, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in its prominence.
The traditional Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South. It is typically heard in wealthy white families who trace their families back generations in the city. It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic. Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th - century works: "Charleston Provincialisms '' (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston 's Provincialisms '', published in a German journal. He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers. The rapidly disappearing "Charleston accent '' is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city 's name. Some elderly (and usually upper - class) Charleston natives ignore the ' r ' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chah - l - ston ''.
Charleston is known as "The Holy City '', perhaps because churches are prominent on the low - rise cityscape or because South Carolina was among the few original colonies to tolerate all Christian Protestant denominations (though not Roman Catholicism). The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St. Luke and St. Paul is today the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina. Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century. The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland.
South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction. Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth - oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism. Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Ashkenazi German and a Central European Jew, by the name Sam Berlin, in the mid-19th century.
The city 's oldest Roman Catholic parish, Saint Mary of the Annunciation Roman Catholic Church, is the mother church of Roman Catholicism in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina.
Charleston is known for its unique culture, which blends traditional Southern U.S., English, French, and West African elements. The downtown peninsula has gained a reputation for its art, music, local cuisine, and fashion. Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, has become one of the world 's major performing arts festivals. It was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize - winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy.
Charleston 's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931. A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre. The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation. Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city 's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she - crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits. Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country. The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements.
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17 - day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines. The Spoleto Festival is internationally recognized as America 's premier performing arts festival. The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city. Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation 's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival. The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980.
As it has on every aspect of Charleston culture, the Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music. In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country. The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake 's "Charleston Rag '' and later James P. Johnson 's "Charleston '', as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s. "Ballin ' the Jack '', which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston '', was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith.
The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins in Charleston. The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev. Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music. As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly. These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie. William "Cat '' Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni from the Jenkins Orphanage band who became professional musicians in some of the best bands of the day. Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band 's success. At the Colored Waif 's Home Brass Band in New Orleans, for example, a young trumpeter named Louis Armstrong first began to draw attention.
As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s. The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the USA and Europe. The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy '' by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title. The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community. The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage. Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play). George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera '', as Gershwin called it. Porgy and Bess is considered the Great American Opera and is widely performed.
To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres. A unique showcase of Charleston 's musical heritage is presented weekly. "The Sound of Charleston... from gospel to Gershwin '', is staged at the historic Circular Congregational Church.
The Music Farm concert venue opened in Charleston on Ann Street in 1991.
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America 's first theater. In 2010, Charleston was listed as one of the country 's top 10 cities for theater, and one of the top two in the South. Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston. Some of the city 's theaters include:
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, and other attractions, including:
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:
Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team) and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,700 people who view the school 's basketball and volleyball teams.
Many creative works have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below. In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand - in for Southern and / or historic settings.
Charleston is a major tourist destination, with a considerable number of luxury hotels, hotel chains, inns, and bed and breakfasts, and a large number of restaurants serving Lowcountry cuisine and quality shopping. Charleston is also an important art destination, named a top - 25 arts destination by AmericanStyle magazine.
The city has two shipping terminals, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, which are part of the fourth - largest container seaport on the East Coast and the thirteenth largest container seaport in North America.
Charleston is becoming a prime location for information technology jobs and corporations, and has experienced the highest growth in this sector between 2011 and 2012 due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor. In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region the ninth - best performing economy in the US due in large part to the growing IT sector. Notable companies include Blackbaud, SPARC, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus.
In June 2017, the average sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000.
Charleston has a strong mayor - council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality. The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members. The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg The council has 12 members who are elected from one of 12 districts.
In 2006, Charleston 's residents voted against Amendment 1, which sought to ban same - sex marriage in South Carolina. Statewide, the measure passed by 78 % to 22 %, but the voters of Charleston rejected it by 3,563 (52 %) to 3,353 votes (48 %).
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full - time firefighters. These firefighters operate out of 20 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, and one ladder company. Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department. The department operates on a 24 / 48 schedule and had a Class 1 ISO rating until late 2008, when ISO officially lowered it to Class 3. Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008.
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina 's largest police department. Their procedures on cracking down on drug use and gang violence in the city are used as models to other cities to do the same. According to the final 2005 FBI Crime Reports, Charleston crime level is worse than the national average in almost every major category. Greg Mullen, the former Deputy Chief of the Virginia Beach, Virginia Police Department, serves as the current Chief of the Charleston Police Department. The former Charleston police chief was Reuben Greenberg, who resigned August 12, 2005. Greenberg was credited with creating a polite police force that kept police brutality well in check, even as it developed a visible presence in community policing and a significant reduction in crime rates.
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS). The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties.
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state. The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital. MUSC is the state 's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth - oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States. The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals. Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours - St Francis Xavier Hospital. The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston.
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions. Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions.
The following table shows Charleston 's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America 's most dangerous cities '', in comparison to the national average. The statistics shown are not for the actual number of crimes committed, but for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people.
Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has begun to decline. The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597.1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236.4 per 100,000. (The United States average is 320.9 per 100,000.)
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of downtown Charleston. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John 's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority.
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7.5 miles from downtown Charleston.
Interstate 26 (I - 26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge and Meeting Street. Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I - 95, and Columbia. The Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U.S. Route 17 (US 17), which travels east -- west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant. The Mark Clark Expressway, or I - 526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17. US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side. This highway merges with King Street in the city 's Neck area (industrial district). US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street.
The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the second - longest cable - stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction. The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12 - foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles. It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N. Pearman Bridge (built in 1966). They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened.
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA). Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system 's Rack and Ride program. CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel - A-Ride buses.
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley - Charleston - Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association. The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link.
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2014. It consists of five terminals, and a sixth terminal was to open in 2018. Despite occasional labor disputes, the port is ranked number one in customer satisfaction across North America by supply chain executives. Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city 's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism.
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal. A harbor - deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston 's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide. With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively.
Union Pier, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosts numerous cruise departures annually. In May 2010, the Carnival Fantasy was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering weekly cruises to the Bahamas and Key West, eventually to include Bermuda. With the addition of the weekly Carnival Fantasy sailings, Union Terminal hosted 67 embarkations and ports of call in 2010.
With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long term lease. With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc. is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast. Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships.
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District. Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island.
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter - Gaud School (K - 12), Charleston Collegiate School (K - 12), Ashley Hall (Pre K - 12), Charleston Day School (1 -- 8), First Baptist Church School (K - 12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K - 12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K - 12), Mason Preparatory School (K - 8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K - 8).
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K - 8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder '' schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city. Bishop England, Porter - Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city 's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years.
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston (the nation 's 13th - oldest university), The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina. The city is also home to private universities, including the Charleston School of Law. Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region 's technical school, Trident Technical College. Charleston is also the location for the only college in the country that offers bachelor 's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts. The Art Institute of Charleston, located downtown on North Market Street, opened in 2007. Higher education includes institutions such as the Medical University of South Carolina, College of Charleston, The Citadel, and Charleston School of Law. In addition, Charleston Southern University is located in nearby North Charleston.
Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, and Hanahan are home to branches of the United States military. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902 -- 1996) became the third largest U.S. homeport, with 23,500 Navy and Marine personnel, and 13,200 civilians serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the combined facilities of the Naval Base and Weapons Station created the largest U.S. submarine port. The Charleston Naval Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, submarine tenders, and submarines. Also during this period, the shipyard conducted refueling of nuclear submarines.
The Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet 's loadout base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN "Boomer '' squadrons and a submarine tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a submarine tender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 closure of the station 's Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM - 27 Polaris, UGM - 73 Poseidon, and UGM - 96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and maintained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps security force company.
In 2010, the Air Force base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (> 17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, supporting 53 military commands and federal agencies, provides service to over 79,000 airmen, sailors, soldiers, Marines, coast guardsmen, Department of Defense civilians, dependents, and retirees.
Charleston is the nation 's 98th - largest Designated market area (DMA), with 312,770 households and 0.27 % of the U.S. TV population. These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
Charleston has one official sister city, Spoleto, Umbria, Italy. The relationship between the two cities began when Pulitzer Prize - winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto 's annual Festival of Two Worlds. "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location. The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure. ''
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown, St. Peter, Barbados. The original parts of Charlestown were based on the plans of Barbados 's capital city Bridgetown. Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados.
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what kind of boats are in the americas cup | 2017 America 's Cup - wikipedia
The 2017 America 's Cup was the 35th staging of the America 's Cup yacht race. The challenger, Emirates Team New Zealand, won by a score of 7 to 1 over the defender, Oracle Team USA. It was held on the Great Sound in Bermuda from June 17 to June 26. The races were conducted using hydrofoiling AC50 America 's Cup Class yachts, which are slightly larger than the AC45F yachts used in the 2015 -- 16 America 's Cup World Series.
It was Oracle 's second defense of the America 's Cup, four years after its first successful defense. Emirates Team New Zealand will now hope to defend the cup in the 36th America 's Cup.
The 2017 America 's Cup course was on the Great Sound in Bermuda, the venue at the Royal Naval Dockyard.
In June 2014, media reported the venue of the 34th America 's Cup, San Francisco, was no longer in consideration to host the 35th edition. San Diego, Chicago and Bermuda were listed as being still in the running. In July 2014, americascup.com reported that Chicago was dropped from the running, and finally on 2 December 2014, Bermuda was announced as the host of the 2017 America 's Cup. The Premier of Bermuda, Michael Dunkley, welcomed the teams, sponsors, and spectators at a press conference in New York.
The financial package included in the bid by Bermuda was worth approximately US $ 77 million, including a $15 million sponsorship fee, $25 million for infrastructure improvements, $12 million operating costs and a $25 million guarantee against commercial sponsorships. Dr. Grant Gibbons, Bermuda 's Minister for Economic Development, stated that the America 's Cup had a possibility of generating revenue of up to US $250 million in Bermuda.
Security arrangements at the Dockyard were assumed by HM 's Royal Bermuda Regiment after termination of contract between the local security provider and the AC35.
On 1 October 2013, Australia 's Hamilton Island Yacht Club was confirmed as the "Challenger of Record '' for the 35th America 's Cup, after submitting their paperwork only moments after the win by Oracle Team USA. The HIYC challenge was accepted by the Golden Gate Yacht Club, who was the Defender and Trustee of the America 's Cup. Australian businessman Bob Oatley, founder of Rosemount and owner of famed super maxi yacht Wild Oats XI, was confirmed to be the main financial backer of the Hamilton Island Yacht Club challenge.
On 19 July 2014 Russell Coutts, Director of the America 's Cup Event Authority (ACEA), announced that the Hamilton Island Yacht club had withdrawn Team Australia from the 35th America 's Cup. Team Australia claimed that the entry fee rules agreed to in the official protocol created too much risk due to the uncertainty of the then unknown venue and schedule of the event.
The Challenger of Record Committee (CORC) represents all of the challengers ' interests and negotiates with Oracle over mutual concerns. Luna Rossa replaced HIYC as the challenger of record. In April 2015, Luna Rossa withdrew its challenge bid, pulling out of the 2017 America 's Cup in protest at rule changes reducing the size of the boats.
On 5 June 2014, it was announced that the regatta would be sailed in 62 - foot - long (18.9 m) foiling catamarans, the AC62. The entry fee was $3 million. Each challenging team could build only one boat while Oracle Team USA could build two. A nationality rule was agreed, requiring 25 percent of the crew to be from the entry 's country. This nationality rule had been lifted prior to the 2003 America 's Cup. The rules specified the combined weight of the crew could not exceed 525 kg. The neutral International adjudicating yachting panel was dropped in favour of a three - man panel appointed by the defender.
In March 2015, the teams voted to reduce the size of the boats to the 45 - to 50 - foot range, leading to the withdrawal in protest of Luna Rossa. This in turn led to a joint statement from four teams attacking Team New Zealand which had supported Luna Rossa.
The America 's Cup was contested by its defender Oracle Team USA, who represent the Golden Gate Yacht Club. The challenger was Emirates Team New Zealand, for Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, who had defeated the other four challengers to win the Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Challenger Playoffs trophy.
Teams were allowed to take onedesign AC45s out of measurement by modifying crossbeams, wings and rudders, adding hydraulic systems, as well as produce a maximum of six custom daggerboards to test on the existing platform ahead of building their race boat. All teams took advantage of this opportunity: Oracle Racing modified three AC45s, selling their first development boat to SoftBank Team Japan as part of their technology - sharing agreement and subsequently conducted a two - boat testing program with their last two boats; Land Rover BAR modified three AC45s and conducted a two - boat testing program with their last two boats; Artemis Racing modified two AC45s and conducted a two - boat testing program with them. Groupama Team France, Luna Rossa and Emirates Team New Zealand modified one AC45 each. Luna Rossa later gifted their boat to Team New Zealand.
Emirates Team New Zealand also modified SL33 foiling wingsail catamarans to try new ideas for its race boat, in which they produced a number of distinct features absent from other boats in the fleet: The two four - handed grinding pedestals on their development AC45 were replaced by four cycling stations; Peter Burling was the only helmsman to be relieved of daggerboard controls in order to focus on steering only; instead cyclor Blair Tuke undertook daggerboard deployment, trim and overall responsibility of pitch angle and ride height; Daggerboards were lengthier than those of other teams by virtue of a distinct dihedral bend in the middle of the hydrofoil tip.
The rise in foiling catamarans encouraged competing teams to enter into technical partnerships with companies specializing in aerospace technologies. Land Rover BAR allied with Red Bull Advanced Technologies, headed by ten - time Formula 1 World Constructor 's Championship car designer Adrian Newey. Oracle Team USA entered a technical partnership with Airbus. Artemis Racing allied with high performance engineering giant Cosworth. Luna Rossa Challenge had partnered with Lenovo to analyze and predict race simulations, assisting in the design of their boat.
The America 's Cup World Series was won by Land Rover BAR, earning two points to take into the 2017 Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Qualifiers Round. The runner up was Oracle Team USA, earning one point to take into the Qualifiers Round.
Oracle Team USA won the 2017 Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Qualifiers Round, earning one point to take into the 2017 America 's Cup competition. Emirates Team New Zealand, Land Rover BAR, Artemis Racing and SoftBank Team Japan advanced from the 2017 Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Qualifiers Round to the Challenger Playoffs Semi-finals, while Groupama Team France was eliminated from further competition.
Emirates Team New Zealand eliminated Land Rover BAR in the 2017 Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Challenger Playoffs Semi-finals, advancing to the Challenger Playoffs against Artemis Racing who had eliminated SoftBank Team Japan in the other semi-final.
Emirates Team New Zealand won the 2017 Louis Vuitton America 's Cup Challenger Playoffs Final against Artemis, 5 -- 2, advancing to face Oracle Team USA in the 2017 America 's Cup.
Races were held from 17 June. The first team to seven points wins and becomes the Defender of the America 's Cup. Due to Oracle Team USA 's win in the America 's Cup Qualifiers, Emirates Team New Zealand started the match with a score of − 1.
The first race of the day is scheduled each time at 2: 00 pm ADT. The race data were published on the official noticeboard.
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who is bill pullman's wife in the sinner | The Sinner (TV series) - wikipedia
The Sinner is an American crime drama mystery television series, based on the novel of the same name by German crime writer Petra Hammesfahr. Eight episodes of the program, originally conceived of as a "close - ended series '', were ordered in January 2017 and premiered on USA Network on August 2, 2017. In March 2018, the series was renewed for a second season, also of eight episodes, which premiered on August 1, 2018.
The first season of The Sinner received two nominations at the 75th Golden Globe Awards: Best Miniseries or Television Film and Best Actress -- Miniseries or Television Film for Jessica Biel. Biel was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.
In the first season, Detective Harry Ambrose (Bill Pullman) delves into the past of a troubled young mother (Jessica Biel) in order to determine why she fatally stabbed a man during a beach outing but has no memory of why she committed the crime.
In the second season, Ambrose returns to his hometown, in the burned - over district of western New York, after a 13 - year - old boy confesses to poisoning his parents and learns secrets that the town 's inhabitants are determined to keep buried.
The series, described as a "close - ended series '' by the network, was adapted from the novel of the same name by Petra Hammesfahr; however, the book 's darker outlook was toned down and the location shifted from Germany to Upstate New York in the United States. It is the first time that Biel has served as an executive producer on a series, a role she said was "gold ''. Biel stated that she moved into production so that she could develop projects with challenging and interesting roles rather than wait for them to happen.
The series was ordered on January 17, 2017, and the eight episodes were broadcast on USA Network between August 2 and September 20, 2017. Originally, the series was created as a miniseries; however, in March 2018, it was announced that The Sinner would return for a second season. The second season premiered on August 1, 2018, and is set to comprise eight episodes.
In May 2018, Carrie Coon, Natalie Paul and Hannah Gross were cast for the second season as Vera, Heather and Marin respectively.
The series received critical acclaim, with Biel 's performance being praised. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 94 % based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Smartly unpredictable and led by powerful performances from a talented cast, the darkly compelling The Sinner sinks its hooks in fast and does n't let go. '' Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, gave the series an average weighted score of 71 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In August 2017, it was announced as the No. 1 new cable series of 2017, according to Nielsen delayed viewing data.
A 100 % approval rating for the second season was reported by Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.54 / 10 based on 22 reviews, and a critical consensus reading, "In its second season, The Sinner establishes itself as an engrossing why - dunnit thriller series with staying power. '' Metacritic assigned a score of 75 out of 100 based on 16 critics for the second season, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Once again praising the writing and performances, several critics noting that the follow - up series surpassed expectations for season two, as star Jessica Biel 's character is not returning from the first season, which also used up the source material from the original book.
Alex McLevy of The A.V. Club wrote a rave review of the first few episodes, in particular the performance of Carrie Coon as the mysterious Vera Walker. McLevy wrote that the second season could be even better than the first, noting, "Two things keep it from feeling like a rehash of season one: the excellent choices in new narrative twists made by writer - creator Derek Simonds, and the caliber of talent involved in bringing it to life. Chief among the latter group is Carrie Coon, who... brings a wonderful fusion of frazzled humanism and sinister duplicity to the part, another magnetic performance by the actor that elevates the material and lends gravitas to some of the more daffily implausible turns. ''
Ben Travers of indieWire wrote, "Derek Simonds assembled a helluva team for an intriguing follow - up season. The first three episodes of Season 2 match the tone and intensity of the writer 's gripping debut, while new cast members Tracy Letts, Natalie Paul, and Carrie Coon more than make up for any holes left by the original cast... Season 2 has enough going on it could spin off the rails, but the mere fact it has so much working for it thus far is a big win for everyone involved. The Sinner is no one - hit wonder. ''
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when does chapter 106 of attack on titan come out | List of Attack on Titan chapters - wikipedia
Attack on Titan is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hajime Isayama. Set in a world where humanity lives inside cities surrounded by enormous walls due to the Titans, gigantic humanoid creatures who devour humans seemingly without reason, the story centers around Eren Yaeger, his foster sister Mikasa Ackerman, and their friend Armin Arlert, whose lives are changed forever after the appearance of a Colossus Titan brings about the destruction of their home town and the death of Eren 's mother. Vowing revenge and to reclaim the world from the Titans, Eren, Mikasa and Armin join the Survey Corps, an elite group of soldiers who fight Titans outside the walls.
The series began serialization in Kodansha 's monthly publication Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine in its September 2009 issue. The first tankōbon volume was released in March 2010, and as of August 2018, twenty - six volumes have been released. In North America, the series is published in English by Kodansha USA, that first published the first volume on June 19, 2012, with a three - or four - month interval between each release until mid 2013, when subsequent volumes started being released on a monthly basis to catch up faster with the original Japanese releases. The series has also been adapted into an anime by Production I.G 's Wit Studio, with the first episode airing on April 7, 2013, on MBS. The anime is also being streamed by both Funimation and Crunchyroll on their respective websites.
Chapters in the Kodansha USA publications are numbered as episodes.
Attack on Titan: Junior High (進撃! 巨人 中学校, Shingeki! Kyojin Chūgakkō) is a parody manga written and illustrated by Saki Nakagawa, serialized in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine since its May 2012 issue. The first tankōbon volume was released April 9, 2013, and the eleventh and last was released on August 9, 2016. In North America, the series has been licensed in English by Kodansha USA, who published the first volume on March 11, 2014 and the fifth and last on July 31, 2018.
Attack on Titan: Before the Fall (進撃 の 巨人 Before the fall) is a spinoff manga illustrated by Satoshi Shiki, based on the prequel light novel series of the same name written by Ryō Suzukaze. The series has been serialized in Monthly Shōnen Sirius since August 2013. The first tankōbon volume was released on December 9, 2013. In North America, the series has been licensed in English by Kodansha USA, who published the first volume on March 11, 2014.
Attack on Titan: No Regrets (進撃 の 巨人 悔い なき 選択, Shingeki no Kyojin Kuinaki Sentaku) is a spinoff manga written by Gun Snark and illustrated by Hikaru Suruga, serialized in the Aria magazine from its start in the November 28, 2013 issue to June 28, 2014. The manga is an adaptation of the visual novel of the same name. It focuses on the origin story of Levi, before he was a part of the Survey Corps Special Operations Squad. In North America, the series has been licensed in English by Kodansha USA, which released both volumes in 2014.
Sungeki no Kyojin (寸劇 の 巨人, "Titan Short Skits '') is a comedic yonkoma manga written and illustrated by hounori, released on Kodansha 's "Manga Box '' smartphone and tablet application from December 2013 to December 30, 2014, in both Japanese and English. The first tankōbon was published on August 8, 2014, and the second on April 9, 2015.
A manga adaptation by Ryōsuke Fuji of visual and light novel by the same name, that began serialization in Kodansha 's shōnen manga magazine Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on August 9, 2015. The series ended in the June 2016 issue of the magazine on May 9, 2016. In North America, the series has been licensed in English by Kodansha USA, which released the volumes in 2016 and 2017.
Attack on Titan: Before the Fall (進撃 の 巨人 Before the fall) is a light novel written by Ryō Suzukaze and illustrated by Thores Shibamoto. It initially follows the story of Angel, the blacksmith who develops the first prototypes of the Vertical Maneuvering Equipment, before focusing on a young man who was found as a baby in the stomach of a Titan. Three volumes of Before the Fall were published between December 2, 2011, and June 29, 2012. Vertical licensed the light novels in October 2013 for distribution in English.
Attack on Titan: Harsh Mistress of the City (進撃 の 巨人 隔絶 都市 の 女王, Shingeki no Kyojin Kakuzetsu Toshi no Joō) is written by Ryō Kawakami and illustrated by Range Murata. It depicts the aftermath of the fall of Wall Maria first shown at the beginning of the manga. The first volume was published on August 1, 2014 and the second and last on May 1, 2015. Vertical released both volumes in English in 2015.
Attack on Titan: Lost Girls (進撃 の 巨人 Lost Girls) is written by Hiroshi Seko. It comprises three short stories featuring Mikasa Ackerman and Annie Leonhart, titled "Lost in the cruel world '', "Wall Sina, Goodbye ''. It was published in Japan on December 9, 2014, and in North America on June 28, 2016 by Vertical.
Garrison Girl: An Attack on Titan Novel was written by an American writer Rachel Aaron and published by Quirk Books on August 7, 2018. It is centered on Rosalie Dumarque, who defies her family to join military garrison.
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the curious incident of the dog in the night time cast | The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time (play) - wikipedia
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time is a play by Simon Stephens based on the novel of the same name by Mark Haddon. During its premiere run, the play tied the record for winning the most Olivier Awards (seven), including Best New Play at the 2013 ceremony (this record was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Cursed Child in 2017 with 9 wins).
The play premiered on 2 August 2012 in the Cottesloe Theatre at the Royal National Theatre in London before transferring to the Apollo Theatre in the West End on 12 March 2013. The production won 7 Olivier Awards in 2013 (including Best New Play), at the time equaling the record with Matilda the Musical in 2012, before both were surpassed by Harry Potter and the Cursed Child in 2017 with 9 awards. During a performance on 19 December 2013, the ceiling of the Apollo Theatre collapsed causing the production to close. It reopened on 9 July 2014 at the Gielgud Theatre. The play closed at the Gielgud on 3 June 2017.
The Broadway production debuted at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on 5 October 2014 and closed on 4 September 2016. It won the 2015 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play, 2015 Outer Critics Circle Award Outstanding New Broadway Play, the 2015 Drama League Award for Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off - Broadway Play, and the 2015 Tony Award for Best Play.
The story concerns a mystery surrounding the death of a neighbour 's dog that is investigated by young Christopher Boone, who has an autism spectrum condition, and his relationships with his parents and school mentor. The play reworked the source material by changing its voice and presenting the story as a play - within - a-play. The play has received a generally warm reception, with most critics impressed by its ability to convey the point of view of the young protagonist and the compassion of his school mentor. Critics also generally spoke highly of the visual effects employed during the show.
The play involves a significant reworking of the source material. Rather than present the story in the first - person narrative as the original novel did, the play is presented as a reading of Boone 's own writing, read aloud in segments by his teacher. The result is that the play is presented as a play - within - a-play.
The play, set in Swindon and London is about a 15 - year - old amateur detective named Christopher John Francis Boone who is a mathematical genius. He appears to have an unspecified autism spectrum disorder that is variously described as either autism or Asperger 's Syndrome, although the condition is never explicitly stated in the play. The titular curious incident is the mystery surrounding the death of a neighbour 's dog, Wellington, found speared by a garden fork.
While searching for the murderer of the dog, he encounters resistance from many neighbours, but mostly from his father, Ed Boone. Christopher argues to himself that many rules are made to be broken, so he continues to search for an answer; he compares himself to Sherlock Holmes. When he discovers that his father killed the dog, Christopher fears for his own life and travels to London to find and live with his mother, who his father, after being left by her, had told Christopher she had died from a heart attack. He encounters many problems during the journey, but is welcomed by his mother. However, the road to his ambitions leads him back to Swindon, where he wants to pass an important mathematics tests. Everything seems to be an obstacle, but Christopher is eventually reunited with his father and this improves his own future.
In a short scene after the curtain call, Christopher reappears to brilliantly solve a mathematics problem posed earlier in the play.
Adapted by Simon Stephens and directed by Marianne Elliott, the show premièred at the Royal National Theatre 's Cottesloe Theatre on 2 August 2012. The performance there were played in the round. The production starred Luke Treadaway as Christopher, Niamh Cusack as his inspirational teacher Siobhan, Nicola Walker as his mother Judy, Paul Ritter as his father Ed and Una Stubbs as Mrs. Alexander. The production, which ran until late October 2012, was broadcast live to cinemas worldwide on Thursday 6 September 2012 through the National Theatre Live programme. The show transferred to the West End 's Apollo Theatre in March. Performances began on 1 March, with an official opening on 12 March. Seán Gleeson and Holly Aird joined the cast as Christopher 's parents.
On 19 December 2013, during a performance, part of the Apollo Theatre 's roof collapsed, injuring nearly 80 people. As a result, all further performances were cancelled and a new theatre was sought. The Apollo 's balcony required extensive repairs. In February 2014, the producers staged 8 free lunchtime performances for audiences from 14 secondary schools at the Stratford Old Town Hall. The production finally re-opened at the nearby Gielgud Theatre, beginning previews on 24 June 2014, with its official opening night on 9 July.
The West End production closed on 3 June 2017, after playing over 1,600 performances.
The play opened on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on 5 October 2014, after beginning previews on 10 September. It is again produced by the Royal National Theatre and directed by Elliott. The original Broadway cast included Alex Sharp (in his first professional role ever) as Christopher, Enid Graham as his mother Judy, Ian Barford as his father Ed, and Francesca Faridany as Siobhan. The production is choreographed by Scott Graham and Steven Hoggett.
The Broadway production closed on 4 September 2016 after 800 performances.
The first UK and Ireland tour of the production began in December 2014 at the Lowry Theatre in Salford before completing a 32 - city tour across the UK and Ireland.
The first US national tour of the production began on September 27, 2016 at the Auditorium Theatre in Rochester, New York.
A second UK and Ireland tour is scheduled to began in Salford in January 2017 and is scheduled through to September 2017.
Before it opened on Broadway, it premiered in Mexico in 2013 with the name "El Curioso Incidente del Perro a Medianoche '', thus becoming the first international production of the play. Luis Gerardo Méndez played the main character, alternating with Alfonso Dosal. The play ran in Mexico until 2015.
The third international production of the play played at the Kwanglim Art Center in Seoul, South Korea. Preview shows with the first - ever all Korean cast began on 27 November 2015, and ran until 31 January 2016.
The following tables show the casts of the principal original productions:
* - denotes the actor performing at certain performances
Notable replacements at the Apollo included Rakie Ayola as Siobhan, Amanda Drew as Judy and Daniel Casey as Roger Shears. On 13 September 2015 several members of the original Broadway cast performed their last show and were replaced on 15 September with a new cast. For its debut, the Korean production double - or triple - cast almost all of the main characters ' roles.
The nominations for the 2013 Laurence Olivier Awards, which recognise excellence in professional productions staged in London, were announced on 26 March 2013. The production secured the most nominations with eight, including Best New Play, Best Director (Elliott), Best Actor (Treadaway), Best Actress in a Supporting Role, and other categories including Best Set Design, Best Lighting Design, Best Sound Design and Best Choreographer. The production eventually won seven Olivier awards, thereby equalling Matilda the Musical 's record win total in 2012. The play was also acclaimed with the Best New Play on 17 February 2013 at the Whatsonstage Awards.
Lyn Gardner of The Guardian wrote a rave review, commenting that "There are times when the show comes perilously close to sentimentality, but the clarity of Christopher 's gaze is so unflinching that it often makes you uncomfortable, and the show is equally clear - eyed on the difficulties of parenting, messiness of life, and torment of a child who can not bear to be touched... Leading a fine cast, Luke Treadaway is superb as Christopher, appealing and painful to watch, like the show itself. ''
Susannah Clapp, of The Observer, wrote in 2013, "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time was one of the most original shows and startling successes at the National last year. It 's hard to recall the surprise of this... Yet it at first seemed unlikely that Mark Haddon 's novel about a boy with a mathematical gift and ' behavioural problems ' could possibly work in the theatre. '' Paul Taylor of The Independent described the work as an "imaginative adaptation '' and "brilliant production '' saying that it was presented in a "fresh and arresting light '' while balancing humor and tragedy. Taylor judged Treadaway 's performance superlative citing, among other things, his rhythm, movements and delivery. Matt Wolf of The New York Times added that the play 's debut was well - timed in relation to the 2012 London Summer Olympics: "its triumphalist spirit tallies exactly with the mood of this summer 's athletic aspirations ''.
Ben Brantley, the chief theatre critic of The New York Times, wrote: "As directed by Marianne Elliott, working with an inspired set of designers, Christopher 's maiden voyage into an alien metropolis becomes a virtuoso study in sensory overload. Those lights, noises, street signs, road maps, random words that spell themselves into being, and, oh yes, that moving staircase that materializes out of nowhere: it all keeps coming at you ''. Brantley went on to say that the "extraordinary accomplishment '' of the play "is that it forces you to look at the world through Christopher 's order - seeking eyes. In doing so you 're likely to reconsider the dauntless battle your own mind is always waging against the onslaught of stimuli that is life. Scary, is n't it? Exhilarating too. '' Brantley found fault, however, with "having Siobhan... recite the story he has written, presented as a school project. Ms. Cusack does this with a gushy, artificial sense of wonder that you associate with grown - ups talking to small children... Yuck. ''
Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph, on the other hand, thought that Siobhan 's turning the book Christopher writes into a play "may sound cumbersome but it works superbly ''. Like others, Spencer praised Treadaway: "He is unbearably poignant in moments of distress when he kneels with his face on the ground and moans, but also movingly captures the character 's courage, his brilliance at mathematics, and his startling perspectives on the world... thanks to Treadaway 's pained honesty and twitchy awkwardness, as well as his moments of exultant joy, Christopher Boone feels like both a hero and a friend, though the happy ending is rightly qualified. '' Spencer also praised Gleason and Cusack.
Richard Zoglin of Time described the play as "a demonstration of the power of theater to transport us to exotic places ''. Steven Suskin, drama critic for The Huffington Post, said the play entertains, illuminates, and brings us to an exalted new place. Adam Green of Vogue says the play is "a testament to the singular power of theater ''. Brantley, in his review of the New York production, called the work "manipulative '', writing that it "retunes the way you see and hear '' by forcing you to embrace a heightened sensory perception along with the main protagonist. Elysa Gardner of USA Today described the experience of viewing the play as a journey "inside Christopher 's gifted, troubled mind using inventive visual and sonic effects ''. She lauded Sharp 's "movement, expressions and voice making the boy 's terrors and his ferocious intelligence seem equally natural ''.
Peter Marks of The Washington Post praised the visual graphics of the show as being better presented than the "textual and performance elements '' noting that the working of Boone 's brain upstaged the detective work of finding the killer. Jennifer Farrar of the Associated Press thought the show a "charming, intricately choreographed and dynamic theatrical experience '' and that Alex Sharp 's presentation of Christopher exemplifies the life skill of overcoming personal challenge. Deadline.com 's Jeremy Gerard felt that the production combines the obsessed math prodigy element of A Beautiful Mind with the mentoring compassion of Billy Elliot. Joe Dziemianowicz of The Daily News found Sharp 's performance "dazzling '' and "physical and emotionally intense '' and praised the design, lighting, music and video displays.
Terry Teachout, drama critic for The Wall Street Journal dissented, describing the "fantastically elaborate video projections '' pejoratively, saying that they are smothering. He felt the show was popular because of the trendy nature of Asperger 's syndrome and that it was too reliant on trickery. His Wall Street Journal colleague Stefanie Cohen thought the play suffered from difficulty in adapting the book to the stage.
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when did hurricane sandy hit the united states | Hurricane Sandy - Wikipedia
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Hurricane Sandy (unofficially referred to as "Superstorm Sandy '') was the deadliest and most destructive hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, and the second - costliest hurricane in United States history. Classified as the eighteenth named storm, tenth hurricane and second major hurricane of the year, Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba. While it was a Category 2 hurricane off the coast of the Northeastern United States, the storm became the largest Atlantic hurricane on record (as measured by diameter, with winds spanning 1,100 miles (1,800 km)). Estimates as of 2015 assessed damage to have been about $75 billion (2012 USD), a total surpassed only by Hurricane Katrina. At least 233 people were killed along the path of the storm in eight countries.
Sandy developed from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22, quickly strengthened, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Sandy six hours later. Sandy moved slowly northward toward the Greater Antilles and gradually intensified. On October 24, Sandy became a hurricane, made landfall near Kingston, Jamaica, re-emerged a few hours later into the Caribbean Sea and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane. On October 25, Sandy hit Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane, then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 26, Sandy moved through the Bahamas. On October 27, Sandy briefly weakened to a tropical storm and then restrengthened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 29, Sandy curved west - northwest (the "left turn '' or "left hook '') and then moved ashore near Brigantine, New Jersey, just to the northeast of Atlantic City, as a post-tropical cyclone with hurricane - force winds.
In Jamaica, winds left 70 % of residents without electricity, blew roofs off buildings, killed one, and caused about $100 million (2012 USD) in damage. Sandy 's outer bands brought flooding to Haiti, killing at least 54, causing food shortages, and leaving about 200,000 homeless; the hurricane also caused two deaths in the Dominican Republic. In Puerto Rico, one man was swept away by a swollen river. In Cuba, there was extensive coastal flooding and wind damage inland, destroying some 15,000 homes, killing 11, and causing $2 billion (2012 USD) in damage. Sandy caused two deaths and damage estimated at $700 million (2012 USD) in The Bahamas.
In the United States, Hurricane Sandy affected 24 states, including the entire eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine and west across the Appalachian Mountains to Michigan and Wisconsin, with particularly severe damage in New Jersey and New York. Its storm surge hit New York City on October 29, flooding streets, tunnels and subway lines and cutting power in and around the city. Damage in the United States amounted to $71.4 billion (2013 USD). In Canada, two were killed in Ontario and an estimated $100 million (2012 CAD) in damage was caused throughout Ontario and Quebec.
Hurricane Sandy began as a low pressure system which developed sufficient organized convection to be classified as Tropical Depression Eighteen on October 22 south of Kingston, Jamaica. It moved slowly at first due to a ridge to the north. Low wind shear and warm waters allowed for strengthening, and the system was named Tropical Storm Sandy late on October 22. Early on October 24, an eye began developing, and it was moving steadily northward due to an approaching trough. Later that day, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgraded Sandy to hurricane status about 65 mi (105 km) south of Kingston, Jamaica. At about 1900 UTC that day, Sandy made landfall near Kingston with winds of about 85 mph (140 km / h). Just offshore Cuba, Sandy rapidly intensified to winds of 115 mph (185 km / h), and at that intensity it made landfall just west of Santiago de Cuba at 0525 UTC on October 25.
After Sandy exited Cuba, the structure became disorganized, and it turned to the north - northwest over the Bahamas. By October 27, Sandy was no longer fully tropical, and despite strong shear, it maintained convection due to influence from an approaching trough; the same trough turned the hurricane to the northeast. After briefly weakening to a tropical storm, Sandy re-intensified into a hurricane, and on October 28 an eye began redeveloping. The storm moved around an upper - level low over the eastern United States and also to the southwest of a ridge over Atlantic Canada, turning it to the northwest. Sandy briefly re-intensified to Category 2 intensity on the morning of October 29, around which time it had a wind diameter of over 1,150 miles (1,850 km). The convection diminished while the hurricane accelerated toward the New Jersey coast, and the hurricane was no longer tropical by 2100 UTC on October 29. About 2 / hours later, Sandy made landfall near Brigantine, New Jersey, with winds of 80 mph (130 km / h). During the next four days, Sandy 's remnants drifted northward and then northeastward over Ontario, before merging with another low pressure area over Eastern Canada on November 2.
On October 23, 2012, the path of Hurricane Sandy was correctly predicted by the European Centre for Medium - Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) headquartered in Reading, England nearly eight days in advance of its striking the American East Coast. The computer model noted that the storm would turn west towards land and strike the New York / New Jersey region on October 29, rather than turn east and head out to the open Atlantic as most hurricanes in this position do. By October 27, four days after the ECMWF made its prediction, the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center confirmed the path of the hurricane predicted by the European model. The National Weather Service was criticized for not employing its higher - resolution forecast models the way that its European counterpart did. A hardware and software upgrade completed at the end of 2013 enabled the weather service to make more accurate predictions, and do so far more in advance than the technology in 2012 had allowed.
According to NCAR senior climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth, "The answer to the oft - asked question of whether an event is caused by climate change is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be. '' Although NOAA meteorologist Martin Hoerling attributes Sandy to "little more than the coincidental alignment of a tropical storm with an extratropical storm '', Trenberth does agree that the storm was caused by "natural variability '' but adds that it was "enhanced by global warming ''. One factor contributing to the storm 's strength was abnormally warm sea surface temperatures offshore the East Coast of the United States -- more than 3 ° C (5 ° F) above normal, to which global warming had contributed 0.6 ° C (1 ° F). As the temperature of the atmosphere increases, the capacity to hold water increases, leading to stronger storms and higher rainfall amounts.
As they move north, Atlantic hurricanes typically are forced east and out to sea by the Prevailing Westerlies. In Sandy 's case, this typical pattern was blocked by a ridge of high pressure over Greenland resulting in a negative North Atlantic Oscillation, forming a kink in the jet stream, causing it to double back on itself off the East Coast. Sandy was caught up in this northwesterly flow. The blocking pattern over Greenland also stalled an Arctic front which combined with the cyclone. Mark Fischetti of Scientific American said that the jet stream 's unusual shape was caused by the melting of Arctic ice. Trenberth said that while a negative North Atlantic Oscillation and a blocking anticyclone were in place, the null hypothesis remained that this was just the natural variability of weather. Sea level at New York and along the New Jersey coast has increased by nearly a foot (300 mm) over the last hundred years, which contributed to the storm surge. Harvard geologist Daniel P. Schrag calls Hurricane Sandy 's 13 - foot (4 m) storm surge an example of what will, by mid-century, be the "new norm on the Eastern seaboard ''.
After the storm became a tropical cyclone on October 22, the Government of Jamaica issued a tropical storm watch for the entire island. Early on October 23, the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued. At 1500 UTC, the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning, while the tropical storm warning was discontinued. In preparation of the storm, many residents stocked up on supplies and reinforced roofing material. Acting Prime Minister Peter Phillips urged people to take this storm seriously, and also to take care of their neighbors, especially the elderly, children, and disabled. Government officials shut down schools, government buildings, and the airport in Kingston on the day prior to the arrival of Sandy. Meanwhile, numerous and early curfews were put in place to protect residents, properties, and to prevent crime. Shortly after Jamaica issued its first watch on October 22, the Government of Haiti issued a tropical storm watch for Haiti. By late October 23, it was modified to a tropical storm warning.
The Government of Cuba posted a hurricane watch for the Cuban Provinces of Camagüey, Granma, Guantánamo, Holguín, Las Tunas, and Santiago de Cuba at 1500 UTC on October 23. Only three hours later, the hurricane watch was switched to a hurricane warning. The Government of the Bahamas, at 1500 UTC on October 23, issued a tropical storm watch for several Bahamian islands, including the Acklins, Cat Island, Crooked Island, Exuma, Inagua, Long Cay, Long Island, Mayaguana, Ragged Island, Rum Cay, and San Salvador Island. Later that day, another tropical storm watch was issued for Abaco Islands, Andros Island, the Berry Islands, Bimini, Eleuthera, Grand Bahama, and New Providence. By early on October 24, the tropical storm watch for Cat Island, Exuma, Long Island, Rum Cay, and San Salvador was upgraded to a tropical storm warning.
At 1515 UTC on October 26, the Bermuda Weather Service issued a tropical storm watch for Bermuda, reflecting the enormous size of the storm and the anticipated wide - reaching impacts.
Much of the East Coast of the United States, in Mid-Atlantic and New England regions, had a good chance of receiving gale - force winds, flooding, heavy rain and possibly snow early in the week of October 28 from an unusual hybrid of Hurricane Sandy and a winter storm producing a Fujiwhara effect. Government weather forecasters said there was a 90 % chance that the East Coast would be impacted by the storm. Jim Cisco of the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center coined the term "Frankenstorm '', as Sandy was expected to merge with a storm front a few days before Halloween. As coverage continued, several media outlets began eschewing this term in favor of "superstorm ''. Utilities and governments along the East Coast attempted to head off long - term power failures Sandy might cause. Power companies from the Southeast to New England alerted independent contractors to be ready to help repair storm damaged equipment quickly and asked employees to cancel vacations and work longer hours. Researchers from Johns Hopkins University, using a computer model built on power outage data from previous hurricanes, conservatively forecast that 10 million customers along the Eastern Seaboard would lose power from the storm.
Through regional offices in Atlanta, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) monitored Sandy, closely coordinating with state and tribal emergency management partners in Florida and the Southeast, Mid-Atlantic, and New England states. President Obama signed emergency declarations on October 28 for several states expected to be impacted by Sandy, allowing them to request federal aid and make additional preparations in advance of the storm. Flight cancellations and travel alerts on the U.S. East Coast were put in place in the Mid-Atlantic and the New England areas. Over 5,000 commercial airline flights scheduled for October 28 and October 29 were canceled by the afternoon of October 28 and Amtrak canceled some services through October 29 in preparation for the storm. In addition, the National Guard and U.S. Air Force put as many as 45,000 personnel in at least seven states on alert for possible duty in response to the preparations and aftermath of Sandy.
Schools on the Treasure Coast announced closures for October 26 in anticipation of Sandy. A Russian intelligence - gathering ship was allowed to stay in Jacksonville to avoid Sandy; the port is not far from Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base.
At 0900 UTC on October 26, a tropical storm watch was issued from the mouth of the Savannah River in South Carolina to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, including Pamlico Sound. Twelve hours later, the portion of the tropical storm watch from the Santee River in South Carolina to Duck, North Carolina, including Pamlico Sound, was upgraded to a warning. Governor of North Carolina Beverly Perdue declared a state of emergency for 38 eastern counties on October 26, which took effect on the following day. By October 29, the state of emergency was extended to 24 counties in western North Carolina, with up to a foot (30 cm) of snow attributed to Sandy anticipated in higher elevations. The National Park Service closed at least five sections of the Blue Ridge Parkway.
On October 26, Governor of Virginia Bob McDonnell declared a state of emergency. The U.S. Navy sent more than twenty - seven ships and forces to sea from Naval Station Norfolk for their protection. Governor McDonnell authorized the National Guard to activate 630 personnel ahead of the storm. Republican Party presidential candidate Mitt Romney canceled campaign appearances scheduled for October 28 in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and New Hampshire October 30 because of Sandy. Vice President Joe Biden canceled his appearance on October 27 in Virginia Beach and an October 29 campaign event in New Hampshire. President Barack Obama canceled a campaign stop with former President Bill Clinton in Virginia scheduled for October 29, as well as a trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, the next day because of the impending storm.
