question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
who is the present information and broadcasting minister of india | Ministry of information and Broadcasting (India) - Wikipedia
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (Ministry of I&B) is a branch of the Government of India which is apex body for formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and laws relating to information, broadcasting, the press and films in India.
The Ministry is responsible for the administration of Prasar Bharati - the broadcasting arm of the Indian Government. The Central Board of Film Certification is the other important functionary under this ministry being responsible for the regulation of motion pictures broadcast in India.
Executive:
Parliament:
Judiciary:
National coalitions:
State Level:
Local governments:
The mandate of the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting are:
The Ministry has often been criticised for the actions of the various bodies under it:
|
artists that have performed at victoria secret shows | Victoria 's Secret Fashion show - wikipedia
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual show sponsored by and featuring Victoria 's Secret, a brand of lingerie and sleepwear. Victoria 's Secret uses the show to promote and market its goods in high - profile settings. The show features some of the world 's leading fashion models such as current Victoria 's Secret Angels Adriana Lima, Behati Prinsloo, Candice Swanepoel, Lily Aldridge, Elsa Hosk, Jasmine Tookes, Josephine Skriver, Lais Ribeiro, Martha Hunt, Romee Strijd, Sara Sampaio, Stella Maxwell and Taylor Marie Hill.
American network television broadcasts the show during prime time. The first few shows in the 1990s were held in the days preceding Valentine 's Day to promote the brand for this holiday. They were not aired on national television. In 1999 and 2000 the show was webcast. Beginning in 2001, the shows were moved ahead of the Christmas holiday season. Also in 2001, the show made its network television broadcast debut on ABC, though in all subsequent years, it has been broadcast on CBS. The show has been held at a variety of locations in different cities including Miami, Los Angeles, Cannes, Paris, London and Shanghai. The first four shows were held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City, but since it has become a televised event it has most often been held at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City. The 2018 show will be in the city of San Francisco with tickets going on sale on 7 / 01 / 18.
The show is a lavish event with elaborate costumed lingerie, varying music by leading entertainers, and set design according to the different themes running within the show. The show attracts hundreds of celebrities and entertainers, with special performers and acts every year. Each year, twenty to forty of the world 's top fashion models are selected to perform in the fashion show. In a typical year, this includes about a half dozen women under contract to the company, known as Victoria 's Secret Angels, who help publicize the event.
The large angel wings worn by the models, as well as other wings of various forms and sizes such as butterfly, peacock, or devil wings, have become emblematic of the Victoria 's Secret brand. In theory, wings are any ornamental back piece worn by a model on the runway, or any sort of structural appendage resembling traditional wings.
Getting wings is a huge honour in the show, most models such as Erin Heatherton have stated that they fantasise more about wings than their wedding day. A selective amount of models, each year, are chosen to wear wings, whether they are big wings or small wings. Most feel like official angels when given their first pair of wings. Wings have become a major asset to Victoria 's Secret.
Here is a list of the models who were chosen to wear wings that year.
Each year, around 5 models are chosen to wear particularly huge wings in the fashion show. Victoria 's Secret tends to give these to models who are strong enough to carry outsized wings, or to models who have amassed a significant amount of popularity that year, either inside or outside the brand. Wearing big wings is seen as an honor for models, and Adriana Lima has stated in the past that models sometimes fight for the largest wings in the show.
The first fashion show extravaganza, introduced by Stephanie Seymour, was held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City in August 1995. The show also featured Beverly Peele and Frederique van der Wal. This first fashion show occurred two months before The Limited, parent company of Victoria 's Secret owner Intimate Brands, sold an initial public offering of a 16 percent stake in the company and almost had Seymour make an appearance at the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) for the opening bell. She actually did ring the closing bell at the NYSE as part of the publicity campaign. The subsequent three annual shows were also held at the Plaza.
In 1999, during Super Bowl XXXIII, Victoria 's Secret announced a 72 - hour countdown to the Internet webcast of the Victoria 's Secret fashion show, which resulted in over 2 million internet viewers of the show. Parent company Intimate Brands bought a $1.5 million ($2.2 million today) 30 - second television advertisement during the Super Bowl broadcast and spent an additional $4 million ($5.9 million) for subsequent international newspaper advertisements to publicize the event. The show, which was aired by Broadcast.com, featured Tyra Banks, Laetitia Casta, Heidi Klum, Karen Mulder, Daniela Pestova, Inés Rivero, and Seymour. In 1999 and 2000, the show was broadcast live on the internet, but the 2000 show was moved for a year from the usual February event at the Plaza to a May event in concert with the Cannes Film Festival in France to raise money for the Cinema Against AIDS charity; it raised $3.5 million.
In 2001, the show, which was hosted by Rupert Everett, returned to the New York City but at Bryant Park instead of the Plaza. That year, the show made its broadcast debut on ABC, drawing millions of viewers as well as some middle - brow controversy; the Federal Communications Commission received many complaints about the broadcast every year. The show has continued to be broadcast on network television every year since.
From 2002 through 2005, it was held at the Lexington Avenue Armory in New York City. The 2004 show was canceled due to a widespread crackdown on perceived indecency in broadcasting stemming from the Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, in which Jackson encountered a breast - revealing "wardrobe malfunction ''. Before the 2005 show, Banks announced her retirement from modeling and embarkation on a television career with The Tyra Banks Show, making the 2005 show a farewell to her decade of fashion shows for the company.
In 2004, instead of the annual fashion show, the Angels (Tyra Banks, Heidi Klum, Gisele Bündchen, Adriana Lima, and Alessandra Ambrosio) did an Angels Across America Tour, a grassroots campaign for the brand visiting four major cities: New York City, Miami, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles.
The 2006 and 2007 shows were held at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles. On November 13, 2007, the Victoria 's Secret Angels were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame right outside the Kodak Theatre. The 2007 Angels honored in this celebration to mark Victoria 's Secret 's 25th anniversary on Hollywood Boulevard were Heidi Klum, Adriana Lima, Alessandra Ambrosio, Karolina Kurkova, Selita Ebanks, Izabel Goulart, Marisa Miller, and Miranda Kerr. The other models, who also appeared in that year 's fashion show, were in attendance that day. The 2008 show coincided with the grand re-opening of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach hotel.
In 2006, Victoria 's Secret sub-brand PINK made its debut on the runway. Justin Timberlake opened the show with his popular song "Sexy Back ''. This year fashion show was the final walk of Gisele Bündchen.
The 2007 show featured a performance by the Spice Girls and gained prominence as the first American TV debut of the band after their comeback. Kanye West was also scheduled to perform at the event, but cancelled his appearance due to his mother 's death. will.i.am was called to perform in his place.
The 2008 show was held at Fountainebleu Miami Beach, Florida. Usher was appeared on the show as well as opened it. Unlike the other shows, the runway was designed parallel with the audience seats.
In 2009, the fashion show took place in New York City at the Lexington Avenue Armory, where it was last held in 2005. The 2009 show was notable for featuring the results of a competition, called the Victoria 's Secret Model Search, to find a new Victoria 's Secret "runway Angel. '' The winner was announced as Kylie Bisutti.
The 2010 Victoria 's Secret Fashion show aired on November 30, 2010 on CBS, and featured performances by Katy Perry and Akon. A promotional ad featured a lipdub for Katy Perry 's "Firework ''. As of 2010, 152 models have walked the show.
In 2011, Kanye West started his song "Stronger '' with a tribute to his mother who had died before his scheduled performance four years before, saying: "In 2007, I was supposed to perform this song on this show... and I lost my superhero. Now she 's my super-angel. ''
In 2012, an outfit worn by model Karlie Kloss, which was reminiscent of Native American attire, sparked controversy due to its alleged stereotypical depiction of Native Americans. Victoria 's Secret released a statement of apology shortly after, saying that they will remove it from future advertisements and the broadcast. Kloss apologized on her Twitter account for the outfit and expressed her support for the outfit 's removal in the broadcast.
In 2013, the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift, A Great Big World, Neon Jungle and Fall Out Boy. Taylor Swift performed "I Knew You Were Trouble '', A Great Big World performed "Say Something '', UK 's Neon Jungle made their US television debut with "Trouble '', and Fall Out Boy performed with Taylor Swift in "My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark '' and later performed "The Phoenix ''.
In 2014, the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift; Ed Sheeran, Ariana Grande, and Hozier. Taylor Swift performed "Blank Space '' and "Style ''. Ed Sheeran performed "Thinking Out Loud ''. Ariana Grande performed "Love Me Harder '', "Bang Bang '', "Break Free '', and "Problem ''. Hozier performed "Take Me to Church ''. During the show, Ariana Grande was performing and was hit by accident by Elsa Hosk 's wings.
In 2015, the show featured performances by The Weeknd, Selena Gomez, and Ellie Goulding. The Weeknd performed "In the Night '' and "Ca n't Feel My Face '' for the show, while Gomez performed a medley of "Hands to Myself '' and "Me & My Girls '' for the PINK segment. Goulding was contracted as a replacement for Rihanna, who had cancelled her appearance just one week before the show in order to focus on recording her album Anti. Goulding performed "Army '' and "Love Me Like You Do '' for the show.
In 2016, the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by The Weeknd (performed "Starboy ''), Lady Gaga (performed "Million Reasons '', plus a medley of "A-Yo '' and "John Wayne ''), and Bruno Mars (performed "Chunky '' for the Pink brand and "24k Magic '' for the VS brand). The executive producer of Victoria 's Secret, Ed Razek, chose Grand Palais in Paris, France as the show 's location. A major challenge faced with the show was the size of the building and how the show could be showcased on a small TV, as well as the natural lighting in the building, which would get in the way of the tradition of the show being held at night.
The 2017 show was held in Shanghai, China and was the first Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show to be held in Asia. The show featured the first - ever segment in collaboration with another brand, French fashion house Balmain. The theme and designs were co-steered by Victoria 's Secret and Balmain creative director Olivier Rousteing. Performers included Harry Styles (performed Kiwi and Only Angel), Miguel (performed Pineapple Skies and Told You So), Jane Zhang (performed a medley of Work For It, 808, and Dust My Shoulders Off), and Leslie Odom Jr. (performed Winter Song). A performance by Katy Perry was cancelled due to her visa to travel to China being revoked. A week before the show was due to be filmed, model Gigi Hadid confirmed that she was also denied to attend the show. Russian, Ukrainian, and Nigerian models, including Kate Grigorieva, Irina Sharipova, Julia Belyakova, Dasha Khlystun, and Mayowa Nicholas, all of which were due to feature in the show, were also reportedly denied visas for entry to China, and therefore were not featured in the show.
The early webcasts were criticized for poor connection, and users that could connect were subjected to low video quality. One critic from The New York Times described the initial 20th - century webcast experience as having felt like he was "watching a striptease through a keyhole ''.
Some critics have described the 21st - century televised editions of the show as pornographic, while others have described it as both "outright commercialism '' and an infomercial. The Federal Communications Commission has received complaints regarding the broadcast, but no fines have been imposed, with the FCC, following the 2001 airing, citing the First Amendment and stating that "sexual or excretory activities or organs in a patently offensive manner as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium '' were not broadcast. In the initial 2001 airing ABC blurred the screen on particularly sheer lingerie. This enabled the show to pass muster with its internal Broadcast Standards and Practices department and to achieve the TV - 14 rating. In 2002, the National Organization for Women protested the show calling it a "soft - core porn infomercial. '' They were joined in protest by the Parents Television Council and other watchdog organizations. CBS has given past shows TV - 14 ratings, which is a warning that the show may contain material unsuitable for children age 14 and under. Nonetheless some affiliates have chosen not to air the show in past years including Fisher Broadcasting affiliates in Idaho. In 2009, the American Decency Association organized email letters of protests to sponsors of the show including AT&T, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Netflix, Nikon, and Reebok. CBS has described the event to as "the Super Bowl of fashion ''.
Typically, one model is chosen among the Angels to wear a bejeweled bra dubbed the "Fantasy Bra ''. It was first advertised in the Victoria 's Secret catalog, but since 2001 has been worn in the fashion shows. Prior to each fashion show, Victoria 's Secret contracts a renowned jewelry designer to craft the bra to be used as a focal point for promoting the fashion show and as a centerpiece within it. The company offers the Fantasy Bra for sale as "the ultimate holiday '' gift. However, only the centerpiece from the 2004 Heavenly "70 '' Fantasy Bra and the 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra and Gift Set have found a buyer. If not bought, the bras are usually dismantled after a year.
Heidi Klum and Adriana Lima have worn the Fantasy Bra in three different years. Gisele Bündchen, Tyra Banks, Karolina Kurkova, and Alessandra Ambrosio have each worn two Fantasy Bras. Tyra Banks also wore the 1995 Million Dollar Miracle Bra during the 1999 fashion show. As of 2018, the fantasy bra has been worn by 8 times by a Brazilian model, 5 times by an American model, 4 times by a German model, and 3 times by a Czech model.
The $15 million price tag for the 2000 bra worn by Gisele Bündchen earned a place in the Guinness World Records as the most expensive item of lingerie ever created. The $3 million 2009 Harlequin Fantasy Bra and the $2 million 2010 Bombshell Fantasy Bra were designed by Damiani. Listed below are the prices per set (including accessories for the 2007 and 2013 editions, the 2013 bra alone is worth $8,000,000). The 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra was accompanied by a $500,000 perfume bottle.
In 2014, for the first time, two fantasy bras were created. They were worn by Alessandra Ambrosio and Adriana Lima and were valued at $2,000,000 each.
Since 2003, similar to the Fantasy Bra, one or more models are chosen to wear Swarovski creations.
Since 2003, similar to the Fantasy Bra, one or more model are chosen to wear the "Swarovski Outfit '' and the "Swarovski Wings '' every year. The first Swarovski items that was shown on the runway was given to Alessandra Ambrosio, but Victoria 's Secret has worked with Swarovski for 9 years prior to the outfit worn on the runway in 2011.
Alessandra Ambrosio wore the first official Swarovski outfit. Her Swarovski outfit included a 60 - pound wing which included 105,000 Swarovski crystals. The base of her wing is made out of 23 - carat gold. Cameron Russell was given the "10th Anniversary '' Swarovski outfit celebrating Victoria 's Secret 's 10th year working with Swarovski.
The 2013 Swarovski Outfit was a 3D printed piece given to Lindsay Ellingson, which includes mini-micro Swarovski crystals. In 2017, Elsa Hosk was chosen to wear the 15th Anniversary Swarovski Outfit and Wing, which comes to a total value of $1,000,000.
|
what is the poverty line in the uk 2016 | Poverty in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Despite being a developed country, those who are living at the lower end of the income distribution in the United Kingdom have a relatively low standard of living. Data based on incomes published in 2016 by Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) show that, after housing costs have been taken into consideration, the number of people living in the UK in relative poverty to be 13.44 m (21 % of the population) In 2015, a report by Institute for Fiscal Studies reported that 21.6 % of Britons were now in relative poverty. The report showed that there had been a fall in poverty in the first few years of the twenty - first century, but the rate of poverty had remained broadly flat since 2004 / 5.
It has been found by the Poverty and Social Exclusion project at Bristol University in 2014, that the proportion of households lacking three items or activities deemed necessary for life in the UK at that time (as defined by a survey of the wider population) has increased from 14 % in 1983 to 33 % in 2012.
In the early 1950s, it was believed by numerous people that poverty had been all but abolished from Britain, with only a few isolated pockets of deprivation still remaining. Much of this assumption was derived from a 1951 study which showed that in 1950 only 1.5 % of the survey population lived in poverty, compared with 18 % in 1936 when a previous study had been conducted in that town by Rowntree. A leader in The Times spoke positively of this ' remarkable improvement -- no less than the virtual abolition of the sheerest want. '
Over the course of the 1950s and 1960s, however, a "rediscovery '' of poverty took place, with various surveys showing that a substantial proportion of Britons were impoverished, with between 4 % and 12 % of the population estimated to be living below the Supplementary Benefits ' scales. In 1969, Professor A. Atkinson stated that
According to this definition, between 2 - 5 million Britons were trapped in poverty. In addition, some 2.6 million people were in receipt of Supplementary Benefits and therefore living on the poverty line. This meant that at least 10 % of the population were in poverty at his time. Bad housing conditions also constituted a major cause of poverty in the postwar era. In the early Sixties, it was estimated that three million families lived in "slums, near slums on grossly overcrowded conditions, '' while a 1967 housing survey of England and Wales found that 11.7 % of all dwellings were unfit.
In their 1965 study on poverty, "The Poor and the Poorest, '' Professors Peter Townsend and Brian Abel - Smith decided on measuring poverty on the basis of the National Assistance levels of living and estimated that some 14 % (around 7.5 million) of Britons lived in poverty. Townsend and Abel - Smith also estimated that since the mid-1950s the percentage of the population living in poverty had risen from 8 % to 14 %.
The continued existence of poverty in the 1960s was also characterised by differences in health between different social classes. In 1964 - 65 the incidence of infant deaths was more than half as much higher in the two lowest social classes than in the two highest social classes. In 1961 - 62 28 % of all men recorded at least one spell of sickness of four days or more. For the lowest social classes, however, 35 % of men had experienced this, compared with 18 % of men in the highest social classes. There is evidence that in large families the height of children was less than that for the average, while families with three or more children were more likely to be inadequately nourished.
In his 1979 work "Poverty in the UK '', Townsend suggested that 15 million people lived in or on the margins of poverty. He also argued that to get a proper measure of relative deprivation, there was a need to take into account other factors apart from income measures such as peoples ' environment, employment, and housing standards.
According to one study, 365,000 families in Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) in 1966 were in poverty by an old assistance standard, and 450,000 families by a new standard. In another study on poverty, Wilfred Beckerman estimated that 9.9 % of the British population lived below a standardised poverty line in 1973, compared with 6.1 % of the population of Belgium.
Low pay was also a major cause of poverty, with a report by the TUC in 1968 finding that about 5 million females and about 2.5 million males earned less than £ 15 a week. According to one study, around 20 % to 23 % of employees in the late 1960s had low hourly wages. In 1974, a quarter of adult employees in Britain earned less than £ 27 a week or less before tax, only slightly above the officially defined poverty line for an average family. Regional differences in pay also remained pronounced during the post-war period. Slum housing also remained a problem, with 12 % of British households living in houses or flats considered to be unfit for human habitation in 1972. In 1975, government statistics estimated that 1,800,000 children lived in poverty.
Nevertheless, the number of people estimated to be living in poor housing conditions was lower at the start of the 1970s than at the start of the 1960s. In 1961, 4,700,000 households lived in unfit or substandard homes, compared with 2,846,000 in 1971.
During the late 1960s and 1970s, progress was made in reducing the level of post-war poverty and inequality, with 3 million families in Britain in poverty in 1977, compared with 5 million in 1961. According to the 1971 Supplementary Benefits scale, the percentage of individuals living in poverty fell from 9.4 % in 1963 to 2.3 % in 1973. Low pay continued to remain a major problem by the end of the 1970s, however, particularly amongst manual workers.
Based on various measurements, however, the number of Britons living in poverty rose significantly from 1979 to 1985. The number of Britons living in poverty (when defined as living below the Supplementary Benefit level) rose from 2,090,000 to 2,420,000 during that period, while the number of people living in poverty when defined as living on or below the Supplementary Benefit level rose from 6,070,000 to 9,380,000. Using a poverty measurement of living at 140 % of the Supplementary Benefit level or below, the rise was from 11,570,000 to 15,420,000.
From 1979 to 1987, the number of Britons living in poverty (defined as living on less than half the national average income) doubled, from roughly 10 % to 20 % of the whole population. In 1989, almost 6 million full - time workers, representing 37 % of the total full - time workforce, earned less than the "decency threshold '' defined by the Council of Europe as 68 % of average full - time earnings. In 1994, 76.7 % of all part - time workers earned less than this threshold.
Figures from the European Commission estimated that from 1975 to 1985 the number of people living in poverty had doubled in Britain, from just over 3 million to 6.5 million. In 1975, the United Kingdom had fewer people living in poverty than Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg. By 1989, Britain had a higher poverty than each of these four countries. In 1989, 12 % of the UK population was estimated to be living in poverty, compared with 11.7 % in Italy, 8.5 % in Germany, 7.9 % in Luxembourg, 7.4 % in the Netherlands, and 7.2 % in Belgium.
From the late 1990s onwards, however, poverty began to fall steadily, helped by policies such as big increases in national insurance benefits and the introduction of the national minimum wage. Using the 60 % of median income after housing costs poverty line, the percentage of the British population living in poverty rose to 25.3 % in 1996 / 97, compared with 13.7 % in 1979.
From 1997 / 98 to 2004 / 05 (using the same 60 % of median income after housing costs measurement), the percentage of the population living in poverty fell from 24.4 % to 20.5 %. A 2000 report by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation estimated that 4 million people lacked access to a healthy diet, while a review of EU food and health policies estimated that food poverty was far higher in the UK than any other EU member state.
Rates of poverty fell just before the turn of the century and continued to do so until 2004 - 5. Since then rates of poverty have remained stable, with some year on year fluctuations caused by the financial crisis that started in 2008. The Institute of Fiscal Studies has counted the number of people in Absolute Poverty as falling from c. 37 % in 1996 / 7 (21.8 m people) to c. 22 % in 2004 / 5 (13.2 m), a figure that remained the same in 2014 / 5 (14.1 m taking population growth into account).
The trend for Relative Poverty is the same (a fall in the number of poor from 1997 / 8 until 2004 / 5 and a relatively stable amount since then), although the earlier numbers are lower. Alternatively it is suggested poverty rose from about 2008 to 2012 but remained stable since then.
Changes to the benefit system from April 2017 such as not allowing some claimants to claim for more than 2 children are predicted to increase the number of families in poverty and get a quarter of a million further children into poverty. Policy in Practice estimates the two child limit will increase child poverty by 10 % during this parliament. The Child Poverty Action Group charity (CPAG), claim it will reduce children 's life chances. Alison Thewliss said, "When Theresa May stood on the steps of Downing Street last year, she said that her new government would strive to help the ' just about managing ' in society. It appears that this was just empty rhetoric. (...) The reality is that two - thirds of those affected are already in work. '' A doctor claims it is not unusual for up to seven people to live in a one bedroom flat. Parents sometimes do without food themselves to care for children, others can not afford clothes, toothbrushes, toothpaste. Basic hygiene products like shampoo and sanitary towels are sometimes hard for poor people to buy and some must choose between buying hygiene products and buying food. Just under one in five UK children under 15 suffers food insecurity. That means sufficient safe, nutritious food can not be guaranteed.
Children become sick because they can not keep warm at home, overcrowding and damp worsens respiratory conditions. Alison Garnham, of the Child Poverty Action Group, said, "Day in, day out, doctors see the damage rising poverty does to children 's health. Low family incomes, inadequate housing and cuts to support services are jeopardising the health of our most vulnerable children. (...) Re-instating the UK 's poverty - reduction targets would be an obvious place to start. ''
Eurostat figures show that the numbers of Britons at risk of poverty has fallen to 15.9 % in 2014, down from 17.1 % in 2010 and 19 % in 2005 (after social transfers were taken into account). However, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) fears that people who are "just about managing '' could fall into poverty, as it forecast that the wages of people in low income and benefits might not keep pace with inflation. One third of UK households are living below what is considered an adequate income according to the JRF research. Campbell Robb of the JRF said, "Millions of families across the country are teetering on a precipice, with 400,000 pensioners and over one million more children likely to fall into poverty and suffer the very real and awful consequences that brings if things do not change. One of the biggest drivers of the rise in child poverty is policy choices, which is why it is essential that the Prime Minister and Chancellor use the upcoming Budget to put in place measures to stop this happening. An excellent start would be to ensure families can keep more of their earnings under the Universal Credit. ''
Poverty exists in rural communities as well as in urban areas. Rural poverty is frequently overlooked.
The most common form of child poverty today is poverty in working families. Roughly 30 % of British children are now classed as poor and of those two - thirds are from working families. Analysts claim cuts to working - age benefits would likely increase poverty rates greatly during the three years following 2017. Campbell Robb of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation said, "These troubling figures are warning signs we could be at the beginning of a sharp rise in poverty, with forecasts suggesting child poverty could rise further by 2021. ''
Food Standards Agency (FSA) research suggests some poor people miss meals or do without healthy food due to financial pressure. One third of unemployed people have cut out meals or reduced the quality of their diet due to lack of cash. 8 % of respondents to a survey have low or very low food security, implying just under four million adults regularly struggle to get enough to eat. Other studies showed benefit freezes together with rising food prices are major factors in food insecurity. Rachel Loopstra who lectures in nutrition at King 's College London, said: "These robust survey data confirm how serious the scale of the problem of people not having enough money for food to eat is in the UK, and are consistent with reports of increasing food bank usage. Anna Taylor of the ' Food Foundation ' thinktank, said: "To take so many British people off the breadline the government must drive uptake of the Healthy Start programme for young and low - income mothers, tackle gaps in food provision during school holidays, and review our welfare policies to protect the diets of society 's most vulnerable. '' Campaigners and MPs have urged the UK government to monitor food insecurity. Ministers so far refused but the Scottish government agreed to enact a food insecurity measure. Women and young people are more likely to live in food insecure households.
The Institute for Fiscal Studies says the benefit rate freeze and child tax credit cuts, together with the rollout of universal credit, which is less generous due to changes in work allowances, means, "large losses '' for low - income households. John McDonnell said the IFS analysis showed a "clear threat '' to working people 's living standards, while the Liberal Democrats claimed the "savage cuts '' would make millions of households poorer. Projected benefit cuts will lead to the poorest working - age households losing between 4 % and 10 % of their income a year, according to the IFS. Fewer than one in ten British people believe all work is fair and decent. 75 % think more should be done to make work fairer. Many British people suffer insecure work with zero hours contracts. Nearly half of workers are anxious over basic household expenses like food, transport and energy. One in six workers had left the heating off despite it being cold to save on fuel bills, and similar numbers had pawned possessions in the previous year because they were short of money. Rents are rising and housing benefit is not rising to match this. Families are forced into increasing poverty, some facing a daily struggle to pay their rent and put food on their table. Some risk homelessness. Families with children are most affected and two thirds of affected families are in work. Homelessness has risen over the last six years and the National Audit Office thinks welfare reforms and a freeze in housing benefit are a likely cause.
An All Party Parliamentary Group on Hunger warned too many poorer UK children are hungry or malnourished during school holidays. Some subsist on a diet of crisps or stodgy food bought to fill their stomachs. One million children who receive free school meals during term time are at risk as are two million more from working poor families. For both types, school holidays add to financial pressure on families through the need to pay for childcare, food and fuel. These children return to school in bad physical shape, learn less well and get behind children who were better fed during school holidays. The life chances of underfed children are damaged.
When housing benefit does not fully cover rent people can struggle to pay rent and buy all the other things they need as well. This can lead to increasing debt. Anne Baxendale of Shelter, said, "We are deeply concerned that the current freeze on housing benefit is piling a huge amount of pressure on to thousands of private renters who are already teetering on the brink of homelessness. '' People are forced out of their homes because they can not pay their rent and all their other bills.
The Office for National Statistics has estimated that in 2011, 14 million people were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and that one person in 20 (5.1 %) was now experiencing "severe material depression. '' Poverty among young people increased by 3.9 % from 2007 to 2010. In assessing social inequality in Britain, Danny Dorling has noted that "people in different parts of Britain and people living within different quarters of its cities are living in different worlds with different norms and expectations. This was not the case a few decades ago. This is not the case to the same extent in the majority of affluent nations in the world. ''
A new term is appearing, ' Just About Managing ' or ' JAM '. This applies to people who can put food on the table and pay rent or mortgage at least part of the time but have problems if their income falls or if there are unexpected bills. JAM 's are typically families where at least one person works. JAM 's may suffer social exclusion being unable to afford holidays or evenings out.
The Resolution Foundation claims that the incomes of the poorest 10 % in the UK will fall by 3 % in real terms by 2020 due to government policies on tax and welfare. The lowest third of incomes will suffer falls in income over the coming years. Incomes will fall because many welfare benefits that poorer people receive have been frozen in cash terms and with inflation cash will be worth steadily less.
The Institute for Fiscal Studies reported the numbers of poor United Kingdom children in wage - earning families increased from 2009 to 2014 and more poor children currently live in working families than live in families on benefits. The IFS reported "Recent falls in inequality are likely to prove temporary. Stronger earnings growth and the Conservatives ' planned income tax cuts would do most for incomes towards the top of the distribution, while planned benefit cuts will hit low - income households (both in and out of work) hardest. '' Anne Longfield, Children 's Commissioner for England wrote "The majority of children living in poverty have at least one parent who is working. Employment is important but if wages do not rise substantially in relation to living costs it will not provide a route out of poverty alone. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation has today published a report stating that families with children working full - time on the National Minimum Wage are now 15 % short of the Minimum Income Standard that people believe offers an acceptable standard of living. Today 's announcement will effectively confine to history any figures on the millions of children being raised in families who experience in - work poverty denying them necessities such as adequate food, clothing and heating. ''
Julia Unwin of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation said "A strong economy and rising employment have masked the growing problem of in - work poverty, as years of below - inflation wage rises have taken their toll on people 's incomes. The upcoming minimum wage rise will help, but many low - income working families will still find themselves worse off due to tax - credit changes. Boosting productivity and creating more jobs which offer progression at work is vital to make work a reliable route out of poverty. ''
Campbell Robb of Shelter said "It 's heart - breaking to think that so many people are having to make a choice between paying the rent and putting food on the table, or living in fear that any drop in income would leave them unable to cover their housing costs. The sad truth is that far too many people in Britain right now are living in homes that just are n't up to scratch - from the thousands of families forced to cope with poor conditions, to a generation of renters forking out most of their income on housing each month and unable to save for the future. ''
As of 2015 there is actual hunger in the United Kingdom and significant numbers of UK citizens are driven to use food banks. There is also significant malnutrition. Poorer people are frequently forced to buy and eat cheaper, less healthy food. The BMJ, a UK peer - reviewed medical journal published:
For the poorest in our society, up to 35 % of disposable income will now be needed for food, compared to less than 9 % for the more wealthy. This will increase reliance on cheap, highly processed, high fat, high sugar, high salt, and calorie - dense, unhealthy foods. 2 Re-emerging problems of poor public health nutrition such as rickets and malnutrition in the elderly are also causes for concern. (John D Middleton Vice president John R Ashton, Simon Capewell Faculty of Public Health)
In 2016, 10 % of UK households live in fuel poverty. Fuel poverty is calculated by gauging if a household 's income would fall below the official poverty line after spending the actual amount needed to heat the home. The average fuel poverty gap of these households -- that is, the amount needed to escape fuel poverty -- is £ 371 a year, the latest figures indicate, with those in privately rented properties hit hardest.
In a recent report commissioned by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation poverty and participation are analyzed as a social phenomenon characterizing UK society following the tradition initiated several decades ago by Peter Townsend. Participation in society is measured in terms of social relationships, membership of organisations, trust in other people, ownership of possessions and purchase of services. The study finds out that all these dimensions of participation are lower among people with low incomes. While participation generally drops as income declines, participation stops falling among the 30 per cent or so of people with the lowest incomes, creating a participation ' floor '. The 30 per cent of people with the lowest incomes are forced to choose between the basic necessities of modern life; they must decide which needs to neglect. For people affected by the floor, additional income may well be spent on upgrading the quality of necessary goods and services rather than adding to them. Averages mask important variation. The participation floor for benefit recipients is lower than for other groups on the same income. Most minority ethnic groups experience greater material deprivation than the white majority but social participation is, on average, higher. Children 's engagement in school life and friends is not directly affected by household income. However, parents on low incomes, on average, play less often with their children and spend less on activities. This is associated with poorer educational outcomes as judged by teachers. Low - income parents frequently spend more time than affluent ones assisting children with their school work because they have fallen behind their classmates.
Poverty and economic insecurity increase the risk that a person will commit suicide. The Samaritans claim The British economic condition, including low incomes, job insecurity, zero - hours contracts, unmanageable debts and poor housing all add to suicide risk. A report titled, Dying from Inequality, describes "overwhelming evidence of a link between socioeconomic disadvantage and suicidal behaviour ''. "Men in the lowest social class, living in the most deprived areas, are up to 10 times more at risk of suicide then those in the highest social class living in the most affluent areas, '' the report says. Unemployed people are more at risk of suicide than people with work, people with low education and people living in deprived areas are also at increased risk.