On October 26, Mayor of Washington, D.C. Vincent Gray declared a state of emergency, which President Obama signed on October 28. The United States Office of Personnel Management announced federal offices in the Washington, D.C. area would be closed to the public on October 29 -- 30. In addition, Washington D.C. Metro service, both rail and bus, was canceled on October 29 due to expected high winds, the likelihood of widespread power outages, and the closing of the federal government. The Smithsonian Institution closed for the day of October 29.
Governor of Maryland Martin O'Malley declared a state of emergency on October 26. By the following day, Smith Island residents were evacuated with the assistance of the Maryland Natural Resources Police, Dorchester County opened two shelters for those in flood prone areas, and Ocean City initiated Phase I of their Emergency Operations Plan. Baltimore Gas and Electric Co. put workers on standby and made plans to bring in crews from other states. On October 28, President Obama declared an emergency in Maryland and signed an order authorizing the Federal Emergency Management Agency to aid in disaster relief efforts. Also, numerous areas were ordered to be evacuated including part of Ocean City, Worcester County, Wicomico County, and Somerset County. Officials warned that more than a hundred million tons of dirty sediment mixed with tree limbs and debris floating behind Conowingo Dam could be eventually poured into the Chesapeake Bay, posing a potential environmental threat.
The Maryland Transit Administration canceled all service for October 29 and October 30. The cancellations applied to buses, light rail, and Amtrak and MARC train service. On October 29, six shelters opened in Baltimore, and early voting was canceled for the day. Maryland Insurance Commissioner Therese M. Goldsmith activated an emergency regulation requiring pharmacies to refill prescriptions regardless of their last refill date. On October 29, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge over the Chesapeake Bay and the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge and Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge over the Susquehanna River were closed to traffic in the midday hours.
On October 28, Governor Markell declared a state of emergency, with coastal areas of Sussex County evacuated. In preparation for the storm, the Delaware Department of Transportation suspended some weekend construction projects, removed traffic cones and barrels from construction sites, and removed several span - wire overhead signs in Sussex County. Delaware Route 1 through Delaware Seashore State Park was closed due to flooding. Delaware roads were closed to the public, except for emergency and essential personnel, and tolls on I - 95 and Delaware Route 1 were waived. DART First State transit service was also suspended during the storm.
Preparations began on October 26, when officials in Cape May County advised residents on barrier islands to evacuate. There was also a voluntary evacuation for Mantoloking, Bay Head, Barnegat Light, Beach Haven, Harvey Cedars, Long Beach, Ship Bottom, and Stafford in Ocean County. Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie ordered all residents of barrier islands from Sandy Hook to Cape May to evacuate and closed Atlantic City casinos. Tolls were suspended on the northbound Garden State Parkway and the westbound Atlantic City Expressway starting at 6 a.m. on October 28. President Obama signed an emergency declaration for New Jersey, allowing the state to request federal funding and other assistance for actions taken before Sandy 's landfall.
On October 28, Mayor of Hoboken Dawn Zimmer ordered residents of basement and street - level residential units to evacuate, due to possible flooding. On October 29, residents of Logan Township were ordered to evacuate. Jersey Central Power & Light told employees to prepare to work extended shifts. Most schools, colleges and universities were closed October 29 while at least 509 out of 580 school districts were closed October 30. Although tropical storm conditions were inevitable and hurricane - force winds were likely, the National Hurricane Center did not issue any tropical cyclone watches or warnings for New Jersey, because Sandy was forecast to become extratropical before landfall and thus would not be a tropical cyclone.
Preparations in Pennsylvania began when Governor Tom Corbett declared a state of emergency on October 26. Mayor of Philadelphia Michael Nutter asked residents in low - lying areas and neighborhoods prone to flooding to leave their homes by 1800 UTC October 28 and move to safer ground. The Philadelphia International Airport suspended all flight operations for October 29. On October 29, Philadelphia shut down its mass transit system. On October 28, Mayor of Harrisburg Linda D. Thompson declared a state of disaster emergency for the city to go into effect at 5 a.m. October 29. Electric utilities in the state brought in crews and equipment from other states such as New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma, to assist with restoration efforts.
Governor Andrew Cuomo declared a statewide state of emergency and asked for a pre-disaster declaration on October 26, which President Obama signed later that day. By October 27, major carriers canceled all flights into and out of JFK, LaGuardia, and Newark - Liberty airports, and the Metro North and Long Island Rail Roads suspended service. The Tappan Zee Bridge was closed, and later the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel and Holland Tunnel were also closed. On Long Island, an evacuation was ordered for South Shore, including areas south of Sunrise Highway, north of Route 25A, and in elevations of less than 16 feet (4.9 m) above sea level on the North Shore. In Suffolk County, mandatory evacuations were ordered for residents of Fire Island and six towns. Most schools closed in Nassau and Suffolk counties on October 29.
New York City began taking precautions on October 26. Governor Cuomo ordered the closure of MTA and its subway on October 28, and the MTA suspended all subway, bus, and commuter rail service beginning at 2300 UTC. After Hurricane Irene nearly submerged subways and tunnels in 2011, entrances and grates were covered just before Sandy, but were still flooded. PATH train service and stations as well as the Port Authority Bus Terminal were shut down in the early morning hours of October 29.
Later on October 28, officials activated the coastal emergency plan, with subway closings and the evacuation of residents in areas hit by Hurricane Irene in 2011. More than 76 evacuation shelters were open around the city. On October 29, Mayor Michael Bloomberg ordered public schools closed and called for a mandatory evacuation of Zone A, which comprises areas near coastlines or waterways. Additionally, 200 National Guard troops were deployed in the city. NYU Langone Medical Center canceled all surgeries and medical procedures, except for emergency procedures. Additionally, one of NYU Langone Medical Center 's backup generators failed on October 29, prompting the evacuation of hundreds of patients, including those from the hospital 's various intensive care units. U.S. stock trading was suspended for October 29 -- 30.
Connecticut Governor Dannel Malloy partially activated the state 's Emergency Operations Center on October 26 and signed a Declaration of Emergency the next day. On October 28, President Obama approved Connecticut 's request for an emergency declaration, and hundreds of National Guard personnel were deployed. On October 29, Governor Malloy ordered road closures for all state highways. Numerous mandatory and partial evacuations were issued in cities across Connecticut.
Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick ordered state offices to be closed October 29 and recommended schools and private businesses close. On October 28, President Obama issued a Pre-Landfall Emergency Declaration for Massachusetts. Several shelters were opened, and many schools were closed. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority shut down all services on the afternoon of October 29. On October 28, Vermont Governor Peter Shumlin, New Hampshire Governor John Lynch, and Maine 's Governor Paul LePage all declared states of emergency.
The National Weather Service issued a storm warning for Lake Huron on October 29 that called for wave heights of 26 feet (7.9 m), and possibly as high as 38 feet (12 m). Lake Michigan waves were expected to reach 19 feet (5.8 m), with a potential of 33 feet (10 m) on October 30. Flood warnings were issued in Chicago on October 29, where wave heights were expected to reach 18 to 23 feet (5.5 to 7.0 m) in Cook County and 25 feet (7.6 m) in northwest Indiana. Gale warnings were issued for Lake Michigan and Green Bay in Wisconsin until the morning of October 31, and waves of 33 feet (10 m) in Milwaukee and 20 feet (6.1 m) in Sheboygan were predicted for October 30. The actual waves reached about 20 feet (6.1 m) but were less damaging than expected. The village of Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin urged a voluntary evacuation of its lakefront area, though few residents signed up, and little flooding actually occurred.
Michigan was impacted by a winter storm system coming in from the west, mixing with cold air streams from the Arctic and colliding with Hurricane Sandy. The forecasts slowed shipping traffic on the Great Lakes, as some vessels sought shelter away from the peak winds, except those on Lake Superior. Detroit - based DTE Energy released 100 contract line workers to assist utilities along the eastern U.S. with storm response, and Consumers Energy did the same with more than a dozen employees and 120 contract employees. Due to the widespread power outages, numerous schools had to close, especially in St. Clair County and areas along Lake Huron north of Metro Detroit.
As far as Ohio 's western edge, areas were under a wind advisory. All departing flights at Cleveland Hopkins International Airport were canceled until October 30 at 3 p.m.
Governor of West Virginia Earl Ray Tomblin declared a state of emergency ahead of storm on October 29. Up to 2 to 3 feet (0.6 -- 0.9 m) of snow was forecast for mountainous areas of the state.
The Canadian Hurricane Centre issued its first preliminary statement for Hurricane Sandy on October 25 from Southern Ontario to the Canadian Maritimes, with the potential for heavy rain and strong winds. On October 29, Environment Canada issued severe wind warnings for the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Valley corridor, from Southwestern Ontario as far as Quebec City. On October 30, Environment Canada issued storm surge warnings along the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Rainfall warnings were issued for the Charlevoix region in Quebec, as well as for several counties in New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, where about 2 to 3 inches (51 to 76 mm) of rain was to be expected. Freezing rain warnings were issued for parts of Northern Ontario.
At least 233 people were killed across the United States, the Caribbean, and Canada, as a result of the storm.
Jamaica was the first country directly affected by Sandy, which was also the first hurricane to make landfall on the island since Hurricane Gilbert, 24 years prior. Trees and power lines were snapped and shanty houses were heavily damaged, both from the winds and flooding rains. More than 100 fishermen were stranded in outlying Pedro Cays off Jamaica 's southern coast. Stones falling from a hillside crushed one man to death as he tried to get into his house in a rural village near Kingston. After 6 days another fatality recorded as a 27 - year - old man, died due to electrocution, attempting a repair. The country 's sole electricity provider, the Jamaica Public Service Company, reported that 70 percent of its customers were without power. More than 1,000 people went to shelters. Jamaican authorities closed the island 's international airports, and police ordered 48 - hour curfews in major towns to keep people off the streets and deter looting. Most buildings in the eastern portion of the island lost their roofs. Damage was assessed at approximately $100 million throughout the country.
In Haiti, which was still recovering from both the 2010 earthquake and the ongoing cholera outbreak, at least 54 people died, and approximately 200,000 were left homeless as a result of four days of ongoing rain from Hurricane Sandy. Heavy damage occurred in Port - Salut after rivers overflowed their banks. In the capital of Port - au - Prince, streets were flooded by the heavy rains, and it was reported that "the whole south of the country is underwater ''. Most of the tents and buildings in the city 's sprawling refugee camps and the Cité Soleil neighborhood were flooded or leaking, a repeat of what happened earlier in the year during the passage of Hurricane Isaac. Crops were also wiped out by the storm and the country would be making an appeal for emergency aid. Damage in Haiti was estimated at $750 million (2012 USD), making it the costliest tropical cyclone in Haitian history. In the month following Sandy, a resurgence of cholera linked to the storm killed at least 44 people and infected more than 5,000 others.
In the neighboring Dominican Republic, two people were killed and 30,000 people evacuated. An employee of CNN estimated 70 % of the streets in Santo Domingo were flooded. One person was killed in Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico after being swept away by a swollen river.
At least 55,000 people were evacuated before Hurricane Sandy 's arrival. While moving ashore, the storm produced waves up to 29 feet (9 meters) and a 6 - foot (2 meter) storm surge that caused extensive coastal flooding. There was widespread damage, particularly to Santiago de Cuba where 132,733 homes were damaged, of which 15,322 were destroyed and 43,426 lost their roof. Electricity and water services were knocked out, and most of the trees in the city were damaged. Total losses throughout Santiago de Cuba province is estimated as high as $2 billion (2012 USD). Sandy killed 11 people in the country -- nine in Santiago de Cuba Province and two in Guantánamo Province; most of the victims were trapped in destroyed houses. This makes Sandy the deadliest hurricane to hit Cuba since 2005, when Hurricane Dennis killed 16 people.
A NOAA automated station at Settlement Point on Grand Bahama Island reported sustained winds of 49 mph (74 km / h) and a wind gust of 63 mph (102 km / h). One person died from falling off his roof while attempting to fix a window shutter in the Lyford Cay area on New Providence. Another died in the Queen 's Cove area on Grand Bahama Island where he drowned after the sea surge trapped him in his apartment. Portions of the Bahamas lost power or cellular service, including an islandwide power outage on Bimini. Five homes were severely damaged near Williams 's Town. Overall damage in the Bahamas was about $700 million (2012 USD), with the most severe damage on Cat Island and Exuma where many houses were heavily damaged by wind and storm surge.
Owing to the sheer size of the storm, Sandy also impacted Bermuda with high winds and heavy rains. On October 28, a weak F0 tornado touched down in Sandys Parish, damaging homes and businesses. During a three - day span, the storm produced 0.98 in (25 mm) of rain at the L.F. Wade International Airport. The strongest winds were recorded on October 29: sustained winds reached 37 mph (60 km / h) and gusts peaked at 58 mph (93 km / h), which produced scattered minor damage.
A total of 24 U.S. states were in some way affected by Sandy. The hurricane caused tens of billions of dollars in damage in the United States, destroyed thousands of homes, left millions without electric service, and caused 71 direct deaths in nine states, including 49 in New York, 10 in New Jersey, 3 in Connecticut, 2 each in Pennsylvania and Maryland, and 1 each in New Hampshire, Virginia and West Virginia. There were also 2 direct deaths from Sandy in U.S. coastal waters in the Atlantic Ocean, about 90 miles (150 km) off the North Carolina coast, which are not counted in the U.S. total. In addition, the storm resulted in 87 indirect deaths. In all, a total of 160 people were killed due to the storm, making Sandy the deadliest hurricane to hit the United States mainland since Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the deadliest to hit the U.S. East Coast since Hurricane Agnes in 1972.
Due to flooding and other storm - related problems, Amtrak canceled all Acela Express, Northeast Regional, Keystone, and Shuttle services for October 29 and 30. More than 13,000 flights were canceled across the U.S. on October 29, and more than 3,500 were called off October 30. From October 27 through early November 1, airlines canceled a total of 19,729 flights, according to FlightAware.
On October 31, over 6 million customers were still without power in 15 states and the District of Columbia. The states with the most customers without power were New Jersey with 2,040,195 customers; New York with 1,933,147; Pennsylvania with 852,458; and Connecticut with 486,927.
The New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq reopened on October 31 after a two - day closure for the storm. More than 1,500 FEMA personnel were along the East Coast working to support disaster preparedness and response operations, including search and rescue, situational awareness, communications and logistical support. In addition, 28 teams containing 294 FEMA Corps members were pre-staged to support Sandy responders. Three federal urban search and rescue task forces were positioned in the Mid-Atlantic and ready to deploy as needed.
On November 2, the American Red Cross announced they had 4,000 disaster workers across storm damaged areas, with thousands more en route from other states. Nearly 7,000 people spent the night in emergency shelters across the region.
Hurricane Sandy: Coming Together, a live telethon on November 2 that featured rock and pop stars such as Bruce Springsteen, Billy Joel, Jon Bon Jovi, Mary J. Blige, Sting and Christina Aguilera, raised around $23 million for American Red Cross hurricane relief efforts.
As of November 5, 2012, the National Hurricane Center ranks Hurricane Sandy the second - costliest US hurricane since 1900 in constant 2010 dollars, and the sixth - costliest after adjusting for inflation, population and property values. Their report also states that due to global warming the number of future hurricanes will "either decrease or remain essentially unchanged '' overall, but the ones that do form will likely be stronger, with fiercer winds and heavier rains.
Scientists at the University of Utah reported the energy generated by Sandy was equivalent to "small earthquakes between magnitudes 2 and 3 ''.
In South Florida, Sandy lashed the area with rough surf, strong winds, and brief squalls. Along the coast of Miami - Dade County, waves reached 10 feet (3.0 m), but may have been as high as 20 feet (6.1 m) in Palm Beach County. In the former county, minor pounding occurred on a few coastal roads. Further north in Broward County, State Road A1A was inundated with sand and water, causing more than a 2 miles (3.2 km) stretch of the road to be closed for the entire weekend. Additionally, coastal flooding extended inland up to 2 blocks in some locations and a few houses in the area suffered water damage. In Manalapan, which is located in southern Palm Beach County, several beachfront homes were threatened by erosion. The Lake Worth Pier was also damaged by rough seas. In Palm Beach County alone, losses reached $14 million. Sandy caused closures and cancellations of some activities at schools in Palm Beach, Broward and Miami - Dade counties. Storm surge from Sandy also caused flooding and beach erosion along coastal areas in South Florida. Gusty winds also impacted South Florida, peaking at 67 mph (108 km / h) in Jupiter and Fowey Rocks Light, which is near Key Biscayne. The storm left power outages across the region, which left many traffic lights out of order.
In east - central Florida, damage was minor, though the storm left about 1,000 people without power. Airlines at Miami International Airport canceled more than 20 flights to or from Jamaica or the Bahamas, while some airlines flying from Fort Lauderdale -- Hollywood International Airport canceled a total of 13 flights to the islands. The Coast Guard rescued two sea men in Volusia County off New Smyrna Beach on the morning of October 26. Brevard and Volusia Counties schools canceled all extracurricular activities for October 26, including football.
Two panther kittens escaped from the White Oak Conservation Center in Nassau County after the hurricane swept a tree into the fence of their enclosure; they were missing for 24 hours before being found in good health.
On October 28, Governor Bev Perdue declared a state of emergency in 24 western counties, due to snow and strong winds.
North Carolina was spared from major damage for the most part (except at the immediate coastline), though winds, rain, and mountain snow affected the state through October 30. Ocracoke and Highway 12 on Hatteras Island were flooded with up to 2 feet (0.6 m) of water, closing part of the highway, while 20 people on a fishing trip were stranded on Portsmouth Island.
There were three Hurricane Sandy - related deaths in the state.
On October 29, the Coast Guard responded to a distress call from Bounty, which was built for the 1962 movie Mutiny on the Bounty. It was taking on water about 90 miles (150 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras. Sixteen people were on board. The Coast Guard said the 16 people abandoned ship and got into two lifeboats, wearing survival suits and life jackets. The ship sank after the crew got off. The Coast Guard rescued 14 crew members; another was found hours later but was unresponsive and later died. The search for the captain, Robin Walbridge, was suspended on November 1, after efforts lasting more than 90 hours and covering approximately 12,000 square nautical miles (41,100 km2).
On October 29, snow was falling in parts of the state. Gov. Bob McDonnell announced on October 30 that Virginia had been "spared a significant event '', but cited concerns about rivers cresting and consequent flooding of major arteries. Virginia was awarded a federal disaster declaration, with Gov. McDonnell saying he was "delighted '' that President Barack Obama and FEMA were on it immediately. At Sandy 's peak, more than 180,000 customers were without power, most of whom were located in Northern Virginia. There were three Hurricane Sandy - related fatalities in the state.
The Supreme Court and the United States Government Office of Personnel Management were closed on October 30, and schools were closed for two days. MARC train and Virginia Railway Express were closed on October 30, and Metro rail and bus service were on Sunday schedule, opening at 2 p.m., until the system closes.
At least 100 feet (30 m) of a fishing pier in Ocean City was destroyed. Governor Martin O'Malley said the pier was "half - gone ''. Due to high winds, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge on I - 95 were closed. During the storm, the Mayor of Salisbury instituted a Civil Emergency and a curfew. Interstate 68 in far western Maryland and northern West Virginia closed due to heavy snow, stranding multiple vehicles and requiring assistance from the National Guard. Workers in Howard County tried to stop a sewage overflow caused by a power outage October 30. Raw sewage spilled at a rate of 2 million gallons per hour. It was unclear how much sewage had flowed into the Little Patuxent River. Over 311,000 people were left without power as a result of the storm.
By the afternoon of October 29, rainfall at Rehoboth Beach totaled 6.53 inches (166 mm). Other precipitation reports include nearly 7 inches (180 mm) at Indian River Inlet and more than 4 inches (100 mm) in Dover and Bear. At 4 p.m. on October 29, Delmarva Power reported on its website that more than 13,900 customers in Delaware and portions of the Eastern Shore of Maryland had lost electric service as high winds brought down trees and power lines. About 3,500 of those were in New Castle County, 2,900 were in Sussex, and more than 100 were in Kent County. Some residents in Kent and Sussex Counties experienced power outages that lasted up to nearly six hours. At the peak of the storm, more than 45,000 customers in Delaware were without power. The Delaware Memorial Bridge speed limit was reduced to 25 mph (40 km / h) and the two outer lanes in each direction were closed. Officials planned to close the span entirely if sustained winds exceeded 50 mph (80 km / h). A wind gust of 64 mph (103 km / h) was measured at Lewes just before 2: 30 p.m. on October 29. Delaware Route 1 was closed due to water inundation between Dewey Beach and Fenwick Island. In Dewey Beach, flood waters were 1 to 2 feet (0.30 to 0.61 m) in depth. Following the impact in Delaware, President Barack Obama declared the entire state a federal disaster area, providing money and agencies for disaster relief in the wake of Hurricane Sandy.
A 50 - foot (15 m) piece of the Atlantic City Boardwalk washed away. Half the city of Hoboken flooded; the city of 50,000 had to evacuate two of its fire stations, the EMS headquarters, and the hospital. With the city cut off from area hospitals and fire suppression mutual aid, the city 's Mayor asked for National Guard help. In the early morning of October 30, authorities in Bergen County, New Jersey, evacuated residents after a berm overflowed and flooded several communities. Police Chief of Staff Jeanne Baratta said there were up to five feet (1.5 m) of water in the streets of Moonachie and Little Ferry. The state Office of Emergency Management said rescues were undertaken in Carlstadt. Baratta said the three towns had been "devastated '' by the flood of water. At the peak of the storm, more than 2,600,000 customers were without power. There were 43 Hurricane Sandy - related deaths in the state of New Jersey. Damage in the state was estimated at $36.8 billion.
Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter said the city would have no mass transit operations on any lines October 30. All major highways in and around the city of Philadelphia were closed on October 29 during the hurricane, including Interstate 95, the Blue Route portion of Interstate 476, the Vine Street Expressway, Schuylkill Expressway (I - 76), and the Roosevelt Expressway; U.S. Route 1. The highways reopened at 4 a.m. on October 30. The Delaware River Port Authority also closed its major crossings over the Delaware River between Pennsylvania and New Jersey due to high winds, including the Commodore Barry Bridge, the Walt Whitman Bridge, the Ben Franklin Bridge and the Betsy Ross Bridge. Trees and powerlines were downed throughout Altoona, and four buildings partially collapsed. More than 1.2 million were left without power. The Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency reported 14 deaths believed to be related to Sandy.
New York governor Andrew Cuomo called National Guard members to help in the state. Storm impacts in Upstate New York were much more limited than in New York City; there was some flooding and a few downed trees. Rochester area utilities reported slightly fewer than 19,000 customers without power, in seven counties. In the state as a whole, however, more than 2,000,000 customers were without power at the peak of the storm.
Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg announced that New York City public schools would be closed on Tuesday, October 30 and Wednesday, October 31, but they remained closed through Friday, November 2. CUNY and NYU canceled all classes and campus activities for October 30. The New York Stock Exchange was closed for trading for two days, the first weather closure of the exchange since 1985. It was also the first two - day weather closure since the Great Blizzard of 1888.
The East River overflowed its banks, flooding large sections of Lower Manhattan. Battery Park had a water surge of 13.88 ft. Seven subway tunnels under the East River were flooded. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority said that the destruction caused by the storm was the worst disaster in the 108 - year history of the New York City subway system. Sea water flooded the Ground Zero construction site. Over 10 billion gallons of raw and partially treated sewage were released by the storm, 94 % of which went into waters in and around New York and New Jersey. In addition, a four - story Chelsea building 's facade crumbled and collapsed, leaving the interior on full display; however, no one was hurt by the falling masonry. The Atlantic Ocean storm surge also caused considerable flood damage to homes, buildings, roadways, boardwalks and mass transit facilities in low - lying coastal areas of the outer boroughs of Queens, Brooklyn and Staten Island.
After receiving many complaints that holding the marathon would divert needed resources, Mayor Bloomberg announced late afternoon November 2 that the New York City Marathon had been canceled. The event was to take place on Sunday, November 4. Marathon officials said that they did not plan to reschedule.
Gas shortages throughout the region led to an effort by the U.S. federal government to bring in gasoline and set up mobile truck distribution at which people could receive up to 10 gallons of gas, free of charge. This caused lines of up to 20 blocks long and was quickly suspended. On Thursday, November 8, Mayor Bloomberg announced odd - even rationing of gasoline would be in effect beginning November 9 until further notice.
On November 26, Governor Cuomo called Sandy "more impactful '' than Hurricane Katrina, and estimated costs to New York at $42 billion. Approximately 100,000 residences on Long Island were destroyed or severely damaged, including 2,000 that were rendered uninhabitable. There were 53 Hurricane Sandy - related deaths in the state of New York. In 2016, the hurricane was determined to have been worst to strike the New York City area since at least 1700.
Wind gusts to 83 mph were recorded on outer Cape Cod and Buzzards Bay. Nearly 300,000 customers were without power in Massachusetts, and roads and buildings were flooded. Over 100,000 customers lost power in Rhode Island. Most of the damage was along the coastline, where some communities were flooded. Mount Washington, New Hampshire saw the strongest measured wind gust from the storm at 140 mph. Nearly 142,000 customers lost power in the state.
Sandy 's rain became snow in the Appalachian mountains, leading to blizzard conditions in some areas, especially West Virginia, when a tongue of dense and heavy Arctic air pushed south through the region. This would normally cause a Nor'easter, prompting some to dub Sandy a "nor'eastercane '' or "Frankenstorm ''. There was 1 -- 3 feet (30 -- 91 cm) of snowfall in 28 of West Virginia 's 55 counties. The highest snowfall accumulation was 36 inches (91 cm) near Richwood. Other significant totals include 32 inches (81 cm) in Snowshoe, 29 inches (74 cm) in Quinwood, and 28 inches (71 cm) in Davis, Flat Top, and Huttonsville. By the morning of October 31, there were still 36 roads closed due to downed trees, powerlines, and snow in the road. Approximately 271,800 customers lost power during the storm.
There were reports of collapsed buildings in several counties due to the sheer weight of the wet, heavy snow. Overall, there were seven fatalities related to Hurricane Sandy and its remnants in West Virginia, including John Rose, Sr., the Republican candidate for the state 's 47th district in the state legislature, who was killed in the aftermath of the storm by a falling tree limb broken off by the heavy snowfall. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin asked President Obama for a federal disaster declaration, and on October 30, President Obama approved a state of emergency declaration for the state.
Wind gusts at Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport were reported at 68 miles per hour (109 km / h). On October 30, hundreds of school districts canceled or delayed school across the state with at least 250,000 homes and businesses without power. Damage was reported across the state including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame which lost parts of its siding. Snow was reported in some parts of eastern Ohio and south of Cleveland. Snow and icy roads also were reported south of Columbus.
The US Department of Energy reported that more than 120,000 customers lost power in Michigan as a result of the storm. The National Weather Service said that waves up to 23 feet (7 m) high were reported on southern Lake Huron.
More than one foot (300 mm) of snow fell in eastern Kentucky as Sandy merged with an Arctic front. Winter warnings in Harlan, Letcher, and Pike County were put into effect until October 31.
The remnants of Sandy produced high winds along Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, where gusts were measured at 105 km / h (63 mph). A 121 km / h (72 mph) gust was measured on top of the Bluewater Bridge. One woman died after being hit by a piece of flying debris in Toronto. At least 145,000 customers across Ontario lost power, and a Bluewater Power worker was electrocuted in Sarnia while working to restore power. Around 49,000 homes and businesses lost power in Quebec during the storm, with nearly 40,000 of those in the Laurentides region of the province, as well as more than 4,000 customers in the Eastern Townships and 1,700 customers in Montreal. Hundreds of flights were canceled. Around 14,000 customers in Nova Scotia lost power during the height of the storm. The Insurance Bureau of Canada 's preliminary damage estimate was over $100 million for the nation.
Several media organizations contributed to the immediate relief effort: Disney -- ABC Television Group held a "Day of Giving '' on Monday, November 5, raising $17 million on their television stations for the American Red Cross and NBC raised $23 million during their Hurricane Sandy: Coming Together telethon the same day. On 31 October 2012, News Corporation donated $1 million to relief efforts in the New York metropolitan area. As of December 2013, the NGO Hurricane Sandy New Jersey Relief Fund had distributed much of the funding raised in New Jersey.
On November 6, the United Nations and World Food Programme promised humanitarian aid to at least 500,000 people in Santiago de Cuba.
On December 12, 2012, the 12 - 12 - 12: The Concert for Sandy Relief took place at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Various television channels in the United States and internationally aired the four - hour concert which was expected to reach over 1 billion people worldwide, featuring Bon Jovi, Eric Clapton, Dave Grohl, Billy Joel, Alicia Keys, Chris Martin, Paul McCartney, The Rolling Stones, Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Roger Waters, Eddie Vedder, Kanye West, and The Who. Web sites including Fuse.tv, MTV.com, YouTube, and the sites of AOL and Yahoo! planned to stream the performance.
On December 28, 2012, the United States Senate approved an emergency Hurricane Sandy relief bill to provide $60 billion for US states affected by Sandy, but the House in effect postponed action until the next session which began January 3 by adjourning without voting on the bill. On January 4, 2013 House leaders pledged to vote on a flood insurance bill and an aid package by January 15. On January 28, the Senate passed the $50.5 billion Sandy aid bill by a count of 62 -- 36. which President Obama signed into law January 29.
In January 2013, The New York Times reported that those affected by the hurricane were still struggling to recover.
In June 2013, NY Governor Andrew Cuomo set out to centralize recovery and rebuilding efforts in impacted areas of New York State by establishing the Governor 's Office of Storm Recovery (GOSR). He aimed to address communities ' most urgent needs, and to identify innovative and enduring solutions to strengthen the State 's infrastructure and critical systems. Operating under the umbrella of New York Rising, GOSR utilized approximately $3.8 billion in flexible funding made available by the U.S. Department of Housing & Urban Development 's (HUD) Community Development Block Grant Disaster Recovery (CDBG - DR) program to concentrate aid in four main areas: housing, small business, infrastructure, and the community reconstruction.
On December 6, 2013, an analysis of Federal Emergency Management Agency data showed that fewer than half of those affected who requested disaster recovery assistance had received any, and a total of 30,000 residents of New York and New Jersey remained displaced.
In March 2014, Newsday reported, that 17 months after the hurricane people displaced from rental units on Long Island faced unique difficulties due to lack of affordable rental housing and delays in housing program implementations by New York State. Close to 9,000 rental units on Long Island were damaged by Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, and Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011 per the NY State Governor 's Office of Storm Recovery (GOSR). New York State officials said that additional assistance would soon be available from the HUD 's Community Development Block Grant funds via the New York Rising program. On March 15, 2014, a group of those who remained displaced by the hurricane organized a protest at the Nassau Legislative building in Mineola, New York, to raise awareness of their frustration with the timeline for receiving financial assistance from the New York Rising program.
As of March 2014, the GOSR released a press statement, that the New York Rising Community Reconstruction Program had distributed more than $280 million in payments to 6,388 homeowners for damage from Hurricane Sandy, Hurricane Irene or Tropical Storm Lee. Every eligible homeowner who had applied by January 20, 2014 had been issued a check for home reconstruction, including over 4,650 Nassau residents for over $201 million and over 1,350 Suffolk residents for over $65 million. The State also had made offers over $293 million to buyout homes of 709 homeowners.
Hurricane Sandy sparked much political commentary. Many scientists said warming oceans and greater atmospheric moisture were intensifying storms while rising sea levels were worsening coastal effects. November 2012 Representative Henry Waxman of California, the top Democrat of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, requested a hearing in the lame duck session on links between climate change and Hurricane Sandy. Some news outlets labeled the storm the October surprise of the 2012 United States Presidential election, while Democrats and Republicans accused each other of politicizing the storm.
The storm hit the United States one week before its general United States elections, and affected the presidential campaign, local and state campaigns in storm - damaged areas. New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, one of Mitt Romney 's leading supporters, praised President Barack Obama and his reaction to the hurricane, and toured storm - damaged areas of his state with the president. It was reported at the time that Sandy might affect elections in several states, especially by curtailing early voting. The Economist wrote, "(...) the weather is supposed to clear up well ahead of election day, but the impact could be felt in the turnout of early voters. '' ABC News predicted this might be offset by a tendency to clear roads and restore power more quickly in urban areas. The storm ignited a debate over whether Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney in 2011 proposed to eliminate the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The next day the Romney campaign promised to keep FEMA funded, but did not explain what other parts of the federal budget it would cut to pay for it. Beyond the election, National Defense Magazine said Sandy "might cause a rethinking (in the USA) of how climate change threatens national security ''.
In his news conference on November 14, President Obama said "... we ca n't attribute any particular weather event to climate change. What we do know is the temperature around the globe is increasing faster than was predicted even 10 years ago. We do know that the Arctic ice cap is melting faster than was predicted even five years ago. We do know that there have been extraordinarily -- there have been an extraordinarily large number of severe weather events here in North America, but also around the globe. And I am a firm believer that climate change is real, that it is impacted by human behavior and carbon emissions. And as a consequence, I think we 've got an obligation to future generations to do something about it. ''
On January 30, 2015, days after the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers released a post-Sandy report examining flood risks for 31,200 miles (50,210 km) of the North Atlantic coast, President Obama issued an executive order directing federal agencies, state and local governments drawing federal funds to adopt stricter building and siting standards to reflect scientific projections that future flooding will be more frequent and intense due to climate change.
Power outages and flooding in the area closed the New York Stock Exchange and other financial markets on both October 29 and 30, a weather - related closure that last happened in 1888. When markets reopened on October 31, investors were relieved that it closed relatively flat that day. A week later, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners Capital Markets Bureau noted a slight uptick in the market (0.8 %) and suggested that the negative economic impact of Hurricane Sandy was offset by the expected positive impacts of rebuilding.
As Hurricane Sandy approached the United States, forecasters and journalists gave it several different unofficial names, at first related to its projected snow content, then to its proximity to Halloween, and eventually to the overall size of the storm. Early nicknames included "Snowicane Sandy '' and "Snor'eastercane Sandy ''. The most popular Halloween - related nickname was "Frankenstorm '', coined by Jim Cisco, a forecaster at the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. CNN banned the use of the term, saying it trivialized the destruction.
The severe and widespread damage the storm caused in the United States, as well as its unusual merger with a frontal system, resulted in the nicknaming of the hurricane "Superstorm Sandy '' by the media, public officials, and several organizations, including U.S. government agencies. This persisted as the most common nickname well into 2013. The term was also embraced by climate change proponents as a term for the new type of storms caused by global warming, while other writers used the term but maintained that it was too soon to blame the storm on climate change. Meanwhile, Popular Science called it "an imaginary scare - term that exists exclusively for shock value ''.
Thousands of homeowners were denied their flood insurance claims based upon fraudulent engineers ' reports, according to the whistleblowing efforts of Andrew Braum, an engineer who claimed that at least 175 of his more than 180 inspections were doctored. As a result, a class - action racketeering lawsuit has been filed against several insurance companies and their contract engineering firms. As of 2015, the Federal Emergency Management Agency planned to review all flood insurance claims.
New Jersey hospitals saw a spike in births nine months after Sandy, causing some to believe that there was a post-Sandy baby boom. The Monmouth Medical Center saw a 35 % jump, and two other hospitals saw 20 % increases. An expert stated that post-storm births that year were higher than in past disasters.
Because of the exceptional damage and deaths caused by the storm in many countries, the name Sandy was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization, and will never be used again for a North Atlantic hurricane. The name was replaced with Sara for the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season.
In the Syfy television movie Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!, a radar image of Sandy can be seen (close to its landfall in New Jersey), but represented fictionally as an unnamed tropical storm heading towards Washington D.C. The storm is also featured in an episode of Shades of Blue.
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
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what order do you read the maze runner in | The Maze Runner (series) - wikipedia
The Maze Runner is a series of young adult dystopian science fiction novels written by American author James Dashner. The series consists of The Maze Runner (2009), The Scorch Trials (2010) and The Death Cure (2011), as well as two prequel novels, The Kill Order (2012) and The Fever Code (2016), and a companion book titled The Maze Runner Files (2013).
The series, revealing details in non-chronological order, tells how the world was devastated by a series of massive solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
The Maze Runner is the first book in the series and was released on "October 6, 2009 ''.
A number of teenagers, who call themselves "The Gladers '', are left in a strange place which they call "The Glade ''. Beyond the walls of the Glade is the ever - changing maze, with its horrifying creatures, the Grievers. Every month a newcomer, a "greenie '', joins the Gladers, sent by a lift with all past memories (except language and other common things) wiped out. The only thing that they really do remember is their name. The ultimate goal of The Gladers, is to find a way out of The Glade. To do so, the runners venture into the Maze every day, to map it in an attempt to find a pattern in the Maze that would lead them to find an exit. When Thomas, a curious newcomer, arrives at the Glade and ventures into the Maze, unusual things begin to happen.
The Scorch Trials is the second book released in the series, on September 18, 2010.
The Death Cure is the third book released in the series, on October 11, 2011.
The Kill Order is the fourth book released in the series, on August 14, 2012. It is the first novel in narrative order, set prior to the events of The Fever Code and 13 years before the events in The Maze Runner. It is followed in narrative order by The Fever Code.
Of the novel, Dashner stated that he wanted to expand the world, but not focus on the main characters of the main Maze Runner trilogy. He also stated that he had originally planned to write a prequel for the series, but that the plans did not become official until he had completed the third book in the trilogy.
The Maze Runner Files is a companion book to The Maze Runner series. It was released on 1 January 2013 as an e-book. It is 50 pages long. The book is divided into three parts: Confidential Files, Recovered Correspondence, and Suppressed Memories.
It contains information about the Flare, WICKED and some of the Gladers. It also reveals events such as Thomas and Teresa 's first conversation, Minho 's Phase Three Trial, Frypan 's past, e-mails between WICKED correspondents, and more.
The Fever Code is the fifth book released in the series, on September 27, 2016. It is the second prequel and the fifth installment of The Maze Runner series. It is the second book in narrative order, preceded by The Kill Order and followed by The Maze Runner.
The book is set in between the events of The Kill Order and immediately before The Maze Runner. The novel is written from the various points of view of "The Gladers ''. The book primarily focuses on the training that Thomas and the others undergo before being sent into the Maze, however, it also explores the relationships between the Gladers before they underwent "the Swipe '' that suppressed their memories, describes "the Purge '' that is briefly mentioned in The Death Cure, and the lives of the Gladers before Thomas ' insertion into the Maze, since during the events in the book he is working for WckD. This book gives a background of the series, providing the reader with information they have been asking themselves. The book ends with the final moments before Thomas enters the Box, when he is betrayed and sent into the Maze at the beginning of The Maze Runner.
Book retailer Barnes & Noble included The Maze Runner book as part of its showcasing of new writers for the end of 2009 and the beginning of 2010. Kirkus Reviews wrote, "Hard to put down, this is clearly just a first installment, and it will leave readers dying to find out what comes next ''.
Jessica Harrison of the Deseret Morning News labeled The Maze Runner as "a thrilling adventurous book for kids ages 13 + that will get readers ' hearts pumping and leave them asking for more. '' She noted that it "starts out a bit slow '' but as it matched Thomas 's confusion and picked up pace as he became more accustomed, she wrote that "it 's almost as if Dashner is easing the reader into what becomes a fast - paced, nonstop action. '' However, she thought the "only drawback '' was the "fictionalized slang '' that although it "feels realistic and fits with his characters, it gets old pretty fast. On the plus side, however, it 's used so often that the reader almost becomes desensitized and learns to ignore it. ''
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circular flow of income and expenditure in two three and four sector model | Circular flow of income - wikipedia
The circular flow of income or circular flow is a model of the economy in which the major exchanges are represented as flows of money, goods and services, etc. between economic agents. The flows of money and goods exchanged in a closed circuit correspond in value, but run in the opposite direction. The circular flow analysis is the basis of national accounts and hence of macroeconomics.
The idea of the circular flow was already present in the work of Richard Cantillon. François Quesnay developed and visualized this concept in the so - called Tableau économique. Important developments of Quesnay 's tableau were Karl Marx ' reproduction schemes in the second volume of Capital: Critique of Political Economy, and John Maynard Keynes ' General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Richard Stone further developed the concept for the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to the system, which is now used internationally.
The circular flow of income is a concept for better understanding of the economy as a whole and for example the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs). In its most basic form it considers a simple economy consisting solely of businesses and individuals, and can be represented in a so - called "circular flow diagram. '' In this simple economy, individuals provide the labour that enables businesses to produce goods and services. These activities are represented by the green lines in the diagram.
Alternatively, one can think of these transactions in terms of the monetary flows that occur. Businesses provide individuals with income (in the form of compensation) in exchange for their labor. That income is spent on the goods and services businesses produce. These activities are represented by the blue lines in the diagram above.
The circular flow diagram illustrates the interdependence of the "flows, '' or activities, that occur in the economy, such as the production of goods and services (or the "output '' of the economy) and the income generated from that production. The circular flow also illustrates the equality between the income earned from production and the value of goods and services produced.
Of course, the total economy is much more complicated than the illustration above. An economy involves interactions between not only individuals and businesses, but also Federal, state, and local governments and residents of the rest of the world. Also not shown in this simple illustration of the economy are other aspects of economic activity such as investment in capital (produced -- or fixed -- assets such as structures, equipment, research and development, and software), flows of financial capital (such as stocks, bonds, and bank deposits), and the contributions of these flows to the accumulation of fixed assets.
One of the earliest ideas on the circular flow was explained in the work of 18th century Irish - French economist Richard Cantillon, who was influenced by prior economists, especially William Petty. Cantillon described the concept in his 1730 Essay on the Nature of Trade in General, in chapter 11, entitled "The Par or Relation between the Value of Land and Labor '' to chapter 13, entitled "The Circulation and Exchange of Goods and Merchandise, as well as their Production, are Carried On in Europe by Entrepreneurs, and at a Risk. '' Thornton eds. (2010) further explained:
Cantillon distinguished at least five types of economic agents: property owners, farmers, entrepreneurs, labors and artisans, as expressed in the contemporary diagram of the Cantillon 's Circular Flow Economy.
François Quesnay further developed these concepts, and was the first to visualize these interactions over time in the so - called Tableau économique. Quesnay believed that trade and industry were not sources of wealth, and instead in his 1758 book Tableau économique (Economic Table) argued that agricultural surpluses, by flowing through the economy in the form of rent, wages, and purchases were the real economic movers, for two reasons.
The model Quesnay created consisted of three economic agents: The "Proprietary '' class consisted of only landowners. The "Productive '' class consisted of all agricultural laborers. The "Sterile '' class is made up of artisans and merchants. The flow of production and / or cash between the three classes started with the Proprietary class because they own the land and they buy from both of the other classes. Quesnay visualised the steps in the process in the Tableau économique.
In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processes by which the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created.
Economic reproduction involves the physical production and distribution of goods and services, the trade (the circulation via exchanges and transactions) of goods and services, and the consumption of goods and services (both productive or intermediate consumption and final consumption).
Karl Marx developed the original insights of Quesnay to model the circulation of capital, money, and commodities in the second volume of Das Kapital to show how the reproduction process that must occur in any type of society can take place in capitalist society by means of the circulation of capital.
Marx distinguishes between "simple reproduction '' and "expanded (or enlarged) reproduction ''. In the former case, no economic growth occurs, while in the latter case, more is produced than is needed to maintain the economy at the given level, making economic growth possible. In the capitalist mode of production, the difference is that in the former case, the new surplus value created by wage - labour is spent by the employer on consumption (or hoarded), whereas in the latter case, part of it is reinvested in production.
An important development was John Maynard Keynes ' 1933 publication of the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Keynes ' assistant Richard Stone further developed the concept for the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to the systems, which is now used internationally.
The first to visualize the modern circular flow of income model was Frank Knight in 1933 publication of The Economic Organization. Knight (1933) explained:
Knight pictured a circulation of money and circulation of economic value between people (individuals, families) and business enterprises as a group, explaining: "The general character of an enterprise system, reduced to its very simplest terms, can be illustrated by a diagram showing the exchange of productive power for consumption goods between individuals and business units, mediated by the circulation of money, and suggesting the familiar figure of the wheel of wealth. ''
In the basic circular flow of income, or two sector circular flow of income model, the state of equilibrium is defined as a situation in which there is no tendency for the levels of income (Y), expenditure (E) and output (O) to change, that is:
Y = E = O
This means that the expenditure of buyers (households) becomes income for sellers (firms). The firms then spend this income on factors of production such as labour, capital and raw materials, "transferring '' their income to the factor owners. The factor owners spend this income on goods which leads to a circular flow of income.
This basic circular flow of income model consists of six assumptions:
It includes household sector, producing sector and government sector. It will study a circular flow income in these sectors excluding rest of the world i.e. closed economy income. Here flows from household sector and producing sector to government sector are in the form of taxes. The income received from the government sector flows to producing and household sector in the form of payments for government purchases of goods and services as well as payment of subsidies and transfer payments. Every payment has a receipt in response of it by which aggregate expenditure of an economy becomes identical to aggregate income and makes this circular flow unending.
A modern monetary economy comprises a network of four sector economy these are:
Each of the above sectors receives some payments from the other in lieu of goods and services which makes a regular flow of goods and physical services. Money facilitates such an exchange smoothly. A residual of each market comes in capital market as saving which inturn is invested in firms and government sector. Technically speaking, so long as lending is equal to the borrowing i.e. leakage is equal to injections, the circular flow will continue indefinitely. However, this job is done by financial institutions in the economy.
In the five sector model the economy is divided into five sectors:
The five sector model of the circular flow of income is a more realistic representation of the economy. Unlike the two sector model where there are six assumptions the five sector circular flow relaxes all six assumptions. Since the first assumption is relaxed there are three more sectors introduced.
In the five sector model, there are leakages and injections
Leakages and injections can occur in the financial sector, government sector and overseas sector:
In terms of the circular flow of income model, the leakage that financial institutions provide in the economy is the option for households to save their money. This is a leakage because the saved money can not be spent in the economy and thus is an idle asset that means not all output will be purchased. The injection that the financial sector provides into the economy is investment (I) into the business / firms sector. An example of a group in the finance sector includes banks such as Westpac or financial institutions such as Suncorp.
The leakage that the Government sector provides is through the collection of revenue through Taxes (T) that is provided by households and firms to the government. This is a leakage because it is a leakage out of the current income thus reducing the expenditure on current goods and services. The injection provided by the government sector is Government spending (G) that provides collective services and welfare payments to the community. An example of a tax collected by the government as a leakage is income tax and an injection into the economy can be when the government redistributes this income in the form of welfare payments, that is a form of government spending back into the economy.
The main leakage from this sector are imports (M), which represent spending by residents into the rest of the world. The main injection provided by this sector is the exports of goods and services which generate income for the exporters from overseas residents. An example of the use of the overseas sector is Australia exporting wool to China, China pays the exporter of the wool (the farmer) therefore more money enters the economy thus making it an injection. Another example is China processing the wool into items such as coats and Australia importing the product by paying the Chinese exporter; since the money paying for the coat leaves the economy it is a leakage.
In terms of the five sector circular flow of income model the state of equilibrium occurs when the total leakages are equal to the total injections that occur in the economy. This can be shown as:
OR
This can be further illustrated through a fictitious economy where:
S + T + M = I + G + X $100 + $150 + $50 = $50 + $100 + $150 $300 = $300
Therefore, since the leakages are equal to the injections the economy is in a stable state of equilibrium. This state can be contrasted to the state of disequilibrium where unlike that of equilibrium the sum of total leakages does not equal the sum of total injections. By giving values to the leakages and injections the circular flow of income can be used to show the state of disequilibrium. Disequilibrium can be shown as:
Therefore, it can be shown as one of the below equations where:
$150 (S) + $250 (T) + $150 (M) > $75 (I) + $200 (G) + $150 (X)
Or
Total Leakages < Total injections
The effects of disequilibrium vary according to which of the above equations they belong to.
If S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will fall causing a recession or contraction in the overall economic activity. But if S + T + M < I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will rise causing a boom or expansion in economic activity.
To manage this problem, if disequilibrium were to occur in the five sector circular flow of income model, changes in expenditure and output will lead to equilibrium being regained. An example of this is if:
S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, expenditure and output will fall causing a contraction or recession in the overall economic activity. As the income falls households will cut down on all leakages such as saving, they will also pay less in taxation and with a lower income they will spend less on imports. This will lead to a fall in the leakages until they equal the injections and a lower level of equilibrium will be the result.
The other equation of disequilibrium, if S + T + M < I + G + X in the five sector model the levels of income, expenditure and output will greatly rise causing a boom in economic activity. As the households income increases there will be a higher opportunity to save therefore saving in the financial sector will increase, taxation for the higher threshold will increase and they will be able to spend more on imports. In this case when the leakages increase the situation will be a higher level of equilibrium.
The book A General Approach to Macroeconomic Policy identifies four possible areas of significance:
The circular flow diagram is an abstraction of the economy as a whole. The diagram suggests that the economy can reproduce itself. The idea is that as households spend money of goods and services from firms, the firms have the means to purchase labor from the households, which the households to then purchase goods and services. Suggesting that this process can and will continuously go on as a perpetual motion machine. However, according to the Laws of Thermodynamics perpetual motion machines do not exist. The First Laws says matter and energy can not be created or destroyed, and the Second Laws says that matter and energy move from a low entropy, useful, state towards a less useful higher entropy state. Thus, no system can continue without inputs of new energy that exit as high entropy waste. Just as no animal can live on its own waste, no economy can recycle the waste it produces without the input of new energy to reproduce itself. The economy therefore can not be the whole. It must be a subsystem of the larger ecosystem.
The abstraction ignores the linear throughput of matter and energy that must power the continuous motion of money, goods and services, and factors of production. Matter and energy enter the economy in the form of low entropy natural capital, such as solar energy, oil wells, fisheries, and mines. These materials and energy are used by households and firms a like to create products and wealth. After the material are used up the energy and matter leaves the economy in the form of high entropy waste that is no longer valuable to the economy. The natural materials that power the motion of the circular flow of the economy come from the environment, and the waste must be absorbed by the larger ecosystem in which the economy exists.
This is not to say that the circular flow diagram is n't useful in understanding the basics of an economy, such as leakages and injections. However, it can not be ignored that the economy intrinsically requires natural resources and the creation of waste that must be absorbed in some manner. The economy can only continuing churning if it has matter and energy to power it and the ability to absorb the waste it creates. This matter and low entropy energy and the ability to absorb waste exists in a finite amount, and thus there is a finite amount of inputs to the flow and outputs of the flow that the environment can handle, implying there is a sustainable limit to motion, and therefore growth, of the economy.
This article incorporates text from Bureau of Economic Analysis. Measuring the Economy: A Primer on GDP and the National Income and Product Accounts, 2014, a publication now in the public domain.
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when did the show the ranch come out | The Ranch (TV series) - wikipedia
The Ranch is an American comedy web television series starring Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Debra Winger, Elisha Cuthbert, and Sam Elliott that debuted in 2016 on Netflix. The show takes place on the fictional Iron River Ranch in the fictitious small town of Garrison, Colorado; detailing the life of the Bennetts, a dysfunctional family consisting of two brothers, their rancher father, and his divorced wife and local bar owner. While the opening sequence shows scenes from Norwood and Ouray, Colorado and surrounding Ouray and San Miguel Counties, The Ranch is filmed on a sound stage in front of a live audience in Burbank, California. Each season consists of 20 episodes broken up into two parts, each containing 10 episodes.
All episodes are named after American country music songs, predominantly Kenny Chesney in part one, George Strait in part two, Tim McGraw in part three, Garth Brooks in part four, and Dolly Parton in part five. the first ten episodes premiered on April 1, 2016, the second batch of ten episodes premiered on October 7, 2016. In April 2016, Netflix renewed The Ranch for a second season of 20 episodes, the first half of which premiered on June 16, 2017, and the second half was released on December 15, 2017.
On July 4, 2017, Netflix announced through its official The Ranch Twitter account that the show had been renewed for a third season of 20 episodes, the first ten of which aired on June 15, 2018. In December 2017, a week before the release of the second - half of the second season, it was announced Masterson had been written out of the show following multiple sexual assault allegations made against him, and will appear in only the first 10 episodes of the third season.
The Ranch has been met with mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an average approval rating of 70 % (60 % for season 1, 80 % for season 2) based on 92 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5 / 5. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set - up and predictable plotting are elevated by The Ranch 's surprising sensitivity and strong performances. '' Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Writing for Slate in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, "The Ranch is a red - state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation '' and "The goodness sneaks up on you. '' Los Angeles Times wrote: "(Elliott and Winger 's) scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show 's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out. ''
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what part of australia do cockatiels come from | Cockatiel - wikipedia
Psittacus hollandicus Kerr, 1792 Leptolophus hollandicus
The cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), is a bird that is a member of the cockatoo family endemic to Australia. They are prized as household pets and companion parrots throughout the world and are relatively easy to breed. As a caged bird, cockatiels are second in popularity only to the budgerigar.
The cockatiel is the only member of the genus Nymphicus. It was previously considered a crested parrot or small cockatoo; however, more recent molecular studies have assigned it to its own subfamily, Nymphicinae. It is, therefore, now classified as the smallest of the Cacatuidae (cockatoo family). Cockatiels are native to Australia, and favour the Australian wetlands, scrublands, and bush lands.
Originally described by Scottish writer and naturalist Robert Kerr in 1793 as Psittacus hollandicus, the cockatiel (or cockateel) was moved to its own genus, Nymphicus, by Wagler in 1832. Its genus name reflects the experience of one of the earliest groups of Europeans to see the birds in their native habitat; the travellers thought the birds were so beautiful that they named them after mythical nymphs. The specific name hollandicus refers to New Holland, a historic name for Australia.
Its biological relationship had long been argued; it is now classified into a monotypic subfamily Nymphicinae but had sometimes in the past been misclassified among the Platycercinae, the broad - tailed parrots. This issue has now been settled with molecular studies. A 1984 study of protein allozymes signalled its closer relationship to cockatoos than to parrots, and Mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence data places it amongst the Calyptorhynchinae (dark cockatoos) subfamily. The unique, parakeet (meaning long - tailed parrot) morphological feature is a consequence of the decrease in size and accompanying change of ecological niche.
Sequence analysis of intron 7 of the nuclear? - fibrinogen gene, on the other hand, indicates that it may yet be distinct enough as to warrant recognition of the Nymphicinae rather than inclusion of the genus in the Calyptorhynchinae.
The cockatiel is now biologically classified as a genuine member of Cacatuidae on account of sharing all of the cockatoo family 's biological features, namely, the erectile crest, a gallbladder, powder down, suppressed cloudy - layer (which precludes the display of blue and green structural colours), and facial feathers covering the sides of the beak, all of which are rarely found outside the family Cacatuidae.
The cockatiel 's distinctive erectile crest expresses the animal 's emotional state. The crest is dramatically vertical when the cockatiel is startled or excited, gently oblique in its neutral or relaxed state, and flattened close to the head when the animal is angry or defensive. The crest is also held flat but protrudes outward in the back when the cockatiel is trying to appear alluring or flirtatious. In contrast to most cockatoos, the cockatiel has long tail feathers roughly making up half of its total length. At 30 to 33 cm (12 to 13 in), the cockatiel is the smallest of the cockatoos which are generally larger at between 30 and 60 cm (12 and 23.5 in).
The "normal grey '' or "wild - type '' cockatiel 's plumage is primarily grey with prominent white flashes on the outer edges of each wing. The face of the male is yellow or white, while the face of the female is primarily grey or light grey, and both sexes feature a round orange area on both ears, often referred to as "cheddar cheeks ''. This orange colouration is generally vibrant in adult males, and often quite muted in females. Visual sexing is often possible with this variant of the bird.
Cockatiels are relatively vocal birds, the calls of the male being more varied than that of the female. Cockatiels can be taught to sing specific melodies and speak many words and phrases.
All wild cockatiel chicks and juveniles look female, and are virtually indistinguishable from the time of hatching until their first moulting. They display horizontal yellow stripes or bars on the ventral surface of their tail feathers, yellow spots on the ventral surface of the primary flight feathers of their wings, a grey coloured crest and face, and a dull orange patch on each of their cheeks.
Adult cockatiels are sexually dimorphic, though to a lesser degree than many other avian species. This is only evident after the first moulting, typically occurring about six to nine months after hatching: the male loses the white or yellow barring and spots on the underside of his tail feathers and wings. The grey feathers on his cheeks and crest are replaced by bright yellow feathers, while the orange cheek patch becomes brighter and more distinct. The face and crest of the female will typically remain mostly grey, though also with an orange cheek patch. Additionally, the female commonly retains the horizontal barring on the underside of her tail feathers.
The colour in cockatiels is derived from two pigments: melanin (which provides the grey colour in the feathers, eyes, beak, and feet), and lipochromes (which provide the yellow colour on the face and tail and the orange colour of the cheek patch). The grey colour of the melanin overrides the yellow and orange of the lipochromes when both are present.
The melanin content decreases in the face of the males as they mature, allowing the yellow and orange lipochromes to be more visible, while an increase in melanin content in the tail causes the disappearance of the horizontal yellow tail bars.
In addition to these visible characteristics, the vocalisation of adult males is typically louder and more complex than that of females.
Worldwide there are currently twenty two (22) cockatiel colour mutations established in aviculture with eight being exclusive to Australia. Mutations in captivity have emerged in various colours, some quite different from those observed in nature. Wild cockatiels are grey with visible differences between males and females. Male grey cockatiels typically have yellow heads while the female has a grey head. Juveniles tend to look like females with pinker beaks. The pied mutation first appeared in California in 1949. This mutation is a blotch of colour on an otherwise solid - coloured bird. For example, this may appear as a grey blotch on a yellow cockatiel.
Lutino coloration was first seen in 1958. These birds lack the grey of their wild counterparts and are white to soft yellow. This is a popular colour; due to inbreeding, these cockatiels often have a small bald patch behind their crests. The cinnamon mutation, first seen in the 1950s, is very similar in appearance to the grey; however, these birds have a warmer, browner colouring. Pearling was first seen in 1967. This is seen as a feather of one colour with a different coloured edge, such as grey feathers with yellow tips. This distinctive pattern is on a bird 's wings or back. The albino colour mutation is a lack of pigment. These birds are white with red eyes. Fallow cockatiels first appeared sometime in the 1970s. This mutation shows as a bird with cinnamon colouring with yellow sections. Other mutations include: emerald / olive, dominant and recessive silver as well as mutations exclusive to Australia. These are: Australian fallow, faded (west coast silver), dilute / pastel silver (east coast silver) silver spangle (edged dilute), platinum, suffused (Australian olive) and pewter. Other mutations such as face altering mutations include; whiteface, pastelface, dominant yellow cheek, sex - linked yellow cheek, gold cheek, creamface and the Australian yellow cheek.
Cockatiel colour mutations can become even more complex as one bird can have multiple colour mutations. For example, a yellow lutino cockatiel may have pearling -- white spots on its back and wings. This is a double mutation. An example of a quadruple mutation would be cinnamon cockatiel with yellowface colouring with pearling and pied markings.
Cockatiels are native to Australia, where they are found largely in arid or semi-arid country, but always close to water. Largely nomadic, the species will move to where food and water is available. They are typically seen in pairs or small flocks. Sometimes, hundreds will flock around a single body of water. To many farmers ' dismay, they often eat cultivated crops. They are absent from the most fertile south west and south east corners of the country, the deepest Western Australian deserts, and Cape York Peninsula. They are the only cockatoo species which can sometimes reproduce in the end of their first year.
The cockatiel 's lifespan in captivity is generally given as 16 to 25 years, though it is sometimes given as short as 10 to 15 years, and there are reports of cockatiels living as long as 32 years, the oldest confirmed specimen reported being 36 years old. Diet and exercise are major determining factors.
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according to our constitution the rajya sabha is dissolved | Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61667; 77.20833
245
Government coalition (84) National Democratic Alliance (84)
Opposition Parties (161) United Progressive Alliance (63)
Janata Parivar Parties (5)
Unaligned Parties (74)
Others (19)
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice-President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method.
Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:
In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas in comparison.
Money bills, as defined in the Constitution of India Act 110, can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. When Lok Sabha passes a money bill, and transmits it to Rajya Sabha, Rajya Sabha has only fourteen days to return the bill (with or without amendments) to Lok Sabha. If Rajya Sabha fails to return the bill in fourteen days, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament in the form Lok Sabha finally passes it. Hence, Rajya Sabha can not stall, or amend, a money bill without Lok Sabha 's concurrence on the same.
Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.
Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 69 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:
Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government.
In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.
The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.
Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.
Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. In addition, smaller Union Territories, which are not States and which do not have legislatures, do not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.
As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The twelve nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field. A few examples of such nominated persons are cricketing icon Sachin Tendulkar, former RBI Governor Bimal Jalan and famous lyricist and poet Javed Akhtar. As of March 2014, each state or union territory specified in the first column of the following table, there shall be allotted the number of seats specified in the second column thereof opposite to that State or that union territory, as the case may be:
Rajya Sabha Secretariat (As of 11 October 2017):
Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister - the prime minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the minority parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest minority party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.
The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:
The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament - Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees. In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat.
Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.
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who wrote the song a change is going to come | A Change Is Gonna Come - wikipedia
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' is a song by American recording artist Sam Cooke, released on December 22, 1964, by RCA Victor. Produced by Hugo & Luigi and arranged and conducted by René Hall, the song was the B - side to "Shake ''.
The song was inspired by various personal events in Cooke 's life, most prominently an event in which he and his entourage were turned away from a whites only motel in Louisiana. Cooke felt compelled to write a song that spoke to his struggle and of those around him, and he recorded the song for its first release on his final album, Ai n't That Good News. The song, released in 1964, pertains to the Civil Rights Movement, African - Americans and contains the refrain, "It 's been a long time coming, but I know a change is gon na come. ''
Though only a modest hit for Cooke in comparison with his previous singles, "A Change Is Gonna Come '' is widely considered Cooke 's best composition and has been voted among the best songs ever released by various publications. In 2007, the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress, with the National Recording Registry deeming the song "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important. ''
On October 8, 1963, Cooke called ahead to the Holiday Inn North to make reservations for his wife, Barbara, and himself, but when he and his group arrived, the desk clerk glanced nervously and explained there were no vacancies. While his brother Charles protested, Sam was fuming, yelling to see the manager and refusing to leave until he received an answer. His wife nudged him, attempting to calm him down, telling him, "They 'll kill you, '' to which he responded, "They ai n't gon na kill me, because I 'm Sam Cooke. '' When they eventually persuaded Cooke to leave, the group drove away calling out insults and blaring their horns. When they arrived at the Castle Motel on Sprague Street downtown, the police were waiting for them, arresting them for disturbing the peace. The New York Times ran an AP report the following day headlined "Negro Band Leader Held in Shreveport, '' but African - Americans were outraged, leading to the creation of a myth surrounding the incident, exaggerating parts of the story and fabricating others.
In addition, upon hearing Bob Dylan 's "Blowin ' in the Wind '' in 1963, Cooke was greatly moved that such a poignant song about racism in America could come from someone who was not black, and was also ashamed he had not yet written something like that himself. However, his image and fears of losing his largely white fan base prevented him from doing so. Cooke loved the song so much it was immediately incorporated into his repertoire.
Following Christmas 1963, Cooke invited J.W. Alexander to his home to preview a new song he had just written, one Cooke was very excited about. When he arrived, Cooke ran through the number on his guitar twice, the second time going over it line by line. Both were very excited to record the song, with Alexander viewing it more personal and political than anything he had yet attempted. He warned Cooke that he may not profit off the song as he had with lighter, poppier songs, but Cooke did not care. He explained to Alexander that he hoped the song would make his father proud. "It was less work than any song he 'd ever written, '' biographer Peter Guralnick says. "It almost scared him that the song -- it was almost as if the song were intended for somebody else. He grabbed it out of the air and it came to him whole, despite the fact that in many ways it 's probably the most complex song that he wrote. It was both singular -- in the sense that you started out, ' I was born by the river ' -- but it also told the story both of a generation and of a people. ''
Cooke handed the song to his contributor René Hall, with no specific instructions as to what he personally wanted, but to give it "the kind of instrumentation and orchestration that it demanded. '' Previously, the duo had collaborated on arrangement, but this was the first occasion in which Hall was granted complete control of the eventual arrangement, and he composed it as he would a movie score, with lush, symphonic strings. "I wanted it to be the greatest thing in my (life) -- I spent a lot of time, put out a lot of ideas, and then changed them and rearranged them, '' said Hall. Cooke was well known as a perfectionist and "control freak '' in the recording studio, so giving Hall total latitude was unprecedented.
AFO drummer John Boudreaux was intimidated by the orchestral arrangement and refused to leave the control room; session player and close collaborator Earl Palmer was working next door and filled in for the song. Luigi Creatore asked Cooke to provide one more take, and the eighth take was "nearly perfect. '' Luigi was very pleased with the song, considering it among his best, both very serious and still uniquely his own. Cooke had initially imagined that Luigi, first and foremost a pop hitmaker, would not respect the socially conscious song.
Each verse is a different movement, with the horns carrying the first, the strings the second, and the timpani carrying the bridge. The French horn present in the recording was intended to convey a sense of melancholy.
Cooke incorporated his own personal experiences as well into the song, such as encounters in Memphis, Shreveport and Birmingham, to reflect the lives and struggles of all African - Americans of the time. The lines "I do n't know what 's up there / Beyond the sky '' could refer to Cooke 's doubt for absolute true justice on earth. The final verse, in which Cooke pleads for his "brother '' to help him, is a metaphor for what Alexander described as "the establishment '' The verse continues, ' But he winds up knocking me / back down on my knees. ' ''
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' was recorded on January 30, 1964, at RCA Studios in Hollywood, California. The engineer present was Wally Heider, and the session was conducted and arranged by René Hall. The musicians also recorded "Falling in Love '' the same day. Credits adapted from the liner notes to the 2003 compilation Portrait of a Legend: 1951 -- 1964.
Cooke first performed "A Change Is Gonna Come '' on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on February 7, 1964. Cooke 's new manager, Allen Klein, was infatuated with the song and persuaded Cooke to do away with promoting his most recent single, "Ai n't That Good News '', and perform "Change '' instead, feeling that that was the statement he needed to make before a national audience. Cooke objected, noting that the album 's release was a month away and that he had no time to pull together an arrangement within such a short time frame. Klein arranged for RCA to pay for a full string section and Cooke performed the song that Friday on The Tonight Show after performing "Basin Street ''. An NBC timekeeper logged down the number as "It 's a Long Time Coming, '' but the network did not save the tape of the performance. Klein and Alexander both felt it would become a milestone moment in Cooke 's career, but it was overshadowed by the Beatles ' performance on The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS just two days later.
Cooke elected not to perform "A Change Is Gonna Come '' again in his lifetime, both because of the complexity of the arrangement and because of the ominous nature of the song. When shown to his protégé Bobby Womack, his response was that it sounds "like death. '' Cooke responded, "Man, that 's kind of how it sounds like to me. That 's why I 'm never going to play it in public. '' Womack clarified his thoughts, that it was n't deathly, but rather "spooky, '' but Cooke never performed the song again.
Ten months later, "A Change Is Gonna Come '' was prepared for single release, with the verse and chorus preceding the bridge ("I go to the movies... '') deleted for radio airplay. The civil rights movement picked up on "A Change Is Gonna Come '' with near immediacy. On December 11, 1964, two weeks before the song was released, Sam Cooke was fatally shot at a Los Angeles motel.
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' became an anthem for the Civil Rights Movement, and is widely considered Cooke 's best composition. Over the years, the song has garnered significant praise and, in 2005, was voted number 12 by representatives of the music industry and press in Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and voted number 3 in the webzine Pitchfork Media 's The 200 Greatest Songs of the 60s. The song is also among three hundred songs deemed the most important ever recorded by National Public Radio (NPR) and was recently selected by the Library of Congress as one of twenty - five selected recordings to the National Recording Registry as of March 2007. The song is currently ranked as the 46th greatest song of all time, as well as the third best song of 1964, by Acclaimed Music. NPR called the song "one of the most important songs of the civil rights era. ''
Despite its acclaim, legal troubles have haunted the single since its release. A dispute between Cooke 's music publisher, ABKCO, and record company, RCA Records, made the recording unavailable for much of the four decades since its release. Although the song was featured prominently in the 1992 film Malcolm X, it could not be included in the film 's soundtrack. By 2003, however, the disputes had been settled in time for the song to be included on the remastered version of Ai n't That Good News, as well as the Cooke anthology Portrait of a Legend.
A live rendition was included in the soundtrack to the 2001 Michael Mann film Ali. James Taylor recorded a version specially for an episode of the same title of the television drama The West Wing. The Allman Brothers Band captured their performance of the song on their 2003 DVD Live at the Beacon Theatre.
Other notable artists who have covered the song include:
In recent years, the song has served as a sample for rappers Ghostface Killah (1996), Ja Rule (2003), Papoose (2006), Lil Wayne (2007) "Long Time Coming (remix) '' Charles Hamilton, Asher Roth, and B.o.B (2009), and Nas 's It Was Written album also features a similar opening as the song. On their album The Reunion hip - hop artists Capone - N - Noreaga used an excerpt from the song on the opening track which shares the same title as the Cooke original. British soul singer Beverley Knight says the song is her all - time favorite and has performed it live many a time; most notably on ' Later with Jools Holland '. On May 6, 2008, during the seventh season of American Idol, the song was sung by contestant Syesha Mercado as the remaining top 4. It was also sung by Joshua Ledet during the Top 7 episode of season 11 (2012), for which he received a standing ovation from the audience. After winning the 2008 United States presidential election, Barack Obama referred to the song, stating to his supporters in Chicago, "It 's been a long time coming, but tonight, change has come to America. '' A duet of the song by Bettye LaVette and Jon Bon Jovi was included in We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. In Washington DC, in the days leading up to the Inauguration of Barack Obama, this song could be heard played constantly in the city centre.
In 2004, Patti LaBelle performed the song on the annual Nobel Peace Prize Concert to a standing ovation.
Julian Casablancas, lead singer of popular rock band The Strokes, has cited "A Change Is Gonna Come '' as his favorite song of all time.
In 2009, Aaron Neville, along with the Mt. Zion Mass Choir, released a version of the song "A Change Is Gonna Come '' on the compilation album Oh Happy Day.
American Idol creator / producer Simon Fuller selected the song for contestant Adam Lambert to sing in the season 8 finale in May, 2009. It was also covered by season 9 semifinalist Lilly Scott in March 2010.
In 2010, one of the finalists of the British The X Factor, Rebecca Ferguson, sang the song for her audition, impressing judges Simon Cowell, Louis Walsh and guest judge Nicole Scherzinger.
The song was performed in the 2011 Miss America Pageant by Miss Kentucky, Djuan Trent.
In 2011, jazz group Afro - Blue performed the song on The Sing - off by request of the judges. The same year, Everlast recorded a version of the song for his album Songs of the Ungrateful Living. Maverick Sabre covered the song on his 2012 album Lonely Are the Brave
On January 1, 2012, the song was the single to be played on the New Zealand radio station Solid Gold FM.
On June 1, 2013 Beyoncé Knowles sang the song during The Sound of Change Live concert in London, as part of Chime for Change, an organization which supports total equality between women and men in all areas of life. Mark Sutherland of Rolling Stone magazine noted that Knowles belted out the song, while Alice Vincent from The Daily Telegraph noted that the rendition of the song reflected the event 's purpose. Later, on July 20, 2013, Knowles performed the song during a stop in Detroit as part of her Mrs. Carter Show World Tour. The performance followed the city 's recent file for bankruptcy. As Knowles performed, the screen behind her displayed photos of Detroit 's landmarks and icons including Aretha Franklin, Aaliyah, Eminem, Anita Baker, Bob Seger, Kid Rock, The White Stripes, Berry Gordy, Jr, Joe Louis. The montage ended with the declaration "Nothing Stops Detroit! '' and Knowles closed the performance by saying "I love you, Detroit ''. A spokesperson for the singer described the performance as a "unique tribute to the history of an incredible city and a celebration of the strong spirit of its people ''. A black - and - white video of the cover was uploaded on Knowles ' official YouTube channel on July 30, 2013. It closes with a quote from Henry Ford: "Failure is simply the opportunity to start over, this time more intelligently. '' A reporter for The Huffington Post reported that the singer 's "heartfelt '' cover of the song "touched '' her fans and the people who loved Detroit. Latifah Muhammad of the Black Entertainment Television wrote that Knowles ' "powerful '' rendition of the song came right on time. An editor for Essence described Knowles ' cover as a "moving tribute to Detroit ''. Jordan Sargent of Spin wrote, "It all might come off as a bit heavy - handed if it was n't for the fact that, well, Beyonce absolutely slays the cover. '' Lauren Moraski from CBS News described the tribute to the city as "touching ''. In 2013 15 - year - old Dwayne Cooke released a video of himself singing "A Change Gonna Come '' on YouTube which has gone viral on Facebook and other social networking sites...
Many stations have played this song to signal the moment of format change (e.g. when KSOC 94.5 in Dallas / Fort Worth, TX changed from urban AC to urban oldies in July 2011).
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villa flora artist's residency & bed & breakfast | Villa Flora Artist in Residency Program - wikipedia
Villa Flora Artist in Residency Program (in Slovenian: Likovna kolonija Villa Flora) is a program organised by Villa Flora in Slovenia.
Villa Flora Artist in Residency Program was founded by Slovenian painter Tjaša Iris in 2007. It hosted its first session in August - September 2008 and its second session in August - September 2009.
Villa Flora Artist in Residence Program serve to promote creative exploration and exchange among persons of diverse nationalities and backgrounds. It is historically the first Artist in Residence Program in Slovenia. The first in Slovenia to which artists from all over the world can apply to. It is suitable to artists who wish to change their environment for a couple of weeks and find inspiration in a new environment.
Villa Flora community of lively creators offers an inspirational and interactive setting for the Villa Flora Artist - In - Residence Program.
The selection is made by the founder - owner - painter Tjaša Iris and a rotating group of diverse artists, academics, critics and others that nominates potential candidates.
The aim is to make the Pre-coastal Slovenian art scene more vibrant as well as to contribute in the international exchange of artists and ideas: Slovenia / the rest of the world.
The residencies at Villa Flora are available for all disciplines of art and welcome visual artists, writers, poets, theatre groups, dancers, musicians, critics, curators, designers, architects and others.
Villa Flora is located in Branik (Italian: Rifembergo, German: Reifenberg) a village in western Slovenia in the municipality of Nova Gorica. Near Italian border. Half an hour from Trieste, an hour from Ljubljana, an hour and a half from Venice.
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what are the three largest island in the philippines | Geography of the Philippines - wikipedia
The Philippines is an archipelago that consists of 7,641 islands with a total land area of 301,780 square kilometers (116,518 sq mi). The 11 largest islands contain 95 % of the total land area. The largest of these islands is Luzon at about 105,000 square kilometers (40,541 sq mi). The next largest island is Mindanao at about 95,000 square kilometers (36,680 sq mi). The archipelago is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) from the Asian mainland and is located between Taiwan and Borneo.
The Philippine archipelago is divided into three island groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include Luzon itself, Palawan, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, Romblon, Catanduanes, Batanes and Polilio. The Visayas is the group of islands in the central Philippines, the largest of which are: Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Siquijor, Biliran and Guimaras. The Mindanao islands include Mindanao itself, Dinagat, Siargao, Camiguin, Samal, plus the Sulu Archipelago, composed primarily of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi - Tawi.
The Philippine archipelago lies in Southeast Asia in a position that has led to its becoming a cultural crossroads - a place where Malays, Hindus, Arabs, Chinese, Spaniards, Americans, and others had interacted to forge a unique cultural and racial blend. The archipelago numbers some 7,641 islands, and the nation claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its shores. The Philippines occupies an area that stretches for 1,850 kilometers (1,150 mi) from about the fifth to the twentieth parallels north latitude. The total land area is slightly more than 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi). Only approximately 1,000 of its islands are populated, and fewer than one - half of these are larger than 2.5 square kilometers (1 sq mi). Eleven islands make up 95 percent of the Philippine landmass, and two of these -- Luzon and Mindanao -- measure 105,000 square kilometers (40,541 sq mi) and 95,000 square kilometers (36,680 sq mi), respectively. They, together with the cluster of islands in Visayas in between them, represent the three principal regions of the archipelago that are identified by the three stars on the Philippine flag. The Philippines is broken up by the sea, which gives it one of the longest coastlines of any nation in the world.
Off the coast of eastern Mindanao is the Philippine Trench, which descends to a depth of 10,430 meters (34,220 ft). The Philippines is part of a western Pacific arc system characterized by active volcanoes. Among the most notable peaks are Mount Mayon near Legazpi City, Taal Volcano south of Manila, and Mount Apo in Mindanao. All of the Philippine islands are prone to earthquakes. The northern Luzon highlands, or Cordillera Central, rise to between 2,500 meters (8,200 ft) and 2,750 meters (9,020 ft), and, together with the Sierra Madre in the northeastern portion of Luzon and the mountains of Mindanao, boast rain forests that provide refuge for numerous upland tribal groups. The rain forests also offer prime habitat for more than 500 species of birds, including the Philippine eagle (or monkey - eating eagle), some 1,100 species of orchids, and some 8,500 species of flowering plants.
The country 's most extensive river systems are the Pulangi River, which flows into the Mindanao River (Rio Grande de Mindanao); the Agusan, in Mindanao which flows north into the Mindanao Sea; the Cagayan in northern Luzon; and the Pampanga, which flows south from east Central Luzon into Manila Bay. Laguna de Bay, east of Manila Bay, is the largest freshwater lake in the Philippines. Several rivers have been harnessed for hydroelectric power.
To protect the country 's biological resources, the government has taken a first step of preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan to address conservation of threatened species.
The islands are volcanic in origin, being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, and are mostly mountainous. The highest point in the country is the peak of Mount Apo in Mindanao, which is 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level. The second highest point can be found on Luzon at Mount Pulog, a peak 2,842 meters (9,324 ft) above sea level.
The Philippine Archipelago is geologically part of the Philippine Mobile Belt located between the Philippine Sea Plate, the South China Sea Basin of the Eurasian Plate, and the Sunda Plate. The Philippine Trench (also called the Mindanao Trench) is a submarine trench 1,320 kilometers (820 mi) in length found directly east of the Philippine Mobile Belt and is the result of a collision of tectonic plates. The Philippine Sea Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the rate of about 16 centimeters (6.3 in) per year. Its deepest point, the Galathea Depth, has a depth of 10,540 meters (34,580 ft). The Philippine Fault System consists of a series of seismic faults that produce several earthquakes per year, most of which are not felt.
Many volcanoes in the country are active, the most recent eruption being that of Mount Pinatubo on Luzon in 1991. Mount Mayon is another of the active volcanoes and has the world 's most perfectly shaped cone. Mayon has a violent history of 47 eruptions since 1616 and another violent eruption is currently feared. Taal Volcano, also located on Luzon, is one of the Decade Volcanoes.
The islands typically have narrow coastal plains and numerous swift - running streams. Every island has sand beaches, but few open onto spacious lowlands. There are few large plains or navigable rivers. The longest river is the Cagayan River or Rio Grande de Cagayan in northern Luzon measuring 354 kilometers. In Mindanao, the longest river is the Rio Grande de Mindanao or Mindanao River which drains Maguindanao and other parts in western - central Mindanao. Agusan River drains eastern Mindanao.
Most of the islands used to be covered by tropical rainforests. However, illegal logging has reduced forest cover to less than 10 % of the total land area.
The Batanes and Babuyan Islands are situated on the northernmost extremity of the Philippines at Luzon Strait facing Taiwan. It contains the northernmost point of land, the islet of Y'Ami in the Batanes Islands, separated from Taiwan by the Bashi Channel (c. 80.4672 kilometers (50.0000 mi) wide).
This region stretches from Mairaira Point in Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte in the north to Cochinos Point in Mariveles, Bataan in the south. The terrain ranges from coastal plains to rugged mountains bordered by the South China Sea in the west and the Cordillera Central and Zambales mountain ranges in the east. Western Luzon is known for its beaches, surf spots and historic towns.
Nestled between the Cordilleras in the east and the Sierra Madre mountain ranges in the west is the Cagayan Valley, also the name of the administrative region which it covers. Through its center runs the country 's longest river, the Cagayan, flowing in a northward direction before emptying its waters in the Luzon Strait at the town of Aparri.
The Cordilleras and Caraballos, together with the Sierra Madre Range, form the main mountain system in Northern Luzon.
The Cordilleras consists of 2, sometimes 3, mountain ranges that are found in northwestern central Luzon. The first, called Caraballo del Sur, forms the nucleus of the system and has its highest peaks in the border between the provinces of Abra, Ilocos Norte and Cagayan. Caraballo Occidentalles, is further divided into 2 ranges, the Cordillera Norte and Cordillera Central. They line the central portions of the Cordillera Administrative Region.
The Caraballos (Caraballo de Baler) start where the Sierra Madre and the Cordilleras meet. They are found south of Cagayan Valley, northeast of the Central Luzon Plains.
Lying in the eastern portion of Luzon is the longest mountain range in the Philippines, the Sierra Madre, stretching from Quezon province in the south to Cagayan in the north. 80 percent of the mountain range is tropical rainforest, which is diminishing from rampant illegal logging activity. The range serves as the eastern wall of Luzon Island that protects inhabitants from tropical cyclones usually coming from the Pacific Ocean.
The largest plain of the nation is situated in the Central Luzon region and produces most of the national rice supply, earning itself the nickname "Rice Bowl of the Philippines ''. The plains encompass the provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac and Pangasinan.
South of the Central Luzon plains lies the largest inland freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, the Laguna de Bay. To the east of the lake is a plain that stretches westward to the Manila Bay. Large rivers from bays and mountain springs traverse the plain. In the northern part of the region, that is, Manila and Rizal, most of the plain had been converted into cities and towns, and are thus industrialized. Lying east of the lake is the southern terminus of the Sierra Madre mountain range at northern Quezon province.
To the southwest of the Laguna de Bay is the nation 's third largest lake, the Taal, bordered to the north by the Tagaytay Ridge, a ridge stretching from southern Cavite to northern Batangas provinces.
The Bondoc Peninsula is located in the southeastern part of Quezon Province.
Southeast of Laguna de Bay lies the Bicol Peninsula, connected to mainland Luzon by the isthmus of Tayabas. The predominantly flat landscape features several solitary peaks, usually active volcanoes, which include Iriga, Mayon and Bulusan.
The peninsula has an irregular coastline that features large bays and gulfs, which include the Lamon Bay, San Miguel Bay, Lagonoy Gulf, and Albay Gulf to the north, and the Tayabas Bay, Ragay Gulf and Sorsogon Bay to the south.
Mindoro 's coastal plains are characterized by rice and corn fields, rivers, beaches, and extensive open space areas. Most of the population is concentrated on the northern and eastern coast of this island where the city of Calapan and Puerto Galera are located.
The Mindoro mountain range begins with Mount Halcon and is further divided into 3. The northwest ends at Calavite Point and is a landmark for ships. The east originates from Lake Naujan and the west follows the Mindoro Strait.
The Kalayaan Islands are located to the west of Palawan. Kalayaan is a Filipino word meaning "freedom ''.
The eastern coast of Mindanao features a long mountain range, the Eastern Pacific Cordillera, which stretches from Bilar Point at Surigao in the north to Cape San Agustin at Davao in the south. Forming its northern portion are the Diwata Mountains (also spelled Diuata), separated from the south by low passes situated at the middle. To the east of the range are narrow strips of lowland that feature several inlets and bays, the most prominent of which include the Lianga and Bislig bays.
To the west of the Pacific Cordillera lies an extensive lowland, the Davao - Agusan Trough. Its northern portion includes the Agusan Valley which forms the lower river basin of the Agusan River. The river flows in a northward direction and empties into the Iligan Bay. Draining the southern portion of the lowland are several other rivers, which include the Tagum, flowing southward to the Davao Gulf.
Situated west of the Davao - Agusan Trough is a complex series of mountain ranges called the Central Mindanao Highlands (also known as the Central Cordillera). From these mountains form the headwaters of several rivers which include the Rio Grande de Mindanao, Pulangi, Maridagao and Tagoloan rivers. Several tall mountains, such as Mount Apo, the country 's highest are found within the range.
The north - central portion of Mindanao is dominated by an extensive highland region, the Bukidnon - Lanao Plateau, which includes the Kitanglad and Kalatungan mountain ranges. Within the plateau lies the country 's second largest lake, Lake Lanao situated at an elevation of 2,296 feet, drained by the Agus River flowing northward to its river mouth at Iligan Bay.
South of the Bukidnon - Lanao Plateau lies a large depression, the Cotabato Basin, which forms the lower river basin of the country 's second largest river system, the Rio Grande de Cagayan (also known as the Mindanao River). Surrounded by three mountain ranges, the basin 's only opening to the sea is to the northwest at Illana Bay, where the Mindanao River empties into.
To the southeast of the main basin are two large valleys, the Koronadal and Allah valleys.
Situated south and west of the Cotabato Basin are a moderately high mountain range, the Tiruray Highlands, which block off the Basin from the southern coastline. South of the highlands are narrow strips of coastlines.
At the southwestern tip of Mindanao is the generally mountainous Zamboanga Peninsula. The chain of mountain ranges in this region is called Zamboanga Cordilleras, with the highest elevation at Mount Dapi, which is 2,617 meters (8,586 ft) high.
The southern coastline is irregular, featuring two smaller peninsulas, the Sibuguey and Baganian, extending southward to the Moro Gulf.
To the north of the Diwata Mountains at northeast Mindanao lie Siargao island and the Dinagat group of islands.
Southwest of the Zamboanga Peninsula is the Sulu Archipelago, a chain of islands which comprise the smaller archipelago provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi - Tawi.
The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the 81 provinces and 38 independent cities as the primary unit. Provinces are further subdivided into component cities and municipalities, both of which consist of barangays, the smallest local government unit.
There are 17 regions comprising the Philippines. Each region, with the exception of the National Capital Region, is further subdivided into component provinces. The National Capital Region is divided into four special districts.
Most government offices establish regional offices in a city to serve the constituent provinces. Such cities are designated as "regional centers ''. The regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.
Forming the regions, with the exception of the National Capital, are the 81 provinces. Each province has a capital city or municipality.
Of the 81 provinces of the Philippines, 15 are landlocked, and 16 are island provinces.
These provinces have coastlines on Laguna de Bay, a large lake. Since lakes do not allow access to seaborne trade, they are considered to be landlocked.
The Philippines has a tropical climate dominated by a rainy season and a dry season, although certain locations have no dry season (meaning, all months have an average rainfall of above 60 mm) and certain higher - altitude areas can have a subtropical climate. The summer monsoon brings heavy rains to most of the archipelago from May to October, whereas the winter monsoon brings relatively cooler and drier air from December to February. Manila and most of the lowland areas are hot and dusty from March to May. Even at this time, however, temperatures rarely rise above 37 ° C (98.6 ° F). Mean annual sea - level temperatures rarely fall below 27 ° C (80.6 ° F). Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters (196.9 in) in the mountainous east coast section of the country, but less than 1,000 millimeters (39.4 in) in some of the sheltered valleys.
Monsoon rains, although hard and drenching, are not normally associated with high winds and waves. But the Philippines sit astride the typhoon belt, and it suffers an annual onslaught of dangerous storms from July through October. These are especially hazardous for northern and eastern Luzon and the Bicol and Eastern Visayas regions, but Manila gets devastated periodically as well.
In the last decade, the Philippines has been hit severely by natural disasters. In 2005 alone, Central Luzon was hit by both a drought, which sharply curtailed hydroelectric power, and by a typhoon that flooded practically all of low - lying Manila 's streets. Still more damaging was the 1990 earthquake that devastated a wide area in Luzon, including Baguio and other northern areas. The city of Cebu and nearby areas were struck by a typhoon that killed more than a hundred people, sank vessels, destroyed part of the sugar crop, and cut off water and electricity for several days. The Philippines is prone to about 6 - 9 storms which make landfall each year, on average. The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption also damaged much of Central Luzon, the lahar burying towns and farmland, and the ashes affecting global temperatures.
Building construction is undertaken with natural disasters in mind. Most rural housing has consisted of nipa huts that are easily damaged but are inexpensive and easy to replace. Most urban buildings are steel and concrete structures designed (not always successfully) to resist both typhoons and earthquakes. Damage is still significant, however, and many people are displaced each year by typhoons, earthquakes, and other natural disasters. In 1987 alone the Department of Social Welfare and Development helped 2.4 million victims of natural disasters.
Unless otherwise indicated, the information below is taken from CIA Factbook information for the Philippines.
(measured from claimed archipelagic baselines)
Territorial sea: irregular polygon extending up to 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) from coastline as defined by 1898 treaty; since late 1970s has also claimed polygonal - shaped area in South China Sea up to 285 nautical miles (528 km; 328 mi) in breadth.
The Philippines sit astride typhoon belt and are usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis.
Also Typhoon Haiyan in November 2013 caused major problems.
In political geography, an enclave is a territory or part of a territory lying wholly within the boundaries of another, and an exclave is one which is politically attached to a larger piece but not actually contiguous with it. Many entities are both enclaves and exclaves, but the two are not synonymous.
A quadripoint is a point on the Earth that touches four distinct regions. Such points are often called "four corners '', from the corners of the four regions meeting there.
Four distinct geographic divisions converging at a single point is not uncommon in the Philippines, and there are other points of convergence between five or more divisions that can be found.
The island province of Marinduque prides itself as being the geographic center of the Philippines. The Marinduque governor has stated that their claim to be the Geographical Center of the Philippines has received notice and support from the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA). The Luzon Datum of 1911 in Marinduque is used as point number one for all map makers in the country.