The persistence of high poverty rates in the UK is associated with the relatively low generosity of the welfare state. The UK social security system is characterised by a residual welfare state model based on the notion of market dominance and private provision. The state only intervenes to moderate extreme poverty and provide for basic needs, largely on a means - tested basis (Esping - Andersen 1990; Ferragina and Seleeib - Kaiser 2011).
In 2017 inequality has been forecast to return to the levels of the Thatcher years. Torsten Bell of the Resolution Foundation, said: "(A) boom is slowing rapidly as inflation rises, productivity flatlines and employment growth slows. (... (This time around it 's low - and middle - income families with kids who are set to be worst affected. This could leave Britain with the worst of both worlds on living standards -- the weak income growth of the last parliament and rising inequality from the time Margaret Thatcher was in Downing Street. The prime minister 's focus on supporting just managing families is absolutely right. ''
Inflation has been rising while the level of many benefits has remained fixed in money terms. This is causing hardship to low income families and there are calls for the level of benefits to be increased.
Poverty within the UK is particularly concentrated in the country of Wales. While the relative income - poverty rate for the UK stood at 16.8 % in 2014, the same poverty rate for Wales stood at 23 % in the same year. Poverty in Wales has remained in the 25 % range, with only small dips throughout the last decade. While the trends correlate with overall reductions in less impoverished areas of the UK, it does not correlate with Scotland, who in the 1990s, had a relative similar poverty trend as Wales. Conservative attitudes began to grow during the reign of the Labour party in the 2000s, culminating in an overall negative opinion towards public spending increases beginning in the 2010s. This negative trend created a lack of support for Welsh poverty reduction efforts, and can explain much of the stagnation present in the rate. The lack of attention to Wales has led to a consistent issue in Welsh politics being that of poverty, with efforts to primarily reduce the prevalence of childhood and Fuel Poverty a priority.
Data published in 2014 by New Policy Institute and Trust for London found in the three years to 2012 / 13, 2.2 million people were in poverty in London after housing costs. This figure represents 28 % of London 's population, 8 percentage points higher than the rest of England. Further research published by Trust for London, carried out by Loughborough University, found that 4 in 10 Londoners can not afford what the public regard as a decent standard of living - one that allows them to meet their basic needs and participate in society at a minimum level. This is significantly higher than the 30 % that fall below the standard in the UK as a whole. This represents 3.5 million Londoners, an increase of 400,000 since 2010 / 11.
The table below shows the percentage of the population in poverty derived by three different measures: relative poverty (earning less than 60 % of the median), the National Assistance scale and the Supplementary Benefits scale. Estimates from the National Institute of Economic and Social Research.
Estimates of poverty in the United Kingdom from 1950 - 1975 (percentage of population)
1953 - 54: 1.2 % (Abel - Smith and Townsend, FES) Unit: Household
1954: 12.3 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1959: 8.8 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1960: 3.8 % (Abel - Smith and Townsend, FES) Unit: Household
1963: 9.4 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1967: 3.5 % (Atkinson, FES) Unit: Household
1969: 3.4 % (Atkinson, FES) Unit: Household
1968 - 69: 6.4 % (Townsend, Survey) Unit: Household
1971: 4.9 % (Fiegehen et al., FES) Unit: Household
1975: 11.3 % (Berthoud and Brown, GHS) Unit: Household
The most common measure for poverty, as used in the Child Poverty Act 2010, is ' household income below 60 percent of median income '. The median is such an income that exactly a half of households earn more than that and the other half earns less.
In 2014 / 5, the median income in the UK was £ 473 per week (£ 24,596 a year). Those earning 60 % of this figure (£ 284 a week / £ 14,758 a year) were considered to be in the low income bracket.
This is the definition that is used by the UK Government 's Department of Work and Pensions in its yearly survey Households below average income. However, their reports expressly avoid using the word poverty, using low income instead. Reports from others agencies, such as the Institute of Fiscal Studies Living Standards, Poverty and Inequality in the UK, use the same methodology, but specifically use the word poverty.
This measure can be further divided.
Those who live in Absolute Poverty have a ' household income below 60 percent of median income ' as compared to a rate fixed in 2010 / 11 and that only changes in line with inflation.
Those who live in Relative Poverty have a ' household income below 60 percent of median income ' as compared to all other incomes in the same year.
Absolute Poverty is better at judging poverty in the short term, whereas Relative Poverty is better at seeing long - term trends. This is because general concepts of poverty change with time, and Relative Poverty reflects this better.
Reports on poverty also tend to take housing costs in to account, distinguishing between Before Housing Costs (BHC, where housing costs such as rent and mortgage interest payments have not been deducted) and After Housing Costs (AHC). Different social groups in the UK tend to have vastly different costs for housing, affecting available income.
Relative Poverty was used before its formal adoption now. In the early 1980s, Tony Byrne and Colin F. Padfield defined relative poverty in Britain as a situation in which people are able to survive adequately, but they are either less well off than they used to be (such as when they retire from paid employment) or that they are at a serious disadvantage "in their ability to experience or enjoy the standard of life of most other people -- for example, not being able to afford an annual holiday. ''
In 2011, there was some discussion of the measurement for poverty being changed (from households earning less than 60 % of median income) to a broader analysis of poverty.
As opposed to measuring income, the Consensual Method examines which necessities (e.g. food, clothing, access to healthcare, involvement in social and leisure activities) are thought by the general public to be essential for living in contemporary UK society. Those families or individual who lack a number of these necessities are considered as poor. In the 2012 Poverty and Social Exclusion (PSE) survey on Living Standards, the three necessities deemed as being most often essential to a good standard of living were the ability ' to warm living areas of the home ', a ' damp - free home ' and ' two meals a day. '
Six specific surveys of low standards of living in the UK have made use of this method.
Water poverty is defined by the Government as spending more than 3 % of disposable income on water bills. Nationally, in 2006, nearly 10 % of households were in water poverty.
Fuel poverty. A fuel poor household is one that struggles to keep adequately warm at reasonable cost. The most widely accepted definition of a fuel poor household is one which needs to spend more than 10 % of its income on all fuel use and to heat the home to an adequate standard of warmth. This is generally defined as 21 ° C in the living room and 18 ° C in the other occupied rooms. Fuel poverty affects over a million British working households and increases in energy prices affect poor people severely.
See Fuel poverty in the United Kingdom.
Eurostat figures show that the numbers of Britons at risk of poverty has fallen to 15.9 % in 2014, down from 17.1 % in 2010 and 19 % in 2005 (after social transfers were taken into account).
If the poverty line is defined as those individuals and households with incomes less than 60 % of their respective medians, then "nearly 60 % '' of those in poverty are homeowners.
Seebohm Rowntree chose a basic ' shopping basket ' of foods (identical to the rations given in the local workhouse), clothing and housing needs - anyone unable to afford them was deemed to be in poverty. By 1950, with the founding of the modern welfare state, the ' shopping basket ' measurement had been abandoned.
The vast and overwhelming majority of people that fill the government 's current criteria for poverty status (see above) have goods unimaginable to those in poverty in 1900. Poverty in the developed world is often one of perception; people compare their wealth with neighbours and wider society, not with their ancestors or those in foreign countries. Indeed, this is formalised in the government 's measure of poverty. A number of studies have shown that though prosperity in the UK has greatly increased, the level of happiness people report has remained the same or even decreased since the 1950s.
People enter the world of poverty due to: problems at the individual / family level and problems with the economy as a whole. Problems at the individual level include: race (human categorization), gender, sexual orientation, drug use, and level of education. Problems with the economy can include: low labor participation and high levels of unemployment. Welfare is financial support given by the government to people in need. There are pressures on the welfare state because welfare must be justified in terms of its contribution to economic success. Welfare must contribute positively to the economy otherwise there is a risk of damaging currency values. Damage to currency values will damage trading positions and investment which will, in turn, hurt the economy overall. The Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) is responsible for the welfare services in the United Kingdom. Income maintenance is centrally administered through DHSS offices (regional and local level). Those who earn 39 pounds a week (except some married women) or more must contribute to the National Insurance Scheme. The National Health Service (NHS) provides virtually free healthcare for all residents -- this is also centrally administered.
Persistent poverty is the effects of experiencing low income for long periods of time. In 2014, 6.5 % of the United Kingdom 's population was classified as being in persistent poverty; that equates to approximately 3.9 million people. The UK 's poverty rate overall in 2014 was the 12th highest amongst all European nations at 16.8 %, however; it has the third - lowest persistent poverty rate. Income tends to be measured before or after housing costs are accounted for (BHC or AHC). Poverty levels tend to be higher after housing costs are accounted for because the poorer households need to spend a higher percentage of their income on housing. In 2014 - 2015, 13.5 million people were in relative low income AHC (an increase of 300,000 from the year before) and 12.9 million people were in absolute low income AHC (a decrease of 700,000 from the year before). Relative low income means that people live in households with income below 60 % of the median in a specified year. Absolute income means that people live in households with income below 60 % of the median income in some base year. In 2016, the incomes of poor households are extremely sensitive to the activity in the labor market. When any downturn in the labor market occurs, the poorest people in the UK are increasingly more vulnerable and at greater risk. Median income (overall) has moved 2 % above pre-crisis (2007 - 2008) levels. During the recovery period, inequality in workers ' earnings has decreased. There has been strong employment growth along with weak earnings growth which have kept inequality low for several years.
In 1999, Tony Blair, the former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, pledged that child poverty in the United Kingdom will end within a generation. The goal was to completely eradicate child poverty by 2020. Poverty is a result of several different factors, some of which include: a lack of education and training, low participation in the labor market, poor working conditions, and affordable housing. The key components of the UK 's strategy to fight poverty are to: increase labor market participation of those eligible to work, to make work more advantageous for those receiving social benefits, to promote financial security for families, and to improve access to public transportation. One of the most crucial ways to reduce poverty is to increase benefit take - ups. In 2009 - 10 almost a third of those who were eligible for means - tested benefits did not claim their benefits. In 2011 - 2012, 15 % of those eligible for Child Tax Credit did not claim their benefits. Also, 35 % of those eligible for Working Tax Credit did not claim their benefits neither. Improving these numbers and getting those people to claim their benefits would significantly help reduce poverty. Ways in which can help increase benefit take - up include: simplifying the language so those who receive the benefits understand what they are receiving, making the process of receiving the benefits easier and more efficient, and encouraging benefit take - up. Other important ways to reduce the levels of poverty include: improve mental health, to ensure that children are supported sufficiently enough so that they can receive a quality education, help the unemployed find jobs, and improving child stability. A decrease in poverty would mean a more active economy because more people would have the ability to purchase more consumer goods than before.
For the UK General Election of 2015, research was undertaken to analyse the commitment of the UK 's political parties in addressing poverty. It demonstrated that "poverty has been overlooked as an issue in the General Election campaign '' and that only the Green Party had an effective policy to deal with poverty. Analysis of other parties ' policies and how they are used to deal with poverty ended in negative conclusions: "The Conservatives and UKIP both performed fairly badly ''. Labour performed better in some specific policy areas when compared to the Conservatives, but "there is not very much difference between them. '' Overall, the audit noted that views towards poverty were affected by specific views for those receiving social security benefits: "there was a general tendency to come down hard on welfare recipients, with a shift towards means - testing and victim - blaming across the board. This can be seen particularly in the context of Immigration and Housing. ''
While leader of the Labour Government, Tony Blair vowed in 1999 to cut child poverty 25 % by 2005, 50 % by 2010 and to eradicate child poverty completely by 2020. The Labour Party website states:
"In 1997 Labour inherited one of the highest rates of child poverty in Europe -- with one in three children living in poverty. Our mission to abolish child poverty is grounded both in our determination to secure social justice, and to tackle the problems that the social exclusion of children builds up for the long - term. Work is the best route out of poverty and our successful welfare to work measures have lifted millions out of poverty including disabled people, who have too often previously been consigned to a life on benefits. At the same time, millions of families are benefiting from the Child tax credit, the Working tax credit, and record rises in Child benefit. ''
Their 2005 manifesto states:
"(Since the Labour government came to power in 1997) there are two million fewer children and nearly two million fewer pensioners living in absolute poverty. ''
In late November 2006, the Conservative Party garnered headlines across the press when a senior member spoke out on poverty, invoking the name of Polly Toynbee. The headlines began when David Cameron 's policy advisor and shadow minister Greg Clark wrote:
"The traditional Conservative vision of welfare as a safety net encompasses another outdated Tory nostrum - that poverty is absolute, not relative. Churchill 's safety net is at the bottom: holding people at subsistence level, just above the abyss of hunger and homelessness. It is the social commentator Polly Toynbee who supplies imagery that is more appropriate for Conservative social policy in the twenty first century. ''
This approach generated much comment and analysis. It was followed two days later by Cameron saying poverty should be seen in relative terms to the rest of society, where people lack those things which others in society take for granted, "those who think otherwise are wrong (...) I believe that poverty is an economic waste, a moral disgrace. (...) We will only tackle the causes of poverty if we give a bigger role to society, tackling poverty is a social responsibility (...) Labour rely too heavily on redistributing money, and on the large, clunking mechanisms of the state. ''
Most people 's ability to sustain their lifestyle and to participate socially comes under threat at around the bottom 30 % of the income distribution, creating a sort of ' participation floor ' that seems to demarcate a major divide in British society (Ferragina et al. 2016). The floor begins around the point in the income distribution when the benefit system starts to contribute substantially to people 's incomes but is not entirely rigid or for example, it is lower for recipients of social security benefits mainly on account of the greater material deprivation that they experience. For those on the floor, participation is severely constrained with people negotiating a zero - sum world in which spending on one area means reduction in another. Whereas for those above the floor, additional income translates into more evident consumption, greater social participation and trust; for those on the floor it means a slight easing of pressure, but no major change in lifestyle sufficient to be identified in survey evidence. The implications for policy and our understanding of society are profound. Much policy, notably the new Universal Credit that was the flagship policy of the past Coalition Government, seeks to maximise work incentives premised on the notion that additional income brings rewards for individuals in terms of higher living standards, and benefits society through greater consumption and a shared work ethic. Similarly, as emphasised by Lansley and Mack (2015), New Labour during the period 1997 -- 2010 (despite trying to tackle child poverty) intervened mainly through more generous and wide - ranging tax - credits rather than fighting poverty and inequality at source (Ferragina and Arrigoni, 2016).
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (site) is one of the largest social policy research and development charities in the UK and takes particular interest in the issue of poverty, with over 100 reports on poverty and disadvantage available on its website (external link to report listing).
The Child Poverty Action Group (site) campaigns for the elimination of poverty amongst children.
End Child Poverty coalition (site) also seeks the eradication of child poverty.
Oxfam UK Poverty Programme site) works with people and policy makers to tackle the causes of poverty.
In July 2013 Freedom from Torture (site) published its report "The Poverty Barrier: The Right to Rehabilitation for Survivors of Torture in the UK which highlights the failings of the UK Asylum System in their handling of torture survivors arriving in the UK. The evidence included in the report comes from the testimony of over 100 survivors of torture and 18 members of Freedom from Torture 's clinical department. The report highlights financial insecurity, social exclusion and hopelessness and how poverty prevents the rehabilitation process. One survivor stated: "... Our current living conditions keep our torture trauma still alive. We ca n't move on. ''
Child poverty debate - Westminster Hall, 4 July 2006.
This is a collection of links to statistics available at the site TheyWorkForYou the relevant content of which is sourced from Hansard.
|
when did the us start enforcing immigration laws | List of United States immigration laws - Wikipedia
A number of major laws and court decisions relating to immigration procedures and enforcement have been enacted for the United States.