The boundaries of the Philippine archipelago are described in Article III of the Treaty of Paris (1898), as comprising an irregular polygon. A box enclosing that polygon would have corners at 20 ° N 116 ° E, 20 ° N 127 ° E, 4.75 ° N 127 ° E, 4.75 ° N 116 ° E. The center of this box would lie at 121.5 E, 12.375 N. That point lies roughly in the center of the Tablas Strait between the islands of Tablas and Mindoro.
Republic Act No. 9522, "An Act to Define the Baselines of the Territorial Sea of the Philippines '', describes an irregular polygon which fits within a box with its center at 121 ° 44'47.45 "E 12 ° 46'6.1252 '' N, a point also roughly in the center of the Tablas Strait.
The CIA Factbook locates the Philippines at 13 ° N 122 ° E.
The extreme points under Philippine control as of 2010 are:
The center of a box enclosing these points would be located at 12 ° 46'6.13 "N, 120 ° 26'36.46 '' E. That point is located in the Mindoro Strait, about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) NNE of Apo Island, in Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro.
The following is a list of the most populous cities in the country, with their population according to the 2010 census. Component cities and municipalities of Metro Manila, Metro Cebu and Metro Davao are taken as one to show the extent of urbanization.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
Coordinates: 13 ° 00 ′ 00 '' N 122 ° 00 ′ 00 '' E / 13.000 ° N 122.000 ° E / 13.000; 122.000
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when is the sun's path highest when viewed from the equator | Sun path - wikipedia
Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the daily and seasonal arc - like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun. The Sun 's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season.
The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems. Accurate location - specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost - effective use of solar trackers.
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry. The Earth 's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees, relative to the plane of Earth 's orbit around the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, this creates the 47 ° declination difference between the solstice sun paths, as well as the hemisphere - specific difference between summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winter sun (December, January, February) rises in the southeast, transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south (more than 43 ° above the southern horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the southwest. It is on the south (equator) side of the house all day long. A vertical window facing south (equator side) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy. For comparison, the winter sun in the Southern Hemisphere (June, July, August) rises in the northeast, peaks out at a low angle in the north (more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the northwest. There, the north - facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house.
In the Northern Hemisphere in summer (June, July, August), the Sun rises in the northeast, peaks out slightly south of overhead point (lower in the south at higher latitude), and then sets in the northwest, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere in summer (December, January, February), the Sun rises in the southeast, peaks out slightly north of overhead point (lower in the north at higher latitude), and then sets in the southwest. A simple latitude - dependent equator - side overhang can easily be designed to block 100 % of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator - facing windows on the hottest days of the year. Roll - down exterior shade screens, interior translucent - or - opaque window quilts, drapes, shutters, movable trellises, etc. can be used for hourly, daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control (without any active electrical air conditioning).
Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes (March 20 / 21 and September 22 / 23) except for the poles, the sun rises due east and sets due west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the equinox sun peaks in the southern half (about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude) of the sky, while in the Southern Hemisphere, that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky. When facing the equator, the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The latitude (and hemisphere) - specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design. They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design. Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for, and how they compare to place - based seasonal heating and cooling requirements.
In the U.S., the precise location - specific altitude - and - azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA -- the "equator side '' of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere, and north in the Southern Hemisphere, where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21.
On the equator, the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes. On the vernal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator) the vertical stick 's shadow will point a little westwards of true north (NNW) reading 336.5 ° from true north and little eastwards of true south (SSE) reading 156.5 ° from true north. On the autumnal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator), the shadow will point a little eastwards of true north (NNE) reading 23.5 ° from true north (and south of the subsolar, the shadow will point a little westward of true south (SSW) reading 203.5 ° from true north).
The same stick will cast no shadow on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point is on the Tropic of Cancer 23.44 ° north of equator. Although north of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true north and south of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true south. The reverse occurs on the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point will be on the Tropic of Capricorn 23.44 ° S and a vertical stick will cast no shadow along that point. But north of the Tropic of Capricorn solar noon shadows will point towards true north and south of the Tropic of Capricorn shadows will point towards true south.
The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive (δ ☉ = + 23.44 °) or maximum negative (δ ☉ = − 23.44 °) value. On the other hand, on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south (δ ☉ = 0 °) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox (and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox).
North of the Arctic circle and south of the Antarctic circle, there will be at least one day a year when the sun is not above the horizon for 24 hours during the winter solstice, and at least one day when the sun is above the horizon for 24 hours during the summer solstice.
In the moderate latitudes (between the circles and tropics, where most humans live), the length of the day, solar altitude and azimuth vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the length of a long summer day and a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the equator.
Before the days of modern, inexpensive, 3D computer graphics, a heliodon (precisely - movable light source) was used to show the angle of the sun on a physical model of a proposed building. Today, mathematical computer models calculate location - specific solar gain (shading) and seasonal thermal performance, with the ability to rotate and animate a 3D color graphic model of a proposed building design.
Heating and cooling issues in passive solar building design can be counterintuitive. Precise performance calculations and simulations are essential to avoid reinventing the wheel and duplicating expensive experimental design errors, such as skylights that turn a building into a solar furnace in summer (see Daylighting # Sawtooth roof).
These pictures show such a perspective as follows. They show the day arcs of the Sun, the paths the Sun tracks along the celestial dome in its diurnal movement. The pictures show this for every hour on both solstice days. The longer arc is always the summer track and the shorter one the winter track. The two tracks are at a distance of 46.88 ° (2 × 23.44 °) away from each other.
In addition, some "ghost '' suns are indicated below the horizon, as much as 18 ° down. The Sun in this area causes twilight. The pictures can be used for both the northern and southern hemispheres. The observer is supposed to sit near the tree on the island in the middle of the ocean. The green arrows give the cardinal directions.
The following special cases are depicted.
Day arcs at 0 ° latitude, equator.
Day arcs at 20 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 50 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 70 ° latitude.
Day arcs at 90 ° latitude, pole.
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who plays zack in saved by the bell | Mark - Paul Gosselaar - wikipedia
Mark - Paul Harry Gosselaar (/ ˈɡɒslər /; born March 1, 1974) is an American actor. He is known for his television roles as Zack Morris in Saved by the Bell, Detective John Clark in NYPD Blue, and Peter Bash in Franklin & Bash.
He was the lead in the 1998 film Dead Man on Campus, and recently starred in FOX television show Pitch.
Gosselaar was born in Panorama City, California, the son of Paula (van den Brink), a homemaker and hostess for KLM, and Hans Gosselaar, a plant supervisor for Anheuser - Busch. His Dutch father is of German and Dutch Jewish descent. Gosselaar 's Jewish paternal great - grandparents, Hertog and Hester Gosselaar, were killed at the Sobibor extermination camp during the Holocaust. His mother, who is of Indonesian and Dutch descent, is from Bali, Indonesia. At one point, Gosselaar was fluent in Dutch (his older siblings were born in the Netherlands). Gosselaar 's parents later separated.
Gosselaar 's mother worked as his manager. He began modeling at the age of 5. As a child, he appeared in commercials for Oreo cookies and Smurf merchandise, and later won guest spots on television series. He spent his teenage years in the Santa Clarita Valley in Southern California, where he attended Hart High School.
Gosselaar first came to public notice as the star of the hit television comedy series Saved by the Bell, in which he played Zack Morris, and which aired on NBC from 1989 to 1993. His character was adapted from the short - lived Disney Channel sitcom Good Morning, Miss Bliss; although that show was cancelled after one season, NBC executives believed that a similar show, with Zack Morris as the series lead, had potential for success. He reprised the role in two TV movies and a less - successful spin - off, Saved by the Bell: The College Years. In 1994, he appeared as Zack Morris in a second spin - off series Saved by the Bell: The New Class in the episode "Goodbye, Bayside -- Part 2 '', along with Mario López as A.C. Slater and Lark Voorhies as Lisa Turtle.
In 1996, he appeared in the TV - film She Cried No as a college student who date - rapes his best friend 's sister at a fraternity party. In 1998, he starred in the feature film, Dead Man on Campus. Later that same year, Gosselaar played the central character in the TV drama Hyperion Bay, which lasted 17 episodes. In 2001, he starred in the movie The Princess and the Marine, with Marisol Nichols. He also starred in the short - lived WB series D.C. From 2001 - 05, he played Detective John Clark on ABC 's NYPD Blue. After the series ended, he joined the cast of ABC 's Commander in Chief, which lasted only one season. He appeared on the HBO series John from Cincinnati. He then gained the starring role of defense attorney Jerry Kellerman in the Steven Bochco - produced Raising the Bar, which debuted on September 1, 2008, on TNT, then it was canceled in November 2009 after two seasons.
On June 8, 2009, Gosselaar appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in character as Zack Morris to promote his show Raising the Bar, indicating that the name Mark - Paul Gosselaar is his stage name and declaring, as Zack, that he would participate in a Saved by the Bell "Class '' reunion that is being spearheaded by Fallon. He has since agreed to participate in the reunion being organized by Jimmy Fallon on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon along with four fellow castmembers to date. On February 4, 2015, Gosselaar reunited with Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley, Dennis Haskins and Tiffani Thiessen on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where they appeared in a Saved by the Bell sketch with Fallon.
In October 2009, he made his Off - Broadway stage debut in Theresa Rebeck 's play The Understudy with The Roundabout Theatre Company. The show extended its limited New York run until January 17, 2010.
Gosselaar began filming the TNT series Franklin & Bash on March 28, 2010. The series premiered on June 1, 2011. On November 11, 2014, it was announced that the series was canceled, after four seasons.
The FOX series Pitch cast Gosselaar in the main role of Mike Lawson, star catcher and team captain, in February 2016, and premiered on September 22, 2016. On May 1, 2017, it was announced that the series was canceled, after one season. He appeared in 1 episode of Dinner at Tiffani 's.
In a July 2009 interview with People, Gosselaar revealed that when Saved By the Bell was in production, he dated, at different times, his three female co-stars: Lark Voorhies, Tiffani Thiessen and Elizabeth Berkley. He remains friends with his Saved by the Bell cast mates.
In 1996, Gosselaar married former model Lisa Ann Russell. Together they have two children: son Michael Charles (born 2004) and daughter Ava Lorenn (born 2006). After 14 years of marriage, Gosselaar and Russell announced their separation in early June 2010. Gosselaar filed for divorce June 18, 2010, and it became final in May 2011.
Gosselaar was engaged to advertising executive Catriona McGinn in August 2011. They married July 28, 2012 at the Sunstone winery in Santa Ynez, California. They have a son Dekker (born 2013), and a daughter Lachlyn (born 2015).
Gosselaar is a sports car enthusiast, race car driver, track cyclist, dirt biker and pilot. In 2005, he competed in the Far West Championships for track cycling. He won the Category 4 / 5 Sprint Championship event at the Encino Velodrome.
Young Artist Award
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where is the island in evil under the sun | Evil Under the Sun (1982 film) - wikipedia
Evil Under the Sun is a 1982 British mystery film based on the 1941 novel of the same name by Agatha Christie. It was directed by Guy Hamilton, and stars Peter Ustinov in his second theatrical appearance as the Belgian detective Hercule Poirot.
A hiker finds a dead woman on the Yorkshire moors; the victim, who has been strangled, is identified as Alice Ruber. Shortly afterwards, Belgian detective Hercule Poirot (Peter Ustinov) examines a diamond belonging to millionaire industrialist Sir Horace Blatt (Colin Blakely), and declares it a fake. Assured that Sir Horace gave a real diamond to his mistress and she later returned the fake to him, Poirot accompanies Sir Horace to confront her at an exclusive island resort. The hotel is the former summer palace of the reigning King of Tyrania, now owned by Daphne Castle (Maggie Smith), who had received the palace "for services rendered ''.
Sir Horace 's former mistress is actress Arlena Stuart Marshall (Diana Rigg), who is on holiday with her husband Kenneth (Denis Quilley). Arlena is emotionally abusive to her stepdaughter, Linda (Emily Hone), and flirts with handsome young Patrick Redfern (Nicholas Clay), who is himself married to the meek Christine (Jane Birkin). Patrick is on the island only because Arlena arranged it. Kenneth turns to his old friend, Daphne, who reviles the way that Arlena treats both him and Linda. Arlena has also caused financial problems for Odell and Myra Gardener (James Mason and Sylvia Miles) by walking out of a major play, and refusing another. Writer Rex Brewster (Roddy McDowall) has already spent the royalties advanced to him for a tell - all biography of Arlena. Early one morning, Arlena takes a paddle - boat to Ladder Bay. Patrick and Myra go for a boat trip around the island and see a body lying motionless on the beach. Patrick approaches the body and recognizes Arlena, announcing that she has been strangled. Poirot must determine which of his eight fellow guests -- or Daphne -- is the murderer.
Daphne had heard Kenneth in his room typing at the time of the murder, and Christine was with Linda at Gull Cove and did not leave until 11: 55 for a 12: 30 tennis match. Sir Horace argued with Arlena about the diamond at Ladder Bay at 11: 30, which is confirmed by his yacht crew and by Daphne. Arlena kept the diamond, promising an explanation that evening, and Poirot finds the jewel nearby in a grotto. Patrick left at 11: 30 with Myra, seeing Sir Horace 's yacht coming, and hearing the noon cannon. Rex met Linda entering Gull Cove at 12: 00, and reports that a bottle flung from the top of a cliff nearly hit him. Odell was seen reading by Daphne and her staff. He claims low water pressure hindered his 12: 15 wash before tennis, but nobody admits to bathing at that time.
Assembling the suspects together, Poirot accuses Christine and Patrick of the crime: Christine knocked out Arlena and hid her in the nearby grotto, and Patrick strangled the helpless Arlena later. Christine posed as Arlena with self - tanning lotion, Arlena 's swimsuit and large red hat, to be mis - identified by Patrick. But Poirot had smelled Arlena 's perfume in the grotto. Christine set Linda 's watch twenty minutes fast, suggested a swim cap to muffle the noon cannon, and corrected the watch afterward. She tossed out the lotion bottle, almost hitting Rex, and bathed off her tan, thus depriving the leaky hotel water system of pressure. Poirot suspects that Patrick switched Sir Horace 's jewel with a paste one, and that Patrick and Christine killed Arlena to protect the theft. The Redferns scoff at the detective 's accusations, as he has no real proof.
On leaving the hotel, Patrick pays by cheque, signing the "R '' in "Redfern '' in a distinctive way that Poirot recognizes as the same way "Felix Ruber '', husband of the Yorkshire moor victim, signed his name. The hiker that found the body had been Christine, establishing Patrick 's alibi. Poirot knows photos from the British police will show Patrick and Felix to be the same person. Patrick puts a pipe in his mouth that has never been lit during his stay; Poirot empties the pipe bowl to reveal the diamond.
The screenplay was written by Anthony Shaffer (who had worked on previous Christie adaptations) and an uncredited Barry Sandler. The adaptation stayed fairly close to Christie 's work but truncated scenes for time constraints, removed minor characters, and added humorous elements that were not present in the novel. Additionally, the novel was set in Devon, but the film was set on an Adriatic island in the fictional kingdom of Tyrania (based on Albania). The characters of Rosamund Darnley and Mrs. Castle were merged, the characters of Major Barry and Reverend Stephen Lane were omitted, and the female character of Emily Brewster was written as a man named Rex Brewster, played by McDowall.
Ustinov made his second film appearance as Poirot, having previously played the Belgian detective in Death on the Nile (1978); Smith and Birkin also appeared in both films. Quilley and Blakely appeared in the earlier Brabourne - produced Murder on the Orient Express (1974). Guy Hamilton had previously directed another Agatha Christie film, The Mirror Crack 'd, in 1980.
Costumes for the film were designed by Academy Award winner Anthony Powell.
The film was shot at Lee International Studios in Wembley, London, and on location in Majorca, Spain.
The actual island used for aerial shots is Sa Dragonera, an uninhabited islet with "natural park '' status, located just off the west coast of Majorca near Sant Elm. Other locations used were Cala Blanca as Ladder Bay, and offshore at Sant Elm for the south of France (Sir Horace 's boat scenes). Cala d'en Monjo was used for the exteriors of Daphne 's Cove and Hotel; the hotel itself was a private estate later bought by the Island Council of Majorca (along with Ajuntament de Calvià - Municipal) to create a natural park, which was demolished to its foundations. Gull Cove is the remote Cala en Feliu on the Formentor Peninsula. The other hotel exterior shots were filmed at the Raixa Estate, a large Italian style villa surrounded by Pietro Lazzarini - designed gardens, located in Bunyola, north of Palma. Once owned by the German designer Jil Sander, it was subsequently purchased by the Island Council of Majorca. Finally, Poirot boards his boat to the island from Cala de Deià, the coastal area of the exclusive town.
The early scenes on the moors were shot in the Yorkshire Dales, England, with the exterior of the police station being the former Literary Institute in Muker, Swaledale.
Evil Under the Sun was Peter Ustinov 's second portrayal of Christie 's Belgian detective Hercule Poirot. Ustinov played Poirot in a total of six films:
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where are the frontal and temporal lobes located | Frontal lobe - wikipedia
The frontal lobe, located at the front of the brain, is the largest of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in mammals. The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere (in front of the parietal lobe and the temporal lobe). It is separated from the parietal lobe by a groove between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deeper groove called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure). The most anterior rounded part of the frontal lobe (though not well - defined) is known as the frontal pole, one of the three poles of the cerebrum.
The precentral gyrus, a portion of the frontal lobe directly anterior to the central sulcus, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.
The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine - sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopaminergic system is associated with reward, attention, short - term memory tasks, planning, and motivation. Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain.
On the lateral surface of the human brain, the central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.
The frontal lobe can be divided into a lateral, polar, orbital (above the orbit; also called basal or ventral), and medial part. Each of these parts consists of a particular gyrus:
The gyri are separated by sulci. E.g., the precentral gyrus is in front of the central sulcus, and behind the precentral sulcus. The superior and middle frontal gyri are divided by the superior frontal sulcus. The middle and inferior frontal gyri are divided by the inferior frontal sulcus.
In humans, the frontal lobe reaches full maturity around the late 20s, marking the cognitive maturity associated with adulthood. A small amount of atrophy, however, is normal in the aging person 's frontal lobe. Fjell, in 2009, studied atrophy of the brain in people aged 60 -- 91 years. The 142 healthy participants were scanned using MRI. Their results were compared to those of 122 participants with Alzheimer 's disease. A follow - up one year later showed there to have been a marked volumetric decline in those with Alzheimer 's and a much smaller decline (averaging 0.5 %) in the healthy group. These findings corroborate those of Coffey, who in 1992 indicated that the frontal lobe decreases in volume approximately 0.5 % -- 1 % per year.
The frontal lobe plays a large role in voluntary movement. It houses the primary motor cortex which regulates activities like walking.
The function of the frontal lobe involves the ability to project future consequences resulting from current actions, the choice between good and bad actions (or better and best) (also known as conscience), the override and suppression of socially unacceptable responses, and the determination of similarities and differences between things or events.
The frontal lobe also plays an important part in integrating longer non-task based memories stored across the brain. These are often memories associated with emotions derived from input from the brain 's limbic system. The frontal lobe modifies those emotions to generally fit socially acceptable norms.
Psychological tests that measure frontal lobe function include finger tapping (as the frontal lobe controls voluntary movement), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and measures of language and numeracy skills.
Damage to the frontal lobe can occur in a number of ways and result in many different consequences. Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) also known as mini-strokes, and strokes are common causes of frontal lobe damage in older adults (65 and over). These strokes and mini-strokes can occur due to the blockage of blood flow to the brain or as a result of the rupturing of an aneurysm in a cerebral artery. Other ways in which injury can occur include head injuries such as traumatic brain injuries incurred following accidents, diagnoses such as Alzheimer 's disease or Parkinson 's disease (which cause dementia symptoms), and frontal lobe epilepsy (which can occur at any age).
Common effects of damage to the frontal lobe are varied. Patients who have experienced frontal lobe trauma may know the appropriate response to a situation but display inappropriate responses to those same situations in "real life ''. Similarly, emotions that are felt may not be expressed in the face or voice. For example, someone who is feeling happy would not smile, and the voice would be devoid of emotion. Along the same lines, though, the person may also exhibit excessive, unwarranted displays of emotion. Depression is common in stroke patients. Also common is a loss of or decrease in motivation. Someone might not want to carry out normal daily activities and would not feel "up to it ''. Those who are close to the person who has experienced the damage may notice changes in behavior. This personality change is characteristic of damage to the frontal lobe and was exemplified in the case of Phineas Gage. The frontal lobe is the same part of the brain that is responsible for executive functions such as planning for the future, judgment, decision - making skills, attention span, and inhibition. These functions can decrease drastically in someone whose frontal lobe is damaged.
Consequences that are seen less frequently are also varied. Confabulation may be the most frequently indicated "less common '' effect. In the case of confabulation, someone gives false information while maintaining the belief that it is the truth. In a small number of patients, uncharacteristic cheerfulness can be noted. This effect is seen mostly in patients with lesions to the right frontal portion of the brain.
Another infrequent effect is that of reduplicative paramnesia, in which patients believe that the location in which they currently reside is a replica of one located somewhere else. Similarly, those who experience Capgras syndrome after frontal lobe damage believe that an identical "replacement '' has taken the identity of a close friend, relative, or other person and is posing as that person. This last effect is seen mostly in schizophrenic patients who also have a neurological disorder in the frontal lobe.
A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant of (COMT) that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory tasks, and to a slightly increased risk for schizophrenia.
In the early 20th century, a medical treatment for mental illness, first developed by Portuguese neurologist Egas Moniz, involved damaging the pathways connecting the frontal lobe to the limbic system. A frontal lobotomy (sometimes called frontal leucotomy) successfully reduced distress but at the cost of often blunting the subject 's emotions, volition and personality. The indiscriminate use of this psychosurgical procedure, combined with its severe side effects and a mortality rate of 7.4 to 17 per cent, gained it a bad reputation. The frontal lobotomy has largely died out as a psychiatric treatment. More precise psychosurgical procedures are still used, although rarely. They may include anterior capsulotomy (bilateral thermal lesions of the anterior limbs of the internal capsule) or the bilateral cingulotomy (involving lesions of the anterior cingulate gyri) and might be used to treat otherwise untreatable obsessional disorders or clinical depression.
Theories of frontal lobe function can be separated into four categories:
Other theories include:
It may be highlighted that the theories described above differ in their focus on certain processes / systems or construct - lets. Stuss (1999) remarks that the question of homogeneity (single construct) or heterogeneity (multiple processes / systems) of function "may represent a problem of semantics and / or incomplete functional analysis rather than an unresolvable dichotomy '' (p. 348). However, further research will show if a unified theory of frontal lobe function that fully accounts for the diversity of functions will be available.
Many scientists had thought that the frontal lobe was disproportionately enlarged in humans compared to other primates. This was thought to be an important feature of human evolution and seen as the primary reason why human cognition differs from that of other primates. However, this view has since been challenged by neuroimaging studies. Using magnetic resonance imaging to determine the volume of the frontal cortex in humans, all extant ape species and several monkey species, it was found that the human frontal cortex was not relatively larger than the cortex of other great apes but was relatively larger than the frontal cortex of lesser apes and the monkeys. The higher cognition of the humans is instead seen to relate to a greater connectedness given by neural tracts that do not affect the cortical volume. This is also evident in the pathways of the language network connecting the frontal and temporal lobes.
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when did the last astronaut go into space | List of astronauts by year of selection - wikipedia
This is a list of astronauts by year of selection: people selected to train for a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Until recently, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. However, with the advent of suborbital flight starting with privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.
While the term astronaut is sometimes applied to anyone who trains for travels into space -- including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists -- this article lists only professional astronauts, those who have been selected to train as a profession. This includes national space programs and private industry programs which train and / or hire their own professional astronauts.
More than 500 people have trained as astronauts. A list of everyone who has flown in space can be found at List of space travelers by name.
North American X-15 Pilots Group (USA)
June 25 -- Man In Space Soonest (USA)
April 9 -- NASA Group 1 -- Mercury Seven (USA)
March 7 -- Air Force Group 1 (USSR)
April -- Dyna -- Soar Group 1 (USA)
March 12 -- Female Group (USSR)
September 17 -- NASA Group 2 -- The Next Nine, aka The Nifty Nine, The New Nine (USA)
September 19 -- Dyna - Soar Group 2 (USA)
January 10 -- Air Force Group 2 (USSR)
October 17, 1963 -- NASA Group 3 -- The Fourteen (USA)
January 25 -- Air Force Group 2 Supplemental (USSR)
May 26 -- Voskhod Group -- Medical Group 1 (USSR)
June 11 -- Civilian Specialist Group 1 (USSR)
June 1 -- Journalist Group 1 (USSR)
June 1 -- Medical Group 2 (USSR)
June 28 -- NASA Group 4 -- The Scientists (USA)
October 28 -- Air Force Group 3 (USSR)
November -- USAF MOL Group 1 (USA)
April 4 -- NASA Group 5 (USA)
May 23 -- Civilian Specialist Group 2 (USSR)
June 30 -- USAF MOL Group 2 (USA)
September -- Military Cosmonaut Group (USSR)
1966 -- 67 -- Military Cosmonaut Group (USSR)
January 31 -- Civilian Specialist Group 2 Supplemental (USSR)
February (official) -- Soviet manned lunar programs cosmonauts in two training groups (USSR)
May 7 -- Air Force Group 4 (USSR)
May 22 -- Academy of Sciences Group (USSR)
June -- USAF MOL Group 3 (USA)
October 4 -- NASA Group 6 -- XS - 11 (The Excess Eleven) (USA)
May 27 -- Civilian Specialist Group 3 (USSR)
August 14 -- NASA Group 7 (USA)
September 10 -- Civilian Engineer Group (USSR)
April 27 -- Air Force Group 5 (USSR)
February 25 -- 1971 Scientific Group (USSR)
May -- Shuguang Group 1970 (China)
March 22 -- Civilian Specialist Group 4 (USSR)
March 22 -- Medical Group 3 -- USSR
March 27 -- Civilian Specialist Group 5 (USSR)
January 1 -- Physician Group (USSR)
August 23 -- Air Force Group 6 -- Space shuttle Buran crew (USSR)
Protchenko was removed from the squad for health reasons, Ivanov was killed in the crash of a MiG - 27 during test pilot training and Kadenyuk was removed from the squad over marital issues (but accepted back into the Cosmonaut Detachment in 1988). Vasyutin concealed a medical condition from doctors that resulted in his falling ill during the Soyuz T - 14 / Salyut 7 EO - 4 flight causing the premature termination of the mission 4 months early. This resulted in more stringent cosmonaut medical checks which Moskalenko and Saley failed.
November 25 -- 1976 Intercosmos Group (USSR)
July 12 -- The first group of test pilots for Buran -- Gromov Flight Research Institute group (USSR)
January 16 -- NASA Group 8 -- TFNG Thirty - Five New Guys (USA)
March 1 -- 1978 Intercosmos Group (USSR)
May 1 -- Spacelab Payload Specialists Group 1 (ESA)
August -- USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer -- Group 1 (USA)
April 1 -- 1979 Intercosmos Group (USSR)
May 29 -- NASA Group 9 (USA)
July 30 -- LII -- 1 / IMBP -- 3 / MAP / NPOE - 5 / AN -- 2 Cosmonaut Group (Soviet Union)
1980 -- CNES Group 1 (France)
August -- USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer (Group 2)
September 11 -- 1982 Intercosmos Group (India)
December 1 -- Spacelab Payload Specialists Group (Germany)
April 25 -- The second group of test pilots for the project "Buran '' -- Gromov Flight Research Institute group) (USSR)
December -- NRC Group (Canada)
February 15 -- NPOE -- 6 Cosmonaut Group (Soviet Union)
May 23 -- NASA Group 10 -- The Maggots (USA)
June 12 -- The third group of test pilots for the project "Buran '' -- Gromov Flight Research Institute group (USSR)
Victor Zabolotski
May -- ISRO Insat Group (India)
June (Mexico)
June 4 -- NASA Group 11 (USA)
July 19 -- NASA Teacher in Space Program (USA)
August 1 -- 1985 NASDA Group (Japan)
August -- USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer -- Group 3 (USA)
September 2 -- GKNII -- 2 / NPOE -- 7 Cosmonaut Group (USSR)
September 18 -- CNES Group 2 (France)
September 30 -- 1985 Intercosmos Group (Syria)
October -- Indonesian Palapa Group (Indonesia)
December 27 -- ATLAS -- 1 (ESA)
January 2 -- The fourth group of test pilots for the project "Buran '' -- Gromov Flight Research Institute group (USSR)
Sergey Tresvyatski, Yuri Schaeffer
January 5 -- Shipka Group (Bulgaria)
March 26 -- TsPK -- 8 / NPOE - 8 Cosmonaut Group (Soviet Union)
June 5 -- NASA Group 12 -- The GAFFers (USA)
August 3 -- 1987 German Group
February 12 -- OS "Mir '' Group (Afghanistan)
January 25 -- IMBP -- 5 / GKNII -- 3 / NPOE -- 9 / TsPK -- 10 Cosmonaut Group (Soviet Union)
22 March -- The last group of test pilots for the Buran project -- Gromov Flight Research Institute group) (USSR)
May 23 -- 1989 Italian Group
September 29 -- ATLAS Payload Specialists (NASA)
November 25 -- Project Juno (UK - Soviet Union)
January 17 -- NASA Group 13 -- The Hairballs (USA)
February -- CNES Group 3 (France)
May 11 -- TsPK -- 11 Cosmonaut Group (Soviet Union)
October 8 -- 1990 German Group
March 3 -- NPOE - 10 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
March 31 -- NASA Group 14 -- The Hogs (USA)
April -- 1992 NASDA Group (Japan)
June -- CSA Group 2 (Canada)
May 15 -- 1992 ESA Group (ESA)
April 1 -- NPOE -- 11 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
December 12 -- NASA Group 15 -- The Flying Escargot (USA)
February 9 -- MKS / RKKE -- 12 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
March 26 -- MKS supplemental cosmonaut group (Russia)
May 1 -- NASA Group 16 -- The Sardines (USA)
June -- NASDA Group (Japan)
October -- China Group 1996 (China)
November -- Shuttle - 97 Group (Ukraine)
April (?) -- Shuttle Group (Israel)
July 28 -- TsPK -- 12 / RKKE - 13 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
January -- Chinese Group 1 (China)
February 24 -- RKKE - 14 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
Mart 2 -- OS "Mir '' Stefanik Group (Slovakia)
June 4 -- NASA Group 17 -- The Penguins (USA)
October 7 -- 1998 ESA Group (ESA)
February -- 1999 NASDA Group (Japan)
1 November -- 1999 ESA Group (Europe)
July 26 -- NASA Group 18 -- The Bugs (USA)
November 12 -- Canadian Arrow astronaut team (Canada)
David Ballinger, Larry C. Clark, Jason Paul Dyer, Marvin Edward ' Ted ' Gow, Yaroslav ' Yarko ' Pustovyi, Wayne ' Terry ' Wong
May 23 -- TsPK - 13 / RKKE - 15 / IMBP - 6 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
Kazakhstan -- Group 1
September 11 -- SpaceShipOne (Commercial Astronauts) (USA)
May 6 -- NASA Group 19 -- The Peacocks (USA)
March 30 -- Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
September 4 -- Angkasawan Group (Malaysia)
October 11 -- TsPK - 14 / RKKE - 16 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
December 25 -- Korean Astronaut Program Group
July -- Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
February 25 -- JAXA Group (Japan)
May 13 -- CSA Group (Canada)
May 20 -- ESA Group -- The Shenanigans (ESA)
June 29 -- NASA Group 20 -- Chumps (USA)
September 8 -- JAXA Group (Japan)
March -- Chinese Group 2 (China)
April 12 -- Association of Spaceflight Professionals -- Group 1 (Commercial Astronauts)
June 7 -- Association of Spaceflight Professionals -- Group 2 (Commercial Astronauts)
October 12 -- TsPK -- 15 / RKKE -- 17 Cosmonaut Group (Russia)
January - February -- Enrolled in a United squad of Roscosmos astronauts (Russia)
From 1 January 2011 at the Research Institute of the Y.A. Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is a single detachment of the Russian Space Agency astronauts, which in 2015 consisted of 38 people. The next set of candidates was announced at the beginning of 2016, then postponed until 2017. On September 2016, the unit counted 31 astronauts.
February 28 -- Association of Spaceflight Professionals -- Group 3 (Commercial Astronauts)
October 26 -- Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
February -- Enrolled in a United squad of Roscosmos cosmonauts (Russia)
October 30 -- TsPK -- Addition Group (Russia)
May 8 Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
June 3 -- Association of Spaceflight Professionals -- Group 4 (Commercial Astronauts)
June 17 -- NASA Group 21 -- 8 - Balls (US)
July 9 -- Bigelow Aerospace Astronaut Group 1 (Commercial Astronauts) (USA)
July 24 -- Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
August 14 -- Individual set into a United detachment of Roscosmos astronauts (Russia)
January 23 -- Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group (Commercial Astronauts) (UK)
July 9 -- NASA Commercial Crew Program
July -- ESA Astronaut Corps
Copenhagen Suborbitals (Commercial Astronauts) (Denmark)
June 7 -- NASA Group 22 (USA)
July 1 -- 2017 CSA Group (Canada)
The space market exceeds $330 billion today. Current estimates show the number growing to nearly $3 trillion over the next three decades. Human spaceflight is one of the sectors positioned for greatest growth. Commercial astronauts are expected to fill the gap in this transition.
Ansari X Prize
The first commercial astronauts were selected by contenders for the Ansari X PRIZE, the first nongovernmental reusable manned spacecraft, in 2004. Among them include Starchaser Industries directors Steve Bennett (United Kingdom) and Matt Shewbridge; former NASA astronauts John Bennett Herrington (Pioneer Rocketplane), Richard Searfoss and pilot Dick Rutan (XCOR Aerospace); Canadian engineer Brian Feeney (da Vinci Project); and veteran Wally Funk from Mercury 13 (Interorbital Systems).
Boeing hired former NASA astronaut Chris Ferguson to join the Space Exploration Team. Candidates for Boeing 's astronaut corps include former NASA astronauts, commercial scientist astronauts and test pilots who have never flown in space.
SpaceX employs former NASA astronaut Garrett Reisman. Former astronaut Ken Bowersox worked for the company from 2009 -- 2012.
The world 's first commercial astronaut corps, the Association of Spaceflight Professionals, was funded by NASA for its first series of manned spaceflight missions in 2012. Its commercial astronauts are vetted through a highly selective selection process modeled after the NASA Astronaut Corps, incorporating guidance and direction from a selection panel of veteran NASA astronauts and astronaut trainers. Many serve as astronaut trainers themselves; several have interviewed as finalists in national space agency astronaut candidate selection campaigns; one previously completed an orbital mission conducting scientific experiments on the International Space Station.
Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic astronauts include Michael Alsbury (killed in the 2014 Virgin Galactic crash), Rob Bendall (Canada), Richard Branson, Peter Kalogiannis, Niki Lauda (Austria), Brian Maisler, Clint Nichols, Wes Persall, Burt Rutan, Peter Seiffert, Peter Siebold and Mark Stucky.
XCOR Aerospace was an American private spaceflight and rocket engine development company based in Mojave, California, Midland, Texas and the Amsterdam area, the Netherlands. The company aimed to develop rapidly reusable suborbital space planes. The company was formed in 1999 by former members of the Rotary Rocket rocket engine development team, and ceased operations in 2017.
The Teachers in Space program began in 2005. In 2012, the United States Rocket Academy announced that the program was expanding to include a broader range of participants, renaming the initiative Citizens in Space. For its first phase, Citizens in Space selected and trained ten citizen astronaut candidates to fly as payload operators, including four astronaut candidates already in training (Maureen Adams, Steve Heck, Michael Johnson, and Edward Wright). Informal educator and aerospace historian Gregory Kennedy was among those listed.
Copenhagen Suborbitals (2008, Denmark) seeks to make Denmark the fourth nation to launch humans above the Kármán line.
Mars One is a private initiative with claims to establish a permanent human colony on Mars by 2023. The project is led by Dutch entrepreneur Bas Lansdorp, who announced plans for the Mars One mission on May 2012. A Mars One astronaut selection announcement was made on April 19, 2013, and started its search on April 22, 2013. By August 2013, Mars One had more than 200,000 applicants from around the world. Round Two selection results were declared on December 30, 2013, wherein a total of 1058 applicants from 107 countries were selected.
Inspiration Mars Foundation, an American nonprofit founded by Dennis Tito, aims to launch a manned mission to flyby Mars in January 2018, or, if the 2018 date is missed, on 2021. Flight candidates include husband and wife travel duo Jane Poynter and Taber MacCallum, who participated in the Biosphere 2 experiment.
Waypoint2Space was granted FAA safety approval for its training services in 2014. The company works in collaboration with NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston to provide spaceflight training.
The first private firm that tried to build a suborbital space rocket, Truax Engineering, selected company employee, engineer and lifelong aviator Jeana Yeager as the first test pilot for its rocket. The project was halted in 1991 due to lack of funds.
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what is the difference between homeostasis and adaptation | Homeostasis - wikipedia
Homeostasis can be defined as the stable state of an organism and of its internal environment; as the maintenance or regulation of the stable condition, or its equilibrium; or simply as the balance of bodily functions. The stable condition is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism, and is dependent on many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits. Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life.
Homeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable being regulated: a receptor, a control centre, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors. Control centres include the respiratory centre, and the renin -- angiotensin system. An effector is the target acted on, to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up - regulation or down - regulation, and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver.
Some centres, such as the renin -- angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control centre. The control centre sets the maintenance range -- the acceptable upper and lower limits -- for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is fed back to the receptor that stops the need for further signalling.
The concept of the regulation of the internal environment was described by French physiologist Claude Bernard in 1865, and the word homeostasis was coined by Walter Bradford Cannon in 1926. Homeostasis is an almost exclusively biological term, referring to the concepts described by Bernard and Cannon, concerning the constancy of the internal environment in which the cells of the body live and survive. The term cybernetics is applied to technological control systems such as thermostats, which function as homeostatic mechanisms, but is often defined much more broadly than the biological term of homeostasis.
The word homeostasis (/ ˌhoʊmioʊˈsteɪsɪs /) uses combining forms of homeo - and - stasis, New Latin from Greek: ὅμοιος homoios, "similar '' and στάσις stasis, "standing still '', yielding the idea of "staying the same ''.
The metabolic processes of all organisms can only take place in very specific physical and chemical environments. The conditions vary with each organism, and with whether the chemical processes take place inside the cell or in the interstitial fluid bathing the cells. The best known homeostatic mechanisms in humans and other mammals are regulators that keep the composition of the extracellular fluid (or the "internal environment '') constant, especially with regard to the temperature, pH, osmolality, and the concentrations of sodium, potassium, glucose, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. However, a great many other homeostatic mechanisms, encompassing many aspects of human physiology, control other entities in the body. Where the levels of variables are higher or lower than those needed, they are often prefixed with hyper - and hypo -, respectively such as hyperthermia and hypothermia and hypertension and hypotension.
If an entity is homeostatically controlled it does not imply that its value is necessarily absolutely steady in health. Core body temperature is, for instance, regulated by a homeostatic mechanism with temperature sensors in, amongst others, the hypothalamus of the brain. However, the set point of the regulator is regularly reset. For instance, core body temperature in humans varies during the course of the day (i.e. has a circadian rhythm), with the lowest temperatures occurring at night, and the highest in the afternoons. Other normal temperature variations include those related to the menstrual cycle. The temperature regulator 's set point is reset during infections to produce a fever. Organisms are capable of adjusting somewhat to varied conditions such as temperature changes or oxygen levels at altitude, by a process of acclimatisation.
Homeostasis does not govern every activity in the body. For instance the signal (be it via neurons or hormones) from the sensor to the effector is, of necessity, highly variable in order to convey information about the direction and magnitude of the error detected by the sensor. Similarly the effector 's response needs to be highly adjustable to reverse the error -- in fact it should be very nearly in proportion (but in the opposite direction) to the error that is threatening the internal environment. For instance, the arterial blood pressure in mammals is homeostatically controlled, and measured by stretch receptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinuses at beginnings of the internal carotid arteries. The sensors send messages via sensory nerves to the medulla oblongata of the brain indicating whether the blood pressure has fallen or risen, and by how much. The medulla oblongata then distributes messages along motor or efferent nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system to a wide variety of effector organs, whose activity is consequently changed to reverse the error in the blood pressure. One of the effector organs is the heart whose rate is stimulated to rise (tachycardia) when the arterial blood pressure falls, or to slow down (bradycardia) when the pressure rises above set point. Thus the heart rate (for which there is no sensor in the body) is not homeostatically controlled, but is one of effector responses to errors in the arterial blood pressure. Another example is the rate of sweating. This is one of the effectors in the homeostatic control of body temperature, and therefore highly variable in rough proportion to the heat load that threatens to destabilize the body 's core temperature, for which there is a sensor in the hypothalamus of the brain.
Mammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling. Behavioural thermoregulation takes precedence over physiological thermoregulation since necessary changes can be affected more quickly and physiological thermoregulation is limited in its capacity to respond to extreme temperatures.
When core temperature falls, the blood supply to the skin is reduced by intense vasoconstriction. The blood flow to the limbs (which have a large surface area) is similarly reduced, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes). This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short - circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather. The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, not only reducing heat loss from this source, but also forcing the venous blood into the counter-current system in the depths of the limbs.
The metabolic rate is increased, initially by non-shivering thermogenesis, followed by shivering thermogenesis if the earlier reactions are insufficient to correct the hypothermia.
When core temperature rises are detected by thermoreceptors, the sweat glands in the skin are stimulated via cholinergic sympathetic nerves to secrete sweat onto the skin, which, when it evaporates, cools the skin and the blood flowing through it. Panting is an alternative effector in many vertebrates, which cools the body also by the evaporation of water, but this time from the mucous membranes of the throat and mouth.
Blood sugar levels are regulated within fairly narrow limits. In mammals the primary sensors for this are the beta cells of the pancreatic islets. The beta cells respond to a rise in the blood sugar level by secreting insulin into the blood, and simultaneously inhibiting their neighboring alpha cells from secreting glucagon into the blood. This combination (high blood insulin levels and low glucagon levels) act on effector tissues, chief of which are the liver, fat cells and muscle cells. The liver is inhibited from producing glucose, taking it up instead, and converting it to glycogen and triglycerides. The glycogen is stored in the liver, but the triglycerides are secreted into the blood as very low - density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles which are taken up by adipose tissue, there to be stored as fats. The fat cells take up glucose through special glucose transporters (GLUT4), whose numbers in the cell wall are increased as a direct effect of insulin acting on these cells. The glucose that enters the fat cells in this manner is converted into triglycerides (via the same metabolic pathways as are used by the liver) and then stored in those fat cells together with the VLDL - derived triglycerides that were made in the liver. Muscle cells also take glucose up through insulin - sensitive GLUT4 glucose channels, and convert it into muscle glycogen.
A fall in blood glucose, causes insulin secretion to be stopped, and glucagon to be secreted from the alpha cells into the blood. This inhibits the uptake of glucose from the blood by the liver, fats cells and muscle. Instead the liver is strongly stimulated to manufacture glucose from glycogen (through glycogenolysis) and from non-carbohydrate sources (such as lactate and de-aminated amino acids) using a process known as gluconeogenesis. The glucose thus produced is discharged into the blood correcting the detected error (hypoglycemia). The glycogen stored in muscles remains in the muscles, and is only broken down, during exercise, to glucose - 6 - phosphate and thence to pyruvate to be fed into the citric acid cycle or turned into lactate. It is only the lactate and the waste products of the citric acid cycle that are returned to the blood. The liver can take up only the lactate, and by the process of energy consuming gluconeogenesis convert it back to glucose.
Changes in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated. The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by the peripheral chemoreceptors (PNS) in the carotid artery and aortic arch. A change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as altered pH in the cerebrospinal fluid by central chemoreceptors (CNS) in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. Information from these sets of sensors is sent to the respiratory center which activates the effector organs -- the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. An increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood, or a decreased level of oxygen, will result in a deeper breathing pattern and increased respiratory rate to bring the blood gases back to equilibrium.
Too little carbon dioxide, and, to a lesser extent, too much oxygen in the blood can temporarily halt breathing, a condition known as apnea, which freedivers use to prolong the time they can stay underwater.
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide is more of a deciding factor in the monitoring of pH. However, at high altitude (above 2500 m) the monitoring of the partial pressure of oxygen takes priority, and hyperventilation keeps the oxygen level constant. With the lower level of carbon dioxide, to keep the pH at 7.4 the kidneys secrete hydrogen ions into the blood, and excrete bicarbonate into the urine. This is important in the acclimatization to high altitude.
The kidneys measure the oxygen content rather than the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood. When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low, oxygen - sensitive cells secrete erythropoietin (EPO) into the blood. The effector tissue is the red bone marrow which produces red blood cells (RBCs) (erythrocytes). The increase in RBCs leads to an increased hematocrit in the blood, and subsequent increase in hemoglobin that increases the oxygen carrying capacity. This is the mechanism whereby high altitude dwellers have higher hematocrits than sea - level residents, and also why persons with pulmonary insufficiency or right - to - left shunts in the heart (through which venous blood by - passes the lungs and goes directly into the systemic circulation) have similarly high hematocrits.