Naturalization Act (officially An Act to Establish a Uniform Rule of Naturalization; ch. 54, 1 Stat. 566)
Alien Friends Act (officially An Act Concerning Aliens; ch. 58, 1 Stat. 570)
Alien Enemies Act (officially An Act Respecting Alien Enemies; ch. 66, 1 Stat. 577)
Several years later, in the wake of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, a number of Chinese immigrants who were otherwise subject to the Chinese Exclusion Act were nonetheless able to claim American citizenship by alleging they were born in San Francisco, and that their birth certificates had been destroyed along with those of everyone else who had been born in San Francisco. "Papers for fictitious children were sold in China, allowing Chinese to immigrate despite the laws. ''
"An unintended consequence of the 1920s legislation was an increase in illegal immigration. Many Europeans who did not fall under the quotas migrated to Canada or Mexico, which (as Western Hemisphere nations) were not subject to national - origin quotas; (and) subsequently they slipped into the United States illegally. ''
Equal Nationality Act of 1934
Federal officials deported "Tens of thousands, and possibly more than 400,000, Mexicans and Mexican - Americans... Many, mostly children, were U.S. citizens. '' "Applications for legal admission into the United States increased following World War II -- and so did illegal immigration. '' Some used fraudulent marriages as their method of illegal entry in the U.S. "Japanese immigration became disproportionately female, as more women left Japan as "picture brides '', betrothed to emigrant men into the U.S. whom they had never met. ''
The United States saw a total number of illegal immigrants estimated at 1.1 million, or half of one percent of the United States population.
Over 5.8 million illegal immigrants entered the US in the 1990s. Mexico rose to the head of the list of sending countries, followed by the Philippines, Vietnam, the Dominican Republic, and China.
Stated, "those cases in which aliens have been determined to enjoy certain constitutional rights establish only that aliens receive such protections when they have come within the territory of, and have developed substantial connections with, this country. See, e.g., Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202, 212. ''
|
when was the last time liverpool won ucl | Liverpool F.C. in European Football - wikipedia
Liverpool Football Club, an English professional association football club, is Britain 's most successful team in Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) competitions. Since 1964, they have won eleven European trophies: the UEFA Champions League (formerly known as the European Cup) five times, the UEFA Europa League (formerly known as the UEFA Cup) three times, and the UEFA Super Cup three times.
Qualification for European competitions is determined by a team 's success in its domestic league and cup competitions from the previous season. Liverpool competed in European competitions for 21 consecutive seasons until the 1985 European Cup Final, the occasion of the Heysel Stadium disaster, following which the club was banned from European competitions for six seasons. Since being readmitted in 1991, they have qualified for the Champions League (the successor to the European Cup) nine times and the Europa League (the successor to the Uefa Cup) nine times.
As a result of their victory in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final, Liverpool won the European Champion Clubs ' Cup trophy outright, and were awarded a multiple winner badge. Liverpool 's total of three UEFA Cup wins has been bettered only by Sevilla, who have won the competition five times. They have also won the UEFA Super Cup on three occasions, a total only Milan and Barcelona (five titles each) have bettered.
Bob Paisley is the club 's most successful manager in Europe, with five trophies. Liverpool 's biggest - margin win in Europe is an 11 -- 0 victory over Strømsgodset in the 1974 -- 75 European Cup Winners ' Cup. In European competitions, Jamie Carragher holds the club record for the most appearances, with 150, and Steven Gerrard is the club 's record goalscorer, with 41 goals.
Club competitions between teams from different European countries can trace their origins as far back as 1897, when the Challenge Cup was created for clubs in the Austro - Hungarian Empire, who did not meet under normal circumstances. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, named after entrepreneur and sportsman Thomas Lipton, was established in 1909 and was contested between clubs from Italy, Great Britain, Germany and Switzerland; the competition lasted for two years. The earliest attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe was made by Swiss club FC Servette. Founded in 1930, the Coupe des Nations featured clubs of ten major European football leagues and was deemed a success. Due to financial reasons, the competition was abandoned.
The first continental competition organised by UEFA was the European Cup in 1955. Conceived by Gabriel Hanot, the editor of L'Équipe, as a competition for winners of the European national football leagues, it is considered the most prestigious European football competition. When the European Cup was first played, Liverpool were in the Second Division, following relegation from the First Division after the 1953 -- 54 season, and thus were ineligible for the competition. During their time in the Second Division, two further competitions were created: the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup. Established in 1955, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was later re-branded as the UEFA Cup when it came under the auspices of UEFA in 1971. Since the 2009 -- 10 season, the competition has been known as the UEFA Europa League. The UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup was inaugurated in 1960 for the winners of domestic cup competitions.
In 1962 Liverpool were promoted to the First Division. Two years later, they won the Football League championship, thus making their European debut in the 1964 -- 65 European Cup. In the following years, further European competitions were inaugurated. The first, the UEFA Super Cup, was originally a match played between the winners of the European Cup and the Cup Winners ' Cup. First established in 1973, it changed formats in 2000; since then, it has been contested between the winners of the Champions League (formerly the European Cup) and the Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup), following the Cup Winners ' Cup amalgamation into the latter. The Intercontinental Cup was a competition for the winners of the European Cup (later, the UEFA Champions League) and the South American equivalent, the Copa Libertadores. Established in 1960, the Intercontinental Cup was jointly organised by UEFA and the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL). It ran until 2004, when the FIFA Club World Cup, which includes the winners of all six confederations ' regional championships replaced it.
Bill Shankly began managing Liverpool in 1959, and it was under him that the team first competed in European competition in 1964 -- 65, qualifying for the European Cup by winning the First Division championship the previous season. The club 's first opponents were Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur of Iceland, who they played in the preliminary round. Liverpool won 11 -- 1 on aggregate. The next round, against Belgian club Anderlecht, was the first time in Liverpool 's history that they wore their now common all - red strip. The decision was made to change from red shirts, white shorts and socks by Shankly, who wanted his players to make more of a psychological impact on opponents. They beat Anderlecht and progressed to the semi-finals, where they met Italian team Internazionale. Before the first leg at Anfield, Shankly asked two injured players to parade the FA Cup, which Liverpool had won the previous week, to intimidate the Italians. The team won the match 3 -- 1, but Inter won the second leg 3 -- 0, securing a 4 -- 3 aggregate victory. The second leg was controversial; Shankly described it as "a war ''. He felt that the referee, Jose Maria Ortiz de Mendibel, had shown bias towards Internazionale, and the Liverpool players felt cheated by his decisions. The club 's 1964 -- 65 FA Cup victory ensured qualification for the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup the following season, and in that competition, they reached their first European final. Borussia Dortmund, Liverpool 's opponents, employed counter-attacking tactics that had paid dividends in previous rounds and did so again, with the West Germans beating Liverpool 2 -- 1 after extra time.
In the next four seasons, they competed in the European Cup and Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, but failed to progress past the third round in either competition. A tie against Dutch team Ajax during the 1966 -- 67 European Cup was to prove pivotal in the history of Liverpool in European competition. Ajax beat Liverpool 7 -- 3 on aggregate. However, the style of football that Ajax played -- a patient passing game, inspired by Johann Cruyff -- convinced Shankly that Liverpool had to replicate this style to be successful in Europe. Liverpool reached the semi-finals of the 1970 -- 71 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing 1 -- 0 on aggregate to Leeds United. They competed in the 1971 -- 72 European Cup Winners ' Cup, despite losing the 1971 FA Cup Final, as the FA Cup winners, Arsenal, had also qualified for the European Cup by winning the league championship. Liverpool were eliminated in the second round by Bayern Munich of Germany, losing 3 -- 1 on aggregate.
The changes made to Liverpool 's tactics came to fruition during the 1972 -- 73 UEFA Cup. The club reached their second European final, where they faced Borussia Mönchengladbach of Germany. Liverpool won the first leg 3 -- 0 as a result of two goals from Kevin Keegan and one from Larry Lloyd. Victory in this first leg meant Liverpool only needed to avoid losing by three or more goals in order to win the final. This influenced their tactics -- The Times reported that Liverpool employed a "holding action '' against the "attacking Germans ''. The tactics worked, allowing Mönchengladbach only two goals, granting Liverpool a 3 -- 2 aggregate victory. Liverpool also won the First Division championship that season, and as a result qualified for the 1973 -- 74 European Cup, where they were eliminated in the second round by Red Star Belgrade of Yugoslavia. At the end of that season, Shankly retired.
Shankly was succeeded by his assistant, Bob Paisley, in 1974. Liverpool competed in the Cup Winners ' Cup during Paisley 's first season and defeated Strømsgodset of Norway 11 -- 0 at Anfield. This remains the club 's largest margin of victory in all matches. They lost in the next round to Hungarian side Ferencváros on the away goals rule. In 1975 -- 76 the club entered the UEFA Cup after a second - place finish in the First Division. Victories over Hibernian (Scotland), Real Sociedad (Spain), Śląsk Wrocław (Poland), Dynamo Dresden (East Germany) and Barcelona (Spain) took Liverpool to their third European final. Crucial to their progress was goalkeeper Ray Clemence, who made two important penalty saves against Hibernian and Dresden, saving Liverpool from elimination on the away goals rule on both occasions. Their opponents in the final were Club Brugge of Belgium. Liverpool recovered from a two - goal deficit to win the first leg at Anfield 3 -- 2, with Ray Kennedy, Jimmy Case, and Keegan scoring a goal each in a span of six minutes. A 1 -- 1 draw at the Jan Breydel Stadion in Bruges meant Liverpool won 4 -- 3 on aggregate, earning their second UEFA Cup.
As the 1975 -- 76 league champions, the club entered the 1976 -- 77 European Cup. They defeated Crusaders of Northern Ireland and Trabzonspor of Turkey to reach the quarter - finals, where they faced the runners - up from the previous season, Saint - Étienne. The French team won the first leg 1 -- 0. The second leg at Anfield began well for Liverpool when Keegan scored in the first two minutes. Saint - Étienne equalised to make the score 2 -- 1 on aggregate in their favour. Kennedy scored for Liverpool, but the away goals rule meant they still needed another goal to win the tie. With six minutes remaining, David Fairclough was brought on to replace John Toshack; he immediately scored in front of the Kop, ensuring a 3 -- 2 aggregate victory for Liverpool. In the semi-finals, they defeated FC Zürich of Switzerland 6 -- 1 on aggregate to reach the final, where they met their opponents from the 1973 UEFA Cup Final, Borussia Mönchengladbach. The final was held in Rome, four days after the club had lost the 1977 FA Cup Final to Manchester United. Before the match, Paisley announced that striker Toshack would be fit to start. However, he was not named in the matchday squad. This change upset the Germans ' game plan and allowed Keegan to torment his marker, Berti Vogts. Liverpool won 3 -- 1 to become European champions for the first time.
By winning the European Cup, they qualified for the European Super Cup and played the winners of the Cup Winners ' Cup, German team Hamburg, who had just signed Keegan. Liverpool won the tie 7 -- 1 on aggregate. Liverpool entered the 1977 -- 78 European Cup as champions and received a bye in the first round. They defeated Dynamo Dresden and Portuguese team Benfica in the second round and quarter - finals, respectively. In the semi-final, the club again met Borussia Mönchengladbach, who won the first leg 2 -- 1. Liverpool won the second leg 3 -- 0, progressing to a second successive European Cup final, this time against Club Brugge at Wembley Stadium in London. In the final Kenny Dalglish, who had been signed to replace Keegan, scored the winning goal after receiving the ball from a Graeme Souness pass. The 1 -- 0 victory meant Liverpool became the first British team to retain the European Cup. They faced Anderlecht in the 1978 European Super Cup, but failed to retain the trophy, losing 4 -- 3 on aggregate against the Belgian side. Liverpool were eliminated in the first round of the 1978 -- 79 European Cup by English champions Nottingham Forest. Nottingham Forest won the tie 2 -- 0 on aggregate, and went on to win the competition. Liverpool entered the 1979 -- 80 European Cup as English champions but were again eliminated in the first round, this time beaten 4 -- 2 on aggregate by Dinamo Tbilisi of the Soviet Union.
Liverpool participated in the 1980 -- 81 European Cup as English league champions, defeating Finnish champions Oulun Palloseura, Scottish club Aberdeen and CSKA Sofia of Bulgaria to qualify for the semi-finals, where they faced three - time champions Bayern Munich. The first leg at Anfield finished goalless. In the second leg at the Olympiastadion in Munich, Ray Kennedy scored in the 83rd minute and, although the German side equalised, Liverpool went through to the final on the away goals rule. They faced Spanish side Real Madrid in the final, held at the Parc des Princes in Paris. Alan Kennedy scored the only goal to give Liverpool a 1 -- 0 victory, which secured the club 's -- and Paisley 's -- third European Cup. As champions of Europe, Liverpool competed in the Intercontinental Cup against South American champions Flamengo of Brazil. Liverpool lost the match 3 -- 0. The club 's defence of the European Cup in 1981 -- 82 was ended by CSKA Sofia in the quarter - finals. Another quarter - final exit occurred in the 1982 -- 83 European Cup when Polish club Widzew Łódź eliminated Liverpool 4 -- 3 on aggregate. Paisley retired as manager at the end of the season and was succeeded by his assistant, Joe Fagan.
Liverpool entered the 1983 -- 84 European Cup as league champions for the fourth time in five seasons. Victories over Odense of Denmark and Spanish champions Athletic Bilbao brought Liverpool to face Portuguese champions Benfica in the quarter - finals. Liverpool won the first leg at Anfield 1 -- 0. In the second leg, their tactic of withdrawing Dalglish into midfield put Benfica 's game plan into disarray, leading to a 4 -- 1 match victory and a 5 -- 1 aggregate victory. Their opponents in the semi-finals were Dinamo București of Romania. The tie proved a brutal encounter, characterised by Souness breaking the jaw of the Bucharest captain Lică Movilă, and was won 3 -- 1 on aggregate by Liverpool.
Fagan 's first season in charge of Liverpool had been a successful one. When they reached their fourth European Cup final, they had already won the Football League Cup and the league championship; victory in the European final against Italian side Roma would complete an unprecedented treble. The final was played at Rome 's Stadio Olimpico, and Liverpool went ahead in the 13th minute when Phil Neal scored, though Roma equalised towards the end of the first half. The score remained the same throughout full and extra time; Liverpool won the subsequent penalty shoot - out, with Alan Kennedy scoring the winning penalty after goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar had put off Francesco Graziani, causing him to place his penalty over the crossbar. After the game, gangs of Roma fans assaulted Liverpool supporters travelling back to their hotels. Success in the European Cup entitled Liverpool to compete in the 1984 Intercontinental Cup. However, they were unable to beat the winners of the Copa Libertadores, Independiente of Argentina, who claimed a 1 -- 0 victory.
Liverpool entered the 1984 -- 85 European Cup as champions, and once again progressed to the final, where their opponents were Juventus of Italy. They aimed to win their fifth European Cup and keep the trophy. The 1985 European Cup Final was held at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. The choice of venue had been criticised due to the dilapidated state of the stadium, and the club tried to persuade UEFA to change the venue. Before the kick - off, Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 people and injuring hundreds more. Despite calls for an abandonment, the match was played, as it was felt that further trouble would be caused otherwise.
Juventus won the match 1 -- 0; Michel Platini scored from the penalty spot to give Juventus their first European Cup. UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool fans: the official UEFA observer stated, "Only the English fans were responsible. Of that there is no doubt ''. Three days after the final, UEFA banned all English clubs from European competition for an indefinite period. Liverpool were initially given an additional three - year ban. Fagan retired after the 1984 -- 85 season and was succeeded by Dalglish, who took over as player - manager.
The ban on English clubs in European competitions ultimately lasted for five years, and even when the ban was lifted in 1990, Liverpool were not re-admitted; they had to serve an extra year. The ban prevented them qualifying for the European Cup in 1986 (as league champions and FA Cup winners), the UEFA Cup in 1987 (as league runners - up), the European Cup in 1988 (as league champions), the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1989 (as FA Cup winners) and the European Cup in 1990 (as league champions).
Liverpool were allowed to return to European competition in the 1991 -- 92 season, a year later than other English clubs. They qualified for the UEFA Cup as runners - up in the English league. Their manager by this stage was Graeme Souness, who had taken over towards the end of the previous season following Dalglish 's resignation.
Their first match, in the UEFA Cup, was against Finnish side Kuusyi Lahti, which they won 6 -- 1. A 6 -- 2 aggregate victory set up a tie against Auxerre of France in the second round who they beat 3 -- 2 on aggregate. The club defeated Swarovski Tirol of Austria in the third round 6 -- 0 on aggregate before losing to Genoa (Italy) 4 -- 1 over two legs in the quarter finals.
Liverpool 's victory over Sunderland in the 1992 FA Cup Final qualified them for the 1992 -- 93 European Cup Winners ' Cup, but this campaign was short - lived, as they were eliminated in the second round by Russian side Spartak Moscow. Liverpool finished no higher than sixth in the Premier League during the next two seasons, thus failing to qualify for European competition. In the 1995 -- 96 season, they entered the UEFA Cup, but again progressed no further than the second round, this time losing to Brøndby of Denmark.
As runners - up to League champions Manchester United in the 1996 FA Cup Final, Liverpool were able to compete in the 1996 -- 97 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup. This proved the club 's most successful campaign since their return to European competition, as they reached the semi-finals, where they were eliminated 3 -- 2 on aggregate by Paris Saint -- Germain. In the next two seasons, Liverpool played in the UEFA Cup but were eliminated at an early stage of the competition, by Strasbourg and Celta de Vigo, respectively. A seventh - place finish in the 1998 -- 99 FA Premier League meant the club did not qualify for Europe in 1999 -- 2000.
Having finished fourth in the 1999 -- 2000 FA Premier League, Liverpool qualified for the 2000 -- 01 UEFA Cup. Their victory in this competition marked a third win for a club. The entire season was the club 's most successful since the 1983 -- 84 season, as they won a cup treble consisting of the UEFA Cup, the FA Cup and the League Cup. Their opponents in the final in Dortmund were Alavés of Spain. The match was tied at 4 -- 4 in extra time when Alavés defender Delfí Geli scored an own goal to give Liverpool victory on the golden goal rule. The performance of Gary McAllister, whose free - kick resulted in the winning goal, was praised as "outstanding '' by Trevor Brooking. This was the club 's first European trophy since their European Cup victory in 1984. As UEFA Cup winners, Liverpool played in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup against Champions League winners Bayern Munich and won 3 -- 2.
In the 2001 -- 02 season, Liverpool returned to the European Cup, now called the UEFA Champions League, for the first time since the Heysel disaster. A 2 -- 0 victory over Roma in the second group stage meant they progressed to the quarter - finals. They faced German club Bayer Leverkusen and won the first leg 1 -- 0. The outlook for the second leg appeared to be to Liverpool 's advantage, as their counter-attacking style of play had served them well during away matches throughout the season; however, they lost the second leg 4 -- 2 and were eliminated 4 -- 3 on aggregate.
A second - place finish in the 2001 -- 02 FA Premier League entitled Liverpool to participate in the Champions League for a second successive season, but they only finished third in their group and were eliminated from the competition. The third - place finish meant they entered the 2002 -- 03 UEFA Cup. Liverpool beat Dutch team Vitesse Arnhem and Auxerre to set up an all - British tie with Scottish team Celtic. A 1 -- 1 draw in the first leg meant Liverpool would progress to the semi-finals if they did not concede a goal in the second leg at Anfield. However, Celtic scored before half - time and again in the second half to win 3 -- 1 on aggregate.
Liverpool entered the UEFA Cup for the 2003 -- 04 season, after Chelsea beat them on the final day of the previous league season to claim the fourth place needed to qualify for the Champions League. Liverpool were eliminated in the fourth round by eventual runners - up Marseille of France. At the end of the season, manager Gérard Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez.
Liverpool had finished fourth in the 2003 -- 04 season, which qualified them to compete in the Champions League in the 2004 -- 05 season. A poor start in the group stages, with two losses in their first five games, had the club facing elimination. A 3 -- 1 victory over Greek side Olympiacos, however, eventually ensured their passage to the knock - out rounds. Liverpool beat Bayer Leverkusen and Juventus to reach the semi-finals, and progressed to the final after they beat Chelsea 1 -- 0 on aggregate; the goal scored by Luis García was referred to as a "ghost goal '' by Chelsea manager José Mourinho, as it was unclear whether the ball crossed the goal line. Liverpool 's performances in Europe contrasted strongly with their league form, where they struggled to finish in the top - four and thus ensure qualification for the next Champions League season.
Liverpool faced six - time European champions Milan in the final at the Atatürk Stadium in Istanbul on 25 May 2005. Trailing 3 -- 0 at half - time, they scored three goals in a six - minute spell in the second half to level the score at 3 -- 3. There were no goals during extra time, so the match was decided by a penalty shoot - out. With the shoot - out score at 3 -- 2, Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek saved Andriy Shevchenko 's penalty to give Liverpool victory. The nature of Liverpool 's comeback victory has led to the match being referred to as the "miracle of Istanbul. '' As this was the club 's fifth European Cup victory, Liverpool were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs ' Cup permanently, and a new trophy was commissioned for the following year 's competition. The victory also entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2005 UEFA Super Cup at Stade Louis II, Monaco in August. They defeated UEFA Cup winners CSKA Moscow of Russia 3 -- 1 (aet.) to win their third Super Cup. Their success in the Champions League meant Liverpool also qualified for the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship, where they lost 1 -- 0 in the final to Brazilian team São Paulo.
A fifth - place finish in the Premier League in 2004 -- 05 meant Liverpool were not guaranteed entry into the Champions League, and faced the prospect of not being able to defend their European title. UEFA eventually ruled that they would be allowed to do so, but would be required to start in the first qualifying round, with no country protection, meaning they could face a team from England in the group stages. This turned out to be the case -- Liverpool advanced through three qualifying rounds and were drawn with Chelsea in the group stages. They progressed from their group as winners but were beaten by Benfica in the first knock - out round.
In the 2006 -- 07 Champions League, Liverpool progressed from the group stages and beat holders Barcelona, PSV and Chelsea to face Milan in a rematch of the 2005 final. The Liverpool team, which contained only five players from the 2005 final, enjoyed more possession than in 2005, but two goals from Filippo Inzaghi gave Milan their seventh European Cup in a 2 -- 1 win.
Liverpool were eliminated from the 2007 -- 08 Champions League in the semi-finals by Chelsea, who they had beaten in the semi-finals in 2005 and 2007. A fourth - place finish in the 2007 -- 08 Premier League secured their entry into the 2008 -- 09 Champions League. Liverpool reached the quarter - finals and again faced Chelsea, but lost 7 -- 5 on aggregate.
A second - place finish in the 2008 -- 09 Premier League entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2009 -- 10 UEFA Champions League, but their campaign was short - lived; they finished third in their group, and were eliminated from the competition. They entered the 2009 -- 10 UEFA Europa League, progressing to the semi-finals, where they were eliminated by eventual winners Atlético Madrid of Spain on the away goals rule after the tie finished 2 -- 2 on aggregate.
Rafael Benítez left the club at the end of the 2009 -- 10 season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson. A seventh - place finish in the 2009 -- 10 Premier League meant Liverpool would be competing in the 2010 -- 11 Europa League. They beat Rabotnički of Macedonia and Trabzonspor of Turkey to progress to the group stage, where Liverpool were drawn alongside Napoli, FC Utrecht and Steaua București. They won two games and drew four to finish top of their group with ten points and progress to the round of 32. They were drawn against Sparta Prague in the next round. Before the tie was played, however, Hodgson was replaced by former manager Kenny Dalglish, who initially served as a caretaker manager. A 1 -- 0 aggregate victory ensured progression to the round of 16, in which Liverpool lost 1 -- 0 on aggregate to eventual runners - up Braga. A sixth - place finish in the 2010 -- 11 Premier League meant the club failed to qualify for European competition for the first time since 1999. On the following season, victory in the League Cup final ensured Liverpool a place in the 2012 -- 13 Europa League.
Liverpool qualified for the knockout phase of the 2012 -- 13 Europa League after winning their group at the group stage, but were eliminated from the competition at the round of 32 by Zenit Saint Petersburg on the away goals rule after a 0 -- 2 loss away and a 3 -- 1 win at home. A seventh - place finish in the 2012 -- 13 Premier League and a failure to secure qualification via domestic cups meant Liverpool failed to qualify for any European competition in the 2013 -- 14 season. A second - placed finish in the 2013 -- 14 Premier League, ensured Liverpool qualified for the group stage of the 2014 -- 15 Champions League. One win out of six in the group stage meant they were eliminated and entered into the knockout phase of the 2014 -- 15 Europa League. The campaign was short - lived, as Liverpool eliminated by Beşiktaş in the round of 32.
Finishing sixth in the 2014 -- 15 Premier League qualified Liverpool directly to the group stage of the 2015 -- 16 Europa League, where they faced Sion, Bordeaux and for the first time, Russian side Rubin Kazan. During the group stage, manager Brendan Rodgers was replaced by Jürgen Klopp. After winning the group, Liverpool qualified for the knockout phase, beating FC Augsburg in the round of 32 before facing bitter rivals Manchester United in the round of 16, the two clubs ' first meeting in Europe. Liverpool defeated them 3 -- 1 on aggregate and victory led to a quarter - final tie with Klopp 's former team Borussia Dortmund. After a 1 -- 1 draw in the first leg at Signal Iduna Park, Dortmund went 3 -- 1 up in the return leg at Anfield with 33 minutes remaining, requiring Liverpool to score three goals due to the Away goals rule. Goals from Philippe Coutinho, Mamadou Sakho and a last minute winner from Dejan Lovren, however, saw Liverpool complete the comeback and qualify for their first European semi-final since 2010. There they faced Villarreal, completing a second comeback after overturning a 1 -- 0 defeat in the first leg at El Madrigal to qualify for the final with a 3 -- 1 aggregate win. Liverpool played Sevilla in the final at St. Jakob - Park, Basel, on 18 May, losing 3 -- 1. A 4th - place finish in the 2016 -- 17 Premier League qualified Liverpool for the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League and a return to Europe 's premier club tournament for only the second time in 8 years during the 2010s. On 17 October 2017, Liverpool won 7 - 0 away to Maribor in the third round of matches of the group stage of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League. The win was a record away win for Liverpool in European competitions and also the biggest away win by an English team in the history of the European Cup. After qualifying top of their group, they proceeded to defeat Porto 5 - 0 at the Estadio de Dragao, before holding them to a 0 - 0 draw on the return leg, then defeated domestic rivals Manchester City 3 - 0 and 2 - 1, and in the semi-finals, defeated Roma 5 - 2 at Anfield, before a 4 - 2 loss led to a 7 - 6 aggregate win, taking them to the final, against holders Real Madrid.
Key
Key to colours:
|
when was the last time mexico made it to the world cup | Mexico national football team - wikipedia
The Mexico national football team (Spanish: Selección de fútbol de México) represents Mexico in international football and is governed by the Mexican Football Federation (Spanish: Federación Mexicana de Fútbol). It competes as a member of CONCACAF, which encompasses the countries of North and Central America, and the Caribbean. Mexico 's home stadium is the Estadio Azteca in Mexico City, and the head coach is Juan Carlos Osorio.
Mexico has qualified to sixteen World Cups and has qualified consecutively since 1994, making it one of six countries to do so. The Mexico national team, along with Brazil are the only two nations to make it out of the group stage over the last seven World Cups. Along with Germany, Brazil, Italy, Argentina, France, Spain and Uruguay, Mexico is one of eight nations to have won two of the three most important football tournaments (the World Cup, Confederations Cup, and Summer Olympics), having won the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Mexico played France in the very first match of the first World Cup on 13 July 1930. Mexico 's best progression in World Cups has been reaching the quarter - finals in both the 1970 and 1986 World Cups, both of which were staged on Mexican soil.
Mexico is historically the most successful national team in the CONCACAF region, having won ten confederation titles, including seven CONCACAF Gold Cups and three CONCACAF Championships (the precursor to the Gold Cup), as well as three NAFC Championships, one North American Nations Cup, and one CONCACAF Cup. Mexico is the only team from CONCACAF to have won an official FIFA competition, winning the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup. Although Mexico is under the jurisdiction of CONCACAF, the national team has been regularly invited to compete in the Copa América since 1993, finishing runner - up twice -- in 1993 and 2001 -- and obtaining the third - place medal on three occasions.
Football in Mexico was first organized in the early 20th century by European immigrant groups, notably miners from Cornwall, England, and in later years Spanish exiles fleeing the Spanish Civil War.
Mexico 's first match was played against Guatemala, which Mexico won 3 -- 2. A series of international friendlies were played against the national representation of Guatemala on 9, 12 and 16 December 1923. The match on 9 December was played in Parque España which Mexico won 2 -- 1. On 12 December, the match ended in a 2 -- 0 win for Mexico, and the final game of the series ended in a 3 -- 3 draw. The manager for this team was Rafael Garza Gutiérrez.
It would be another four years before the national team would be represented in international friendlies. On 19 June 1927, Mexico faced Spain, drawing 3 -- 3. During this series, the squad also played against the Uruguayan club Nacional de Montevideo, losing 1 -- 3.
In 1927, the official governing body of football in Mexico was founded. The 1928 Summer Olympics was Mexico 's first international tournament, where Mexico lost to Spain 1 -- 7 in the round of 16.
Mexico participated in the 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay, grouped with Argentina, Chile, and France. Mexico 's first match was a 4 -- 1 loss to France, with Mexico 's first World Cup goal by Juan Carreño. In their second match, Mexico fell to Chile 3 -- 0. Mexico 's third match, against Argentina, featured the first penalty of the tournament, scored by Mexico 's Manuel Rosas.
Mexico did not appear again in a FIFA World Cup tournament until the 1950 World Cup. Before 1970, Mexico struggled to make much of an impact in the World Cup. It was by far the strongest team in the North American Football Confederation and its successor, CONCACAF, but found it difficult to compete against European and South American teams. However, goalkeeper Antonio Carbajal has the distinction of being the first player ever to appear in five consecutive World Cups.
In 1965, Mexico won the 1965 CONCACAF Championship to become continental champions for the first time.
In 1970, Mexico hosted the World Cup and kicked off their campaign with a scoreless draw against the Soviet Union. This was followed by a 4 -- 0 win over El Salvador. Mexico advanced to the next round with a victory against Belgium. At the quarter - finals stage, Mexico was eliminated by Italy, losing 4 -- 1.
Mexico failed to qualify for the 1974 World Cup, but did make it into the 1978 finals. Mexico suffered an early exit after three defeats: 0 -- 6 against West Germany, 1 -- 3 against Tunisia, and 1 -- 3 to Poland. Mexico failed to qualify for the 1982 World Cup.
In 1986, Mexico again hosted the World Cup. Coached by Bora Milutinović, Mexico was placed in Group B where they defeated Belgium 2 -- 1, drew 1 -- 1 with Paraguay, and defeated Iraq 1 -- 0. With this performance, Mexico won the top spot in its group, and advanced to the next round where they defeated Bulgaria 2 -- 0. In the quarter - finals stage, Mexico lost to West Germany 1 -- 4 in a penalty shootout after the match finished 0 -- 0.
Mexico was disqualified from the 1990 FIFA World Cup (and other international competition) after using players over the age limit in the qualifying round for the 1989 FIFA World Youth Championship, known as the "Cachirules '' scandal. The punishment was applied to all Mexico national representatives of all FIFA - sanctioned tournaments.
In the 1990s, after hiring coach César Luis Menotti, Mexican football began experiencing greater international success. In the 1993 Copa América they finished second, losing to Argentina 2 -- 1 in the final.
At the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Mexico won its group on tiebreakers, emerging from a group composed of Italy, Ireland, and Norway. However, Mexico lost in the second round to Bulgaria on penalty kicks.
At the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Mexico was placed in a group with the Netherlands, South Korea and Belgium. Mexico won their opening fixture 3 -- 1 against South Korea. Mexico tied Belgium 2 -- 2, and against the Netherlands earned another 2 -- 2 draw, qualifying for the round of 16. In that round, Mexico lost 2 -- 1 to Germany.
In 1999, Mexico won its first official FIFA tournament by becoming the first host nation to win the FIFA Confederations Cup. Mexico defeated the United States 1 -- 0 in the semifinals, and 1998 World Cup runners - up Brazil 4 -- 3 in the final.
Mexico was placed in Group G at the 2002 World Cup alongside Italy, Croatia, and Ecuador. Mexico started with a 1 -- 0 win over Croatia. In the second match, Mexico earned a 2 -- 1 win over Ecuador. Mexico then achieved a 1 -- 1 draw against Italy. In the round of 16, Mexico played rivals United States, losing 2 -- 0.