Regardless of the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, the amount of oxygen that can be carried, depends on the hemoglobin content. The partial pressure of oxygen may be sufficient for example in anemia, but the hemoglobin content will be insufficient and subsequently as will be the oxygen content. Given enough supply of iron, vitamin B12 and folic acid, EPO can stimulate RBC production, and hemoglobin and oxygen content restored to normal.
The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.
High pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure. Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume. This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood. This acts on the kidneys to inhibit the secretion of renin and aldosterone causing the release of sodium, and accompanying water into the urine, thereby reducing the blood volume. This information is then conveyed, via afferent nerve fibers, to the solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata. From here motor nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system are stimulated to influence the activity of chiefly the heart and the smallest diameter arteries, called arterioles. The arterioles are the main resistance vessels in the arterial tree, and small changes in diameter cause large changes in the resistance to flow through them. When the arterial blood pressure rises the arterioles are stimulated to dilate making it easier for blood to leave the arteries, thus deflating them, and bringing the blood pressure down, back to normal. At the same time the heart is stimulated via cholinergic parasympathetic nerves to beat more slowly (called bradycardia), ensuring that the inflow of blood into the arteries is reduced, thus adding to the reduction in pressure, and correction of the original error.
Low pressure in the arteries, causes the opposite reflex of constriction of the arterioles, and a speeding up of the heart rate (called tachycardia). If the drop in blood pressure is very rapid or excessive, the medulla oblongata stimulates the adrenal medulla, via "preganglionic '' sympathetic nerves, to secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood. This hormone enhances the tachycardia and causes severe vasoconstriction of the arterioles to all but the essential organ in the body (especially the heart, lungs and brain). These reactions usually correct the low arterial blood pressure (hypotension) very effectively.
The plasma ionized calcium (Ca) concentration is very tightly controlled by a pair of homeostatic mechanisms. The sensor for the first one is situated in the parathyroid glands, where the chief cells sense the Ca level by means of specialized calcium receptors in their membranes. The sensors for the second are the parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland. The parathyroid chief cells secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to a fall in the plasma ionized calcium level; the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland secrete calcitonin in response to a rise in the plasma ionized calcium level.
The effector organs of the first homeostatic mechanism are the bones, the kidney, and, via a hormone released into the blood by the kidney in response to high PTH levels in the blood, the duodenum and jejunum. Parathyroid hormone (in high concentrations in the blood) causes bone resorption, releasing calcium into the plasma. This is a very rapid action which can correct a threatening hypocalcemia within minutes. High PTH concentrations cause the excretion of phosphate ions via the urine. Since phosphates combine with calcium ions to form insoluble salts, a decrease in the level of phosphates in the blood, releases free calcium ions into the plasma ionized calcium pool. PTH has a second action on the kidneys. It stimulates the manufacture and release, by the kidneys, of calcitriol into the blood. This steroid hormone acts on the epithelial cells of the upper small intestine, increasing their capacity to absorb calcium from the gut contents into the blood.
The second homeostatic mechanism, with its sensors in the thyroid gland, releases calcitonin into the blood when the blood ionized calcium rises. This hormone acts primarily on bone, causing the rapid removal of calcium from the blood and depositing it, in insoluble form, in the bones.
The two homeostatic mechanisms working through PTH on the one hand, and calcitonin on the other can very rapidly correct any impending error in the plasma ionized calcium level by either removing calcium from the blood and depositing it in the skeleton, or by removing calcium from it. The skeleton acts as an extremely large calcium store (about 1 kg) compared with the plasma calcium store (about 180 mg). Longer term regulation occurs through calcium absorption or loss from the gut.
The homeostatic mechanism which controls the plasma sodium concentration is rather more complex than most of the other homeostatic mechanisms described on this page.
The sensor is situated in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidneys, which senses the plasma sodium concentration in a surprisingly indirect manner. Instead of measuring it directly in the blood flowing past the juxtaglomerular cells, these cells respond to the sodium concentration in the renal tubular fluid after it has already undergone a certain amount of modification in the proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle. These cells also respond to rate of blood flow through the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which, under normal circumstances, is directly proportional to the arterial blood pressure, making this tissue an ancillary arterial blood pressure sensor.
In response to a lowering of the plasma sodium concentration, or to a fall in the arterial blood pressure, the juxtaglomerular cells release renin into the blood. Renin is an enzyme which cleaves a decapeptide (a short protein chain, 10 amino acids long) from a plasma α - 2 - globulin called angiotensinogen. This decapeptide is known as angiotensin I. It has no known biological activity. However, when the blood circulates through the lungs a pulmonary capillary endothelial enzyme called angiotensin - converting enzyme (ACE) cleaves a further two amino acids from angiotensin I to form an octapeptide known as angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a hormone which acts on the adrenal cortex, causing the release into the blood of the steroid hormone, aldosterone. Angiotensin II also acts on the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles causing these small diameter vessels to constrict, thereby restricting the outflow of blood from the arterial tree, causing the arterial blood pressure to rise. This therefore reinforces the measures described above (under the heading of "Arterial blood pressure ''), which defend the arterial blood pressure against changes, especially hypotension.
The angiotensin II - stimulated aldosterone released from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal glands has an effect on particularly the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys. Here it causes the reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid, in exchange for potassium ions which are secreted from the blood plasma into the tubular fluid to exit the body via the urine. The reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid halts further sodium ion losses from the body, and therefore preventing the worsening of hyponatremia. The hyponatremia can only be corrected by the consumption of salt in the diet. However, it is not certain whether a "salt hunger '' can be initiated by hyponatremia, or by what mechanism this might come about.
When the plasma sodium ion concentration is higher than normal (hypernatremia), the release of renin from the juxtaglomerular apparatus is halted, ceasing the production of angiotensin II, and its consequent aldosterone - release into the blood. The kidneys respond by excreting sodium ions into the urine, thereby normalizing the plasma sodium ion concentration. The low angiotensin II levels in the blood lower the arterial blood pressure as an inevitable concomitant response.
The reabsorption of sodium ions from the tubular fluid as a result of high aldosterone levels in the blood does not, of itself, cause renal tubular water to be returned to the blood from the distal convoluted tubules or collecting ducts. This is because sodium is reabsorbed in exchange for potassium and therefore causes only a modest change in the osmotic gradient between the blood and the tubular fluid. Furthermore, the epithelium of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts is impermeable to water in the absence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in the blood. ADH is part of the control of fluid balance. Its levels in the blood vary with the osmolality of the plasma, which is measured in the hypothalamus of the brain. Aldosterone 's action on the kidney tubules prevents sodium loss to the extracellular fluid (ECF). So there is no change in the osmolality of the ECF, and therefore no change in the ADH concentration of the plasma. However, low aldosterone levels cause a loss of sodium ions from the ECF, which could potentially cause a change in extracellular osmolality and therefore of ADH levels in the blood.
High potassium concentrations in the plasma cause depolarization of the zona glomerulosa cells ' membranes in the outer layer of the adrenal cortex. This causes the release of aldosterone into the blood.
Aldosterone acts primarily on the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, stimulating the excretion of potassium ions into the urine. It does so, however, by activating the basolateral Na / K pumps of the tubular epithelial cells. These sodium / potassium exchangers pump three sodium ions out of the cell, into the interstitial fluid and two potassium ions into the cell from the interstitial fluid. This creates an ionic concentration gradient which results in the reabsorption of sodium (Na) ions from the tubular fluid into the blood, and secreting potassium (K) ions from the blood into the urine (lumen of collecting duct).
The total amount of water in the body needs to be kept in balance. Fluid balance involves keeping the fluid volume stabilised, and also keeping the levels of electrolytes in the extracellular fluid stable. Fluid balance is maintained by the process of osmoregulation and by behaviour. Osmotic pressure is detected by osmoreceptors in the median preoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus. Measurement of the plasma osmolality to give an indication of the water content of the body, relies on the fact that water losses from the body, (through unavoidable water loss through the skin which is not entirely waterproof and therefore always slightly moist, water vapor in the exhaled air, sweating, vomiting, normal feces and especially diarrhea) are all hypotonic, meaning that they are less salty than the body fluids (compare, for instance, the taste of saliva with that of tears. The latter have almost the same salt content as the extracellular fluid, whereas the former is hypotonic with respect to plasma. Saliva does not taste salty, whereas tears are decidedly salty). Nearly all normal and abnormal losses of body water therefore cause the extracellular fluid to become hypertonic. Conversely excessive fluid intake dilutes the extracellular fluid causing the hypothalamus to register hypotonic hyponatremia conditions.
When the hypothalamus detects a hypertonic extracellular environment, it causes the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone (ADH) called vasopressin which acts on the effector organ, which in this case is the kidney. The effect of vasopressin on the kidney tubules is to reabsorb water from the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, thus preventing aggravation of the water loss via the urine. The hypothalamus simultaneously stimulates the nearby thirst center causing an almost irresistible (if the hypertonicity is severe enough) urge to drink water. The cessation of urine flow prevents the hypovolemia and hypertonicity from getting worse; the drinking of water corrects the defect.
Hypo - osmolality results in very low plasma ADH levels. This results in the inhibition of water reabsorption from the kidney tubules, causing high volumes of very dilute urine to be excreted, thus getting rid of the excess water in the body.
Urinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a compensatory water loss, correcting any water excess in the body. However, since the kidneys can not generate water, the thirst reflex is the all important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, correcting any water deficit in the body.
The plasma pH can be altered by respiratory changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide; or altered by metabolic changes in the carbonic acid to bicarbonate ion ratio. The bicarbonate buffer system regulates the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate to be equal to 1: 20, at which ratio the blood pH is 7.4 (as explained in the Henderson -- Hasselbalch equation). A change in the plasma pH gives an acid -- base imbalance. In acid -- base homeostasis there are two mechanisms that can help regulate the pH. Respiratory compensation a mechanism of the respiratory center, adjusts the partial pressure of carbon dioxide by changing the rate and depth of breathing, to bring the pH back to normal. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide also determines the concentration of carbonic acid, and the bicarbonate buffer system can also come into play. Renal compensation can help the bicarbonate buffer system. The sensor for the plasma bicarbonate concentration is not known for certain. It is very probable that the renal tubular cells of the distal convoluted tubules are themselves sensitive to the pH of the plasma. The metabolism of these cells produces carbon dioxide, which is rapidly converted to hydrogen and bicarbonate through the action of carbonic anhydrase. When the ECF pH falls (becoming more acidic) the renal tubular cells excrete hydrogen ions into the tubular fluid to leave the body via urine. Bicarbonate ions are simultaneously secreted into the blood that decreases the carbonic acid, and consequently raises the plasma pH. The converse happens when the plasma pH rises above normal: bicarbonate ions are excreted into the urine, and hydrogen ions released into the plasma.
When hydrogen ions are excreted into the urine, and bicarbonate into the blood, the latter combine with the excess hydrogen ions in the plasma that stimulated the kidneys to perform this operation. The resulting reaction in the plasma is the formation of carbonic acid which is in equilibrium with the plasma partial pressure of carbon dioxide. This is tightly regulated to ensure that there is no excessive build - up of carbonic acid or bicarbonate. The overall effect is therefore that hydrogen ions are lost in the urine when the pH of the plasma falls. The concomitant rise in the plasma bicarbonate mops up the increased hydrogen ions (caused by the fall in plasma pH) and the resulting excess carbonic acid is disposed of in the lungs as carbon dioxide. This restores the normal ratio between bicarbonate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and therefore the plasma pH. The converse happens when a high plasma pH stimulates the kidneys to secrete hydrogen ions into the blood and to excrete bicarbonate into the urine. The hydrogen ions combine with the excess bicarbonate ions in the plasma, once again forming an excess of carbonic acid which can be exhaled, as carbon dioxide, in the lungs, keeping the plasma bicarbonate ion concentration, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and, therefore, the plasma pH, constant.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) allows for regulation of the distribution of substances between cells of the brain, and neuroendocrine factors, to which slight changes can cause problems or damage to the nervous system. For example, high glycine concentration disrupts temperature and blood pressure control, and high CSF pH causes dizziness and syncope.
Inhibitory neurons in the central nervous system play a homeostatic role in the balance of neuronal activity between excitation and inhibition. Inhibitory neurons using GABA, make compensating changes in the neuronal networks preventing runaway levels of excitation. An imbalance between excitation and inhibition is seen to be implicated in a number of neuropsychiatric disorders.
The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating metabolism, reproduction, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure.
The regulation of metabolism, is carried out by hypothalamic interconnections to other glands. Three endocrine glands of the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- gonadal axis (HPG axis) often work together and have important regulatory functions. Two other regulatory endocrine axes are the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis (HPA axis) and the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- thyroid axis (HPT axis).
The liver also has many regulatory functions of the metabolism. An important function is the production and control of bile acids. Too much bile acid can be toxic to cells and its synthesis can be inhibited by activation of FXR a nuclear receptor.
At the cellular level, homeostasis is carried out by several mechanisms including transcriptional regulation that can alter the activity of genes in response to changes.
The amount of energy taken in through nutrition needs to match the amount of energy used. To achieve energy homeostasis appetite is regulated by two hormones, grehlin and leptin. Grehlin stimulates hunger and the intake of food and leptin acts to signal satiety (fullness).
Many diseases are the result of a homeostatic failure. Almost any homeostatic component can malfunction, either as a result of an inherited defect, an inborn error of metabolism, or an acquired disease. Some homeostatic mechanisms have inbuilt redundancies, which ensures that life is not immediately threatened if a component malfunctions; but sometimes a homeostatic malfunction can result in serious disease, which can be fatal if not treated. A well known example of a homeostatic failure is shown in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Here blood sugar regulation is unable to function because the beta cells of the pancreatic islets are destroyed and can not produce the necessary insulin. The blood sugar rises in a condition known as hyperglycemia.
The plasma ionized calcium homeostat can be disrupted by the constant, unchanging, over-production of parathyroid hormone by a parathyroid adenoma resulting in the typically features of hyperparathyroidism, namely high plasma ionized Ca levels and the resorption of bone, which can lead to spontaneous fractures. The abnormally high plasma ionized calcium concentrations cause conformational changes in many cell - surface proteins (especially ion channels and hormone or neurotransmitter receptors) giving rise to lethargy, muscle weakness, anorexia, constipation and labile emotions.
The body water homeostat can be compromised by the inability to secrete ADH in response to even the normal daily water losses via the exhaled air, the feces, and insensible sweating. On receiving a zero blood ADH signal, the kidneys produce huge unchanging volumes of very dilute urine, causing dehydration and death if not treated.
As organisms age, the efficiency of their control systems becomes reduced. The inefficiencies gradually result in an unstable internal environment that increases the risk of illness, and leads to the physical changes associated with aging.
Various chronic diseases are kept under control by homeostatic compensation, which masks a problem by compensating for it (making up for it) in another way. However, the compensating mechanisms eventually wear out or are disrupted by a new complicating factor (such as the advent of a concurrent acute viral infection), which sends the body reeling through a new cascade of events. Such decompensation unmasks the underlying disease, worsening its symptoms. Common examples include decompensated heart failure, kidney failure, and liver failure.
In the Gaia hypothesis, James Lovelock stated that the entire mass of living matter on Earth (or any planet with life) functions as a vast homeostatic superorganism that actively modifies its planetary environment to produce the environmental conditions necessary for its own survival. In this view, the entire planet maintains several homeostats (the primary one being temperature homeostasis). Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is open to debate. However, some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, it is sometimes claimed that when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, certain plants may be able to grow better and thus act to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, warming has exacerbated droughts, making water the actual limiting factor on land. When sunlight is plentiful and atmospheric temperature climbs, it has been claimed that the phytoplankton of the ocean surface waters, acting as global sunshine, and therefore heat sensors, may thrive and produce more dimethyl sulfide (DMS). The DMS molecules act as cloud condensation nuclei, which produce more clouds, and thus increase the atmospheric albedo, and this feeds back to lower the temperature of the atmosphere. However, rising sea temperature has stratified the oceans, separating warm, sunlit waters from cool, nutrient - rich waters. Thus, nutrients have become the limiting factor, and plankton levels have actually fallen over the past 50 years, not risen. As scientists discover more about Earth, vast numbers of positive and negative feedback loops are being discovered, that, together, maintain a metastable condition, sometimes within very broad range of environmental conditions.
Predictive homeostasis is an anticipatory response to an expected challenge in the future, such as the stimulation of insulin secretion by gut hormones which enter the blood in response to a meal. This insulin secretion occurs before the blood sugar level rises, lowering the blood sugar level in anticipation of a large influx into the blood of glucose resulting from the digestion of carbohydrates in the gut. Such anticipatory reactions are open loop systems which are based, essentially, on "guess work '', and are not self - correcting. Anticipatory responses always require a closed loop negative feedback system to correct the ' over-shoots ' and ' under - shoots ' to which the anticipatory systems are prone.
The term has come to be used in other fields, for example:
An actuary may refer to risk homeostasis, where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because the former unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less - safe driving habits. Previous to the innovation of anti-lock brakes, certain maneuvers involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: Now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback, and behavior patterns expand into the no - longer punitive area. It has also been suggested that ecological crises are an instance of risk homeostasis in which a particular behavior continues until proven dangerous or dramatic consequences actually occur.
Sociologists and psychologists may refer to stress homeostasis, the tendency of a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the "natural '' level of stress is not enough.
Jean - François Lyotard, a postmodern theorist, has applied this term to societal ' power centers ' that he describes in The Postmodern Condition, as being ' governed by a principle of homeostasis, ' for example, the scientific hierarchy, which will sometimes ignore a radical new discovery for years because it destabilizes previously accepted norms.
Familiar technological homeostatic mechanisms include:
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why did they build the statue of liberty in new york | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman liberty goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet as she walks forward. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and U.S. peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye, president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist, and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians (Alsace - Lorraine), and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, U.S. artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does stride over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 200,000 pounds (91,000 kg) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 128,000 pounds (58,000 kg) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, arrived in New York with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the ship. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled:
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,710,486 in 2017) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,248,930 in 2017). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $674,679 in 2017) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - karat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings. The statue and Liberty Island were briefly closed on July 4, 2018, due to a protester against American immigration policy climbing on to the statue.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 - acre (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2.5 m) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979:
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
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show me a map of west coast of florida | West Palm Beach, Florida - wikipedia
West Palm Beach is a city in and the county seat of Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. It is one of the three main cities in South Florida. The population was 100,343 (revised) at the 2010 census. The University of Florida Bureau of Economic and Business Research (BEBR) estimates a 2016 population of 108,896, a 7.9 % increase from 2010. It is the oldest municipality in the Miami metropolitan area, having been incorporated as a city two years before Miami in November 1894. Although West Palm Beach is located approximately 68 miles (109 km) north of Downtown Miami, it is still considered a principal city within the Miami metropolitan area, due to the solid urbanization between both cities. The estimated population of the Miami metropolitan area, which includes all of Palm Beach County, was 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census.
The beginning of the historic period in south Florida is marked by Juan Ponce de León 's first contact with native people in 1513. Europeans found a thriving native population, which they categorized into separate tribes: the Mayaimi in the Lake Okeechobee Basin and the Jaega and Ais people in the East Okeechobee area and on the east coast north of the Tequesta. When the Spanish arrived, there were perhaps about 20,000 Native Americans in south Florida. By 1763, when the English gained control of Florida, the native peoples had all but been wiped out through war, enslavement, or European diseases.
Other native peoples from Alabama and Georgia moved into Florida in the early 18th century. They were of varied ancestry, but Europeans called them all "Creeks. '' In Florida, they were known as the Seminole and Miccosukee Indians. The Seminoles clashed with American settlers over land and over escaped slaves who found refuge among them. They resisted the government 's efforts to move them to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi. Between 1818 and 1858, three wars were fought between Seminoles and the United States government. By 1858, there were very few Seminoles remaining in Florida.
The area that was to become West Palm Beach was settled in the late 1870s and 1880s by a few hundred settlers who called the vicinity "Lake Worth Country. '' These settlers were a diverse community from different parts of the United States and the world. They included founding families such at the Potters and the Lainharts, who would go on to become leading members of the business community in the fledgling city. The first white settlers in Palm Beach County lived around Lake Worth, then an enclosed freshwater lake, named for Colonel William Jenkins Worth, who had fought in the Second Seminole War in Florida in 1842. Most settlers engaged in the growing of tropical fruits and vegetables for shipment the north via Lake Worth and the Indian River. By 1890, the U.S. Census counted over 200 people settled along Lake Worth in the vicinity of what would become West Palm Beach. The area at this time also boasted a hotel, the "Cocoanut House '', a church, and a post office. The city was platted by Henry Flagler as a community to house the servants working in the two grand hotels on the neighboring island of Palm Beach, across Lake Worth in 1893, coinciding with the arrival of the Florida East Coast railroad. Flagler paid two area settlers, Captain Porter and Louie Hillhouse, a combined sum of $45,000 for the original town site, stretching from Clear Lake to Lake Worth.
On November 5, 1894, 78 people met at the "Calaboose '' (the first jail and police station located at Clematis St. and Poinsettia, now Dixie Hwy.) and passed the motion to incorporate the Town of West Palm Beach in what was then Dade County (now Miami - Dade County). This made West Palm Beach the first incorporated municipality in Dade County and in South Florida. The town council quickly addressed the building codes and the tents and shanties were replaced by brick, brick veneer, and stone buildings. The city grew steadily during the 1890s and the first two decades of the 20th century, most residents were engaged in the tourist industry and related services or winter vegetable market and tropical fruit trade. In 1909, Palm Beach County was formed by the Florida State Legislature and West Palm Beach became the county seat. In 1916, a new neo-classical courthouse was opened, which has been painstakingly restored back to its original condition, and is now used as the local history museum.
The city grew rapidly in the 1920s as part of the Florida land boom. The population of West Palm Beach quadrupled from 1920 to 1927, and all kinds of businesses and public services grew along with it. Many of the city 's landmark structures and preserved neighborhoods were constructed during this period. Originally, Flagler intended for his Florida East Coast Railway to have its terminus in West Palm, but after the area experienced a deep freeze, he chose to extend the railroad to Miami instead.
The land boom was already faltering when city was devastated by the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. The Depression years of the 1930s were a quiet time for the area, which saw slight population growth and property values lower than during the 1920s. The city only recovered with the onset of World War II, which saw the construction of Palm Beach Air Force Base, which brought thousands of military personnel to the city. The base was vital to the allied war effort, as it provided an excellent training facility and had unparalleled access to North Africa for a North American city. Also during World War II, German U-Boats sank dozens of merchant ships and oil tankers just off the coast of West Palm Beach. Nearby Palm Beach was under black out conditions to minimize night visibility to German U-boats.
The 1950s saw another boom in population, partly due to the return of many soldiers and airmen who had served in the vicinity during the war. Also, the advent of air conditioning encouraged growth, as year - round living in a tropical climate became more acceptable to northerners. West Palm Beach became the one of the nation 's fastest growing metropolitan areas during the 1950s; the city 's borders spread west of Military Trail and south to Lake Clarke Shores. However, many of the city 's residents still lived within a narrow six - block wide strip from the south to north end. The neighborhoods were strictly segregated between White and African - American populations, a legacy that the city still struggles with today. The primary shopping district remained downtown, centered around Clematis Street.
In the 1960s, Palm Beach County 's first enclosed shopping mall, the Palm Beach Mall, and an indoor arena were completed. These projects led to a brief revival for the city, but in the 1970s and 1980s crime continued to be a serious issue and suburban sprawl continued to drain resources and business away from the old downtown area. By the early 1990s there were very high vacancy rates downtown, and serious levels of urban blight.
Since the 1990s, developments such as CityPlace and the preservation and renovation of 1920s architecture in the nightlife hub of Clematis Street have seen a downtown resurgence in the entertainment and shopping district. The city has also placed emphasis on neighborhood development and revitalization, in historic districts such as Northwood, Flamingo Park, and El Cid. Some neighborhoods still struggle with blight and crime, as well as lowered property values caused by the Great Recession, which hit the region particularly hard. Since the recovery, multiple new developments have been completed. The Palm Beach Mall, located at the Interstate 95 / Palm Beach Lakes Boulevard interchange became abandoned as downtown revitalized - the very mall that initiated the original abandonment of the downtown. The mall was then redeveloped into the Palm Beach Fashion Outlets in February 2014. A station for All Aboard Florida, a high speed passenger rail service serving Miami, Fort Lauderdale, West Palm Beach, and Orlando, is under construction as of July 2015.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the West Palm Beach Canal (C - 51) / Stormwater Treatment Area (STA) 1 East project was authorized by the U.S. Congress under the Flood Control Acts of 1948, 1954, 1962, 1968, and the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1996. The project is located in Palm Beach County and runs east / west from West Palm Beach at Lake Worth to Water Conservation Area (WCA) No. 1 (Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge). The authorized project will provide 30 - year flood protection to the urbanized eastern basin and 10 - year flood protection to the western basin. All eastern basin features have been completed.
During mediation of the Everglades water quality litigation, a technical plan was developed for resolution of the litigation. The technical plan included a substantially modified C - 51 project. The modified plan expands the original 1,600 - acre floodwater detention area into a 6,500 - acre stormwater detention area. In addition to the flood damage reduction benefits provided by the original project, the modified plan provides water quality treatment, reduction of damaging freshwater discharges to Lake Worth, and increased water supply for the Everglades and other users.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the total estimated cost of the West Palm Beach Canal (C51) is $375.47 million, with an estimated $345.04 million as the U.S. Federal Government cost share. $1.05 million was appropriated for this project by the U.S. Congress in Fiscal Year 2015. The Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Request from the U.S. President to the U.S. Congress was for $1 million.
According to the United States Census Bureau, this city has a total area of 58.2 square miles (151 km), of which 55.1 square miles (143 km) is land and 3.1 square miles (8.0 km) (5.26 %) is water.
Due to vast areas of wetland immediately to the west of the city 's downtown, growth took place to the north and south in a linear fashion. Until the 1960s, the city was no more than several blocks wide but over 100 blocks in length. Large scale development finally expanded to the west of the city with improved access and drainage in the 1960s. However, the city boundaries were not expanded much with the exception of the "Water Catchment Area '', an uninhabited area in the northwest part of the city. Known as Grassy Waters, it now serves as a reservoir for the city drinking water as well as a nature preserve.
Bel Air Historic District: Developed from 1925 to 1935 as a neighborhood for tradesmen and real estate salesmen who helped develop Palm Beach County, some of Belair was originally a pineapple plantation owned by Richard Hone. Hones 's frame vernacular house, built around 1895, still stands at 211 Plymouth Road. After Hone was murdered in 1902, his property was sold to George Currie, who created Currie Development Co. But before it was developed, the land was sold to William Ohlhaber, who raised coconut palms and ferns. Eventually, Ohlhaber platted the subdivision and sold off lots. The first house built in the subdivision was Ohlhaber 's mission - style home at 205 Pilgrim. Ohlhaber 's grandson said Ohlhaber bought the tract to provide dockage for his 90 - foot (27 m) yacht, but the yacht ran aground in the Gulf of Mexico and never reached Lake Worth. In 1947 Hone 's house was bought by Max Brombacher, Henry Flagler 's chief engineer, and it remains in the Brombacher family today. Belair became West Palm Beach 's fourth historic district in August 1993.
Central Park: Central Park is a collective name for several subdivisions north of Southern Boulevard. It originally was part of the Estates of South Palm Beach (which went from Wenonah Place to Pilgrim Road east of Dixie Highway). Like other West Palm Beach neighborhoods, the Estates of South Palm Beach boomed after Henry Flagler 's descent on Palm Beach. In 1884, James W. Copp, a bachelor in the boating business, borrowed $367.20 from Valentine Jones to buy the land. The ownership of what is now known as Central Park changed hands many times before being developed. Around 1919, the tropical wilderness was transformed into an exclusive neighborhood with curbed roads, sidewalks and a pier (at the foot of what is now Southern Boulevard). The neighborhood became part of West Palm Beach in 1926, and was named a city historic district in December 1993. In 1999 the neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
El Cid: Noted for its Mediterranean revival and mission - style homes, El Cid developed in the height of Florida 's real estate boom. In the late 19th century, most of the land north of Sunset Road was pineapple fields, but the crop dwindled in the early 20th century. Pittsburgh socialite Jay Phipps subdivided the old pineapple fields in the 1920s. He named it El Cid, after the celebrated Spanish hero, Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, who conquered Valencia in 1094. He was called "Cid '', meaning "lord ''. El Cid became a city historic district in June 1993. In 1995 the neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Flamingo Park: Originally a pineapple plantation, Flamingo Park was established by local contractors and developers, who saw the potential in this area -- one of the highest coastal ridge sections from downtown West Palm Beach to Miami. Some ridge houses even had ocean views from upper floors. Houses cost about $10,000 to $18,000 in the boom era, and many buyers were owners of shops and businesses on fashionable Dixie Highway nearby. Recently, residents rallied to have stop signs installed throughout the neighborhood and have banded together to ward off commercial and industrial zoning. Property values are rising as residents renovate and restore Spanish - style houses. Most of the homes in the neighborhood, developed from 1921 to 1930, are mission style, but nearly every style is represented. There are many Mediterranean revival - style houses along the high ridge line. Only two buildings in the historic district are known to have been designed by architects: 701 Flamingo Drive designed by Harvey and Clarke, and the Armory Arts Center designed by William Manly King. The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in January 1993 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.
Grandview Heights: One of the city 's oldest neighborhoods still intact, Grandview Heights was built as an extension of Palm Beach Heights from around 1910 to 1925. Almost all of Palm Beach Heights and half of Grandview Heights was demolished in 1989 to make way for the proposed Downtown / Uptown project, which became CityPlace. Grandview Heights originally attracted construction workers who helped build the luxury hotels, ministers and store owners. The neighborhood has one of the city 's best collection of early craftsman - style bungalows, as well as some modest, Mediterranean revival - style homes. The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1995 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
Mango Promenade: Mango Promenade became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1995 and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. Lies just south of Palm Beach Atlantic University.
Northboro Park: An expansion of Old Northwood, Northboro Park was mostly custom houses for upper - middle - class professionals. Most of the houses are Mediterranean revival, mission and frame vernacular. Developed from 1923 to 1940, the neighborhood became the city 's second historic district (November 1992) and the historic designation may soon expand north to 45th Street. The oldest building in the neighborhood is Northboro Elementary School at 36th Street and Spruce, built in 1925 by DaCamara and Chace. The demolition of Northboro Elementary School began in late 2009. The first home in Northboro Park is 418 36th St., built in 1923.
Northwest: West Palm Beach 's first historic district to be included on the National Register of Historic Places (February 1992), the Northwest neighborhood was first settled in 1894, when the black community was moved from the Styx in Palm Beach to West Palm Beach. It also served as the city 's segregated black community from 1929 to 1960 (along with Pleasant City). Northwest remains a predominantly black community but according to the city planning department, most middle - and upper - class blacks moved to other neighborhoods after desegregation. Tamarind and Rosemary Avenues were the commercial centers for blacks by 1915, but most commercial buildings have been demolished or remodeled so the architecture is no longer significant. There are still good examples of late 19th - and early 20th - century American bungalow / craftsman - style homes in this neighborhood, which also has mission, shotgun, Bahamian vernacular and American Foursquare styles. The Alice Frederick Mickens house, at 801 Fourth St., is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Mickens was a philanthropist and humanitarian who promoted education for black youth. Another notable house is the Gwen Cherry house at 625 Division Ave. Cherry, Florida 's first black woman legislator and a resident of Miami, inherited the house from relative Mollie Holt, who built the house in 1926. Now it is the Palm Beach County Black Historical Society. The Northwest neighborhood was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. The next year the neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1993.
Old Northwood Historic District: Old Northwood was developed from 1920 to 1927 -- the height of the city 's real estate boom. The Pinewood Development Co., platted and developed the area. Old Northwood became a neighborhood of what was considered extravagant Mediterranean revival, mission and frame vernacular houses, at $30,000 to $36,000. The buyers were professionals, entrepreneurs and tradesmen. Among them was David F. Dunkle, who was mayor of West Palm Beach. There are houses here designed by notable architects John Volk (best known for his Palm Beach houses), William Manly King (who designed Palm Beach High School and the Armory Arts Center) and Henry Steven Harvey (whose Seaboard Railroad Passenger Station on Tamarind Avenue is listed in the National Register of Historic Places). The neighborhood became a West Palm Beach historic district in 1991 and listed in the National Register of Historic Places in June 1994.
Northwood Hills Historic District: On August 4, 2003, the City Commission designated the Northwood Hills neighborhood as the 13th Historic District in the City of West Palm Beach. Northwood Hills comprises the area from 29th Street on the South to 39th Court on the North. The east side of Windsor is the Western boundary, and Greenwood Avenue is the Eastern boundary. The Neighborhood Association has worked several years to achieve the distinction of historic designation. This is the first district to be designated since 1996. Northwood Hills has a number of Mission Revival houses, a significant collection of Post-World War II architecture, a unique street layout, and one of the highest elevations in the city. The Northwood Hills neighborhood has also elected to allow the establishment of Bed and Breakfast establishments within the neighborhood.
Prospect Park: Promoted as a high - end neighborhood patterned after the prominent Prospect Park district in Brooklyn, this area consisted of mostly smaller estates for prominent businesspeople and northern investors. The neighborhood has a high concentration of Mediterranean revival and Mission revival houses. It was developed from 1920 to 1935 and became a city historic district in November 1993.
West Northwood Historic District: Cashing in on the real estate boom, developers of West Northwood built speculative and custom houses for upper - middle - class professionals from 1925 to ' 27. Dominant architectural styles are Mediterranean revival and mission. Although the area was declining, that has reversed in recent years, as more investors buy and restore the houses. West Northwood became a city historic district in August 1993.
The estimated 2012 population of West Palm Beach and the immediately adjacent Census Designated Places is 134,795. Much of this urbanized area lies directly west of the city and includes the neighborhoods of Westgate, Belvedere Homes, Lakeside Green, Century Village, Schall Circle, Lake Belvedere Estates, Plantation Mobile Homes, and Golden Lakes. These neighborhoods are not technically within the boundaries of West Palm Beach, being located in unincorporated Palm Beach County. However, residents possess a "West Palm Beach '' address and urban services, such as police, fire, parks, water and sewer, are provided by a combination of Palm Beach County and the City of West Palm Beach in these areas. The City of West Palm Beach also provides water and sewer service to the Town of Palm Beach. The contiguous "urbanized '' area, of which West Palm Beach is the core city, includes most of eastern Palm Beach County and has an estimated 2008 population of around 1,250,000.
Key incorporated cities and their populations within the West Palm Beach urbanized area include:
Downtown skyline at night
West Palm Beach skyline from Okeechobee Blvd.
Flagler Drive
Downtown shops on Clematis Street
Australian Avenue skyline on Clear Lake
Olive Avenue and Datura Street
North Bridge Centre
View of Palm Beach County Courthouse from Centennial Square
Hibiscus Street, downtown
West Palm Beach has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), with mean temperatures in all months above 64.4 ° F (18 ° C). This tropical climate allows for many species of tropical plants throughout the city.
The wet season -- May through October -- is hot, humid, and wet. The average window for 90 ° F (32 ° C) temperatures is April 20 through October 8, but temperatures of 100 ° F (38 ° C) or higher have only occurred four times since record - keeping began in 1888. During this period, more than half of the days bring afternoon thunderstorms and sea breezes that cool the air for the rest of the day.
The dry season -- November through April -- is warm and mostly dry, with 80 ° F (27 ° C) temperatures remaining fairly commonplace even from December through February. However, the area experiences occasional cold fronts during this period, with daytime temperatures below 65 ° F (18 ° C) and lows dropping to 45 ° F (7 ° C) or further. These fronts last only a few days before high temperatures return to the 70s to 80s and low temperatures to the mid-60s. During a severe and prolonged cold snap in January 2010, the city recorded 12 consecutive days of low temperatures at or below 45 ° F (7 ° C). Nine of the twelve days were below 40 ° F (4 ° C), with several mornings at or near freezing.
Annual average precipitation is 63 in (1,600 mm), making West Palm Beach the fourth wettest city in the country after Mobile, Alabama; Pensacola, Florida; and New Orleans. Most of the precipitation occurs during the wet season of May through October, mainly as short - lived heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Occasionally, stalled cold fronts in the fall and spring can also lead to heavy and prolonged rainfall. The only record of snow was on January 18, 1977, when flurries were reported. West Palm Beach has an average of 133 wet days and 234 sunny days annually. The hurricane season is officially from June 1 through November 30, with the peak months being August, September, and October. The city has received direct or near direct hits from hurricanes in 1928, 1947, 1949, 1964, 1965, 1979, 1992, 1999, 2004, and 2005.
As of the census of 2010, there were 54,179 households, out of which 20.8 % were vacant. As of 2010, 22.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.3 % were married couples living together, 13.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.5 % were non-families. 37.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 3.02.
As of 2000, the population was spread out with 21.3 % under the age of 18, 9.8 % from 18 to 24, 31.5 % from 25 to 44, 21.4 % from 45 to 64, and 16.0 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $36,774, and the median income for a family was $42,074. Males had a median income of $30,221 versus $26,473 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,188. About 14.5 % of families and 18.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.2 % of those under the age of 18 and 14.8 % of those ages 65 and older.
As of 2000, those who spoke only English at home accounted for 72.49 % of all residents, while those who spoke Spanish made up 17.71 %, French Creole (mainly Haitian Creole) 4.46 %, 1.27 % spoke French, German was spoken by 0.62 %, and Italian speakers made up 0.52 % of the population.
The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in the city limits:
The West Palm Beach Post Office, including the window unit, is located in an unincorporated area. The Haverhill BR post office is also in an unincorporated area.
K -- 12 public education is administrated by the School District of Palm Beach County, which is the eleventh - largest school district in the United States by enrollment. Public schools include:
Private schools in the area include:
The original Palm Beach Junior College building was restored and is now adjacent to the campus of the Dreyfoos School of the Arts, a magnet performing and visual arts high school. It is now a satellite building of Palm Beach State College.
Palm Beach Atlantic University (PBAU), a four - year private Christian university with approximately 3,200 students, is located in the city on seven blocks within the south end of downtown. The campus includes several historic structures converted to academic use. PBAU has recently added schools of nursing and of pharmacy.
Northwood University formally had a residential campus in West Palm Beach, Florida. The campus now belongs to Keiser University, a regionally accredited school that offers a variety of degrees at the Associate, Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral levels. It is one of their 16 Florida campuses.
Various private for - profit institutions are located in the city, including the Lincoln College of Technology (formerly known as New England Institute of Technology) and Florida Culinary Institute, owned by the New Jersey - based Lincoln Group of Schools.
The Mandel Public Library of West Palm Beach serves the city. The new city public library opened in April 2009 at 411 Clematis Street, replacing the 1962 building which stood at the intersection of Clematis and Flagler Drive, along the Intracoastal Waterfront. Named for a Mandel Foundation grant received in 2012, the Mandel Public Library provides books, performances, classes, research, entertainment, technology, music and more.
The Main Branch of the Palm Beach County Library System is also located in West Palm Beach, as well as the Okeechobee Branch Library.
Companies based in West Palm Beach include Florida Public Utilities, ION Media Networks, Ocwen, and The Palm Beach Post Palm Beach Condo And HOA home show across more than 7000 visitors across the world. In the same year, it had 16,000 course participants worldwide, 150 local home building associations offering 900 courses during the year and 6,000 conference participants... Other major employers are Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Sikorsky Aircraft, General Dynamics, Cemex, and CSC.
Norton Museum of Art: is the largest art museum in Florida and also organizes traveling exhibits. The permanent collection features 19th and 20th century European and American art, Chinese, contemporary art and photography.
Raymond F. Kravis Center for the Performing Arts: Built in 1992, the Kravis Center hosts performances of music, dance, opera and theatre.
Meyer Amphitheater: An abandoned Holiday Inn, demolished on New Year 's Eve 1993 and transformed into an outdoor waterfront amphitheater.
Richard and Pat Johnson Palm Beach County History Museum: is operated and maintained by the Historical Society of Palm Beach County, and is in the Historic 1916 Court House in downtown West Palm Beach. The museum provides access to Palm Beach County history through on - site investigation in the Research Library, on - line research on www.pbchistoryonline.org, the Public Programming Series and the Distinguished Lecture Series. The museum is free to visitors and offers Docent - led tours for adults and school groups.
Palm Beach County Convention Center: A complex with 350,000 square feet (33,000 m) of exhibit halls and meeting rooms in downtown West Palm Beach.
Harriet Himmel Theater: is a multi-use theater and historic church, and is the cultural centerpiece of CityPlace
The Carefree Theatre: Built in 1940, in the historic Flamingo Park district, it was variously an art house cinema and alternative music performance venue until severely damaged by Hurricane Wilma.
There is a Jewish community offering learning and cultural activities.
SunFest: an annual music, art, and waterfront festival in Florida, founded in 1982 to draw visitors to the area during the "shoulder season '' of April and May. SunFest has an annual attendance of more than 275,000 people. Artists who have performed include Wilco, Carrie Underwood, John Mayer, Ray Charles, James Brown, Ludacris, Nelly, Lenny Kravitz, Dizzy Gillespie, Bob Dylan, Kenny G, Earth Wind and Fire, Cyndi Lauper, Smashing Pumpkins, MGMT, and The Wailers. SunFest is a 501 (c) 3 non-profit organization.
Palm Beach International Film Festival
Barrett - Jackson Collector Car Auction: Classic car auction held every March in the South Florida Expo Center.
Palm Beach Opera
West Palm Beach does not host any professional sports teams, but the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League play at BB&T Center in Sunrise to the south. Major League Baseball 's Miami Marlins, the National Football League 's Miami Dolphins and the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association all play in nearby Miami - Dade County. In the past West Palm Beach has hosted various professional teams such as Arena Football, minor league hockey and baseball as well as semi-pro football.
Spring Training Baseball: The newly built The Ballpark of The Palm Beaches, which made its debut in 2017, accommodates both the Washington Nationals and Houston Astros for spring training. The Miami Marlins and St. Louis Cardinals conduct spring training in suburban West Palm Beach in the town of Jupiter, Florida at Roger Dean Stadium. In the past West Palm Beach hosted the Atlanta Braves and Montreal Expos at the former Municipal Stadium and the Philadelphia Athletics and St. Louis Browns at Connie Mack Field, which was demolished in 1992.
Collegiate Athletics: Palm Beach Atlantic University competes in NCAA Division II basketball, baseball and soccer. PBAU has recently purchased a large tract of land just west of downtown where there will be built a multi-use athletic stadium. Indoor athletics play their home games at the Greene Complex which is an on campus arena. Florida Atlantic University 's athletic programs are played in neighboring Boca Raton. FAU competes in the highest level of NCAA athletics including football, basketball, baseball, softball and tennis. Northwood University competes at the NAIA level, where their basketball coach Rollie Massimino, has given the athletic program national exposure.
Professional Golf: PGA National Resort & Spa in suburban Palm Beach Gardens hosts the PGA Tour Honda Classic.
Polo and Equestrian: Palm Beach Polo and Country Club counts 7 polo fields among its world - class facilities and many high - goal games are played in the area. The equestrian events at the Palm Beach International Equestrian Center are the world - renowned Winter Equestrian Festival, the Global Dressage Festival and over 40 weeks a year of equestrian competitions, hosted in Wellington.
Tennis: The Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, a hard court stop on the ATP Tour, takes place annually in Delray Beach, slightly to the south of West Palm Beach.
Croquet: The National Croquet Center has 12 full sized croquet lawns, making it the largest dedicated croquet facility in the world. It hosts several national championships and in May 2009 will host the World Championship when representatives of up to 25 countries will be competing for the Wimbledon Cup.
BMX Racing: Okeeheelee park contains one of the most celebrated BMX race tracks in the state of Florida. Insured by USA BMX, the Okeeheelee track is host to State Qualifiers and National Races, it is also home to several National Champions.
Clematis Street: is West Palm Beach 's historic "main street '' and shopping venue, home to Clematis by Night, an outdoor event held on the street with live music and food.
CityPlace: Opened in 2000 on re-developed land where dilapidated single family homes and apartments once stood, CityPlace houses a multi-plex movie theater, night clubs (comedy, dance), restaurants, clothing and home - decor retail outlets and multi-story town houses and apartments.
Antique Row: is a shopping district on the south side of the city along Dixie Highway. Architectural Digest, The New York Times, Art & Antiques, and House Beautiful have all noted Antique Row as one of the east coast 's premier antique districts, considered the "antique design center '' of Florida.
Northwood Village: is an historic commercial district north of downtown. The city invested money in rebuilding the streetscape and promoting the area as an arts district.
Air: The city is served by Palm Beach International Airport, located in unincorporated Palm Beach County. The airport attracts people from all over the county as well as from the Treasure Coast and Space Coast counties to the north. In 2014 there were over 6.5 million passengers who passed through the gates of PBIA making it the 52nd busiest airport in the nation.