Mexico was one of eight seeded teams at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. Mexico was in Group D with Iran, Angola and Portugal. Mexico won their opening match 3 -- 1 against Iran. In their second match, Mexico played to a 0 -- 0 draw against Angola. Mexico reached the round - of - 16, despite losing to Portugal 2 -- 1. Mexico saw another round of 16 loss, this time to Argentina, 2 -- 1. Mexico 's coach Ricardo Lavolpe stepped down after the tournament, and was succeeded by Hugo Sánchez.
After losing the final match of the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup 1 -- 2 against the United States, Mexico successfully rebounded at the 2007 Copa América. Beginning by beating Brazil 2 -- 0, they then defeated Ecuador and tied with Chile to come first in Group B. In the quarter - finals, Mexico beat Paraguay 6 -- 0, but lost in the semi-finals 3 -- 0 to Argentina. Mexico secured third place against Uruguay, winning 3 -- 1.
In July 2009, Mexico won their fifth Gold Cup, and eighth CONCACAF Championship overall, after beating the United States 5 -- 0 in the final.
Mexico qualified for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, where they were drawn into Group A alongside host South Africa, France and Uruguay. They drew 1 -- 1 against South Africa, defeated France 2 -- 0, and lost 1 -- 0 to Uruguay, and advanced to the round of 16, where they were eliminated following a 1 -- 3 defeat to Argentina.
The 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup saw Mexico win their group with three wins and no losses. During the tournament, however, five players tested positive for the banned substance clenbuterol and were suspended from the competition. Mexico beat Guatemala in the quarter - finals 2 -- 1, and beat Honduras 2 -- 0. For the third - straight year, the final would be contested between Mexico and the United States; Mexico won the match 4 -- 2, and qualified for the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in Brazil, where they were eliminated at the group stage.
Mexico placed second in their group at the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup, and advanced to the semifinals and faced Panama. Mexico lost the match 2 -- 1, their second defeat to Panama in the competition after losing to them in the group stage. The two losses to Panama were the first two times Panama had ever defeated Mexico in a Gold Cup match.
Mexico won only two of ten matches during the fourth round of 2014 World Cup qualifying, but qualified for an intercontinental play - off as the fourth - highest placed team in the CONCACAF region. They defeated New Zealand 9 -- 3 on aggregate to qualify for a sixth consecutive World Cup. The team reached the round of 16 where they were defeated 2 -- 1 by the Netherlands.
At the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup, Mexico was drawn into Group C along with Triniad and Tobago, Cuba and Guatemala. The team placed second in the group, and won the quarterfinal match against Costa Rica and semifinal against Panama, both under controversial circumstances. Mexico won the Gold Cup after defeating Jamaica 3 -- 1 in the final. Two days after the final, Miguel Herrera was released as coach of the national team after an alleged physical altercation with TV Azteca announcer Christian Martinoli. On 10 October, Mexico defeated the United States 3 -- 2 to win the inagural edition of the CONCACAF Cup, thus earning qualification to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia. The following month, Juan Carlos Osorio was hired as Mexico 's 16th manager, replacing interim manager Ricardo Ferretti.
Mexico entered the Copa América Centenario, hosted in the United States, on a 13 - match unbeaten streak that began in July 2015. El Tri placed first in Group C, winning 3 -- 1 over Uruguay and 2 -- 0 over Jamaica, and drawing 1 -- 1 with Venezuela. In the quarterfinal against Chile in Santa Clara, California, the team lost 7 -- 0, ending the unbeaten streak at 16 after nearly a year. After the match, manager Osorio apologized to Mexico 's fans for what he described as an "embarrassment, an accident of football ''.
At the 2017 Confederations Cup, Mexico was drawn into Group A along with Portugal, New Zealand, and hosts Russia. El Tri advanced as runners - up of the group, and lost 4 -- 1 to Germany in the semi-finals. Mexico finished fourth in the tournament, losing 2 -- 1 to Portugal in the third - place match.
In their opening match of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Mexico defeated defending champion Germany, 1 -- 0, for the first time in a World Cup match. They would go on to defeat South Korea 2 -- 1 in the next game, with goals from Carlos Vela and Javier Hernández, but would fall 3 -- 0 to Sweden in the last group stage match. Despite the loss, Mexico qualified to the round of 16 for the seventh - consecutive tournament. In the round of 16, Mexico was defeated 0 -- 2 by Brazil; the defeat meant that for the seventh tournament in a row, Mexico failed to reach the quarterfinals since they last hosted the World Cup in 1986.
The Estadio Azteca, also known in Spanish as "El Coloso de Santa Úrsula '', was built in 1966. It is the official home stadium of the Mexican national team, as well as the Mexican club team Club América. It has a capacity of 87,000 seats (after renovation works) making it the largest football - specific stadium in the Americas and the third largest stadium in the world for that sport. The stadium hosted the FIFA World Cup Final in 1970 and 1986.
Friendly matches hosted by the Mexican national team often take place in stadiums across the United States as well as throughout Mexico, including the Azteca.
The Mexico national team traditionally utilizes a tricolor system, composed of green shirts, white shorts and red socks, which originate from the national flag of Mexico, known as the tricolor. Until the mid-1950s, Mexico wore a predominantly maroon kit, with black or dark blue shorts.
In 2015, Adidas released a new all - black color scheme for Mexico 's home kit. Green, white and red remain as accent colors.
Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On 15 August 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years.
Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 65 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 33 -- 18 -- 14 (W -- L -- D), outscoring the U.S. 131 -- 75. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During this decade, Mexico continued to hold an edge over their arch - rivals but since the 2000s the series has favored the U.S. 13 -- 6 -- 5 (W -- L -- D).
All of Mexico 's matches are shown live on over-the - air networks Televisa and TV Azteca in Mexico. In the United States all of Mexico 's international friendlies and home World Cup qualifiers are shown on Spanish language network Univision while away World Cup qualifiers are shown on Telemundo. On 30 January 2013, English language network ESPN and Univision announced an agreement to telecast the Mexico national team home World Cup qualifiers and international friendly matches in English in the United States.
Mexico 's fans are infamously known for the chant "¡ eeeh puto!, '' which is typically screamed when an opponent 's goalkeeper is about to perform a goalkick. Due to the homophobic meaning of the word puto in Mexican Spanish (a vulgar term for a male prostitute), the chant received negative attention in the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Amid an investigation conducted on the subject by FIFA authorities, Mexico 's fans defended the chant by claiming that it was traditionally used in the Liga MX. On 23 June 2014, FIFA dropped the case against Mexico, concluding that the chant "was not considered insulting in the specific context. '' Nonetheless, Football Against Racism in Europe, a leading anti-discrimination organization, criticized FIFA 's ruling as "disappointing. ''
The following players were called up for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Caps and goals correct as of 2 July 2018, after the match against Brazil. Including only official FIFA caps.
The following players have also been called up to the Mexico squad within last 12 months.
Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury. Preliminary squad. Player retired from the national team. Player is serving a suspension. Player withdrew for personal reasons.
Win Draw Loss
Players in bold text are still active with Mexico. As of 2 July 2018.
Players in bold text are still active with Mexico. As of 2 July 2018.
For the all - time record of the national team against opposing nations, see the team 's all - time record page.
|
where are androgen receptors located in the body | Androgen receptor - wikipedia
1E3G, 1GS4, 1T5Z, 1T63, 1T65, 1XJ7, 1XOW, 1XQ3, 1Z95, 2AM9, 2AMA, 2AMB, 2AO6, 2AX6, 2AX7, 2AX8, 2AX9, 2AXA, 2HVC, 2OZ7, 2PIO, 2PIP, 2PIQ, 2PIR, 2PIT, 2PIU, 2PIV, 2PIW, 2PIX, 2PKL, 2PNU, 2Q7I, 2Q7J, 2Q7K, 2YHD, 2YLO, 2YLP, 2YLQ, 2Z4J, 3B5R, 3B65, 3B66, 3B67, 3B68, 3BTR, 3V49, 3V4A, 3ZQT, 4HLW, 3L3X, 3L3Z, 3RLJ, 3RLL, 4K7A, 4OEA, 4OED, 4OEY, 4OEZ, 4OFR, 4OFU, 4OGH, 4OH5, 4OH6, 4OHA, 4OIL, 4OIU, 4OJ9, 4OJB, 4OK1, 4OKB, 4OKT, 4OKW, 4OKX, 4OLM, 4QL8, 5CJ6
367
11835
n / a
ENSMUSG00000046532
P10275
P19091
NM_001011645 NM_000044
NM_013476
NP_000035. 2 NP_001011645. 1
NP_038504
The androgen receptor (AR), also known as NR3C4 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 4), is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding either of the androgenic hormones, testosterone, or dihydrotestosterone in the cytoplasm and then translocating into the nucleus. The androgen receptor is most closely related to the progesterone receptor, and progestins in higher dosages can block the androgen receptor.
The main function of the androgen receptor is as a DNA - binding transcription factor that regulates gene expression; however, the androgen receptor has other functions as well. Androgen regulated genes are critical for the development and maintenance of the male sexual phenotype.
In some cell types, testosterone interacts directly with androgen receptors, whereas, in others, testosterone is converted by 5 - alpha - reductase to dihydrotestosterone, an even more potent agonist for androgen receptor activation. Testosterone appears to be the primary androgen receptor - activating hormone in the Wolffian duct, whereas dihydrotestosterone is the main androgenic hormone in the urogenital sinus, urogenital tubercle, and hair follicles. Hence, testosterone is responsible primarily for the development of male primary sexual characteristics, whereas dihydrotestosterone is responsible for secondary male characteristics.
Androgens cause slow epiphysis, or maturation of the bones, but more of the potent epiphysis effect comes from the estrogen produced by aromatization of androgens. Steroid users of teen age may find that their growth had been stunted by androgen and / or estrogen excess. People with too little sex hormones can be short during puberty but end up taller as adults as in androgen insensitivity syndrome or estrogen insensitivity syndrome.
Also, AR knockout - mice studies have shown that AR is essential for normal female fertility, being required for development and full functionality of the ovarian follicles and ovulation, working through both intra-ovarian and neuroendocrine mechanisms.
Via the Androgen receptor, androgens play a key role in the maintenance of male skeletal integrity. The regulation of this integrity by androgen receptor (AR) signaling can be attributed to both osteoblasts and osteocytes.
The primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of gene transcription. The binding of an androgen to the androgen receptor results in a conformational change in the receptor that, in turn, causes dissociation of heat shock proteins, transport from the cytosol into the cell nucleus, and dimerization. The androgen receptor dimer binds to a specific sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element. Androgen receptors interact with other proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up - or down - regulation of specific gene transcription. Up - regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of messenger RNA, which, in turn, is translated by ribosomes to produce specific proteins. One of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin - like growth factor I receptor (IGF - 1R). Thus, changes in levels of specific proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior.
One function of androgen receptor that is independent of direct binding to its target DNA sequence, is facilitated by recruitment via other DNA - binding proteins. One example is serum response factor, a protein that activates several genes that cause muscle growth.
Androgen receptor is modified by post translational modification through acetylation, which directly promotes AR mediated transactivation, apoptosis and contact independent growth of prostate cancer cells. AR acetylation is induced by androgens and determines recruitment into chromatin. The AR acetylation site is a key target of NAD - dependent and TSA - dependent histone deacetylases and long non coding RNA.
More recently, androgen receptors have been shown to have a second mode of action. As has been also found for other steroid hormone receptors such as estrogen receptors, androgen receptors can have actions that are independent of their interactions with DNA. Androgen receptors interact with certain signal transduction proteins in the cytoplasm. Androgen binding to cytoplasmic androgen receptors can cause rapid changes in cell function independent of changes in gene transcription, such as changes in ion transport. Regulation of signal transduction pathways by cytoplasmic androgen receptors can indirectly lead to changes in gene transcription, for example, by leading to phosphorylation of other transcription factors.
In humans, the androgen receptor is encoded by the AR gene located on the X chromosome at Xq11 - 12.
The androgen insensitivity syndrome, formerly known as testicular feminization, is caused by a mutation of the androgen receptor gene located on the X chromosome (locus: Xq11 - Xq12). The androgen receptor seems to affect neuron physiology and is defective in Kennedy 's disease. In addition, point mutations and trinucleotide repeat polymorphisms has been linked to a number of additional disorders.
The AR gene contains CAG repeats which affect receptor function, where fewer repeats leads to increased receptor sensitivity to circulating androgens and more repeats leads to decreased receptor sensitivity. Studies have shown that racial variation in CAG repeats exists, with African - Americans having fewer repeats, Caucasians having an intermediate number of repeats, and Asians having the longest. The racial trends in CAG repeats parallels the incidence and mortality of prostate cancer in these groups.
Two isoforms of the androgen receptor (A and B) have been identified:
Like other nuclear receptors, the androgen receptor is modular in structure and is composed of the following functional domains labeled A through F:
AR - V7 is an androgen receptor splice variant that can be detected in circulating tumor cells of metastatic prostate cancer patients. and is predictive of resistance to some drugs.
The AR is important for therapeutic target in prostate cancer, thus many different inhibitors have been developed, primarily targeting the ligand binding domain of the protein, while inhibitors that target the N - terminal domain of the protein are still under development. AR ligands can either be classified based on their structure (steroidal or nonsteroidal) or based on their ability to activate or inhibit transcription (agonists or antagonists). Sulforaphane, a phytochemical derived from broccoli or the HSP90 inhibitor ganetespib or the NRF2 activator bardoxolone methyl has been shown to degrade both AR and AR - V7 and thus enhance the efficacy of antagonists like enzalutamide.
Androgen receptor has been shown to interact with:
|
• what was new imperialism and how was it different from colonialism in the americas | New imperialism - wikipedia
In historical contexts, New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest, and exploiting the resources of the subjugated countries. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers (and Japan) individually conquered almost all of Africa and parts of Asia. The new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission '' ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II.
The qualifier "new '' is used to differentiate modern imperialism from earlier imperial activity, such as the so - called first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early - 19th centuries. In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and Siberia; they then later established more outposts in Africa and Asia.
The American Revolution (1775 -- 83) and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America around 1820 ended the first era of European imperialism. Especially in Great Britain these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, the doctrine of economic competition for finite wealth which had supported earlier imperial expansion. In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers gained, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were then able to trade more freely. Thus, Britain began to adopt the concept of free trade.
During this period, between the 1815 Congress of Vienna after the defeat of Napoleonic France and the end of the Franco - Prussian War in 1871, Britain reaped the benefits of being the world 's sole modern, industrial power. As the "workshop of the world '', Britain could produce finished goods so efficiently that they could usually undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in foreign markets, even supplying a large share of the manufactured goods consumed by such nations as the German states, France, Belgium, and the United States.
The erosion of British hegemony after the Franco - Prussian War, in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France, was occasioned by changes in the European and world economies and in the continental balance of power following the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, established by the Congress of Vienna. The establishment of nation - states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe, to Britain 's advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an extremely unstable peace. France 's determination to recover Alsace - Lorraine, annexed by Germany as a result of the Franco - Prussian War, and Germany 's mounting imperialist ambitions would keep the two nations constantly poised for conflict.
This competition was sharpened by the Long Depression of 1873 -- 1896, a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns, which put pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe 's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881).
The Berlin Conference of 1884 -- 1885 sought to destroy the competition between the powers by defining "effective occupation '' as the criterion for international recognition of a territory claim, specifically in Africa. The imposition of direct rule in terms of "effective occupation '' necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. Uprisings against imperial rule were put down ruthlessly, most spectacularly in the Herero Wars in German South - West Africa from 1904 to 1907 and the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa from 1905 to 1907. One of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, and boundaries of Central Africa. However, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African.
The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain and Portugal. They remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies. The attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the slave trade in Africa.
In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes. Because the country was the first to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, other countries such as Germany, the United States, Russia, and Italy soon matched Britain in technological and economic power. After several decades of monopoly, the country was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other powers became more involved in international markets. In 1870, Britain contained 31.8 % of the world 's manufacturing capacity while the United States contained 23.3 % and Germany contained 13.2 %. By 1910, Britain 's manufacturing capacity had dropped to 14.7 %, while that of the United States had risen to 35.3 % and that of Germany to 15.9 %. As countries like Germany and America became more economically successful, they began to become more involved with imperialism, resulting in the British struggling to maintain the volume of British trade and investment overseas.