Bicycle The city 's flat terrain, paved streets, and year - round climate soon earned it the designation as the "bicyclingest town in the U.S.A. ''. The historic core consists of a dense grid of narrower streets, as laid out by Henry Flagler. Clematis Street was one - lane each direction with a speed limit of 12 mph, and the middle of the street between lanes was used to park bicycles. Although the popularity of bicycling declined during the later half of the 20th century, it has recently increased in popularity. In addition, a bike share program, SkyBike, was introduced in 2015.
Highways: U.S. 1 passes though the city 's downtown, commercial, and industrial districts. Interstate 95 bisects the city from north to south with multiple interchanges serving West Palm Beach, including an entrance to Palm Beach International Airport. Florida 's Turnpike passes through West Palm Beach further west, connecting with the western suburbs of Royal Palm Beach and Wellington. State Road 80, running east - west, is a partial expressway, that runs from Interstate 95 to State Road 7.
Rail: Tri-Rail commuter rail system serves the city from a historical station located on the west side of Tamarind Avenue, just east of I - 95. Tri-Rail provides commuter rides north to Mangonia Park and south to Miami. Amtrak has daily trains arriving and departing to points north. CSX Transportation and the Florida East Coast Railway also serve the city. All Aboard Florida began track upgrades in 2015 in preparation for higher - speed passenger service serving Miami, FL through Orlando, FL. Service on All Aboard Florida 's Brightline is slated to begin to Miami in mid-2017.
Trolley: There is a free downtown trolley that provides transportation around downtown including Clematis, City Place and Waterfront districts of the city.
Bus: Greyhound Lines operates scheduled intercity bus service out of the train station on the west side of Tamarind Avenue. Palm Tran, the Palm Beach County municipal bus service, operates scheduled service throughout the city and the suburban areas of Palm Beach County.
Port: The Port of Palm Beach is located on the northern edge of the city limits. It is the fourth busiest container port in Florida and the 18th busiest in the continental United States. In addition to intermodal capacity, the Port is a major modal point for the shipment of various goods as well as being the home to several small passenger cruise lines.
Water Taxi: As a waterfront city there is specific need for water transportation between points in the city and surrounding areas. Waterway transportation is available to and from the downtown Clematis Street District, Sailfish Marina Resort, waterfront attractions, Peanut Island and special events.
Newspapers The Palm Beach Post is owned by Atlanta - based Cox Enterprises. Its name notwithstanding, the Post is based in West Palm Beach, not Palm Beach. The Post is the 57th highest daily circulation in the country, according to the 2007 BurrellesLuce survey, and is the city 's sole daily newspaper. It serves Palm Beach County and the Treasure Coast, the area north of Palm Beach County that includes Martin and St. Lucie Counties.
Palm Beach Daily News: sister publication of the Palm Beach Post serving the town of Palm Beach, it covers events and social affairs of the celebrities and wealthy residents of Palm Beach. Frequently extends coverage to events taking place in West Palm Beach.
The Palm Beach Times: another daily newspaper covering the city, founded in 1998.
South Florida Sun - Sentinel: is based in Fort Lauderdale and covers portions of Southern Palm Beach County.
New Times Broward - Palm Beach is an alternative weekly publication serving West Palm Beach along with Fort Lauderdale.
WPB Magazine is a quarterly publication serving West Palm Beach.
Radio West Palm Beach is ranked as the 46th largest radio market in the country by Arbitron.
Television West Palm Beach is ranked as the 38th largest television market in the country by Nielsen Media Research. The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WPTV - TV / 5 (NBC), WPEC / 12 (CBS), WTCN - CA / 15 (MYTV), WPBF / 25 (ABC), WFLX / 29 (FOX), WTVX / 34 (CW), WXEL - TV / 42 (PBS), WWHB - CA / 48 (Azteca), WFGC / 61 (CTN), WPXP - TV / 67 (ION) and WBWP - LD / 57 (Ind.).
The area 's official Telemundo affiliate is WSCV in Miami, and WLTV is the area 's Univision affiliate, also in Miami. In addition to those, many Miami / Ft. Lauderdale market TV and radio stations are also available and viewed in West Palm Beach.
West Palm Beach has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:
Violent crime: According to Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) statistics, West Palm Beach is experiencing a steep drop in major crimes. In the past decade, crime has dropped more in West Palm Beach than in any other major city (approximately 100,000 residents or more) in the state of Florida. In 1993, West Palm Beach was featured in a 60 Minutes segment on urban decay. At the time, 80 % of downtown properties were vacant. Since then, the city has done much to improve its image, at least in the physical sense. Occupancy is high, and housing prices have risen rapidly. FDLE stats show that the total crime rate per 100,000 residents has dropped by more than 50 % since 2000, from 13,880 that year to 6,571 in 2008. In 2008 alone, there was a 17.9 % drop in crime. Annual crime rates are always more than three times the national average. However, as of 2006, the city 's crime average has been gradually decreasing while robbery was up 17 percent. West Palm Beach 's northern neighbor, Riviera Beach, has an even higher violent crime rate.
The following are the crime rates, per 100,000 people, for West Palm Beach as of 2005.
Dunbar Village: In 2007, a resident was gang - raped by Jakaris Taylor and a group of 3 other teenagers in one of the city 's public housing developments, Dunbar Village Housing Projects, with her son forced to participate, drawing national outrage.
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where does the number 50 bus stop in birmingham | West Midlands Bus route 50 - wikipedia
Birmingham bus route 50 operates in Birmingham, England. It operates from Central Birmingham to Druids Heath via Moseley, Kings Heath and Maypole along Alcester Road, it is one of the busiest bus routes in Europe. Route 50 was introduced in 1949 and is currently served by National Express West Midlands and Diamond Bus.
Route 50 was introduced by Birmingham City Transport between the City Centre and Maypole in October 1949 to replace a withdrawn tram route. It was supplemented by route 49 which ran as far as Moseley or Kings Heath (via Leopold Street rather than Bradford Street) and route 48 which ran Gooch Street, Clevedon Road and Salisbury Road to Moseley then Alcester Road to the Maypole. The latter was extended to the new Druids Heath estate in July 1966.
Route 49 ceased in May 1975 when West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive linked it to route 35, the new service adopting the latter number whilst being also further extended to Pool Farm (the 35 previously ran Kings Heath to Brandwood only). In the 1980s, route 48 was also withdrawn with route 35 instead covering the Gooch St / Salisbury Rd section and route 50 extended to Druids Heath.
Following deregulation Your Bus additionally operated on the route numbred 50Y before they were taken over by the successor to WMPTE operations, West Midlands Travel in 1993 who continued to run 50Y services until their Travel Your Bus subsidiary until as late as 2001.
In 1999, route 50 became the first Travel West Midlands route to be operated using low - floor double - deck buses. The Optare Spectra buses bought specifically for the route were replaced by Alexander ALX400 bodied Volvo B7TLs in February 2001. It celebrated its 50th anniversary later in the same year.
People 's Express operated a rival service before being taken over by Diamond Bus; Diamond continue to operate on the route. In October 2006, Sunrise Travel commenced operating services on route 50, but withdrew the service a couple of months later. The Green Bus also competed on the route in 2013 and 2014, but withdrew their service on the route in December 2014.
National Express West Midlands commenced operating a 24 - hour service on the route on 20 July 2014. New Alexander Dennis Enviro400s were introduced on route 50 in February 2008, replacing Alexander ALX400 bodied Dennis Trident 2s.
Route 50 is claimed by National Express to be one of the busiest routes in Europe.
In early 2015, route 50 received new Alexander Dennis Enviro400MMC buses. They were among the first buses in the company 's new crimson livery.
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when did led zeppelin write stairway to heaven | Stairway to Heaven - wikipedia
"Stairway to Heaven '' is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, released in late 1971. It was composed by guitarist Jimmy Page and vocalist Robert Plant for the band 's untitled fourth studio album (often called Led Zeppelin IV). It is often referred to as one of the greatest rock songs of all time.
The song has three sections, each one progressively increasing in tempo and volume. The song begins in a slow tempo with acoustic instruments (guitar and recorders) before introducing electric instruments. The final section is an uptempo hard rock arrangement highlighted by Page 's intricate guitar solo accompanying Plant 's vocals that end with the plaintive a cappella line: "And she 's buying a stairway to heaven. ''
"Stairway to Heaven '' was voted number three in 2000 by VH1 on its list of the 100 Greatest Rock Songs, and was placed at number 31 on "Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. It was the most requested song on FM radio stations in the United States in the 1970s, despite never having been commercially released as a single there. In November 2007, through download sales promoting Led Zeppelin 's Mothership release, "Stairway to Heaven '' hit number 37 on the UK Singles Chart.
The recording of "Stairway to Heaven '' commenced in December 1970 at Island Records ' new Basing Street Studios in London. The song was completed by the addition of lyrics by Plant during the sessions for Led Zeppelin IV at Headley Grange, Hampshire, in 1971. Page then returned to Island Studios to record his guitar solo.
The song originated in 1970 when Jimmy Page and Robert Plant were spending time at Bron - Yr - Aur, a remote cottage in Wales, following Led Zeppelin 's fifth American concert tour. According to Page, he wrote the music "over a long period, the first part coming at Bron - Yr - Aur one night ''. Page always kept a cassette recorder around, and the idea for "Stairway '' came together from bits of taped music:
I had these pieces, these guitar pieces, that I wanted to put together. I had a whole idea of a piece of music that I really wanted to try and present to everybody and try and come to terms with. Bit difficult really, because it started on acoustic, and as you know it goes through to the electric parts. But we had various run - throughs (at Headley Grange) where I was playing the acoustic guitar and jumping up and picking up the electric guitar. Robert was sitting in the corner, or rather leaning against the wall, and as I was routining the rest of the band with this idea and this piece, he was just writing. And all of a sudden he got up and started singing, along with another run - through, and he must have had 80 % of the words there... I had these sections, and I knew what order they were going to go in, but it was just a matter of getting everybody to feel comfortable with each gear shift that was going to be coming.
Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones recalled this presentation of the song to him following its genesis at Bron - Yr - Aur:
Page and Plant would come back from the Welsh mountains with the guitar intro and verse. I literally heard it in front of a roaring fire in a country manor house! I picked up a bass recorder and played a run - down riff which gave us an intro, then I moved into a piano for the next section, dubbing on the guitars.
In an interview he gave in 1977, Page elaborated:
I do have the original tape that was running at the time we ran down "Stairway To Heaven '' completely with the band. I 'd worked it all out already the night before with John Paul Jones, written down the changes and things. All this time we were all living in a house and keeping pretty regular hours together, so the next day we started running it down. There was only one place where there was a slight rerun. For some unknown reason Bonzo could n't get the timing right on the twelve - string part before the solo. Other than that it flowed very quickly.
The first attempts at lyrics, written by Robert Plant next to an evening log fire at Headley Grange, were partly spontaneously improvised and Page claimed, "a huge percentage of the lyrics were written there and then ''. Jimmy Page was strumming the chords and Robert Plant had a pencil and paper. Plant later said that suddenly,
My hand was writing out the words, ' There 's a lady is sure (sic), all that glitters is gold, and she 's buying a stairway to heaven '. I just sat there and looked at them and almost leapt out of my seat. '' Plant 's own explanation of the lyrics was that it "was some cynical aside about a woman getting everything she wanted all the time without giving back any thought or consideration. The first line begins with that cynical sweep of the hand... and it softened up after that.
The lyrics of the song reflected Plant 's current reading. The singer had been poring over the works of the British antiquarian Lewis Spence, and later cited Spence 's Magic Arts in Celtic Britain as one of the sources for the lyrics to the song.
In November 1970, Page dropped a hint of the new song 's existence to a music journalist in London:
It 's an idea for a really long track... You know how "Dazed and Confused '' and songs like that were broken into sections? Well, we want to try something new with the organ and acoustic guitar building up and building up, and then the electric part starts... It might be a fifteen - minute track.
Page stated that the song "speeds up like an adrenaline flow ''. He explained:
Going back to those studio days for me and John Paul Jones, the one thing you did n't do was speed up, because if you sped up you would n't be seen again. Everything had to be right on the meter all the way through. And I really wanted to write something which did speed up, and took the emotion and the adrenaline with it, and would reach a sort of crescendo. And that was the idea of it. That 's why it was a bit tricky to get together in stages.
The complete studio recording was released on Led Zeppelin IV in November 1971. The band 's record label, Atlantic Records was keen to issue this track as a single, but the band 's manager Peter Grant refused requests to do so in both 1972 and 1973. This led many people to buy the fourth album as if it were the single. In the US, Atlantic issued "Stairway to Heaven '' as a 7 '' promotional single in 1972.
"Stairway to Heaven '' is described as progressive rock, folk rock and hard rock. The song consists of several distinct sections, beginning with a quiet introduction on a finger - picked six - string guitar and four recorders in a Renaissance music style (ending at 2: 15) and gradually moving into a slow electric middle section (2: 16 -- 5: 33), then a long guitar solo (5: 34 -- 6: 44), before the faster hard rock final section (6: 45 to 7: 45), ending with a short vocals - only epilogue. Plant sings the opening, middle and epilogue sections in his mid vocal range, but sings the hard rock section in his higher range which borders on falsetto.
Written in the key of A minor, the song opens with an arpeggiated, finger - picked guitar chord progression with a chromatic descending bassline A-G ♯ - G-F ♯ - F. John Paul Jones contributed overdubbed wooden bass recorders in the opening section (he used a Mellotron and, later, a Yamaha CP70B Grand Piano and Yamaha GX1 to synthesise this arrangement in live performances) and a Hohner Electra - Piano electric piano in the middle section.
The sections build with more guitar layers, each complementary to the intro, with the drums entering at 4: 18. The extended Jimmy Page guitar solo in the song 's final section was played for the recording on a 1959 Fender Telecaster given to him by Jeff Beck (an instrument he used extensively with the Yardbirds) plugged into a Supro amplifier, although in an interview he gave to Guitar World magazine, Page also claimed, "It could have been a Marshall, but I ca n't remember ''. Three different improvised solos were recorded, with Page agonising about deciding which to keep. Page later revealed, "I did have the first phrase worked out, and then there was the link phrase. I did check them out beforehand before the tape ran. '' The other guitar parts were played using a Harmony Sovereign H1260 acoustic guitar and a Fender Electric XII guitar (a 12 - string guitar that was plugged directly to the soundboard); these can be heard on the left and right recording channels respectively. For live versions, Page switched to a Heritage Cherry Gibson EDS - 1275 6 / 12 Doubleneck guitar. The final progression is a i - VII - VI (natural minor) progression (Am - G-F), a mainstay of rock music.
Another interesting aspect of the song is the timing of the lead - up to the famous guitar solo. While staying in 4 / 4 throughout this section, most of the accents shift to the eighth notes. This makes the rhythm figure challenging for some musicians, but adds a feeling of anticipation to the approaching guitar solo.
Sound engineer Andy Johns recalls the circumstances surrounding the recording of Page 's famous solo:
I remember Jimmy had a little bit of trouble with the solo on "Stairway to Heaven ''... (H) e had n't completely figured it out. Nowadays you sometimes spend a whole day doing one thing. Back then, we never did that. We never spent a very long time recording anything. I remember sitting in the control room with Jimmy, he 's standing there next to me and he 'd done quite a few passes and it was n't going anywhere. I could see he was getting a bit paranoid and so I was getting paranoid. I turned around and said "You 're making me paranoid! '' And he said, "No, you 're making me paranoid! '' It was a silly circle of paranoia. Then bang! On the next take or two he ripped it out.
According to Page, "Stairway to Heaven ''
... crystallized the essence of the band. It had everything there and showed the band at its best... as a band, as a unit. Not talking about solos or anything, it had everything there. We were careful never to release it as a single. It was a milestone for us. Every musician wants to do something of lasting quality, something which will hold up for a long time and I guess we did it with "Stairway ''. (Pete) Townshend probably thought that he got it with Tommy. I do n't know whether I have the ability to come up with more. I have to do a lot of hard work before I can get anywhere near those stages of consistent, total brilliance.
Jimmy Page has often likened the song to a sonic orgasm.
Over the years, some people have considered that the song 's opening guitar arpeggios bear a close resemblance to the 1968 instrumental "Taurus '' by the Los Angeles - based rock band Spirit, written by Spirit guitarist Randy California. In the liner notes to the 1996 reissue of Spirit 's self - titled debut album, California wrote: "People always ask me why "Stairway to Heaven '' sounds exactly like "Taurus '', which was released two years earlier. I know Led Zeppelin also played "Fresh Garbage '' in their live set. They opened up for us on their first American tour. ''
In May 2014, Spirit bassist Mark Andes and a trust acting on behalf of California filed a copyright infringement suit against Led Zeppelin and injunction against the "release of the album containing the song '' in an attempt to obtain a writing credit for California, who died in 1997. A lack of resources was cited as one of the reasons that Spirit did not file the suit earlier; according to a friend of California 's mother, "Nobody had any money, and they thought the statute of limitations was done... It will be nice if Randy got the credit. '' If the Spirit lawsuit had been successful, past earnings due to the song -- estimated at more than US $550 million -- would not have been part of the settlement, but the publisher and composers may have been entitled to a share of future profits.
On 11 April 2016, Los Angeles district judge Gary Klausner ruled that there were enough similarities between the song and the instrumental for a jury to decide the claim, and a trial was scheduled for 10 May. The copyright infringement action was brought by Michael Skidmore, a trustee for the late guitarist, whose legal name was Randy Wolfe. On 23 June, the jury ruled that the similarities between the songs did not amount to copyright infringement. In July, Skidmore 's attorney filed a notice of appeal against the court 's decision. In March 2017, the verdict was appealed, with a main argument being that the jury should have been able to hear a recorded version of "Taurus ''.
The inaugural public performance of the song took place at Belfast 's Ulster Hall on 5 March 1971. Bassist John Paul Jones recalls that the crowd was unimpressed: "They were all bored to tears waiting to hear something they knew. '' However, Page stated about an early performance at the LA Forum, before the record had even come out, that:
I 'm not saying the whole audience gave us a standing ovation, but there was this sizable standing ovation there. And I thought: ' This is incredible, because no one 's heard this number yet. This is the first time they 're hearing it! ' It obviously touched them, you know. And that was at the L.A. Forum, so I knew we were onto something with that one.
The world radio premiere of "Stairway to Heaven '' was recorded at the Paris Cinema on 1 April 1971, in front of a live studio audience, and broadcast three days later on the BBC. The song was performed at almost every subsequent Led Zeppelin concert, only being omitted on rare occasions when shows were cut short for curfews or technical issues. The band 's final performance of the song was in Berlin on 7 July 1980, which was also their last concert until 10 December 2007 at London 's O2 Arena; the version was the longest, lasting almost fifteen minutes, including a seven minute guitar solo.
When playing the song live, the band would often extend it to over ten minutes, with Page playing an extended guitar solo and Plant adding a number of lyrical ad - libs, such as "Does anybody remember laughter? '', "And I think you can see that '' (as seen in the film The Song Remains the Same), "Does anybody remember forests? '' (As seen on the live performance in Seattle 1977), "wait a minute! '' and "I hope so ''. For performing this song live, Page used a Gibson EDS - 1275 double neck guitar so he would not have to pause when switching from a six to a twelve - string guitar.
By 1975, the song had a regular place as the finale of every Led Zeppelin concert. However, after their concert tour of the United States in 1977, Plant began to tire of "Stairway to Heaven '': "There 's only so many times you can sing it and mean it... It just became sanctimonious. ''
The song was played again by the surviving members of Led Zeppelin at the Live Aid concert in 1985; at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert in 1988, with Jason Bonham on drums; and by Jimmy Page as an instrumental version on his solo tours.
By the late 1980s, Plant made his negative impression of the song clear in interviews. In 1988, he stated:
I 'd break out in hives if I had to sing ("Stairway to Heaven '') in every show. I wrote those lyrics and found that song to be of some importance and consequence in 1971, but 17 years later, I do n't know. It 's just not for me. I sang it at the Atlantic Records show because I 'm an old softie and it was my way of saying thank you to Atlantic because I 've been with them for 20 years. But no more of "Stairway to Heaven '' for me.
However, by the mid-1990s Plant 's views had apparently softened. The first few bars were played alone during Page and Plant tours in lieu of the final notes of "Babe I 'm Gonna Leave You '', and in November 1994 Page and Plant performed an acoustic version of the song at a Tokyo news station for Japanese television. "Stairway to Heaven '' was also performed at Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena, London on 10 December 2007.
Plant cites the most unusual performance of the song ever as being that performed at Live Aid: "with two drummers (Phil Collins and Tony Thompson) while Duran Duran cried at the side of the stage -- there was something quite surreal about that. ''
Footage of the song being played live is preserved on the band 's concert film The Song Remains the Same, featuring a performance from Madison Square Garden in 1973, and on the Led Zeppelin DVD, featuring a performance from Earls Court Arena in 1975. Official audio versions are also available on The Song Remains the Same 's accompanying soundtrack, on Led Zeppelin BBC Sessions (a performance from London 's Paris Theatre in 1971) and on How the West Was Won (a performance from the Long Beach Arena in 1972). There are also hundreds of audio versions which can be found on unofficial Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings.
"Stairway to Heaven '' is often rated among the greatest rock songs of all time. According to music journalist Stephen Davis, although the song was released in 1971, it took until 1973 before the song 's popularity ascended to truly "anthemic '' status. As Page himself recalled, "I knew it was good, but I did n't know it was going to be almost like an anthem... But I knew it was the gem of the album, sure. ''
"Stairway to Heaven '' continues to top radio lists of the greatest rock songs, including a 2006 Guitar World readers poll of greatest guitar solos. On the 20th anniversary of the original release of the song, it was announced via U.S. radio sources that the song had logged up an estimated 2,874,000 radio plays -- back to back, that would run for 44 years solid. As of 2000, the song had been broadcast on radio over three million times. In 1990 a St. Petersburg, Florida station kicked off its all - Led Zeppelin format by playing "Stairway to Heaven '' for 24 hours straight. It is also the biggest - selling single piece of sheet music in rock history, clocking up an average of 15,000 copies yearly. In total, over one million copies have been sold.
Jimmy Page told Rolling Stone in 1975, "We were careful to never release it as a single. '' So, Led Zeppelin refused to release the song as a single, which forced buyers to buy the entire album. Despite pressure from Atlantic Records, the band would not authorise the editing of the song for single release, making "Stairway to Heaven '' one of the most well - known and popular rock songs never to have been released as a single. It did, however, appear on two promotional discs in the United States, one of them featuring the 7: 55 track on each side, and the other as a 7 - inch 33 ⁄ record produced for jukebox operators with "Stairway to Heaven '' on one side and both "Black Dog '' and "Rock and Roll '' on the other. Other "single '' appearances were on an Australian EP, and in 1991 as an added bonus with a 20th anniversary promo book.
The group 's recording of this song also appeared as the sole Led Zeppelin track in the 1977 Atlantic Records two - LP promotional sampler album We 've Got Your Music, marking the first time that Led Zeppelin 's "Stairway to Heaven '' made its official debut appearance in an American - released various artists compilation collection.
On the 20th anniversary of the song 's release, Esquire magazine featured an article on the song 's success and lasting influence. Karen Karbo wrote:
It 's doubtful that anyone knew it would become the most popular rock song of all time. After all, it 's eight minutes long and was never released as a single. Even "Hey Jude '' was shorter, was a 45, and enjoyed the benefits of comprehensible words and a sing - along chorus. But "Hey Jude '' is n't the most requested song of all time on FM rock stations. Nobody ever had a "Hey Jude '' theme prom or played the song at weddings and funerals like "Stairway ''. "Stairway '' could n't succeed today. Back in 1971, FM deejays prided themselves on digging deep into albums to come up with oddball, cultish favorites. With its near - oppressive length, erratic changes, and woo - woo lyrics, the quasi-medieval anthem was a perfect choice. It continues to be a favorite among music listeners who are younger than the song itself, listeners who, in some cases, were no doubt conceived while the tune blasted from car speakers.
In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine put it at number 31 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. An article from 29 January 2009 Guitar World magazine rated Jimmy Page 's guitar solo at number one in the publication 's 100 Greatest Guitar Solos in Rock and Roll History. Since 2001, the New York City - based classic rock radio station Q104. 3 has ranked "Stairway to Heaven '' no. 1 on their annual "Top 1,043 Classic Rock Songs of All Time ''.
Erik Davis, a social historian and cultural critic, commented on the song 's massive success, subsequent backlash and enduring legendary status:
"Stairway to Heaven '' is n't the greatest rock song of the 1970s; it is the greatest spell of the 1970s. Think about it: we are all sick of the thing, but in some primordial way it is still number one. Everyone knows it... Even our dislike and mockery is ritualistic. The dumb parodies; the Wayne 's World - inspired folklore about guitar shops demanding customers not play it; even Robert Plant 's public disavowal of the song -- all of these just prove the rule. "Stairway to Heaven '' is not just number one. It is the One, the quintessence, the closest AOR will ever get you to the absolute.
Page has himself commented on the song 's legacy:
The wonderful thing about "Stairway '' is the fact that just about everybody has got their own individual interpretation to it, and actually what it meant to them at their point of life. And that 's what 's so great about it. Over the passage of years, you know, people come to me with all manner of stories about, you know, what it meant to them at certain points of their lives. About how it 's got them through some really tragic circumstances... Because it 's an extremely positive song, it 's such a positive energy, and, you know, people have got married to (the song).
Robert Plant once gave $1,000 to listener - supported radio station KBOO in Portland, Oregon during a pledge drive after the disc jockey solicited donations by promising the station would never play "Stairway to Heaven ''. Plant was station - surfing in a rental car he was driving to the Oregon Coast after a solo performance in Portland and was impressed with the non-mainstream music the station presented. Asked later "why? '' Plant replied that it was n't that he did n't like the song, but he 'd heard it before.
In a January 1982 television program on the Trinity Broadcasting Network hosted by Paul Crouch, it was claimed that hidden messages were contained in many popular rock songs through a technique called backmasking. One example of such hidden messages that was prominently cited was in "Stairway to Heaven ''. The alleged message, which occurs during the middle section of the song ("If there 's a bustle in your hedgerow, do n't be alarmed now... '') when played backward, was purported to contain the Satanic references "Here 's to my sweet Satan '' and "I sing because I live with Satan. ''
Following the claims made in the television program, California assemblyman Phil Wyman proposed a state law that would require warning labels on records containing backward masking. In April 1982, the Consumer Protection and Toxic Materials Committee of the California State Assembly held a hearing on backward masking in popular music, during which "Stairway to Heaven '' was played backward. During the hearing, William Yarroll, a self - described "neuroscientific researcher '', claimed that backward messages could be deciphered by the human brain.
The band itself has for the most part ignored such claims. In response to the allegations, Swan Song Records issued the statement: "Our turntables only play in one direction -- forwards. '' Led Zeppelin audio engineer Eddie Kramer called the allegations "totally and utterly ridiculous. Why would they want to spend so much studio time doing something so dumb? '' Robert Plant expressed frustration with the accusations in a 1983 interview in Musician magazine: "To me it 's very sad, because ' Stairway to Heaven ' was written with every best intention, and as far as reversing tapes and putting messages on the end, that 's not my idea of making music. ''
(*) designates unordered lists.
1972 7 '' single (Philippines: Atlantic 45 - 3747)
1972 7 '' promo (US: Atlantic PR 175 (picture sleeve))
1972 7 '' promo (US: Atlantic PR - 269)
1972 7 '' promo (South Africa: Atlantic Teal)
1978 12 '' single (Brazil: WEA 6WP. 2003)
1990 7 '' promo (UK: Atlantic LZ3)
1991 20th Anniversary promo (US: Atlantic PRCD 4424 - 2, Japan: Warner Pioneer PRCD 4424 - 2)
Note: The official UK Singles Chart incorporated legal downloads as of 17 April 2005.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
A different version of this song by Led Zeppelin is featured on the remastered deluxe 2CD version of Led Zeppelin IV. Known as "Stairway To Heaven (Sunset Sound Mix) '', it was recorded on 5 December 1970, at Island Studio, No. 1, in London with engineer Andy Johns and assistant engineer Diggs. This version runs 8: 04, while the original version runs 8: 02.
The song has been covered a number of times. Rolf Harris 's didgeridoo - and - wobble board interpretation reached number seven in the UK charts in 1993. His performance on BBC 's Top of the Pops involved swapping instruments mid-song, with the help of an aide introduced as "Miss Given ''. His version was one of 26 different versions of the song that were performed live by guest stars on the early 1990s Australian chat show The Money or the Gun -- each being a unique version of the song in the usually idiosyncratic style of performance of each guest star. A video and CD album were released featuring 25 and 22 of the performances, respectively.
Dolly Parton released a stripped down acoustic cover of the song in 2002; Plant spoke highly of Parton 's version, noting that he was pleasantly surprised with how her version turned out.
In 2004 a truncated cover version was released by Me First and the Gimme Gimmes, on their album Ruin Jonny 's Bar Mitzvah, lasting just over two minutes.
In 1977, Little Roger and the Goosebumps recorded a parody of the song in which the words to the theme song of the television show Gilligan 's Island were sung in place of the original lyrics. Within five weeks, Led Zeppelin 's lawyers threatened to sue them and demanded that any remaining copies of the recording be destroyed. The group won the damages in the suit, and Little Roger and the Goosebumps had to pay thousands of dollars in damages. However, during a 2005 interview on National Public Radio, Plant referred to the tune as his favourite cover of "Stairway to Heaven ''.
A version by Far Corporation was released in 1985 and reached number 8 in the UK singles chart. It also hit 89 in the US Billboard Hot 100, making it the only version of the song to hit the chart.
Frank Zappa created an arrangement of the song as one of the centrepieces of his 1988 tour. The arrangement, as heard on the album The Best Band You Never Heard in Your Life, features the horn section of Zappa 's band playing Jimmy Page 's guitar solo.
In 1991, Dread Zeppelin included their version of the song in their album 5,000,000 (* Tortelvis Fans Ca n't Be Wrong).
In 1992, Those Darn Accordions recorded a version of the song played entirely on accordions for their album Vongole Fisarmonica.
Australian physicist and composer Joe Wolfe composed a set of variations on "Stairway to Heaven ''. This work, The Stairway Suite, is composed for orchestra, big band, chorus, and four part choir. Each variation is in the style of a famous composer: Franz Schubert, Gustav Holst, Glenn Miller, Gustav Mahler, Georges Bizet, and Ludwig van Beethoven. For example, the Schubert inspired variation is based on the Unfinished Symphony, and the Beethoven inspired variation includes vocal soloists and chorus and resembles Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony. Wolfe posted the full score of this piece on the Internet.
A performance of the song is featured in the Total Balalaika Show, a two - disc album recorded live in Helsinki on 12 June 1993 by the Leningrad Cowboys and the Alexandrov Red Army Ensemble. It was not included in the 1994 Aki Kaurismäki documentary film of the same name and concert. Less official concert footage that includes this song can easily be found.
Heart performed a cover of the song at least once in 1976; the 2004 reissue of the band 's album Little Queen includes a recording as a bonus track. In 2012, Heart performed the song in tribute to Led Zeppelin at the Kennedy Center Honors, during which Plant was visibly moved to tears. This performance was so well - received and popular that a limited edition single was released on the iTunes Music Store.
In 2010, Mary J. Blige released a version on her album Stronger with Each Tear featuring Travis Barker on drums, Steve Vai and Orianthi on guitar, Randy Jackson on bass and Geffen Records chair Ron Fair on piano. Blige performed the song on American Idol with Barker, Vai, Orianthi, and Jackson; the recording was released via download for charity.
Pat Boone 's 1997 album In a Metal Mood included "Stairway '' as a jazz waltz.
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how many episodes in season 2 of big brother | Big Brother 2 (US) - wikipedia
Big Brother 2 was the second season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It is based upon the Netherlands series of the same name, which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000. The series premiered on CBS on July 5, 2001 and lasted for a total of 82 days. The season concluded on September 20, 2001 with Dr. Will Kirby being crowned the winner, and Nicole Nilson Schaffrich the runner - up.
The premise of the series drastically differed from the previous installment of the series. The series revolved around twelve strangers living in a house together with no communication with the outside world. They were constantly filmed during their time in the house, and were not permitted to communicate with those filming them. One HouseGuest, known as the Head of Household, had the task of nominating two of their fellow HouseGuests for eviction. The HouseGuests then voted to evict one of the nominees, with the HouseGuest who received the most votes being evicted from the house. When only two HouseGuests remained, the previously evicted HouseGuests would decide which of them would win the $500,000 grand prize.
Despite the negative critical response to the first season, rumors began circulating in September 2000 that the series would be renewed and would give CBS more creative control over the project. Les Moonves later stated that the possibility of a second season was "very possible '', adding "If we can fix the product... we feel there 's great potential there. '' In February 2001, it was confirmed that there would be a second season, and that casting would begin soon. Paul Romer, who was heavily involved in the first season, stated that the show had poor ratings as the critics "did n't get it. '' It was reported that CBS blamed the casting for the failure of the initial season. With the confirmation of a second season, it was revealed that the series would undergo serious changes before the premiere. Before work on the season began, numerous changes were made in terms of the production team. CBS later stated they hoped to get Arnold Shapiro to produce the series, and were eventually successful in doing so. Allison Grodner was yet another addition to the series this year, who was hired as the co-executive producer.
The season was originally planned to air five nights a week, though this was later dropped to three nights a week. The show was set to air on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday nights at 8 p.m. Eastern time, though in August was pushed back to 9 p.m. Eastern time due to the show 's mature content. The live show, in which one of the HouseGuests was evicted from the house, was scheduled to air on Thursday nights. Chuck Riley became the narrator for this season, however, played a smaller role in the show than in the previous season. Initially, it was revealed that the HouseGuests would vote to evict one another, with the viewers choosing the winner out of the final three. This was later scrapped, and it was decided that the HouseGuests would choose the winner and the evictees. Like the previous installment, Big Brother 2 featured the live feed streaming, in which viewers could watch live inside the house at any time. This was the first season to charge for the live feeds to be used, with viewers paying either $19.95 to view the full season or $9.95 for a month of the feeds. The decision to require a payment for the feeds upset numerous fans and viewers, several of which threatened not to watch the series at all. A spokesperson for CBS later stated "The subscription does two things (...) It safeguards against who 's watching live feed so we can verify their age (in case there 's nudity). Second, in entertainment you generally pay for content, so I do n't think this is anything unusual. ''
Despite controversy surrounding her appearance on the series, it was confirmed in May that Julie Chen would return to host the second season. In another change to the series, Dr. Drew Pinsky and AOL Online Advisor Regina Lewis did not return to the series. Following the departure of co-host Ian O'Malley during the first season, no second host was selected for the series. The twelve HouseGuests competing in the series were revealed on June 29, 2001. The group moved into the house on July 1, 2001. HouseGuests Mike and Justin had a criminal record prior to appearing on the series, causing some controversy from critics. HouseGuest Will was a doctor, while Kent and Mike both owned their own businesses. Autumn, Kent, Krista, and Sheryl were all parents, though Kent was the only parent who was married. Bunky was revealed to be the first openly gay HouseGuest to participate in the series, while Kent revealed prior to the season that he felt homosexuality was "perverse. '' The HouseGuests from this season were noted as being more disruptive than in the previous year 's show, with several arguments and romantic relationships occurring in the house. Shapiro stated that the new group of HouseGuests were "uninhibited, outgoing and diverse '', and predicted "romance and nudity '' from the group.
The house used for the second season was a one story house with four bedrooms, a kitchen and dining room, and one bathroom. The floorpan of the original house was retained with alterations made for additional sleeping areas, the Head of Household room, and relocated storage area and Diary Room. The house was an estimated 2,400 feet, an increase from the previous season 's house. The lot used for the house was located at the CBS Studio Center in Hollywood, California. It featured a total of 38 cameras and 62 microphones, making all areas of the house visible. During their stay in the house, the HouseGuests were required to wear microphones at all times, ensuring everything they said in the house was heard. Throughout the house there are two way mirrors lined against the walls, with a production team filming behind them. The bedrooms featured infrared night vision cameras, allowing the cameras to continue filming while the lights were off. The majority of the living room features red colors, as did the kitchen and dining room. The dining room saw the inclusion of a round table, where the weekly nomination ceremony would take place. The bathroom featured mainly light green and cream colors. There were three bedrooms eligible for all of the HouseGuests to use, while one was reserve solely for the Head of Household. The bedrooms all had uneven beds, some being water beds and other being simple cots, and two bedrooms featured a plexi - glass wall dividing them. The Head of Household bedroom featured items such as a mini fridge and monogrammed robe. The backyard featured a patio area for the HouseGuests to sit, as well as a pool, jacuzzi, and basketball court.
Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, lived in a custom built "house '', constantly under video surveillance. While in the house, the contestants were completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house. This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a family emergency or passing. At the start of each week in the house, the HouseGuests would compete for the title of Head of Household. The Head of Household for each week would have luxuries such as their own personal bedroom and free laundry service, but was responsible for nominating two HouseGuests for eviction. The Head of Household would not be able to compete in the following week 's Head of Household competition, meaning that a HouseGuest could not hold the title for two weeks in a row. All HouseGuests excluding the Head of Household and nominees later vote to determine which of the two nominees should be evicted, and the nominated HouseGuest who received the most votes was evicted during a live episode. If there is a tie in the voting, the reigning Head of Household is required to make the tie - breaker decision. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the HouseGuests may discuss the nomination and eviction process openly and freely. When only two HouseGuests remained, the previously evicted HouseGuests returned to decide which of the two should win the game.
The HouseGuests also competed in food competitions, in which the losers were required to solely eat peanut butter and jelly for the rest of the week. The HouseGuests also participated in weekly luxury competitions, in which those competing could win prizes. The players were competing for a $500,000 prize, though the Runner - Up would receive a $50,000 prize. The format of the series was mainly seen as a social experiment, and required HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices. HouseGuests were also required to make visits to the Diary Room during their stay in the house, where they were able to share their thoughts and feelings on their fellow HouseGuests and the game. While in the house, the HouseGuests are given no information from the outside world. This includes the families and loved ones of the HouseGuests, whom they are not permitted to see or speak to. The house featured no telephones, televisions, or reading material other than for religious use. HouseGuests could voluntarily leave the house at any time, however, would not be able to return. In addition, a HouseGuest could be removed from the house at any time for breaking the rules; removal from the house meant the HouseGuest would not be eligible to return to the house or appear at the finale.
Mike Malin and Will Kirby returned for Big Brother: All Stars. Malin won the season, while Kirby placed 4th. Bunky Miller and Monica Bailey were also candidates for Big Brother: All Stars but they were not selected to compete. Nicole Schaffrich made an appearance on Big Brother: All Stars to host a few competitions. Mike Malin also returned for Big Brother 10 to host a food competition along with other Big Brother alumnus. Mike Malin was also a coach on Big Brother 14 where he later competed as a player and ultimately placed 10th.
On Day 1, the original twelve HouseGuests entered the house. Nicole quickly came off as too strong to her fellow HouseGuests, while Bunky opted not to reveal his sexuality to his fellow housemates. Following the introductions, the HouseGuests competed in their first food competition, "All Stuffed Up ''. For this competition, the HouseGuests took as many groceries as possible and attempted to fit them inside a 2002 Buick Rendezvous; they would be allowed to keep whatever groceries they managed to keep inside of the car for a total of sixty seconds. The group won the challenge, though learned of a new challenge; the last HouseGuest remaining in the car would be able to keep it. The game down to Autumn and Kent, with Kent ultimately winning the car. On Day 2, the HouseGuests competed in the "Wheel of First Impressions '' Head of Household competition. The challenge saw HouseGuests spinning a wheel that would land on two adjectives, with the HouseGuest who spun the wheel having to choose the two HouseGuests they felt the adjectives best described. The HouseGuests not selected would then vote between the two selected HouseGuests as to whom should become the new Head of Household. The HouseGuest with the least amount of votes was eliminated, with this process continuing until only Mike and Sheryl remained. The HouseGuests then voted for which of the two should become the new Head of Household, with Mike being the winner. With Mike now in power, Kent attempted to form an alliance between himself, Mike, Justin, Bunky, and Will. Meanwhile, roommates Mike, Will, and Shannon began to form a close bond, and later began referring to themselves as Chilltown. Bunky first revealed that he was gay to Autumn, and slowly began revealing this information to the other women in the house. Despite worries that conservative Kent would be upset, all of the HouseGuests came to accept Bunky. In fact, no one cared at all much to Bunky 's disappointment. He thought his sexual preference was of interest but truly no one even bother to mention it other than Kent. Later that week, the HouseGuests competed in the "Dirty Dozen '' luxury competition. Mike, as Head of Household, entered an inflatable pool of mud and searched to find a key with the name of a HouseGuest on it; once a HouseGuests key was found, they would enter the pool and search for keys as well. If the group found all twelve of the keys within six minutes, they would earn the hot tub; they were successful.
With nominations looming closer, Mike debated nominating HouseGuests such as Autumn, Kent, and Nicole, seeing them as the most annoying in the group. He later got the idea of nominating a disliked HouseGuest against a well liked HouseGuest, seemingly ensuring the eviction of the disliked HouseGuest. On Day 6, Mike chose to nominate Nicole and Sheryl for eviction, with Nicole being his target. Shannon and Will began to form a romantic relationship in the house, despite Shannon having a boyfriend. Justin and Krista also became closer, forming a more flirtatious relationship. The HouseGuests began to form a disliking towards the Chilltown group, feeling that they were stand - offish and immature. This led to the formation of the Hot Box alliance, named after the heat of the bedroom they slept in, which consisted of Autumn, Bunky, Hardy, Krista, Kent, Monica, and Nicole. The group later formed a plan to keep Nicole in the game, as a way to weaken the Chilltown alliance. The HouseGuests later competed in the "Birds Eye View '' luxury competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests had to spell out a word using their bodies, and Head of Household Mike was required to attempt to figure out the word; if Mike guessed correctly, they would win the food they spelled. The group was successful, and won the competition. On Day 10, Justin was expelled from the house after an incident with Krista. While making out with an intoxicated Krista, Justin jokingly swung a sweeper at her head, and went further by holding a knife to her neck while the two made out. While holding the knife to her neck, he asked her "Would you get mad if I killed you? '' before removing the knife from her neck. This incident followed a series of rule - breaking from Justin, and after consulting with the show 's psychologist it was decided that Justin should be expelled. Despite Justin 's departure, the scheduled eviction continued as normal. On Day 12, Sheryl became the first HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of five to three.
Sheryl 's eviction came as a shock to the Chilltown group, who had believed that Nicole would be evicted from the house. Following this, the "To the Mat '' Head of Household competition was held in the backyard. HouseGuests were asked questions regarding their fellow housemates, and answered each question by either stepping off of their individual mat or staying in place; each player was blind - folded, and could not see how the others answered. Krista was the winner, making her the new Head of Household for the week. Krista began asking each HouseGuest individually who should be nominated for eviction, with the majority selecting Shannon and Will. Despite this, Krista did n't see Will as a threat, and instead felt that Autumn should be evicted as she often complained about life in the house. On Day 13, the group played in the "Pound of Flesh '' food competition. The HouseGuests competed as guys against girls, and wrote down the weight they believed they were. The group later weighed themselves in the backyard, and the group with the least difference between their guessed weight and actual weigh would earn food for the week; the guys won the competition, placing the girls on the peanut butter and jelly diet for the week. On Day 14, Krista shocked the house when she chose to nominate Autumn and Kent for eviction, hoping to see Autumn evicted from the house. Krista and Monica, who began to form a strong friendship, later formed the Untouchables alliance with Hardy. On Day 15, the HouseGuests competed in the "Ride the Bull '' luxury competition. The HouseGuests yet again competed as men against women, and attempted to ride a mechanical bull for a set amount of time; the winning team would earn the ingredients to make a barbecue dinner that night. The women were the winning team. On Day 16, it was revealed that the America 's Vote for the week determined whether Mike or Krista, who both had birthdays that week, would earn a video message from home and a dinner for two; Krista was selected by the viewers to win the prize, and chose to enjoy the dinner with Mike. The house later decided as a group that Autumn should be evicted and return home to her child. On Day 19, Autumn became the second HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of seven to zero.
Following Autumn 's eviction, the group competed in the "By the Numbers '' Head of Household competition. Hardy was the winner of the competition, which required the HouseGuests to answer a series of number - based questions by raising numerical paddles. Hardy vowed to evict the Chilltown alliance from the house, and quickly decided that two of them would be nominated for eviction. Upset with Krista for not nominating Chilltown the week prior, Bunky, Hardy, Kent, Monica, and Nicole formed the TOP, or The Other People, alliance to further go against Chilltown. On Day 20, the HouseGuests competed in the "Catch of the Day '' food competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests requested three food items each by writing the food on individual yellow balls. In the backyard, one - hundred of the yellow balls were thrown into the backyard, each with a food item written on them, and the HouseGuests were able to eat all the food that was on the balls that they caught. On Day 21, Hardy chose to nominate Shannon and Will for eviction. Hardy 's decision to nominate the pair led to much drama in the house, mainly between Shannon and her fellow housemates. When Shannon felt that Hardy was taunting her in the bathroom, she infamously took his toothbrush and used it to scrub the toilet. Shannon was called into the Diary Room and was informed that she had to dispose of the toothbrush before Hardy could use it. On Day 22, the group competed in the "Cross Dressing '' luxury competition, which led to Bunky, Kent, Nicole, and Shannon winning laundry service for the week. Will debated walking from the game in an attempt to save Shannon, while Shannon requested that her fellow housemates evict her to save Will. That week 's America 's Choice poll saw the viewers give the HouseGuests a toaster. On Day 26, Shannon became the third HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of six to zero.
With Shannon now evicted, the remaining HouseGuests participated in the "Higher or Lower '' Head of Household competition. The HouseGuests stood in the center of a three - step staircase while being asked numerical - based questions. They would answer questions by either stepping up or down on the ladder to state whether the correct answer was higher or lower than the given answer. Kent was the winner, making him the new Head of Household for the week. Though his allies hoped that Mike and Will would be nominated for eviction, Kent felt that Will was not a threat to his game and later made a deal with him to keep one another safe. Kent later debated nominating Bunky against Mike, as well as Hardy against Mike. Krista and Mike, who had been growing closer since Justin 's expulsion, formed a more romantic relationship in the house. On Day 27, the HouseGuests competed in the "Food Pyramid '' food competition. Each HouseGuest was assigned a food group for the week, and had to correctly answer questions to win that food group for the house. Mike and Will hoped that Mike would be nominated against Bunky for eviction, feeling they could get the votes to keep Mike; Bunky was upset at his potential nomination, as he and Kent had formed a strong bond. On Day 28, Kent chose to nominate Krista and Mike for eviction, with Mike being his main target. His decision to nominate Mike for eviction led to much drama in the house with Mike and the other housemates. On Day 29, the group competed in the luxury competition, known as "Spinning Discs '', which saw the HouseGuests tossing CD 's at a basket floating in the pool in an attempt to get the highest score. The winner would earn a personal stereo and CD of their choice; Monica was the winner. That week 's America 's Choice poll allowed Hardy to receive a three - minute phone call from home. Will attempted to campaign for Mike to stay in the house, though Mike refused to do so as he did not want to hurt Krista. With Chilltown dropping in numbers, the TOP alliance began to turn against one another. Monica and Nicole had an argument over cleaning in the house, while Kent and Hardy engaged in an argument over Kent 's failed attempt to form an alliance of Bunky, Hardy, and Kent. Following this, Hardy began to steer away from the TOP alliance by forming a secret alliance with Nicole and Will. On Day 33, Mike became the fourth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of four to one.
Following Mike 's eviction, the HouseGuests competed in the "Face the Facts '' Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests answered a series of questions pertaining to the previously evicted HouseGuests and the outgoing Head of Household. HouseGuests used a cube to answer each question, with the faces of the HouseGuests on it as well as a "none of the above '' space; Hardy was the winner. This made Hardy the first HouseGuest to hold the title twice, as well as the first and only HouseGuest this season to win consecutive Head of Household competitions. Hardy began thinking about evicting Kent from the house, feeling that he had upset numerous HouseGuests and attempted to make too many alliances. On Day 34, the HouseGuests participated in "The Perfect Meal '' food competition. The HouseGuests shared what their favorite meal was, and later went to the backyard to find their meal on a plate. Each HouseGuest was assigned a day of the week, and were required to put their meal in a blender and drink it within five minutes to earn food for their designated day. On Day 35, Hardy chose to nominate Kent and Will for eviction, with Kent being his target. That night, the HouseGuests were given mannequins to decorate to their likeness. The group learned that this was part of that week 's luxury competition, and that they had to select a luxury to win within a $100 price range. On Day 36, the HouseGuests competed in the "Rescue 911 '' competition. The mannequins that the HouseGuests decorated the previous night were hidden inside the house, and the HouseGuests were blindfolded and sent into the house to find the mannequins. The HouseGuests competed men against women, and the team to win would win the luxury prizes they selected; the women won the competition. On Day 37, it was revealed that the viewers had voted for the HouseGuests to get a pot belly pig, Ophelia, as a pet for the week. With Kent realizing that he would be evicted, and Bunky being a target for the coming week, the two began to engage in arguments with their fellow housemates. This further tore apart the TOP alliance, and seemingly ensured Kent 's eviction. On Day 40, Kent became the fifth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of four to zero.
The remaining six HouseGuests entered the backyard to participate in the "Pushing It to the Limit '' Head of Household competition. This competition saw the HouseGuests sliding their key to the house down a two - lane board towards a series of markers, each representing a different room in the house. The HouseGuest who landed their key closest to the room labeled HoH would become the new Head of Household; Nicole was the winner. Krista revealed to Will the Untouchables group, prompting Will to exaggerate the story to Nicole and cause doubt in her mind about Krista and Hardy. Hardy and Nicole later began to realize that Krista had lied to numerous HouseGuests in the game, and the two turned against her. On Day 41, the HouseGuests competed in the "A Is For Apple '' food competition, which required HouseGuests to spell food items out of large plastic letters to earn them for the week. On Day 42, Nicole chose to nominate Krista and Monica for eviction, with Krista being her target. On Day 43, the group played in the "All the News That Fits '' luxury competition. The HouseGuests participated as duos and attempted to guess whether news headlines given to them were true or false; the winning pair would win three minutes in the Diary Room with newspapers, magazines, and a newsreel playing on the television. Bunky and Will were the winning duo. On Day 44, the HouseGuests were given a trampoline as part of that week 's America 's Choice poll. The HouseGuests learned that week that the eviction vote would take place live on Thursday, rather than the group voting on Wednesday. On Day 47, Krista became the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of three to zero.
The final five HouseGuests learned that there would be no eviction for the week as a result of Justin 's expulsion from the game. This meant that the group did not participate in a Head of Household competition, and there were no nominations for the week; the group did participate in food and luxury competitions. On Day 48, the HouseGuests competed in the "Blockbuster '' luxury competition, hosted by Bunky. HouseGuests were given ice blocks with a movie ticket in the center, and were required to break through the ice to reach their ticket. The first HouseGuest to get their ticket out of the ice would be able to watch a screening of the film American Pie 2 (2001) in the Head of Household room. Bunky was the winner, and chose Monica to join him. Despite being aligned with him, Hardy and Nicole began to yet again have doubts about Will, believing he was stirring the pot too much. On Day 50, the HouseGuests participated in the "An Offer Almost Too Good to Refuse '' food competition. For this competition, HouseGuests searched the house to find jars of peanut butter that had been hidden; the HouseGuests were required to stay where they found their jar. The HouseGuests were individually called into the Diary Room and offered $2,500 to put the HouseGuests on the peanut butter and jelly diet; should the HouseGuest decline this, the offer would be raised to $5,000, and then $7,500. Bunky and Hardy accepted, though Bunky had the highest number on his peanut butter jar thus won the $5,000 prize. Bunky and Hardy both admitted to accepting the offer, upsetting Monica and Nicole. That same day, Bunky won the America 's Choice poll to receive a letter from home.
On Day 51, the HouseGuests competed in the first round of the "Big Brother Road Trip '' Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests answered questions regarding the evicted HouseGuests with the answers being states. To gain a point, a HouseGuest had to be the first to strike a pole by driving a remote - control car; the two HouseGuests with the most points would move on to the second round. Bunky and Hardy advanced to the second round. On Day 52, Bunky and Hardy competed in the second round of the Head of Household competition. For this, the two had to drive their remote - control car through an obstacle course; each obstacle was based on the home state of an evicted HouseGuests, and the two had to drive their cars to approach each obstacle in the order that the HouseGuests were evicted. Hardy was the winner, giving him his third Head of Household win of the season. On Day 55, the HouseGuests competed in the "Big Brother Jenga '' food competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests built a Jenga puzzle out of oversized pieces with food categories listed on them. They would then pull out the pieces one at a time, earning each category they successfully removed without knocking over the tower. That night, Hardy chose to nominate Bunky and Will for eviction, seeing Bunky as a physical threat due to his recent competition wins. Due to the low number of HouseGuests remaining in the house, the bedroom closest to the bathroom was shut down; the HouseGuests were allowed to paint the room before it was closed for good. On Day 56, the HouseGuests competed in "The Great Escape '' luxury competition. The HouseGuests decorated a doll to their likeness, and later found their dolls outside in individual baskets. They had to blow up helium balloons, tie them to their doll 's basket, and attempt to make their basket float over the walls of the house; the first two HouseGuests to complete this challenge would win a helicopter tour of Los Angeles. Will was the first to complete the challenge, with Bunky coming in second. Though the plan was to initially evict Bunky, Nicole continued to grow frustrated with Will and contemplated evicting him; the two later made up. The America 's Choice poll saw the HouseGuests getting an in - house shopping spree for sportswear clothing. On Day 61, the eviction vote came to a tie, with Hardy casting the tie - breaker vote to evict Bunky.
Following Bunky 's eviction, the HouseGuests competed in the "Strange Bedfellows '' endurance Head of Household competition. The HouseGuests found a replica of the Head of Household room in the backyard, and had to sit on the water bed in the backyard while holding onto their key that was placed in the nomination box. The last HouseGuests remaining on the bed, without letting go of their key, would be the winner. The competition quickly proved to be dramatic when a banner overhead sent by Nicole 's husband accused her of betraying him; this was a result of a rumor spread online that something had happened between Nicole and Will in the hot tub. The competition came down to Monica and Will, with Will dropping out of the competition in exchange for a prize; this made Monica the new Head of Household. Will 's prize was revealed to be a large peanut butter jar used in an earlier competition. Hardy and Nicole were both upset with Will for throwing the competition, as Will and Monica had made a deal that Will would not be nominated. On Day 62, the group played in the "Shop ' til You Drop '' food competition, which required the HouseGuests to grab food items and carry them through an obstacle course; the group kept whatever food they got across. On Day 63, Monica chose to nominate Hardy and Nicole for eviction. On Day 64, the backyard was transformed into a "winter wonderland '' as part of the America 's Choice poll. On Day 65, Gervase Peterson and Susan Hawk, of Survivor: Borneo (2000), and Alicia Calaway and Jeff Varner of, Survivor: The Australian Outback (2001), entered the house to spend the night. The group played in the "Fire and Ice '' luxury competition, which saw the Survivor cast compete against the HouseGuests. The groups were bound together at the wrists and had to find the letters to spell out the name of their respective show; they would build the letters into a tower, untie themselves, jump one at a time into the pool to retrieve their keys, and hang their keys on torches at the end of the pool. The first team to complete the challenge would win a $15,000 prize; the Survivor group won the competition. That same night, the HouseGuests paired up with a Survivor member to compete in the "Crack the Code '' luxury competition. The competition saw the pairs receiving a coded message, describing a location in the house, and the first pair to decode the location and find a computer mouse would win the right to view a fan - site made in their honor. On Day 68, Will chose to evict Hardy from the house.
The final three HouseGuests then competed in the first round of the three - part final Head of Household competition. For the first two rounds the HouseGuest completed for points which would determine who would proceed to the final round. The first part of the competition saw Monica, Nicole, and Will determining which HouseGuest was being described by a specific adjective used by a former HouseGuest, with points being given for correct answers. Will was the winner with 5, Nicole in second on 4 and Monica in third with 3 points. The second round of the competition saw the HouseGuest complete an obstacle course of various household chours with in 6 minutes. Time was not a factor, instead points were awarded for each task completed; Nicole was the winner with 7, Monica was in second with 6 and Will came in last with 5. Once the scores were added up, it was Nicole (11 points) and Will (10 points) who would progress to the final round of the competition. Following the September 11th attacks, the rule stating that the HouseGuests would not be informed of world news was broken, and Monica learned that her cousin Tamitha had been in the buildings at the time of the attacks. Though the HouseGuests were initially only given the basics of the events that had occurred, they were later given a more detailed description of the events. On Day 77, Nicole and Will competed in the final round of the Head of Household competition, which saw the two being asked seven questions about their former housemates ' experiences during their time in the house. Nicole was the winner, making her the final Head of Household of the season; she then chose to evict Monica from the house, making Nicole and Will the final two HouseGuests.
On Day 82, the evicted HouseGuests returned to choose whether Nicole or Will should win the series. Nicole and Will learned that they could each nullify one HouseGuests vote for the winner; Nicole chose to void Shannon 's vote, while Will reluctantly chose to void Bunky 's vote - he was so confident that he felt he did n't need to nullify a vote at all but the producers required that he do so (while it was surprising that Will voided Bunky 's vote instead of Hardy to many viewers, Will said that Bunky was a sincere player and his disgust with Will 's tactics and previous statement that he would never vote to give Will the winner 's money meant that he was the right person to remove from Nicole 's vote side). Both Nicole and Will guessed correctly and were able to take a vote for each other out of the final tally. Nicole emphasized how evil Will was to an increasingly unimpressed jury that took pains to point out that she always cried about how awful it was to vote people out yet directly ended several of their games because she wanted to win (Monica followed up on an earlier interview where she 'd said Nicole 's claims of "love '' for other players were selfish and aimed at boosting her own ego), while Will reminded the jury how charismatic he was through his eloquent final speech. Dr. Will was crowned the winner of the series in a five to two vote.
Big Brother 2 premiered on July 5, 2001 to a viewing audience of 8.2 million viewers. These numbers were significantly lower than the previous season 's premiere, however, it was noted that ratings did increase in the second half hour. The series was later the third most searched topic on the internet according to Lycos days following the premiere. The July 10 episode had a total of 8.3 million viewers, slightly higher than the premiere episode 's ratings. The first eviction of the season, which featured both Sheryl 's eviction and the expulsion of Justin, garnered 9.2 million viewers; the episode was the most watched in its time slot. Speaking on the topic of the ratings for the series, Les Moonves stated that he felt the series was "worthwhile '' but "required diligence. '' The August 7th episode of the series had 8.9 million viewers, the second highest rated episode of the season at that point. The season finale garnered a total of 12.3 million viewers, making it the highest rated episode of the season; these numbers were noted as higher than the previous year 's finale. In July, it was reported that an estimated 14,000 viewers had subscribed to view the life feeds. It was later reported by RealPlayer that over 25,000 subscriptions had been made to the feeds. Following the season finale, it was confirmed that 56,026 viewers paid for the full season of the live feeds, while 41,814 Gold Pass members viewed the feeds. CBS reported that the numbers "exceeded (their) expectations. ''
Unlike the first season, Big Brother 2 was well received by critics and fans. A CBS executive said that the revamped series was "compelling and interesting. '' Variety said of the season "The HouseGuests of ' BB2 ' are louder, bawdier and meaner than the comparatively tame folks of the first ' Big Brother '. '' On the online success of the series, RealPlayer stated "The popularity of the (program) is a testament to the power of the Internet as a new vehicle for television networks to deliver subscription programming to viewers. '' Shapiro later stated he wished he could edit what was shown on the live feeds, feeling that the feeds took from the "suspense '' of the episode being broadcast. The second season is often noted by fans as a favorite, with numerous HouseGuests from the season coming back for future installments. Will is often regarded by fans as the greatest player to ever play the game following his appearance on the show. Shannon 's decision to use Hardy 's toothbrush to clean the toilet later became one of the more infamous moments in the series history, and is often remembered by fans. HouseGuests Bunky, Mike, Monica, and Will were all candidates to appear on Big Brother: All - Stars (2006), though only Mike and Will were selected to return. HouseGuests Hardy and Nicole both made appearances that season as well. Bunky later made an appearance on Big Brother 10 (2008) during a food competition that featured one representative from each past season. Mike was interviewed during Big Brother 11 along with three other former HouseGuests. Mike later joined the cast of Big Brother 14 (2012) initially as a mentor to new HouseGuests before becoming an official HouseGuest himself. This made Mike one of two former HouseGuests to have competed in the series three times. Will made an appearance on every season from Big Brother 15 (2013) to Big Brother 19 (2017) as the moderator at the Jury roundtable discussion for the final three.
The expulsion of Justin came with much controversy, as Justin had previously received warnings from production for intimidating behavior, threatening other housemates, and drunkenly urinating on a window. Justin 's antics led several to request he receive a penalty nomination, while Hardy debated walking due to Justin 's actions. Following the incident in which Justin held a knife to Krista 's neck, he was expelled from the house. Krista, who was drunk at the time, later claimed to have no memory of the incident, and felt that CBS had "(blown the incident) completely out of proportion. '' Despite this statement, Krista later hired attorney L. Clayton Burgess and sued CBS for "damages for negligence on the part of CBS and the producers, pain and suffering, mental anguish, medical bills, mental impairment and loss of enjoyment of life. '' Justin felt that he should not have been removed from the house for his actions, telling host Julie Chen "If there 's anyone that could perceive that as an act of violence or as a threat, then you 're an idiot. '' Other events in the house, namely Autumn and Mike engaging in arguments over which one tried to seduce the other at one point, caused a stir amongst viewers. Several of the HouseGuests came under fire for having previous arrest records. Mike "Boogie '' Malin had been arrested for filming footage of the then - unreleased film Batman & Robin (1997), receiving five misdemeanor charges. Justin had previously been arrested once for "simple assault '' and twice for "minor robberies. '' Krista had been arrested for battery after an argument with a boyfriend, though lied about this to producers prior to entering the house. Shannon and Mike came under fire for numerous slanderous remarks about Hardy, including calling him a "future rapist and child molester '' and plotting to spread a rumor that he was gay; they were not spoken to by production for these comments.
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in ta the ego state that functions more like a computer is the | Transactional analysis - wikipedia
Transactional analysis (TA) is a psychoanalytic theory and method of therapy wherein social transactions are analyzed to determine the ego state of the patient (whether parent - like, child - like, or adult - like) as a basis for understanding behavior. In transactional analysis, the patient is taught to alter the ego state as a way to solve emotional problems. The method deviates from Freudian psychoanalysis which focuses on increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas. Eric Berne developed the concept and paradigm of transactional analysis in the late 1950s.
Eric Berne presented transactional analysis to the world as a phenomenological approach supplementing Freud 's philosophical construct with observable data. His theory built on the science of Wilder Penfield and René Spitz along with the neo-psychoanalytic thought of people such as Paul Federn, Edoardo Weiss, and Erik Erikson. By moving to an interpersonal motivational theory, he placed it both in opposition to the psychoanalytic traditions of his day and within what would become the psychoanalytic traditions of the future. From Berne, transactional analysts have inherited a determination to create an accessible and user - friendly system, an understanding of script or life - plan, ego states, transactions, and a theory of groups.
Berne 's theory was based on the ideas of Freud but was distinctly different. Freudian psychotherapists focused on patient 's personalities. Berne believed that insight could be better discovered by analyzing patients ' social transactions. Berne mapped interpersonal relationships to three ego - states of the individuals involved: the Parent, Adult, and Child state. He then investigated communications between individuals based on the current state of each. He called these interpersonal interactions transactions and used the label games to refer to certain patterns of transactions which popped up repeatedly in everyday life.
The origins of transactional analysis can be traced to the first five of Berne 's six articles on intuition, which he began writing in 1949. Even at this early juncture and while still working to become a psychoanalyst, his writings challenged Freudian concepts of the unconscious.
In 1956, after 15 years of psychoanalytic training, Berne was refused admission to the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute as a fully - fledged psychoanalyst. He interpreted the request for several more years of training as a rejection and decided to walk away from psychoanalysis. Before the end of the year, he had written two seminal papers, both published in 1957.
A few months later, he wrote a third article, titled "Transactional Analysis: A New and Effective Method of Group Therapy '', which was presented by invitation at the 1957 Western Regional Meeting of the American Group Psychotherapy Association of Los Angeles. With the publication of this paper in the 1958 issue of the American Journal of Psychotherapy, Berne 's new method of diagnosis and treatment, transactional analysis, became a permanent part of the psychotherapeutic literature. In addition to restating his concepts of ego states and structural analysis, the 1958 paper added the important new features of transactional analysis proper (i.e. the analysis of transactions), games, and scripts.
His seminar group from the 1950s developed the term transactional analysis (TA) to describe therapies based on his work. By 1964, this expanded into the International Transactional Analysis Association. While still largely ignored by the psychoanalytic community, many therapists have put his ideas in practice.
In the early 1960s, he published both technical and popular accounts of his conclusions. His first full - length book on TA was published in 1961, titled Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy. Structures and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups (1963) examined the same analysis in a broader context than one - on - one interaction.
TA is not only post-Freudian, but, according to its founder 's wishes, consciously extra-Freudian. That is to say that, while it has its roots in psychoanalysis, since Berne was a psychoanalytically - trained psychiatrist, it was designed as a dissenting branch of psychoanalysis in that it put its emphasis on transactional rather than "psycho - '' analysis.
With its focus on transactions, TA shifted the attention from internal psychological dynamics to the dynamics contained in people 's interactions. Rather than believing that increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas was the therapeutic path, TA concentrated on the content of people 's interactions with each other. Changing these interactions was TA 's path to solving emotional problems.
TA also differs from Freudian analysis in explaining that an individual 's final emotional state is the result of inner dialogue between different parts of the psyche, as opposed to the Freudian hypothesis that imagery is the overriding determinant of inner emotional state. (For example, depression may be due to ongoing critical verbal messages from the inner Parent to the inner Child.) Berne believed that it is relatively easy to identify these inner dialogues and that the ability to do so is parentally suppressed in early childhood.
In addition, Berne believed in making a commitment to "curing '' his patients rather than just understanding them. To that end he introduced one of the most important aspects of TA: the contract -- an agreement entered into by both client and therapist to pursue specific changes that the client desires.
Revising Freud 's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego, and super-ego, Berne postulated in addition three "ego states '' -- the Parent, Adult, and Child states -- which were largely shaped through childhood experiences. These three are all part of Freud 's ego; none represent the id or the superego.
Unhealthy childhood experiences can lead to these being pathologically fixated in the Child and Parent ego states, bringing discomfort to an individual and / or others in a variety of forms, including many types of mental illness.
Berne considered how individuals interact with one another, and how the ego states affect each set of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions were considered to be signs of ego state problems. Analyzing these transactions according to the person 's individual developmental history would enable the person to "get better ''. Berne thought that virtually everyone has something problematic about their ego states and that negative behaviour would not be addressed by "treating '' only the problematic individual.
Berne identified a typology of common counterproductive social interactions, identifying these as "games ''.
Berne presented his theories in two popular books on transactional analysis: Games People Play (1964) and What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1975). I 'm OK, You 're OK (1969), written by Berne 's long - time friend Thomas Anthony Harris, is probably the most popular TA book.
By the 1970s, because of TA 's non-technical and non-threatening jargon and model of the human psyche, many of its terms and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individual approaches to psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for groups of patients, or marital / family counselees, where interpersonal (rather than intrapersonal) disturbances were the focus of treatment.
TA 's popularity in the U.S. waned in the 1970s. The more dedicated TA purists banded together in 1964 with Berne to form a research and professional accrediting body, the International Transactional Analysis Association, or ITAA.
Within the framework of transactional analysis, more recent transactional analysts have developed different and overlapping theories of transactional analysis: cognitive, behavioural, relational, redecision, integrative, constructivist, narrative, body - work, positive psychological, personality adaptational, self - reparenting, psychodynamic and neuroconstructivist.
Some transactional analysts highlight the many things they have in common with cognitive behavioral therapy: the use of contracts with clear goals, the attention to cognitive distortions (called "adult decontamination '' or "child deconfusion ''), the focus on the client 's conscious attitudes and behaviours and the use of "strokes ''.
Cognitive - based transactional analysts use ego state identification to identify communication distortions and teach different functional options in the dynamics of communication. Some make additional contracts for more profound work involving life plans or scripts or with unconscious processes, including those which manifest in the client - therapist relationship as transference and countertransference, and define themselves as psychodynamic or relational transactional analysts. Some highlight the study and promotion of subjective well - being and optimal human functioning rather than pathology and so identify with positive psychology. Some are increasingly influenced by current research in attachment, mother - infant interaction and by the implications of interpersonal neurobiology and non-linear dynamic systems.
Transactional analysis integrates the theories of psychology and psychotherapy because it has elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive ideas.
According to the International Transactional Analysis Association, TA ' is a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change '.
Philosophy
Freedom from historical maladaptations embedded in the childhood script is required in order to become free of inappropriate, inauthentic and displaced emotions which are not a fair and honest reflection of here - and - now life (such as echoes of childhood suffering, pity - me and other mind games, compulsive behaviour and repetitive dysfunctional life patterns). The aim of change under TA is to move toward autonomy (freedom from childhood script), spontaneity, intimacy, problem solving as opposed to avoidance or passivity, cure as an ideal rather than merely making progress and learning new choices.
Many of the core TA models and concepts can be categorised into
At any given time, a person experiences and manifests his or her personality through a mixture of behaviours, thoughts, and feelings. Typically, according to TA, there are three ego - states that people consistently use:
Berne differentiated his Parent, Adult, and Child ego states from actual adults, parents, and children, by using capital letters when describing them. These ego states may or may not represent the relationships that they act out. For example, in the workplace, an adult supervisor may take on the Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though he were a Child. Or a child, using the Parent ego - state, could scold her actual parent as though the parent were a Child.
Within each of these ego states are subdivisions. Thus Parental figures are often either more nurturing (permission - giving, security - giving) or more criticising (comparing to family traditions and ideals in generally negative ways); Childhood behaviours are either more natural (free) or more adapted to others. These subdivisions categorize individuals ' patterns of behaviour, feelings, and ways of thinking, which can be functional (beneficial or positive) or dysfunctional / counterproductive (negative).
Berne states that there are four types of diagnosis of ego states. They are: "behavioural '' diagnosis, "social '' diagnosis, "historical '' diagnosis, and "phenomenological '' diagnosis. A complete diagnosis would include all four types. It has subsequently been demonstrated that there is a fifth type of diagnosis, namely "contextual '', because the same behaviour will be diagnosed differently according to the context of the behaviour.
Ego states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud 's ego, superego, and id, although there are obvious parallels: Superego / Parent; Ego / Adult; Id / Child. Ego states are consistent for each person, and (argue TA practitioners) are more observable than the components of Freud 's model. In other words, the ego state from which someone is communicating is evident in his or her behaviour, manner and expression.
Emotional blackmail is a term coined by psychotherapist Susan Forward, about controlling people in relationships and the theory that fear, obligation, and guilt (FOG) are the transactional dynamics at play between the controller and the person being controlled. Understanding these dynamics are useful to anyone trying to extricate from the controlling behavior of another person, and deal with their own compulsions to do things that are uncomfortable, undesirable, burdensome, or self - sacrificing for others.
Forward and Frazier identify four blackmail types each with their own mental manipulation style:
There are different levels of demands -- demands that are of little consequence, demands that involve important issues or personal integrity, demands that affect major life decisions, and / or demands that are dangerous or illegal.
Thomas Harris 's successful popular work from the late 1960s, I 'm OK, You 're OK is largely based on transactional analysis. A fundamental divergence, however, between Harris and Berne is that Berne postulates that everyone starts life in the "I 'm OK '' position, whereas Harris believes that life starts out "I 'm not OK, you 're OK ''.
New Age author James Redfield has acknowledged Harris and Berne as important influences in his best - seller The Celestine Prophecy (1993). The protagonists in the novel survive by striving (and succeeding) in escaping from "control dramas '' that resemble the games of TA.
The second episode of the third season in the 4th generation of the My Little Pony series is called "Games Ponies Play '' as a homage to this work.
Singer / songwriter Warren Zevon mentions transactional analysis in his 1980 song "Gorilla, You 're a Desperado '' from the album Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School.
Singer - songwriter Joe South 's 1968 song, "Games People Play '', was based directly on transactional - analytic concepts and Berne 's book of the same name.
TA makes an appearance in Antonio Campos ' 2016 biographical drama Christine, a film covering the events that led TV journalist Christine Chubbuck to commit suicide on TV. She is brought to a transactional analysis therapy session by a colleague, where they introduce her to the "Yes, But... '' technique.
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what did paleolithic and neolithic not have in common | Paleolithic - wikipedia
The Paleolithic (or "Palaeolithic '') / ˌpæliːəˈlɪθɪk / age is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools and covers roughly 95 % of human technological prehistory. It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools, probably by Homo habilis initially, 2.6 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BP.
The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic. The date of the Paleolithic -- Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years.
During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging wild animals. The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers; however, due to their nature, these have not been preserved to any great degree.
About 50,000 years ago, there was a marked increase in the diversity of artifacts. In Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. Archaeologists classify artifacts of the last 50,000 years into many different categories, such as projectile points, engraving tools, knife blades, and drilling and piercing tools.
Humankind gradually evolved from early members of the genus Homo -- such as Homo habilis, who used simple stone tools -- into fully anatomically and behaviorally modern humans by the Upper Paleolithic. During the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic, humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.
By c. 50,000 -- c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61 ° N latitude in Europe. By c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia and quickly expanded throughout the Americas.
The term "Palaeolithic '' was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "old ''; and λίθος, lithos, "stone '', meaning "old age of the stone '' or "Old Stone Age ''.
The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time, which lasted from 2.6 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies.
During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km (160 mi) from their present locations to positions only 70 km (43 mi) from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, bringing a nearly complete end to South America 's distinctive marsupial fauna. The formation of the isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, because warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off, and the cold Arctic and Antarctic waters lowered temperatures in the now - isolated Atlantic Ocean.
Most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africa 's collision with Asia created the Mediterranean, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. During the Pleistocene, the modern continents were essentially at their present positions; the tectonic plates on which they sit have probably moved at most 100 km (62 mi) from each other since the beginning of the period.
Climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. Ice sheets grew on Antarctica. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice - rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Ocean beds. Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas. The Pleistocene climate was characterized by repeated glacial cycles during which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. Four major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor intervening events. A major event is a general glacial excursion, termed a "glacial ''. Glacials are separated by "interglacials ''. During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial ''; times between stadials are "interstadials ''. Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1,500 -- 3,000 m (4,900 -- 9,800 ft) deep, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 100 m (330 ft) or more over the entire surface of the Earth. During interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions.
The effects of glaciation were global. Antarctica was ice - bound throughout the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap. There were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The now decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Ruwenzori Range in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one. The Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest; the Laurentide covered the east. The Fenno - Scandian ice sheet covered northern Europe, including Great Britain; the Alpine ice sheet covered the Alps. Scattered domes stretched across Siberia and the Arctic shelf. The northern seas were frozen. During the late Upper Paleolithic (Latest Pleistocene) c. 18,000 BP, the Beringia land bridge between Asia and North America was blocked by ice, which may have prevented early Paleo - Indians such as the Clovis culture from directly crossing Beringia to reach the Americas.
According to Mark Lynas (through collected data), the Pleistocene 's overall climate could be characterized as a continuous El Niño with trade winds in the south Pacific weakening or heading east, warm air rising near Peru, warm water spreading from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, and other El Niño markers.
The Paleolithic is often held to finish at the end of the ice age (the end of the Pleistocene epoch), and Earth 's climate became warmer. This may have caused or contributed to the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna, although it is also possible that the late Pleistocene extinctions were (at least in part) caused by other factors such as disease and overhunting by humans. New research suggests that the extinction of the woolly mammoth may have been caused by the combined effect of climatic change and human hunting. Scientists suggest that climate change during the end of the Pleistocene caused the mammoths ' habitat to shrink in size, resulting in a drop in population. The small populations were then hunted out by Paleolithic humans. The global warming that occurred during the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene may have made it easier for humans to reach mammoth habitats that were previously frozen and inaccessible. Small populations of wooly mammoths survived on isolated Arctic islands, Saint Paul Island and Wrangel Island, until c. 3700 BCE and c. 1700 BCE respectively. The Wrangel Island population became extinct around the same time the island was settled by prehistoric humans. There is no evidence of prehistoric human presence on Saint Paul island (though early human settlements dating as far back as 6500 BCE were found on the nearby Aleutian Islands).
Nearly all of our knowledge of Paleolithic human culture and way of life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunter - gatherer cultures such as the! Kung San who live similarly to their Paleolithic predecessors. The economy of a typical Paleolithic society was a hunter - gatherer economy. Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters.
Human population density was very low, around only one person per square mile. This was most likely due to low body fat, infanticide, women regularly engaging in intense endurance exercise, late weaning of infants, and a nomadic lifestyle. Like contemporary hunter - gatherers, Paleolithic humans enjoyed an abundance of leisure time unparalleled in both Neolithic farming societies and modern industrial societies. At the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic, humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and jewellery and began to engage in religious behavior such as burial and ritual.
At the beginning of the Paleolithic, hominins were found primarily in eastern Africa, east of the Great Rift Valley. Most known hominin fossils dating earlier than one million years before present are found in this area, particularly in Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia.
By c. 2,000,000 -- c. 1,500,000 BP, groups of hominins began leaving Africa and settling southern Europe and Asia. Southern Caucasus was occupied by c. 1,700,000 BP, and northern China was reached by c. 1,660,000 BP. By the end of the Lower Paleolithic, members of the hominin family were living in what is now China, western Indonesia, and, in Europe, around the Mediterranean and as far north as England, southern Germany, and Bulgaria. Their further northward expansion may have been limited by the lack of control of fire: studies of cave settlements in Europe indicate no regular use of fire prior to c. 400,000 -- c. 300,000 BP.
East Asian fossils from this period are typically placed in the genus Homo erectus. Very little fossil evidence is available at known Lower Paleolithic sites in Europe, but it is believed that hominins who inhabited these sites were likewise Homo erectus. There is no evidence of hominins in America, Australia, or almost anywhere in Oceania during this time period.
Fates of these early colonists, and their relationships to modern humans, are still subject to debate. According to current archaeological and genetic models, there were at least two notable expansion events subsequent to peopling of Eurasia c. 2,000,000 -- c. 1,500,000 BP. Around 500,000 BP a group of early humans, frequently called Homo heidelbergensis, came to Europe from Africa and eventually evolved into Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals). In the Middle Paleolithic, Neanderthals were present in the region now occupied by Poland.
Both Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis became extinct by the end of the Paleolithic. Descended from Homo Sapiens, the anatomically modern Homo sapiens sapiens emerged in eastern Africa c. 200,000 BP, left Africa around 50,000 BP, and expanded throughout the planet. Multiple hominid groups coexisted for some time in certain locations. Homo neanderthalensis were still found in parts of Eurasia c. 30,000 BP years, and engaged in an unknown degree of interbreeding with Homo sapiens sapiens. DNA studies also suggest an unknown degree of interbreeding between Homo sapiens sapiens and Homo sapiens denisova.
Hominin fossils not belonging either to Homo neanderthalensis or to Homo sapiens species, found in the Altai Mountains and Indonesia, were radiocarbon dated to c. 30,000 -- c. 40,000 BP and c. 17,000 BP respectively.
For the duration of the Paleolithic, human populations remained low, especially outside the equatorial region. The entire population of Europe between 16,000 and 11,000 BP likely averaged some 30,000 individuals, and between 40,000 and 16,000 BP, it was even lower at 4,000 -- 6,000 individuals.
Paleolithic humans made tools of stone, bone, and wood. The early paleolithic hominins, Australopithecus, were the first users of stone tools. Excavations in Gona, Ethiopia have produced thousands of artifacts, and through radioisotopic dating and magnetostratigraphy, the sites can be firmly dated to 2.6 million years ago. Evidence shows these early hominins intentionally selected raw materials with good flaking qualities and chose appropriate sized stones for their needs to produce sharp - edged tools for cutting.
The earliest Paleolithic stone tool industry, the Oldowan, began around 2.6 million years ago. It contained tools such as choppers, burins, and stitching awls. It was completely replaced around 250,000 years ago by the more complex Acheulean industry, which was first conceived by Homo ergaster around 1.8 -- 1.65 million years ago. The Acheulean implements completely vanish from the archaeological record around 100,000 years ago and were replaced by more complex Middle Paleolithic tool kits such as the Mousterian and the Aterian industries.
Lower Paleolithic humans used a variety of stone tools, including hand axes and choppers. Although they appear to have used hand axes often, there is disagreement about their use. Interpretations range from cutting and chopping tools, to digging implements, to flaking cores, to the use in traps, and as a purely ritual significance, perhaps in courting behavior. William H. Calvin has suggested that some hand axes could have served as "killer Frisbees '' meant to be thrown at a herd of animals at a waterhole so as to stun one of them. There are no indications of hafting, and some artifacts are far too large for that. Thus, a thrown hand axe would not usually have penetrated deeply enough to cause very serious injuries. Nevertheless, it could have been an effective weapon for defense against predators. Choppers and scrapers were likely used for skinning and butchering scavenged animals and sharp - ended sticks were often obtained for digging up edible roots. Presumably, early humans used wooden spears as early as 5 million years ago to hunt small animals, much as their relatives, chimpanzees, have been observed to do in Senegal, Africa. Lower Paleolithic humans constructed shelters, such as the possible wood hut at Terra Amata.
Fire was used by the Lower Paleolithic hominins Homo erectus and Homo ergaster as early as 300,000 to 1.5 million years ago and possibly even earlier by the early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) hominin Homo habilis and / or by robust Australopithecines such as Paranthropus. However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Stone Age and Middle Paleolithic. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators. Early hominins may have begun to cook their food as early as the Lower Paleolithic (c. 1.9 million years ago) or at the latest in the early Middle Paleolithic (c. 250,000 years ago). Some scientists have hypothesized that hominins began cooking food to defrost frozen meat, which would help ensure their survival in cold regions.
The Lower Paleolithic Homo erectus possibly invented rafts (c. 840,000 -- c. 800,000 BP) to travel over large bodies of water, which may have allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach the island of Flores and evolve into the small hominin Homo floresiensis. However, this hypothesis is disputed within the anthropological community. The possible use of rafts during the Lower Paleolithic may indicate that Lower Paleolithic hominins such as Homo erectus were more advanced than previously believed, and may have even spoken an early form of modern language. Supplementary evidence from Neanderthal and modern human sites located around the Mediterranean Sea, such as Coa de sa Multa (c. 300,000 BP), has also indicated that both Middle and Upper Paleolithic humans used rafts to travel over large bodies of water (i.e. the Mediterranean Sea) for the purpose of colonizing other bodies of land.
By around 200,000 BP, Middle Paleolithic stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool making technique known as the prepared - core technique, that was more elaborate than previous Acheulean techniques. This technique increased efficiency by allowing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle Paleolithic humans to create stone tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. In addition to improving tool making methods, the Middle Paleolithic also saw an improvement of the tools themselves that allowed access to a wider variety and amount of food sources. For example, microliths or small stone tools or points were invented around 70,000 -- 65,000 BP and were essential to the invention of bows and spear throwers in the following Upper Paleolithic period.
Harpoons were invented and used for the first time during the late Middle Paleolithic (c. 90,000 BP); the invention of these devices brought fish into the human diets, which provided a hedge against starvation and a more abundant food supply. Thanks to their technology and their advanced social structures, Paleolithic groups such as the Neanderthals -- who had a Middle Paleolithic level of technology -- appear to have hunted large game just as well as Upper Paleolithic modern humans. and the Neanderthals in particular may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons. Nonetheless, Neanderthal use of projectile weapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never) and the Neanderthals hunted large game animals mostly by ambushing them and attacking them with mêlée weapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance with projectile weapons.
During the Upper Paleolithic, further inventions were made, such as the net c. 22,000 or c. 29,000 BP) bolas, the spear thrower (c. 30,000 BP), the bow and arrow (c. 25,000 or c. 30,000 BP) and the oldest example of ceramic art, the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (c. 29,000 -- c. 25,000 BCE). Early dogs were domesticated, sometime between 30,000 and 14,000 BP, presumably to aid in hunting. However, the earliest instances of successful domestication of dogs may be much more ancient than this. Evidence from canine DNA collected by Robert K. Wayne suggests that dogs may have been first domesticated in the late Middle Paleolithic around 100,000 BP or perhaps even earlier.
Archaeological evidence from the Dordogne region of France demonstrates that members of the European early Upper Paleolithic culture known as the Aurignacian used calendars (c. 30,000 BP). This was a lunar calendar that was used to document the phases of the moon. Genuine solar calendars did not appear until the following Neolithic period. Upper Paleolithic cultures were probably able to time the migration of game animals such as wild horses and deer. This ability allowed humans to become efficient hunters and to exploit a wide variety of game animals. Recent research indicates that the Neanderthals timed their hunts and the migrations of game animals long before the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic.
The social organization of the earliest Paleolithic (Lower Paleolithic) societies remains largely unknown to scientists, though Lower Paleolithic hominins such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus are likely to have had more complex social structures than chimpanzee societies. Late Oldowan / Early Acheulean humans such as Homo ergaster / Homo erectus may have been the first people to invent central campsites or home bases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunter - gatherers, possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago; however, the earliest solid evidence for the existence of home bases or central campsites (hearths and shelters) among humans only dates back to 500,000 years ago.
Similarly, scientists disagree whether Lower Paleolithic humans were largely monogamous or polygynous. In particular, the Provisional model suggests that bipedalism arose in pre-Paleolithic australopithecine societies as an adaptation to monogamous lifestyles; however, other researchers note that sexual dimorphism is more pronounced in Lower Paleolithic humans such as Homo erectus than in modern humans, who are less polygynous than other primates, which suggests that Lower Paleolithic humans had a largely polygynous lifestyle, because species that have the most pronounced sexual dimorphism tend more likely to be polygynous.
Human societies from the Paleolithic to the early Neolithic farming tribes lived without states and organized governments. For most of the Lower Paleolithic, human societies were possibly more hierarchical than their Middle and Upper Paleolithic descendants, and probably were not grouped into bands, though during the end of the Lower Paleolithic, the latest populations of the hominin Homo erectus may have begun living in small - scale (possibly egalitarian) bands similar to both Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies and modern hunter - gatherers.
Middle Paleolithic societies, unlike Lower Paleolithic and early Neolithic ones, consisted of bands that ranged from 20 -- 30 or 25 -- 100 members and were usually nomadic. These bands were formed by several families. Bands sometimes joined together into larger "macrobands '' for activities such as acquiring mates and celebrations or where resources were abundant. By the end of the Paleolithic era (c. 10,000 BP), people began to settle down into permanent locations, and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations. Much evidence exists that humans took part in long - distance trade between bands for rare commodities (such as ochre, which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual) and raw materials, as early as 120,000 years ago in Middle Paleolithic. Inter-band trade may have appeared during the Middle Paleolithic because trade between bands would have helped ensure their survival by allowing them to exchange resources and commodities such as raw materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e. famine, drought). Like in modern hunter - gatherer societies, individuals in Paleolithic societies may have been subordinate to the band as a whole. Both Neanderthals and modern humans took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic.
Some sources claim that most Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies were possibly fundamentally egalitarian and may have rarely or never engaged in organized violence between groups (i.e. war). Some Upper Paleolithic societies in resource - rich environments (such as societies in Sungir, in what is now Russia) may have had more complex and hierarchical organization (such as tribes with a pronounced hierarchy and a somewhat formal division of labor) and may have engaged in endemic warfare. Some argue that there was no formal leadership during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Like contemporary egalitarian hunter - gatherers such as the Mbuti pygmies, societies may have made decisions by communal consensus decision making rather than by appointing permanent rulers such as chiefs and monarchs. Nor was there a formal division of labor during the Paleolithic. Each member of the group was skilled at all tasks essential to survival, regardless of individual abilities. Theories to explain the apparent egalitarianism have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism. Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have evolved in Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute resources such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply. Raymond C. Kelly speculates that the relative peacefulness of Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies resulted from a low population density, cooperative relationships between groups such as reciprocal exchange of commodities and collaboration on hunting expeditions, and because the invention of projectile weapons such as throwing spears provided less incentive for war, because they increased the damage done to the attacker and decreased the relative amount of territory attackers could gain. However, other sources claim that most Paleolithic groups may have been larger, more complex, sedentary and warlike than most contemporary hunter - gatherer societies, due to occupying more resource - abundant areas than most modern hunter - gatherers who have been pushed into more marginal habitats by agricultural societies.
Anthropologists have typically assumed that in Paleolithic societies, women were responsible for gathering wild plants and firewood, and men were responsible for hunting and scavenging dead animals. However, analogies to existent hunter - gatherer societies such as the Hadza people and the Aboriginal Austrialians suggest that the sexual division of labor in the Paleolithic was relatively flexible. Men may have participated in gathering plants, firewood and insects, and women may have procured small game animals for consumption and assisted men in driving herds of large game animals (such as woolly mammoths and deer) off cliffs. Additionally, recent research by anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from the University of Arizona is argued to support that this division of labor did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic and was invented relatively recently in human pre-history. Sexual division of labor may have been developed to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently. Possibly there was approximate parity between men and women during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, and that period may have been the most gender - equal time in human history. Archaeological evidence from art and funerary rituals indicates that a number of individual women enjoyed seemingly high status in their communities, and it is likely that both sexes participated in decision making. The earliest known Paleolithic shaman (c. 30,000 BP) was female. Jared Diamond suggests that the status of women declined with the adoption of agriculture because women in farming societies typically have more pregnancies and are expected to do more demanding work than women in hunter - gatherer societies. Like most contemporary hunter - gatherer societies, Paleolithic and the Mesolithic groups probably followed mostly matrilineal and ambilineal descent patterns; patrilineal descent patterns were probably rarer than in the following Neolithic period.