Britain further faced strained international relations with three expansionist powers (Japan, Germany, and Italy) during the early twentieth century. Before 1939, these three powers never directly threatened Britain itself, but the indirect dangers to the Empire were clear. By the 1930s, Britain worried that Japan would threaten its holdings in the Far East as well as territories in India, Australia and New Zealand. Italy held an interest in North Africa, which threatened British Egypt, and German dominance of the European continent held some danger for Britain 's security. Britain worried that the expansionist powers would cause the breakdown of international stability; as such, British foreign policy attempted to protect the stability in a rapidly changing world. With its stability and holdings threatened, Britain decided to adopt a policy of concession rather than resistance, a policy that became known as appeasement.
In Britain, the era of new imperialism affected public attitudes toward the idea of imperialism itself. Most of the public believed that if imperialism was going to exist, it was best if Britain was the driving force behind it. The same people further thought that British imperialism was a force for good in the world. In 1940, the Fabian Colonial Research Bureau argued that Africa could be developed both economically and socially, but until this development could happen, Africa was best off remaining with the British Empire. Rudyard Kipling 's 1891 poem, "The English Flag, '' contains the stanza:
Winds of the World, give answer! They are whimpering to and fro -- And what should they know of England who only England know? -- The poor little street - bred people that vapour and fume and brag, They are lifting their heads in the stillness to yelp at the English Flag!
These lines show Kipling 's belief that the British who actively took part in imperialism knew more about British national identity than the ones whose entire lives were spent solely in the imperial metropolis. While there were pockets of anti-imperialist opposition in Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, resistance to imperialism was nearly nonexistent in the country as a whole. In many ways, this new form of imperialism formed a part of the British identity until the end of the era of new imperialism around the Second World War.
New Imperialism gave rise to new social views of colonialism. Rudyard Kipling, for instance, urged the United States to "Take up the White Man 's burden '' of bringing European civilization to the other peoples of the world, regardless of whether these "other peoples '' wanted this civilization or not. This part of The White Man 's Burden exemplifies Britain 's perceived attitude towards the colonization of other countries:
Take up the White Man 's burden -- In patience to abide, To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain To seek another 's profit, And work another 's gain.
While Social Darwinism became popular throughout Western Europe and the United States, the paternalistic French and Portuguese "civilizing mission '' (in French: mission civilisatrice; in Portuguese: Missão civilizadora) appealed to many European statesmen both in and outside France. Despite apparent benevolence existing in the notion of the "White Man 's Burden '', the unintended consequences of imperialism might have greatly outweighed the potential benefits. Governments became increasingly paternalistic at home and neglected the individual liberties of their citizens. Military spending expanded, usually leading to an "imperial overreach '', and imperialism created clients of ruling elites abroad that were brutal and corrupt, consolidating power through imperial rents and impeding social change and economic development that ran against their ambitions. Furthermore, "nation building '' oftentimes created cultural sentiments of racism and xenophobia.
Many of Europe 's major elites also found advantages in formal, overseas expansion: large financial and industrial monopolies wanted imperial support to protect their overseas investments against competition and domestic political tensions abroad, bureaucrats sought government offices, military officers desired promotion, and the traditional but waning landed gentries sought increased profits for their investments, formal titles, and high office. Such special interests have perpetuated empire building throughout history.
Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass society both in Europe and later in North America, elites sought to use imperial jingoism to co-opt the support of part of the industrial working class. The new mass media promoted jingoism in the Spanish -- American War (1898), the Second Boer War (1899 -- 1902), and the Boxer Rebellion (1900). The left - wing German historian Hans - Ulrich Wehler has defined social imperialism as "the diversions outwards of internal tensions and forces of change in order to preserve the social and political status quo '', and as a "defensive ideology '' to counter the "disruptive effects of industrialization on the social and economic structure of Germany ''. In Wehler 's opinion, social imperialism was a device that allowed the German government to distract public attention from domestic problems and preserve the existing social and political order. The dominant elites used social imperialism as the glue to hold together a fractured society and to maintain popular support for the social status quo. According to Wehler, German colonial policy in the 1880s was the first example of social imperialism in action, and was followed up by the 1897 Tirpitz Plan for expanding the German Navy. In this point of view, groups such as the Colonial Society and the Navy League are seen as instruments for the government to mobilize public support. The demands for annexing most of Europe and Africa in World War I are seen by Wehler as the pinnacle of social imperialism.
The notion of rule over foreign lands commanded widespread acceptance among metropolitan populations, even among those who associated imperial colonization with oppression and exploitation. For example, the 1904 Congress of the Socialist International concluded that the colonial peoples should be taken in hand by future European socialist governments and led by them into eventual independence.
In the 17th century, the British businessmen arrived in India and, after taking a small portion of land, formed the East India Company. The British East India Company annexed most of the country of India, starting with Bengal in 1757 and ending with Punjab in 1849. Many princely states remained independent. This was aided by a power vacuum formed by the collapse of the Mughal Empire in India and the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and increased British forces in India because of colonial conflicts with France. The invention of clipper ships in the early 1800s cut the trip to India from Europe in half from 6 months to 3 months; the British also laid cables on the floor of the ocean allowing telegrams to be sent from India and China. In 1818, the British controlled most of the Indian subcontinent and began imposing their ideas and ways on its residents, including different succession laws that allowed the British to take over a state with no successor and gain its land and armies, new taxes, and monopolistic control of industry. The British also collaborated with Indian officials to increase their influence in the region.
Some Hindu and Muslim Sepoys rebelled in 1857, resulting in the Indian Mutiny. After this revolt was suppressed by the British, India came under the direct control of the British crown. After the British had gained more control over India, they began changing around the financial state of India. Previously, Europe had to pay for Indian textiles and spices in bullion; with political control, Britain directed farmers to grow cash crops for the company for exports to Europe while India became a market for textiles from Britain. In addition, the British collected huge revenues from land rent and taxes on its acquired monopoly on salt production. Indian weavers were replaced by new spinning and weaving machines and Indian food crops were replaced by cash crops like cotton and tea.
The British also began connecting Indian cities by railroad and telegraph to make travel and communication easier as well as building an irrigation system for increasing agricultural production. When Western education was introduced in India, Indians were quite influenced by it, but the inequalities between the British ideals of governance and their treatment of Indians became clear. In response to this discriminatory treatment, a group of educated Indians established the Indian National Congress, demanding equal treatment and self - governance.
John Robert Seeley, a Cambridge Professor of History, said, "Our acquisition of India was made blindly. Nothing great that has ever been done by Englishmen was done so unintentionally or accidentally as the conquest of India ''. According to him, the political control of India was not a conquest in the usual sense because it was not an act of a state.
The new administrative arrangement, crowned with Queen Victoria 's proclamation as Empress of India in 1876, effectively replaced the rule of a monopolistic enterprise with that of a trained civil service headed by graduates of Britain 's top universities. The administration retained and increased the monopolies held by the company. The India Salt Act of 1882 included regulations enforcing a government monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt; in 1923 a bill was passed doubling the salt tax.
After taking control of much of India, the British expanded further into Burma, Malaya, Singapore and Borneo, with these colonies becoming further sources of trade and raw materials for British goods.
Formal colonisation of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) commenced at the dawn of the 19th century when the Dutch state took possession of all Dutch East India Company (VOC) assets. Before that time the VOC merchants were in principle just another trading power among many, establishing trading posts and settlements (colonies) in strategic places around the archipelago. The Dutch gradually extended their sovereignty over most of the islands in the East Indies. Dutch expansion paused for several years during an interregnum of British rule between 1806 and 1816, when the Dutch Republic was occupied by the French forces of Napoleon. The Dutch government - in - exile in England ceded rule of all its colonies to Great Britain. However, Jan Willem Janssens, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies at the time, fought the British before surrendering the colony; he was eventually replaced by Stamford Raffles.
The Dutch East Indies became the prize possession of the Dutch Empire. It was not the typical settler colony founded through massive emigration from the mother countries (such as the USA or Australia) and hardly involved displacement of the indigenous islanders, with a notable and dramatic exception in the island of Banda during the VOC era. Neither was it a plantation colony built on the import of slaves (such as Haiti or Jamaica) or a pure trade post colony (such as Singapore or Macau). It was more of an expansion of the existing chain of VOC trading posts. Instead of mass emigration from the homeland, the sizeable indigenous populations were controlled through effective political manipulation supported by military force. Servitude of the indigenous masses was enabled through a structure of indirect governance, keeping existing indigenous rulers in place. This strategy was already established by the VOC, which independently acted as a semi-sovereign state within the Dutch state, using the Indo Eurasian population as an intermediary buffer.
In 1869 British anthropologist Alfred Russel Wallace described the colonial governing structure in his book "The Malay Archipelago '':
"The mode of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole series of native rulers, from the village chief up to princes, who, under the name of Regents, are the heads of districts about the size of a small English county. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident, or Assistant Resident, who is considered to be his "elder brother, '' and whose "orders '' take the form of "recommendations, '' which are, however, implicitly obeyed. Along with each Assistant Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspector of all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every village in the district, examines the proceedings of the native courts, hears complaints against the head - men or other native chiefs, and superintends the Government plantations. ''
France annexed all of Vietnam and Cambodia in the 1880s; in the following decade, France completed its Indochinese empire with the annexation of Laos, leaving the kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) with an uneasy independence as a neutral buffer between British and French - ruled lands.
In 1839, China found itself fighting the First Opium War with Great Britain after the Governor - General of Hunan and Hubei, Lin Zexu, banned the foreign trade of opium. China was defeated, and in 1842 agreed to the provisions of the Treaty of Nanking. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the Second Opium War broke out; the Chinese were again defeated and forced to the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin and the 1860 Convention of Peking. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. Missionaries gained the right to propagate Christianity, another means of Western penetration. The United States and Russia obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
Towards the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage, the fate of India 's rulers that had played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long - standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters.
In 1904, the British invaded Lhasa, a pre-emptive strike against Russian intrigues and secret meetings between the 13th Dalai Lama 's envoy and Tsar Nicholas II. The Dalai Lama fled into exile to China and Mongolia. The British were greatly concerned at the prospect of a Russian invasion of the Crown colony of India, though Russia -- badly defeated by Japan in the Russo - Japanese War and weakened by internal rebellion -- could not realistically afford a military conflict against Britain. China under the Qing dynasty, however, was another matter.
Natural disasters, famine and internal rebellions had enfeebled China in the late Qing. In the late 19th century, Japan and the Great Powers easily carved out trade and territorial concessions. These were humiliating submissions for the once - powerful Manchus who ruled China. Still, the central lesson of the war with Japan was not lost on the Russian General Staff: an Asian country using Western technology and industrial production methods could defeat a great European power. Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90 % of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation ''.
The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British - Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer Charles George Gordon was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.
The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany. In 1880 massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.
The Russian military observer D.V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese - Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics '' under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.
Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.
The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing. Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat. Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.
Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.
Historians have judged the Qing dynasty 's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China 's nineteenth - century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go... In the Arrow War (1856 -- 60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo - French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino - French War (1884 -- 85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms. ''
The British and Russian consuls schemed and plotted against each other at Kashgar.
In 1906, Tsar Nicholas II sent a secret agent to China to collect intelligence on the reform and modernization of the Qing dynasty. The task was given to Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, at the time a colonel in the Russian army, who travelled to China with French sinologist Paul Pelliot. Mannerheim was disguised as an ethnographic collector, using a Finnish passport. Finland was, at the time, a Grand Duchy. For two years, Mannerheim proceeded through Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia to Beijing. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of Wutai Shan he even met the 13th Dalai Lama. However, while Mannerheim was in China in 1907, Russia and Britain brokered the Anglo - Russian Agreement, ending the classical period of the Great Game.
The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.
The rise of Japan as an imperial power after the Meiji Restoration led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over regional suzerainty, war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in another humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, China was forced to recognize Korea 's exit from the Imperial Chinese tributary system, leading to the proclamation of the Korean Empire, and the island of Taiwan was ceded to Japan.
In 1897, taking advantage of the murder of two missionaries, Germany demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights around Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong province. In 1898, Russia obtained access to Dairen and Port Arthur and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northeast China. The United Kingdom, France, and Japan also received a number of concessions later that year.
At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence '': Germany dominated the Shandong peninsula and the Yellow River valley; Russia dominated the Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria; the United Kingdom dominated Weihaiwei and the Yangtze Valley; France dominated the Guangzhou Bay and several other southern provinces neighboring its colony in Vietnam.
China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S. - backed scheme, giving rise to the "Open Door '' policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers ' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it had negotiated.
The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "Boxers '' (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists '') attacked foreign legations in Beijing. This Boxer Rebellion provoked a rare display of unity among the colonial powers, who formed the Eight - Nation Alliance. Troops landed at Tianjin and marched on the capital, which they took on 14 August; the foreign soldiers then looted and occupied Beijing for several months. German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 -- 1905.
Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943, foreign political control of parts of China only finally ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the People 's Republic of China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
Mainland Chinese historians refer to this period as the century of humiliation.
"The Great Game '' (Also called the Tournament of Shadows (Russian: Турниры теней, Turniry Teney) in Russia) was the strategic economic and political rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia at the expense of Afghanistan, Persia and the Central Asian Khanates / Emirates. The classic Great Game period is generally regarded as running approximately from the Russo - Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo - Russian Convention of 1907, in which nations like Emirate of Bukhara fell. A less intensive phase followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, causing some trouble with Persia and Afghanistan until the mid 1920s.
In the post-Second World War post-colonial period, the term has informally continued in its usage to describe the geopolitical machinations of the Great Powers and regional powers as they vie for geopolitical power and influence in the area, especially in Afghanistan and Iran / Persia.
Between 1850 and 1914, Britain brought nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control, to 15 % for France, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy: Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects to Britain, more than in the whole of French West Africa, or the entire German colonial empire. The only regions not under European control in 1914 were Liberia and Ethiopia.
Britain 's formal occupation of Egypt in 1882, triggered by concern over the Suez Canal, contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the Nile River, leading to the conquest of neighboring Sudan in 1896 - 1898, which in turn led to confrontation with a French military expedition at Fashoda in September 1898. In 1899, Britain set out to complete its takeover of the future South Africa, which it had begun in 1814 with the annexation of the Cape Colony, by invading the gold - rich Afrikaner republics of Transvaal and the neighboring Orange Free State. The chartered British South Africa Company had already seized the land to the north, renamed Rhodesia after its head, the Cape tycoon Cecil Rhodes.
British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, Britain 's High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo '' empire: linked by rail, the strategically important Canal would be firmly connected to the mineral - rich South, though Belgian control of the Congo Free State and German control of German East Africa prevented such an outcome until the end of World War I, when Great Britain acquired the latter territory.
Britain 's quest for southern Africa and its diamonds led to social complications and fallouts that lasted for years. To work for their prosperous company, British businessmen hired both white and black South Africans. But when it came to jobs, the white South Africans received the higher paid and less dangerous ones, leaving the black South Africans to risk their lives in the mines for limited pay. This process of separating the two groups of South Africans, whites and blacks, was the beginning of segregation between the two that lasted until 1990.
Paradoxically, the United Kingdom, a staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire, thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the conquest of Africa, reflecting its advantageous position at its inception.
Up until 1876, Belgium had no colonial presence in Africa. It was then that its king, Leopold II created the International African Society. Operating under the pretense of an international scientific and philanthropic association, it was actually a private holding company owned by Leopold. Henry Morton Stanley was employed to explore and colonize the Congo River basin area of equatorial Africa in order to capitalize on the plentiful resources such as ivory, rubber, diamonds, and metals. Up until this point, Africa was known as "the Dark Continent '' because rapids on the Congo River had previously made exploration of this area impossible. Over the next few years, Stanley overpowered and made treaties with over 450 native tribes, acquiring him over 2,340,000 square kilometres (905,000 sq mi) of land, nearly 67 times the size of Belgium.