Early examples of artistic expression, such as the Venus of Tan - Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia, may have been produced by Acheulean tool users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. However, the earliest undisputed evidence of art during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic / Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave -- South Africa -- in the form of bracelets, beads, rock art, and ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual. Undisputed evidence of art only becomes common in the following Upper Paleolithic period.
Lower Paleolithic Acheulean tool users, according to Robert G. Bednarik, began to engage in symbolic behavior such as art around 850,000 BP. They decorated themselves with beads and collected exotic stones for aesthetic, rather than utilitarian qualities. According to him, traces of the pigment ochre from late Lower Paleolithic Acheulean archaeological sites suggests that Acheulean societies, like later Upper Paleolithic societies, collected and used ochre to create rock art. Nevertheless, it is also possible that the ochre traces found at Lower Paleolithic sites is naturally occurring.
Vincent W. Fallio interprets Lower and Middle Paleolithic marking on rocks at sites such as Bilzingsleben (such as zigzagging lines) as accounts or representations of altered states of consciousness though some other scholars interpret them as either simple doodling or as the result of natural processes.
Upper Paleolithic humans produced works of art such as cave paintings, Venus figurines, animal carvings, and rock paintings. Upper Paleolithic art can be divided into two broad categories: figurative art such as cave paintings that clearly depicts animals (or more rarely humans); and nonfigurative, which consists of shapes and symbols. Cave paintings have been interpreted in a number of ways by modern archaeologists. The earliest explanation, by the prehistorian Abbe Breuil, interpreted the paintings as a form of magic designed to ensure a successful hunt. However, this hypothesis fails to explain the existence of animals such as saber - toothed cats and lions, which were not hunted for food, and the existence of half - human, half - animal beings in cave paintings. The anthropologist David Lewis - Williams has suggested that Paleolithic cave paintings were indications of shamanistic practices, because the paintings of half - human, half - animal paintings and the remoteness of the caves are reminiscent of modern hunter - gatherer shamanistic practices. Symbol - like images are more common in Paleolithic cave paintings than are depictions of animals or humans, and unique symbolic patterns might have been trademarks that represent different Upper Paleolithic ethnic groups. Venus figurines have evoked similar controversy. Archaeologists and anthropologists have described the figurines as representations of goddesses, pornographic imagery, apotropaic amulets used for sympathetic magic, and even as self - portraits of women themselves.
R. Dale Guthrie has studied not only the most artistic and publicized paintings, but also a variety of lower - quality art and figurines, and he identifies a wide range of skill and ages among the artists. He also points out that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (powerful beasts, risky hunting scenes and the over-sexual representation of women) are to be expected in the fantasies of adolescent males during the Upper Paleolithic.
The "Venus '' figurines have been theorized, not universally, as representing a mother goddess; the abundance of such female imagery has inspired the theory that Paleolithic (and later Neolithic) societies centered their religion and societies around women. Adherents of the theory include archaeologist Marija Gimbutas and feminist scholar Merlin Stone, the author of the 1976 book When God Was a Woman. Other explanations for the purpose of the figurines have been proposed, such as Catherine McCoid and LeRoy McDermott 's hypothesis that they were self - portraits of woman artists and R. Dale Gutrie 's hypothesis that served as "stone age pornography ''.
The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown. The earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments other than the human voice and / or natural objects such as rocks. This early music would not have left an archaeological footprint. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily chores, for example, cracking open nuts with stones. Maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominin mating strategy. Bird and other animal species produce music such as calls to attract mates. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but nonetheless provides a possible alternative. Another explanation is that humans began to make music simply because it pleased them.
Upper Paleolithic (and possibly Middle Paleolithic) humans used flute - like bone pipes as musical instruments, and music may have played a large role in the religious lives of Upper Paleolithic hunter - gatherers. As with modern hunter - gatherer societies, music may have been used in ritual or to help induce trances. In particular, it appears that animal skin drums may have been used in religious events by Upper Paleolithic shamans, as shown by the remains of drum - like instruments from some Upper Paleolithic graves of shamans and the ethnographic record of contemporary hunter - gatherer shamanic and ritual practices.
According to James B. Harrod humankind first developed religious and spiritual beliefs during the Middle Paleolithic or Upper Paleolithic. Controversial scholars of prehistoric religion and anthropology, James Harrod and Vincent W. Fallio, have recently proposed that religion and spirituality (and art) may have first arisen in Pre-Paleolithic chimpanzees or Early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) societies. According to Fallio, the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans experienced altered states of consciousness and partook in ritual, and ritual was used in their societies to strengthen social bonding and group cohesion.
Middle Paleolithic humans ' use of burials at sites such as Krapina, Croatia (c. 130,000 BP) and Qafzeh, Israel (c. 100,000 BP) have led some anthropologists and archaeologists, such as Philip Lieberman, to believe that Middle Paleolithic humans may have possessed a belief in an afterlife and a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life ''. Cut marks on Neanderthal bones from various sites, such as Combe - Grenal and Abri Moula in France, suggest that the Neanderthals -- like some contemporary human cultures -- may have practiced ritual defleshing for (presumably) religious reasons. According to recent archaeological findings from Homo heidelbergensis sites in Atapuerca, humans may have begun burying their dead much earlier, during the late Lower Paleolithic; but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community.
Likewise, some scientists have proposed that Middle Paleolithic societies such as Neanderthal societies may also have practiced the earliest form of totemism or animal worship, in addition to their (presumably religious) burial of the dead. In particular, Emil Bächler suggested (based on archaeological evidence from Middle Paleolithic caves) that a bear cult was widespread among Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals. A claim that evidence was found for Middle Paleolithic animal worship c. 70,000 BCE originates from the Tsodilo Hills in the African Kalahari desert has been denied by the original investigators of the site. Animal cults in the following Upper Paleolithic period, such as the bear cult, may have had their origins in these hypothetical Middle Paleolithic animal cults. Animal worship during the Upper Paleolithic was intertwined with hunting rites. For instance, archaeological evidence from art and bear remains reveals that the bear cult apparently involved a type of sacrificial bear ceremonialism, in which a bear was sliced with arrows, finished off by a blast in the lungs, and ritualistically worshipped near a clay bear statue covered by a bear fur with the skull and the body of the bear buried separately. Barbara Ehrenreich controversially theorizes that the sacrificial hunting rites of the Upper Paleolithic (and by extension Paleolithic cooperative big - game hunting) gave rise to war or warlike raiding during the following Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic or late Upper Paleolithic period.
The existence of anthropomorphic images and half - human, half - animal images in the Upper Paleolithic period may further indicate that Upper Paleolithic humans were the first people to believe in a pantheon of gods or supernatural beings, though such images may instead indicate shamanistic practices similar to those of contemporary tribal societies. The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic. However, during the early Upper Paleolithic it was probably more common for all members of the band to participate equally and fully in religious ceremonies, in contrast to the religious traditions of later periods when religious authorities and part - time ritual specialists such as shamans, priests and medicine men were relatively common and integral to religious life. Additionally, it is also possible that Upper Paleolithic religions, like contemporary and historical animistic and polytheistic religions, believed in the existence of a single creator deity in addition to other supernatural beings such as animistic spirits.
Vincent W. Fallio writes that ancestor cults first emerged in complex Upper Paleolithic societies. He argues that the elites of these societies (like the elites of many more contemporary complex hunter - gatherers such as the Tlingit) may have used special rituals and ancestor worship to solidify control over their societies, by convincing their subjects that they possess a link to the spirit world that also gives them control over the earthly realm. Secret societies may have served a similar function in these complex quasi-theocratic societies, by dividing the religious practices of these cultures into the separate spheres of folk religion and elite religion.
Religion was possibly apotropaic; specifically, it may have involved sympathetic magic. The Venus figurines, which are abundant in the Upper Paleolithic archaeological record, provide an example of possible Paleolithic sympathetic magic, as they may have been used for ensuring success in hunting and to bring about fertility of the land and women. The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have sometimes been explained as depictions of an earth goddess similar to Gaia, or as representations of a goddess who is the ruler or mother of the animals. James Harrod has described them as representative of female (and male) shamanistic spiritual transformation processes.
Paleolithic hunting and gathering people ate varying proportions of vegetables (including tubers and roots), fruit, seeds (including nuts and wild grass seeds) and insects, meat, fish, and shellfish. However, there is little direct evidence of the relative proportions of plant and animal foods. Although the term "paleolithic diet '', without references to a specific timeframe or locale, is sometimes used with an implication that most humans shared a certain diet during the entire era, that is not entirely accurate. The Paleolithic was an extended period of time, during which multiple technological advances were made, many of which had impact on human dietary structure. For example, humans probably did not possess the control of fire until the Middle Paleolithic, or tools necessary to engage in extensive fishing. On the other hand, both these technologies are generally agreed to have been widely available to humans by the end of the Paleolithic (consequently, allowing humans in some regions of the planet to rely heavily on fishing and hunting). In addition, the Paleolithic involved a substantial geographical expansion of human populations. During the Lower Paleolithic, ancestors of modern humans are thought to have been constrained to Africa east of the Great Rift Valley. During the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, humans greatly expanded their area of settlement, reaching ecosystems as diverse as New Guinea and Alaska, and adapting their diets to whatever local resources were available.
Another view is that until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were frugivores (fruit eaters) who supplemented their meals with carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and mussels, and only on rare occasions managed to kill and consume big game such as antelopes. This view is supported by studies of higher apes, particularly chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 96 % of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of humans. Chimpanzees are primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95 % plant - based, with the remaining 5 % filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals. In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.
Anthropologists have diverse opinions about the proportions of plant and animal foods consumed. Just as with still existing hunters and gatherers, there were many varied "diets '' -- in different groups -- and also varying through this vast amount of time. Some paleolithic hunter - gatherers consumed a significant amount of meat and possibly obtained most of their food from hunting, while others are shown as a primarily plant - based diet, Most, if not all, are believed to have been opportunistic omnivores. One hypothesis is that carbohydrate tubers (plant underground storage organs) may have been eaten in high amounts by pre-agricultural humans. It is thought that the Paleolithic diet included as much as 1.65 -- 1.9 kg (3.6 -- 4.2 lb) per day of fruit and vegetables. The relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of Paleolithic people often varied between regions, with more meat being necessary in colder regions (which were n't populated by anatomically modern humans until c. 30,000 -- c. 50,000 BP). It is generally agreed that many modern hunting and fishing tools, such as fish hooks, nets, bows, and poisons, were n't introduced until the Upper Paleolithic and possibly even Neolithic. The only hunting tools widely available to humans during any significant part of the Paleolithic period were hand - held spears and harpoons. There 's evidence of Paleolithic people killing and eating seals and elands as far as c. 100,000 BP. On the other hand, buffalo bones found in African caves from the same period are typically of very young or very old individuals, and there 's no evidence that pigs, elephants, or rhinos were hunted by humans at the time.
Paleolithic peoples suffered less famine and malnutrition than the Neolithic farming tribes that followed them. This was partly because Paleolithic hunter - gatherers accessed a wider variety natural foods, which allowed them a more nutritious diet and a decreased risk of famine. Many of the famines experienced by Neolithic (and some modern) farmers were caused or amplified by their dependence on a small number of crops. It is thought that wild foods can have a significantly different nutritional profile than cultivated foods. The greater amount of meat obtained by hunting big game animals in Paleolithic diets than Neolithic diets may have also allowed Paleolithic hunter - gatherers to enjoy a more nutritious diet than Neolithic agriculturalists. It has been argued that the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture resulted in an increasing focus on a limited variety of foods, with meat likely taking a back seat to plants. It is also unlikely that Paleolithic hunter - gatherers were affected by modern diseases of affluence such as type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and cerebrovascular disease, because they ate mostly lean meats and plants and frequently engaged in intense physical activity, and because the average lifespan was shorter than the age of common onset of these conditions.
Large - seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the Neolithic Revolution, as evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of Kebara Cave, in Israel. There is evidence suggesting that Paleolithic societies were gathering wild cereals for food use at least as early as 30,000 years ago. However, seeds -- such as grains and beans -- were rarely eaten and never in large quantities on a daily basis. Recent archaeological evidence also indicates that winemaking may have originated in the Paleolithic, when early humans drank the juice of naturally fermented wild grapes from animal - skin pouches. Paleolithic humans consumed animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys, and brains. Upper Paleolithic cultures appear to have had significant knowledge about plants and herbs and may have, albeit very rarely, practiced rudimentary forms of horticulture. In particular, bananas and tubers may have been cultivated as early as 25,000 BP in southeast Asia. Late Upper Paleolithic societies also appear to have occasionally practiced pastoralism and animal husbandry, presumably for dietary reasons. For instance, some European late Upper Paleolithic cultures domesticated and raised reindeer, presumably for their meat or milk, as early as 14,000 BP. Humans also probably consumed hallucinogenic plants during the Paleolithic period. The Aboriginal Australians have been consuming a variety of native animal and plant foods, called bushfood, for an estimated 60,000 years, since the Middle Paleolithic.
People during the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Neanderthals and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in Africa, began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neanderthal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and in Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens sites at Pinnacle Point, Africa around 164,000 BP. Although fishing only became common during the Upper Paleolithic, fish have been part of human diets long before the dawn of the Upper Paleolithic and have certainly been consumed by humans since at least the Middle Paleolithic. For example, the Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large 6 ft (1.8 m) - long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90,000 years ago. The invention of fishing allowed some Upper Paleolithic and later hunter - gatherer societies to become sedentary or semi-nomadic, which altered their social structures. Example societies are the Lepenski Vir as well as some contemporary hunter - gatherers, such as the Tlingit. In some instances (at least the Tlingit), they developed social stratification, slavery, and complex social structures such as chiefdoms.
Anthropologists such as Tim White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of "butchered human '' bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower / Middle Paleolithic sites. Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages. However, it may have been for religious reasons, and would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic. Nonetheless, it remains possible that Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism, and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of excarnation or predation by carnivores such as saber - toothed cats, lions, and hyenas.
A modern - day diet known as the Paleolithic diet exists, based on restricting consumption to the foods presumed to be available to anatomically modern humans prior to the advent of settled agriculture.
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when did the ss st. louis arrive in canada | MS St. Louis - wikipedia
MS St. Louis was a German ocean liner. In 1939, she set off on a voyage in which her captain, Gustav Schröder, tried to find homes for over 900 Jewish refugees from Germany. Due to countries ' immigration policies based on domestic political realities, rather than humanitarian grounds, they were denied entry to Cuba, the United States, and Canada. The refugees were finally accepted in various European countries, including Belgium, the Netherlands, the UK, and France. Historians have estimated that approximately a quarter of them died in death camps during World War II. The event was the subject of a 1974 book, Voyage of the Damned, by Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan - Witts. It was adapted for a 1976 U.S. film of the same title a 1994 opera titled St. Louis Blues by Chiel Meijering, and adapted in one third of the 2016 Alan Gratz novel for young adults, titled Refugee.
Built by the Bremer Vulkan shipyards in Bremen for HAPAG, better known in English as the Hamburg America Line, St. Louis was a diesel - powered ship (as opposed to a diesel - fired steamer) and properly referred to with the prefix MS or MV, but she is often known as SS St. Louis. The ship was named after the city of St. Louis, Missouri. (Her sistership, the MS Milwaukee, was also a diesel motor ship / motor vessel owned by the Hamburg America Line). St. Louis regularly sailed the trans - Atlantic route from Hamburg to Halifax, Nova Scotia and New York and made cruises to the Canary Islands, Madeira and Morocco. St. Louis was built for both transatlantic liner service and for leisure cruises.
St. Louis set sail from Hamburg to Cuba on May 13, 1939. The vessel under command of Captain Gustav Schröder was carrying 937 passengers, most of them Jewish refugees seeking asylum from Nazi ill - treatment of Jews in Germany (→ Kristallnacht, Racial policy of Nazi Germany). Captain Schröder was a non-Jewish German who went to great lengths to ensure dignified treatment for his passengers.
The passengers aboard St. Louis had suffered abuse in Germany, but on board, they were treated very well, at the insistence of Captain Schröder. Food served included items subject to rationing in Germany, and childcare was available while parents dined. Dances and concerts were put on, and on Friday evenings, religious services were held in the dining room. A bust of Hitler was covered by a tablecloth. Swimming lessons took place in the on - deck pool. Lothar Molton, a boy traveling with his parents, said that the passengers thought of it as "a vacation cruise to freedom ''.
The ship dropped anchor at 04: 00 on May 27 at the far end of the Havana Harbor but was denied entry to the usual docking areas. The Cuban government, headed by President Federico Laredo Brú, refused to accept the foreign refugees. Although passengers had previously purchased legal visas, they could not enter Cuba either as tourists (laws related to tourist visas had recently been changed) or as refugees seeking political asylum. On May 5, 1939, four months before World War II began, Havana abandoned its former pragmatic immigration policy and instead issued Decree 937, which "restricted entry of all foreigners except U.S. citizens requiring a bond of $500 and authorization by the Cuban secretaries of state and labor. Permits and visas issued before May 5 were invalidated retroactively. None of the passengers were aware that the Cuban government had retroactively invalidated their landing permits.
After 5 days in the harbor, only 29 passengers were allowed to disembark in Cuba. Twenty - two of them were Jews that had valid US visas; of the others, four were Spanish citizens and two were Cuban nationals, all with valid entry documents. The last was a medical evacuee who, after attempting to commit suicide, was taken to a hospital in Havana.
Telephone records show American officials Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, and Henry Morgenthau, Secretary of the Treasury had made some efforts to persuade Cuba to accept the refugees. Their actions, together with efforts of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, were not successful.
Prohibited from landing in Cuba, St. Louis and the remaining 907 refugees headed towards the United States. Captain Schröder circled off the coast of Florida, hoping for permission to enter the United States. Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, advised Roosevelt not to accept the Jews, however. Captain Schröder considered running aground along the coast to allow the refugees to escape, but, acting on Cordell Hull 's instructions, US Coast Guard vessels shadowed the ship and prevented such a move.
After St. Louis was turned away from the United States, a group of academics and clergy in Canada tried to persuade Canada 's Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King, to provide sanctuary to the ship 's passengers, as it was only two days from Halifax, Nova Scotia. But Canadian immigration official Frederick Blair, hostile to Jewish immigration, persuaded the prime minister on June 9 not to intervene. In 2000, Blair 's nephew apologized to the Jewish people for his uncle 's action.
The situation of the vessel deteriorated as Captain Schröder negotiated and schemed to find them a safe haven. At one point he formulated plans to wreck the ship on the British coast to force the passengers to be taken as refugees. He refused to return the ship to Germany until all the passengers had been given entry to some other country. US officials worked with Britain and European nations to find refuge for the travelers in Europe. The ship returned to Europe, docking at the Port of Antwerp (Belgium) on June 17, 1939, with 907 passengers.
The United Kingdom (PM: Neville Chamberlain) agreed to take 288 (32 %) of the passengers, who disembarked and traveled to the UK via other steamers. After much negotiation by Schröder, the remaining 619 passengers were allowed to disembark at Antwerp; 224 (25 %) were accepted by France, 214 (23.59 %) by Belgium, and 181 (20 %) by the Netherlands. Without any passengers, the ship returned to Hamburg. The following year, after the Nazi German invasions of Belgium, France and the Netherlands in May 1940, all the Jews in those countries were at renewed risk, including the recent refugees.
By using the survival rates for Jews in various countries, Thomas and Morgan - Witts, the authors of Voyage of the Damned, estimated that 180 of St. Louis refugees in France, 152 of those in Belgium, and 60 of those in the Netherlands survived the Holocaust. Including the passengers who landed in England, of the original 936 refugees (one man died during the voyage), roughly 709 survived the war and 227 did not.
Later research by Scott Miller and Sarah Ogilvie of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum did an actual historical trace on the fate of each passenger. They determined that 254 of those who returned to continental Europe were murdered during the Holocaust:
"Of the 620 St. Louis passengers who returned to continental Europe, we determined that eighty - seven were able to emigrate before Germany invaded western Europe on May 10, 1940. Two hundred fifty - four passengers in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands after that date died during the Holocaust. Most of these people were murdered in the killing centers of Auschwitz and Sobibór; the rest died in internment camps, in hiding or attempting to evade the Nazis. Three hundred sixty - five of the 620 passengers who returned to continental Europe survived the war. Of the 288 passengers sent to Britain, the vast majority were alive at war 's end. ''
After the war, Captain Gustav Schröder was awarded the Order of Merit by the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1993, Schröder was posthumously named as one of the Righteous among the Nations at the Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial in Israel. A display at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum tells the story of the voyage of the MS St. Louis. The Hamburg Museum features a display and a video about St. Louis in its exhibits about the history of shipping in the city. In 2009, a special exhibit at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax, Nova Scotia entitled "Ship of Fate '' explored the Canadian connection to the tragic voyage. The display is now a traveling exhibit in Canada.
In 2011 a memorial monument called the Wheel of Conscience, was produced by the Canadian Jewish Congress, designed by Daniel Libeskind with graphic design by David Berman and Trevor Johnston. The memorial is a polished stainless steel wheel. Symbolizing the policies that turned away more than 900 Jewish refugees, the wheel incorporates four inter-meshing gears each showing a word to represent factors of exclusion: antisemitism, xenophobia, racism, and hatred. The back of the memorial is inscribed with the passenger list. It was first exhibited in 2011 at the Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21, Canada 's national immigration museum in Halifax. After a display period, the sculpture was shipped to its fabricators, Soheil Mosun Limited, in Toronto for repair and refurbishment.
In 2012, the United States Department of State publicly apologized in a ceremony attended by Deputy Secretary Bill Burns and 14 survivors of the incident. The survivors presented a proclamation of gratitude to various European countries for accepting some of the ship 's passengers. A signed copy of Senate Resolution 111, recognizing June 6, 2009 as the 70th anniversary of the incident, was delivered to the Department of State Archives.
In January 2017, software engineer Russel Neiss and Rabbi Charlie Schwartz set up a Twitter account which tweeted the names of each passenger who was not allowed to disembark and subsequently killed. The format of each tweet included the passenger 's name, the sentence "The US turned me away at the border in 1939 '' and the location where each was killed.
In May 2018, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced the Government of Canada would offer a formal apology in the country 's House of Commons for its role in the fate of the ship 's passengers.
The MS St. Louis was adapted as a German naval accommodation ship from 1940 to 1944. She was heavily damaged by the Allied bombings at Kiel on August 30, 1944, but was repaired and used as a hotel ship in Hamburg in 1946. She was later sold and was scrapped in 1952.
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how many episodes of ouran host club are there | List of Ouran High school Host Club episodes - wikipedia
Ouran High School Host Club is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title by Bisco Hatori. It began broadcasting on April 4, 2006 on Nippon Television, and ended on September 26, 2006. The series was directed by Takuya Igarashi and written by Yōji Enokido (Revolutionary Girl Utena, The Melody of Oblivion), while the character designer and chief animation director for the series was Kumiko Takahashi (Cardcaptor Sakura). It also features a different cast from the audio dramas, with Maaya Sakamoto starring as Haruhi Fujioka and Mamoru Miyano portraying Tamaki Suou. Ouran High School Host Club finished its run on September 26, 2006, totaling to twenty - six episodes.
The series is licensed for distribution in North America by FUNimation Entertainment, set for release across the region in summer 2008. Caitlin Glass is the ADR director of the series. FUNimation announced two cast members every Friday on their website for the series which led up to the main cast announcements at Anime Expo 2008. The first anime DVD set containing the first thirteen episodes was released on October 28, 2008 in North America; and the second volume became available on January 6, 2009 containing the last thirteen episodes.
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when was snowboarding half pipe added to the olympics | Snowboarding at the Winter Olympics - Wikipedia
Snowboarding is a sport at the Winter Olympic Games. It was first included in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Snowboarding was one of five new sports or disciplines added to the Winter Olympic program between 1992 and 2002, and was the only one not to have been a previous medal or demonstration event. In 1998, four events, two for men and two for women, were held in two specialities: the giant slalom, a downhill event similar to giant slalom skiing; and the half - pipe, in which competitors perform tricks while going from one side of a semi-circular ditch to the other. Canadian Ross Rebagliati won the men 's giant slalom and became the first athlete to win a gold medal in snowboarding. Rebagliati was briefly stripped of his medal by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after testing positive for marijuana. However, the IOC 's decision was reverted following an appeal from the Canadian Olympic Association. For the 2002 Winter Olympics, giant slalom was expanded to add head - to - head racing and was renamed parallel giant slalom. In 2006, a third event, the snowboard cross, was held for the first time. In this event, competitors race against each other down a course with jumps, beams and other obstacles. On July 11, 2011, the International Olympic Committee 's Executive Board approved the addition of Ski and Snowboard Slopestyle to the Winter Olympics roster of events, effective in 2014. The decision was announced via press conference from the IOC 's meeting in Durban, South Africa. A fifth event, parallel slalom, was added only for 2014. Big air was added for 2018.
Six athletes have won at least two medals. Shaun White of the United States is the only triple gold medalist. Philipp Schoch of Switzerland and Seth Wescott of the United States are the only double gold medalists. Karine Ruby of France and Americans Ross Powers and Danny Kass also won two medals. In the men 's half - pipe event, American snowboarders have collected six of nine possible medals, achieving a unique medal sweep in 2002. The United States won a total of 24 medals, more than any other nation. The Americans and the Swiss collected ten and seven gold medals respectively. As of the 2014 Winter Olympics, 90 medals (30 of each color) have been awarded since 1998, and have been won by snowboarders from 21 National Olympic Committees.
^ Note 1. Giant slalom in 1998; parallel giant slalom since 2002.
Updated after 2018 Winter Olympics.
Media related to Snowboarding at the Olympics at Wikimedia Commons
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an appraisal term meaning the result of a person's individual choices and preferences is the | Expectancy theory - wikipedia
Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.
Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.
"This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. ''
Victor H. Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual 's expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence.
In 1964, Victor H. Vroom developed the expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision making. This theory is relevant to the study of management.
The expectancy theory of motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over the other. This theory explains that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they believe that there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, the outcome of a favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, a reward from a performance will satisfy an important need, and / or the outcome satisfies their need enough to make the effort worthwhile. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort - performance expectancy (E > P expectancy), performance - outcome expectancy (P > O expectancy).
Expectancy theory has three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy is the belief that one 's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual 's past experience, self - confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.
Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given.
Another way that instrumental outcomes work is commissions. With commissions performance is directly correlated with outcome (how much money is made). If performance is high and many goods are sold the more money the person will make.
Factors associated with the individual 's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies:
Valence: the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one 's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome.
Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome.
The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. - 1 → 0 → + 1
- 1 = avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome + 1 = welcomes the outcome
In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it.
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions), whereas valence is rooted in an individual 's value system.
Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest result and effectiveness out of the workplace.
Victor Vroom 's expectancy theory is one such management theory focused on motivation. According to Holdford and Lovelace - Elmore (2001, p. 8), Vroom asserts, "intensity of work effort depends on the perception that an individual 's effort will result in a desired outcome ''.
In order to enhance the performance - outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort - performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance.
- Emphasizes self - interest in the alignment of rewards with employee 's wants.
- Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals
Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field.
Lori Baker - Eveleth and Robert Stone, University of Idaho in 2008 conducted an empirical study on 154 faculty members ' reactions to the use of new software. It was found that ease of system use affects both self - efficacy (self - confidence) and anticipated usefulness. These in turn influenced the decision, or anticipated decision, to use the software.
Self - efficacy and outcome expectancy impact a person 's affect and behavior separately. Self - efficacy is the belief that a person possesses the skills and abilities to successfully accomplish something.
Outcome expectancy is the belief that when a person accomplishes the task, a desired outcome is attained. Self - efficacy has a direct impact on outcome expectancy and has a larger effect than outcome expectancy.
Employees will accept technology if they believe the technology is a benefit to them. If an employee is mandated to use the technology, the employees will use it but may feel it is not useful. On the other hand, when an employee is not mandated, the employee may be influenced by these other factors (self - confidene and confidence in outcome) that it should be used.
The self - efficacy theory can be applied to predicting and perceiving an employee 's belief for computer use (Bandura, 1986; Bates & Khasawneh, 2007). This theory associates an individual 's cognitive state with effective behavioral outcomes (Staples, Hulland, & Higgins, 1998).
Other constructs of the self - efficacy theory that impact attitudes and intentions to perform are: - past experience or mastery with the task; vicarious experience performing the task; emotional or physiological arousal regarding the task; and social persuasion to perform the task.
Jere Brophy and Thomas Good provided a comprehensive model of how teacher expectations could influence children 's achievement. Their model posits that teachers ' expectations indirectly affect children 's achievement: "teacher expectations could also affect student outcomes indirectly by leading to differential teacher treatment of students that would condition student attitudes, expectations, and behavior '' (Brophy, 1983, p. 639). The model includes the following sequence. Teachers form differential expectations for students early in the school year. Based on these expectations, they behave differently toward different students, and as a result of these behaviors the students begin to understand what the teacher expects from them. If students accept the teachers ' expectations and behavior toward them then they will be more likely to act in ways that confirm the teacher 's initial expectations. This process will ultimately affect student achievement so that teachers ' initial expectancies are confirmed.
In discussing work related to this model, Brophy (1983) made several important observations about teacher expectation effects. First and foremost, he argued that most of the beliefs teachers hold about student are accurate, and so their expectations usually reflect students ' actual performance levels. As a result, Brophy contended that selffulfilling prophecy effects have relatively weak effects on student achievement, changing achievement 5 % to 10 %, although he did note that such effects usually are negative expectation effects rather than positive effects. Second, he pointed out that various situational and individual difference factors influence the extent to which teacher expectations will act as self - fulfilling prophecies. For instance, Brophy stated that expectancy effects may be larger in the early elementary grades, because teachers have more one - on - one interactions with students then, as they attempt to socialize children into the student role. In the upper elementary grades more whole - class teaching methods are used, which may minimize expectation effects. Some evidence supports this claim; expectancy effects in Rosenthal and Jacobson 's (1968) study were strongest during the earlier grades. Raudenbush 's (1984) meta - analysis of findings from different teacher expectancy studies in which expectancies were induced by giving teachers artificial information about children 's intelligence showed that expectancy effects were stronger in Grades 1 and 2 than in Grades 3 through Grade 6, especially when the information was given to teachers during the first few weeks of school. These findings are particularly relevant because they show a form of the expectancy theory: how teachers have certain expectations of students, and how they treat the students differently because of those expectations.
Critics of the expectancy model include Graen (1969), Lawler (1971), Lawler and Porter (1967), and Porter and Lawler (1968). Their criticisms of the theory were based upon the expectancy model being too simplistic in nature; these critics started making adjustments to Vroom 's model.
Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an employer makes a reward, such as a financial bonus or promotion, enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward. However, this only works if the employees believe the reward is beneficial to their immediate needs. For example, a $2 increase in salary may not be desirable to an employee if the increase pushes her into a tax bracket in which she believes her net pay is actually reduced, which is actually impossible in the United States with marginal tax brackets. Similarly, a promotion that provides higher status but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with their children.
In addition to that, if anyone in the armed forces or security agencies is promoted, there is a must condition for such promotions, that he / she will be transferred to other locations. In such cases, if the new place is far from their permanent residence, where their family is residing, they will not be motivated by such promotions, and the results will be other way round. Because, the outcome, which this reward (promotion) will yield, may not be valued by those who are receiving it.
Lawler 's new proposal for expectancy theory is not against Vroom 's theory. Lawler argues that since there have been a variety of developments of expectancy theory since its creation in 1964; the expectancy model needs to be updated. Lawler 's new model is based on four claims. First, whenever there are a number of outcomes, individuals will usually have a preference among those outcomes. Two, there is a belief on the part of that individual that their action (s) will achieve the outcome they desire. Three, any desired outcome was generated by the individual 's behavior. Finally, the actions generated by the individual were generated by the preferred outcome and expectation of the individual.
Instead of just looking at expectancy and instrumentality, W.F. Maloney and J.M. McFillen found that expectancy theory could explain the motivation of those individuals who were employed by the construction industry. For instance, they used worker expectancy and worker instrumentality. Worker expectancy is when supervisors create an equal match between the worker and their job. Worker instrumentality is when an employee knows that any increase in their performance leads to achieving their goal.
In the chapter entitled "On the Origins of Expectancy Theory '' published in Great Minds in Management by Ken G. Smith and Michael A. Hitt, Vroom himself agreed with some of these criticisms and stated that he felt that the theory should be expanded to include research conducted since the original publication of his book.
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where was the funeral filmed in four weddings and a funeral | Four Weddings and a Funeral - wikipedia
Four Weddings and a Funeral is a 1994 British romantic comedy film directed by Mike Newell. It was the first of several films by screenwriter Richard Curtis to feature Hugh Grant, and follows the adventures of Charles (Grant) and his circle of friends through a number of social occasions as they each encounter romance. Andie MacDowell stars as Charles ' love interest Carrie, with Kristin Scott Thomas, James Fleet, Simon Callow, John Hannah, Charlotte Coleman, David Bower, Corin Redgrave and Rowan Atkinson in supporting roles.
It was made in six weeks and cost under £ 3 million, becoming an unexpected success and the highest - grossing British film in cinema history at the time, with worldwide box office in excess of $245.7 million, and receiving Academy Award nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay. In addition to this, Grant won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and the film also won the BAFTA Awards Best Film, Best Direction and Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Scott Thomas.
In 1999, Four Weddings and a Funeral placed 23rd on the British Film Institute 's 100 greatest British films of the 20th century. In 2017 a poll of 150 actors, directors, writers, producers and critics for Time Out magazine ranked it the 74th best British film ever.
The film follows the adventures of a group of friends through the eyes of Charles, a good - natured but socially awkward man living in London, who becomes smitten with Carrie, an American whom Charles keeps meeting at four weddings and a funeral.
The first wedding is in Somerset and is that of Angus and Laura, at which Charles is the best man. Charles and his single friends wonder whether they will ever get married. Charles meets Carrie and spends the night with her. Carrie pretends that, now they have slept together, they will have to get married, to which Charles endeavours to respond before realising she is joking. Carrie observes that they may have missed an opportunity and then returns to America.
The second wedding is that of Bernard and Lydia, a couple who became romantically involved at the previous wedding. Charles encounters Carrie again, but she introduces him to her fiancé, Sir Hamish Banks, a wealthy politician. At the reception, Charles finds himself seated with several ex-girlfriends who relate embarrassing stories about his inability to be discreet and afterwards bumps into Henrietta, known among Charles ' friends as "Duckface '', with whom he had a particularly difficult relationship. Charles retreats to an empty hotel suite, seeing Carrie and Hamish leave in a taxicab, only to be trapped in a cupboard after the newlyweds stumble into the room to have sex. After Charles awkwardly exits the room, Henrietta confronts him about his habit of "serial monogamy '', telling him he is afraid of letting anyone get too close to him. Charles then runs into Carrie, and they end up spending another night together.
A month later, Charles receives an invitation to Carrie 's wedding. While shopping for a present, he coincidentally encounters Carrie and ends up helping her select her wedding dress. Carrie lists her more than thirty sexual partners. Charles later awkwardly tries confessing his love to her and hinting that he would like to have a relationship with her, to no avail.
The third wedding is that of Carrie and Hamish. Charles attends, depressed at the prospect of Carrie marrying Hamish. At the reception, Gareth instructs his friends to seek potential mates; Fiona 's brother, Tom, stumbles through an attempt to connect with a woman until she reveals that she is the minister 's wife, while Charles 's flatmate, Scarlett, strikes up a conversation with an American named Chester. As Charles watches Carrie and Hamish dance, Fiona deduces his feelings about Carrie. When Charles asks why Fiona is not married, she confesses that she has loved Charles since they first met years earlier. Charles is appreciative and empathetic but does not requite her love. During the groom 's toast, Gareth dies of a heart attack.
At Gareth 's funeral, his partner Matthew recites the poem "Funeral Blues '' by W.H. Auden, commemorating his relationship with Gareth. Charles and Tom discuss whether hoping to find your "one true love '' is just a futile effort and ponder that, while their clique have always viewed themselves as proud to be single, Gareth and Matthew were a "married '' couple all the while.
The fourth wedding is ten months later. Charles has decided to marry Henrietta. However, shortly before the ceremony, Carrie arrives, revealing to Charles that she and Hamish are separated. Charles has a crisis of confidence, which he reveals to his deaf brother David and Matthew. During the ceremony, when the vicar asks whether anyone knows a reason why the couple should not marry, David, who was reading the vicar 's lips, asks Charles to translate for him, and says in sign language that he suspects the groom loves someone else. The vicar asks whether Charles does love someone else, and Charles replies, "I do. '' Henrietta punches Charles and the wedding is halted.
Carrie visits Charles to apologise for attending the wedding. Charles confesses that, while standing at the altar, he realised that for the first time in his life he totally and utterly loved one person, "and it was n't the person standing next to me in the veil. '' Charles makes a proposal of lifelong commitment without marriage to Carrie, who accepts.
Henrietta marries an officer in the Grenadier Guards; David marries his girlfriend Serena; Scarlett marries Chester; Tom marries his distant cousin Deirdre (whom he met, for the second time in 25 years, at Charles 's wedding); Matthew finds a new partner; Fiona marries Prince Charles; and Charles and Carrie have a young son.
The film was shot mainly in London and the Home Counties, including Hampstead, Islington where the final moments take place on Highbury Terrace, Greenwich Hospital, Betchworth in Surrey, Amersham in Buckinghamshire, St Bartholomew - the - Great (wedding number four) and West Thurrock in Essex. Exterior shots of guests arriving for the funeral were filmed in Thurrock, Essex overlooking the River Thames with the backdrop of the Dartford River Crossing and at stately homes in Bedfordshire (Luton Hoo for wedding two 's reception) and Hampshire.
The original score was composed by British composer Richard Rodney Bennett. The movie also featured a soundtrack of popular songs, including a cover version of The Troggs ' "Love Is All Around '' performed by Wet Wet Wet that remained at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth (now twelfth) biggest selling single of all time in Britain. This song would later be adapted into "Christmas Is All Around '' and sung by the character of Billy Mack in Richard Curtis ' 2003 film Love Actually, in which Grant also stars.
The film was very well received with critics, currently holding a 95 % "Certified Fresh '' approval on reviews aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with the site 's consensus stating, "While frothy to a fault, Four Weddings and a Funeral features irresistibly breezy humor, and winsome performances from Hugh Grant and Andie MacDowell. '' Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, calling it "delightful and sly '', and directed with "light - hearted enchantment '' by Newell. He praised Grant 's performance, describing it as a kind of "endearing awkwardness ''.
The film had its detractors. Writing for the Chicago Reader, Jonathan Rosenbaum called the film "generic '' and "standard issue '', stating that the audience should n't "expect to remember it ten minutes later ''. Time magazine writer Richard Corliss was less scathing, but agreed that it was forgettable, saying that people would "forget all about (the movie) by the time they leave the multiplex, '' even joking at the end of his review that he had forgotten the film 's name. The character of Carrie was voted one of the most annoying film characters of all time in a British online poll.
The film earned £ 27.8 million in the United Kingdom. Upon its North American limited release on 11 March 1994, Four Weddings and a Funeral opened with $138,486 in five theatres. But upon its wide release on 15 April 1994, the film topped the box office with $4,162,489. The film would continue to gross $52.7 million in North America with an additional $193 million internationally, earning $245.7 million worldwide.
The film was voted the 27th greatest comedy film of all time by readers of Total Film in 2000. In 2004, the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time. It is number 96 on Bravo 's "100 Funniest Movies ''.
It was reported in November 2017 that writer / director Richard Curtis was developing an anthology television series based upon the film with producers including Mindy Kaling and Matt Warburton for streaming service Hulu.
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why do some baseball players wear short pants | Baseball stirrups - wikipedia
Stirrups are uniform socks commonly worn by baseball players up until the mid-1990s, when major - league players began wearing their pants down to the ankles, setting a trend soon picked up by players in minor and amateur leagues. Until then, stirrup socks had been an integral part of the traditional baseball uniform, giving them a distinctive look. A high sock was needed because baseball players wore knickerbockers ("knickers ''), worn by many boys in the late 19th century and into the 20th century. The stirrup socks served to display team colors, stripes or team logos. For example, for several years the Minnesota Twins wore navy - blue stirrups with "TC '' on the side, for "Twin Cities '', and in 1987 an "m '' was placed on side. The Houston Astros wore navy blue stirrup socks with a white star on the side. The stirrup sock colors were also the basis of team names, including the Cincinnati Red Stockings, Boston Red Sox, and Chicago White Sox. For these reasons, traditionalists lament the recent "sockless '' look in baseball uniforms.
Stirrup socks are worn on top of long socks called "sanitaries, '' usually white in color. This is because early color dyes in the outer stirrup sock were thought to pose health issues, as well as the fact that the inner, less expensive white sock could be changed more frequently. The stirrup sock lacked a foot, instead having a loop ("stirrup '') which fits within the arch of the foot. Over the years, the stirrup loop tended to get longer, exposing more of the white undersock, thus creating a look unique to baseball.
However, by the 1980s many players were pulling the loop so high that only the white undersock and the loop itself showed - the rest of the game sock being hidden by their pants. For many years teams had enforced rules so that uniforms were worn "uniformly '', including team socks. For example, Leo Durocher, longtime manager of the Chicago Cubs, had a measuring stick in the clubhouse. Players were required to match the length of their stirrup loops to this stick at about 4 inches, exposing only a small part of the white sanitary. Increasingly lax regulation of uniform codes by Major League Baseball eventually contributed to players ignoring the traditional look.
The Official Baseball Rules are silent on stirrups, but the fact that some players on a team wear them while others do not seems to be in violation of Rule 1.11 (a) (1) which states that "all players on a team shall wear uniforms identical in color, trim and style, '' as well as Rule 1.11 (a) (3) that states "no player whose uniform does not conform to that of his teammates shall be permitted to participate in a game. '' The freedom to wear high stirrups or not is remarkable considering how nowadays uniformity is otherwise enforced by MLB. For example, during a 2007 game against the Yankees, with the Yankees threatening to score, Red Sox manager Terry Francona was suddenly called away from the game and questioned by a league executive as to whether he was wearing the required uniform jersey beneath his blue pullover. He was n't pleased.
Although some teams -- particularly college teams -- continue to wear traditional baseball stirrup socks, another option has been to replace the stirrup / undersock with a "2 in 1 '' combination sock that mimics the real thing, or simply to wear a single solid knee - high sock with knickers. The trend back to knickers and high socks is particularly evident among youth and high - school teams. A few pro players, such as Taijuan Walker of the Arizona Diamondbacks, Derek Holland of the Texas Rangers, Melvin Upton, Jr. of the San Diego Padres, Bryce Harper & Casey Janssen of the Washington Nationals, Daniel Descalso of the St. Louis Cardinals, Josh Outman of the Cleveland Indians and Steve Cishek & Juan Pierre of the Miami Marlins, Chris Archer of the Tampa Bay Rays, J.R. Graham of the Minnesota Twins, Chris Taylor of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Francisco Lindor of the Cleveland Indians have been spotted wearing genuine stirrups recently to much fanfare. Several players on the Philadelphia Phillies will either wear stirrups over white sanitary socks, or over red socks, as the Phillies stirrups sport their Liberty Bell logo. The minor - league Springfield Cardinals wear a 2 - in - 1 version of the traditional St. Louis Cardinals ' game sock that looks very much like the real thing.
Other sports also use, or have used, stirrup socks, but traditionally wore a white sweat sock over, instead of under, the colored stirrup game sock (e.g. basketball, football, hockey). For many years American football officials commonly wore black baseball - style stirrups as part of their uniform, although this was done away with in the 2010s as full - length pants replaced the traditional knickers. There are still some sock companies manufacturing stirrup socks for baseball and other sports, including Twin City Knitting Company in Conover, North Carolina.
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who drives the number 46 car in nascar 2012 | List of NASCAR drivers - wikipedia
The following is a list of drivers who are currently competing in a series sanctioned by the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR).
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2018 AAA 400 Drive for Autism. (Race 11 / 36)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2018 Fitzgerald Glider Kits 300 (Race 7 / 33)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2018 Alpha Energy Solutions 250 (Race 4 / 23)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2018 Zombie Auto 150 (Race 2 / 14)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the Bakersfield 175 Presented by NAPA Auto Parts (Race 1 / 15)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2017 Pinty 's Fall Brawl 200 (Race 13 / 13)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2015 RedCo 240 (Race 15 / 15)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2016 Autospeedway American Style (Race 4 / 12)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2016 Autospeedway American Style (Race 4 / 12)
All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2017 Sunoco World Series 150 (Race 16 / 16)
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