Neither the Belgian government nor the Belgian people had any interest in imperialism at the time, and the land came to be personally owned by King Leopold II. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, he was allowed to have land named the Congo Free State. The other European countries at the conference allowed this to happen on the conditions that he suppress the East African slave trade, promote humanitarian policies, guarantee free trade, and encourage missions to Christianize the people of the Congo. However, Leopold II 's primary focus was to make a large profit on the natural resources, particularly ivory and rubber. In order to make this profit, he passed several cruel decrees that can be considered to be genocide. He forced the natives to supply him with rubber and ivory without any sort of payment in return. Their wives and children were held hostage until the workers returned with enough rubber or ivory to fill their quota, and if they could not, their family would be killed. When villages refused, they were burned down; the children of the village were murdered and the men had their hands cut off. These policies led to uprisings, but they were feeble compared to European military and technological might, and were consequently crushed. The forced labor was opposed in other ways: fleeing into the forests to seek refuge or setting the rubber forests on fire, preventing the Europeans from harvesting the rubber.
No population figures exist from before or after the period, but it is estimated that as many as 10 million people died from violence, famine and disease. However, some sources point to a total population of 16 million people.
King Leopold II profited from the enterprise with a 700 % profit ratio for the rubber he took from Congo and exported. He used propaganda to keep the other European nations at bay, for he broke almost all of the parts of the agreement he made at the Berlin Conference. For example, he had some Congolese pygmies sing and dance at the 1897 World Fair in Belgium, showing how he was supposedly civilizing and educating the natives of the Congo. Under significant international pressure, the Belgian government annexed the territory and renamed it the Belgian Congo, removing it from the personal power of the king. Of all the colonies that were conquered during the wave of New Imperialism, the human rights abuses of the Congo Free State were considered the worst.
In Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively.
Chile 's interest in expanding into the islands of the Pacific Ocean dates to the presidency of José Joaquín Prieto (1831 - 1841) and the ideology of Diego Portales, who considered that Chile 's expansion into Polynesia was a natural consequence of its maritime destiny. Nonetheless, the first stage of the country 's expansionism into the Pacific began only a decade later, in 1851, when -- in response to an American incursion into the Juan Fernández Islands -- Chile 's government formally organized the islands into a subdelegation of Valparaíso. That same year, Chile 's economic interest in the Pacific were renewed after its merchant fleet briefly succeeded in creating an agricultural goods exchange market that connected the Californian port of San Francisco with Australia. By 1861, Chile had established a lucrative enterprise across the Pacific, its national currency abundantly circulating throughout Polynesia and its merchants trading in the markets of Tahiti, New Zealand, Tasmania, Shanghai; negotiations were also made with the Spanish Philippines, and altercations reportedly occurred between Chilean and American whalers in the Sea of Japan. This period ended as a result of the Chilean merchant fleet 's destruction by Spanish forces in 1866, during the Chincha Islands War.
Chile 's Polynesian aspirations would again be awakened in the aftermath of the country 's decisive victory against Peru in the War of the Pacific, which left the Chilean fleet as the dominant maritime force in the Pacific coast of the Americas. Valparaíso had also become the most important port in the Pacific coast of South America, providing Chilean merchants with the capacity to find markets in the Pacific for its new mineral wealth acquired from the Atacama. During this period, the Chilean intellectual and politician Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (who served as senator in the National Congress from 1876 to 1885) was an influential voice in favor of Chilean expansionism into the Pacific -- he considered that Spain 's discoveries in the Pacific had been stolen by the British, and envisioned that Chile 's duty was to create an empire in the Pacific that would reach Asia. In the context of this imperialist fervor is that, in 1886, Captain Policarpo Toro of the Chilean Navy proposed to his superiors the annexation of Easter Island; a proposal which was supported by President José Manuel Balmaceda because of the island 's apparent strategic location and economic value. After Toro transferred the rights to the island 's sheep ranching operations from Tahiti - based businesses to the Chilean - based Williamson - Balfour Company in 1887, Easter Island 's annexation process was culminated with the signing of the "Agreement of Wills '' between Rapa Nui chieftains and Toro, in name of the Chilean government, in 1888. By occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.
By 1900 nearly all Pacific islands were in control of Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japan, and Chile.
The extension of European control over Africa and Asia added a further dimension to the rivalry and mutual suspicion which characterized international diplomacy in the decades preceding World War I. France 's seizure of Tunisia in 1881 initiated fifteen years of tension with Italy, which had hoped to take the country, retaliating by allying with Germany and waging a decade - long tariff war with France. Britain 's takeover of Egypt a year later caused a marked cooling of her relations with France.
The most striking conflicts of the era were the Spanish -- American War of 1898 and the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 -- 05, each signaling the advent of a new imperial great power; the United States and Japan, respectively. The Fashoda incident of 1898 represented the worst Anglo - French crisis in decades, but France 's buckling in the face of British demands foreshadowed improved relations as the two countries set about resolving their overseas claims.
British policy in South Africa and German actions in the Far East contributed to dramatic policy shifts, which in the 1900s, aligned hitherto isolationist Britain first with Japan as an ally, and then with France and Russia in the looser Triple Entente. German efforts to break the Entente by challenging French hegemony in Morocco resulted in the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of 1911, adding to tension and anti-German sentiment in the years preceding World War I. In the Pacific conflicts between Germany and the United States and the United Kingdom contributed to the First and Second Samoan Civil War.
Another crisis occurred in 1902 -- 03 when there was a stand - off between Venezuela backed by the United States (see Monroe Doctrine) and a coalition of European countries.
One of the biggest motivations behind New Imperialism was the idea of humanitarianism and "civilizing '' the "lower '' class people in Africa and in other undeveloped places. This was a religious motive for many Christian missionaries, in an attempt to save the souls of the "uncivilized '' people, and based on the idea that Christians and the people of the United Kingdom were morally superior. Most of the missionaries that supported imperialism did so because they felt the only true religion was their own. Similarly, Roman Catholic missionaries opposed British missionaries because the British missionaries were Protestant. At times, however, imperialism did help the people of the colonies because the missionaries ended up stopping some of the slavery in some areas. Therefore, Europeans claimed that they were only there because they wanted to protect the weaker tribal groups they conquered. The missionaries and other leaders suggested that they should stop such practices as cannibalism, child marriage, and other "savage things ''. This humanitarian ideal was described in poems such as the White Man 's Burden and other literature. Often, the humanitarianism was sincere, but with misguided choices. Although some imperialists were trying to be sincere with the notion of humanitarianism, at times their choices might not have been best for the areas they were conquering and the natives living there.
The Dutch Ethical Policy was the dominant reformist and liberal political character of colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies during the 20th century. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina announced that the Netherlands accepted an ethical responsibility for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This announcement was a sharp contrast with the former official doctrine that Indonesia was mainly a wingewest (region for making profit). It marked the start of modern development policy, implemented and practised by Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg; whereas other colonial powers usually talked of a civilizing mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonized peoples.
The Dutch Ethical Policy (Dutch: Ethische Politiek) emphasised improvement in material living conditions. The policy suffered, however, from serious underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had largely ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. It did however create an educated indigenous elite able to articulate and eventually establish independence from the Netherlands.
The "accumulation theory '' adopted by Karl Kautsky, John A. Hobson and popularized by Vladimir Lenin centered on the accumulation of surplus capital during and after the Industrial Revolution: restricted opportunities at home, the argument goes, drove financial interests to seek more profitable investments in less - developed lands with lower labor costs, unexploited raw materials and little competition. Hobson 's analysis fails to explain colonial expansion on the part of less industrialized nations with little surplus capital, such as Italy, or the great powers of the next century -- the United States and Russia -- which were in fact net borrowers of foreign capital. Also, military and bureaucratic costs of occupation frequently exceeded financial returns. In Africa (exclusive of what would become the Union of South Africa in 1909) the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small before and after the 1880s, and the companies involved in tropical African commerce exerted limited political influence.
The "World - Systems theory '' approach of Immanuel Wallerstein sees imperialism as part of a general, gradual extension of capital investment from the "core '' of the industrial countries to a less developed "periphery. '' Protectionism and formal empire were the major tools of "semi-peripheral, '' newly industrialized states, such as Germany, seeking to usurp Britain 's position at the "core '' of the global capitalist system.
Echoing Wallerstein 's global perspective to an extent, imperial historian Bernard Porter views Britain 's adoption of formal imperialism as a symptom and an effect of her relative decline in the world, and not of strength: "Stuck with outmoded physical plants and outmoded forms of business organization, (Britain) now felt the less favorable effects of being the first to modernize. ''
|
which middle american and south american countries were not settled by the spanish | Spanish colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The overseas expansion under the Crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadores. The Americas were incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil and Canada, and the crown created civil and religious structures to administer the region. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean and continuing control of vast territory for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492 -- 1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850 -- 1950); the estimate is 250,000 in the 16th century, and most during the 18th century as immigration was encouraged by the new Bourbon Dynasty.
Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when silver and gold from American mines increasingly financed a long series of European and North African wars. Spanish wars of conquest included laying waste much of the Netherlands and a disastrous attempt to invade England.
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain 's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas.
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans - Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is the present - day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish - occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present - day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas, in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa 's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519 -- 21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than the conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico 's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations. But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city - states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city - states ' political hierarchy and social structure in place.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present - day Mexico and northern Central America. Hernán Cortés ' landing ashore at present day Veracruz and founding the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519 marked the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Established by Charles V in 1535, the first viceroy was Don Antonio de Mendoza.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad '' and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires. '' The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
Between 1537 and 1543, six Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern - day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.
Spain 's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, Mexico City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The change diminished the political and economic power of the viceroyalty and opened formal connections between the mining district of Upper Peru and the port of Buenos Aires.
The system of crown rule evolved from the era of the Catholic Monarchs, which established the Council of the Indies, to the establishment of viceroyalties in Mexico and Peru following their conquests in the Hapsburg era, and then into an Intendant system in the eighteenth century as part of the Bourbon Reforms. The reform was aimed at increasing crown control over its colonies, raising more revenue, and promoting greater efficiency.
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators '') were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas - born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present - day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present - day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain 's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish -- American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self - governing unincorporated territory.
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians '' estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus 's arrival in 1492.
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90 % (reduced to 1 -- 2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. The overwhelming cause of the decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896 -- 1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821 -- 1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846 -- 1910).
|
who took over new netherlands from dutch settlers | New Netherland - wikipedia
New Netherland (Dutch: Nieuw Nederland) was a 17th - century colonial province of the Seven United Netherlands that was located on the East Coast of North America. The claimed territories extended from the Delmarva Peninsula to extreme southwestern Cape Cod, while the more limited settled areas are now part of the Mid-Atlantic States of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut, with small outposts in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island.
The colony was conceived as a private business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. During its first decades, New Netherland was settled rather slowly, partially as a result of policy mismanagement by the Dutch West India Company (WIC) and partially as a result of conflicts with Native Americans. The settlement of New Sweden encroached on its southern flank, while its northern border was re-drawn to accommodate an expanding New England. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the North Atlantic. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the Second Anglo -- Dutch War. In 1673, the Dutch re-took the area but relinquished it under the Second Treaty of Westminster ending the Third Anglo - Dutch War the next year.
The inhabitants of New Netherland were Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, the last chiefly imported as enslaved laborers. By 1664, at the time of transfer to England, the colony had an estimated population of between 7,000 and 8,000 people, half of whom were not of Dutch descent.
Descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in colonial America. For two centuries, New Netherland Dutch culture characterized the region (today 's Capital District around Albany, the Hudson Valley, western Long Island, northeastern New Jersey, and New York City).
During the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of lucrative trade routes around the globe, particularly those to Asia. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the continent. The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. In the Americas, the English had a settlement at Jamestown, the French had small settlements at Port Royal and Quebec, and the Spanish were developing colonies to exploit trade in South America and the Caribbean.
In 1609, English sea captain and explorer Henry Hudson was hired by the Flemish émigrés running the Dutch East India Company (VOC) located in Amsterdam to find a northeast passage to Asia, sailing around Scandinavia and Russia. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt, so he sailed west to seek a northwest passage rather than return home. He ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the vlieboot Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod.
Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific Ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage. This effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the narrows into the Upper New York Bay. (Unbeknownst to Hudson, the narrows had already been discovered in 1524 by explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano; today, the bridge spanning them is named after Verrazzano.) Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river that later bore his name. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of present - day Troy, New York.
Upon returning to the Netherlands, Hudson reported that he had found a fertile land and an amicable people willing to engage his crew in small - scale bartering of furs, trinkets, clothes, and small manufactured goods. His report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, an Antwerp émigré and the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new trade resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant - traders to fund more expeditions. Flemish Lutheran émigré merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow - up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610.
In 1611 -- 12, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two covert expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat respectively. In four voyages made between 1611 and 1614, the area between present - day Maryland and Massachusetts was explored, surveyed, and charted by Adriaen Block, Hendrick Christiaensen, and Cornelius Jacobsen Mey. The results of these explorations, surveys, and charts made from 1609 through 1614 were consolidated in Block 's map, which used the name New Netherland for the first time. On maps, it was also called Nova Belgica. During this period, there was some trading with the native population.
Fur trader Juan Rodriguez (known as Jan Rodrigues among the Dutch) was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent. He arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613 -- 14, trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch. He was the first recorded non-native inhabitant of what became New York City.
The immediate and intense competition among Dutch trading companies in the newly charted areas (especially in New York Bay and along the Hudson River) led to disputes in Amsterdam and calls for regulation. The States General was the governing body of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, and it proclaimed on March 17, 1614 that it would grant an exclusive patent for trade between the 40th and 45th parallels. This monopoly would be valid for four voyages, all of which had to be undertaken within three years after it was awarded. Block 's map and the report that accompanied it were used by the New Netherland Company (a newly formed alliance of trading companies) to win its patent, which expired on January 1, 1618.
The New Netherland Company also ordered a survey of the Delaware Valley. This was undertaken by Cornelis Hendricksz of Monnickendam who explored the Zuyd Rivier (literally "South River, '' today known as the Delaware River) in 1616 from its bay to its northernmost navigable reaches. His observations were preserved in a map drawn in 1616. Hendricksz 's voyages were made aboard the IJseren Vercken (Iron Hog), a vessel built in America. Despite the survey, the company was unable to secure an exclusive patent from the States General for the area between the 38th and 40th parallels.
The States General issued patents in 1614 for the development of New Netherland as a private, commercial venture. Soon thereafter, traders built Fort Nassau on Castle Island in the area of present - day Albany up Hudson 's river. The fort was to defend river traffic against interlopers and to conduct fur trading operations with the natives. The location of the fort proved to be impractical, however, due to repeated flooding of the island in the summers; it was abandoned in 1618, which coincided with the patent 's expiration.
The Dutch West India Company (WIC) (Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie) was granted a charter by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands on June 3, 1621. It was given the exclusive right to operate in West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas. In New Netherland, profit was originally to be made from the North American fur trade.
Among the founders of the WIC was Willem Usselincx. Between 1600 and 1606, he had promoted the concept that a main goal of the company should be establishing colonies in the New World. In 1620, Usselincx made a last appeal to the States General, which rejected his principal vision as a primary goal. The legislators preferred the formula of trading posts with small populations and a military presence to protect them, which was working in the East Indies, over encouraging mass immigration and establishing large colonies. The company did not focus on colonization in North America until 1654, when it was forced to surrender Dutch Brazil and forfeit the richest sugar - producing area in the world.
The first trading partners of the New Netherlanders were the Algonquian who lived in the area. The Dutch depended on the indigenous population to capture, skin, and deliver pelts to them, especially beaver. It is likely that Hudson 's peaceful contact with the local Mahicans encouraged them to establish Fort Nassau in 1614, the first of many garrisoned trading stations to be built. In 1628, the Mohawks (members of the Iroquois Confederacy) conquered the Mahicans, who retreated to Connecticut. The Mohawks gained a near - monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch, as they controlled the upstate Adirondacks and Mohawk Valley through the center of New York.
The Algonquian Lenape population around New York Bay and along the Lower Hudson were seasonally migrational people. The Dutch called the numerous tribes collectively the River Indians, known by their exonyms as the Wecquaesgeek, Hackensack, Raritan, Canarsee, and Tappan. These groups had the most frequent contact with the New Netherlanders. The Munsee inhabited the Highlands, Hudson Valley, and northern New Jersey, while Minquas (called the Susquehannocks by the English) lived west of the Zuyd Rivier along and beyond the Susquehanna River, which the Dutch regarded as their boundary with Virginia.
Company policy required land to be purchased from the indigenous peoples. The WIC would offer a land patent, the recipient of which would be responsible for negotiating a deal with representatives of the local population, usually the sachem or high chief. The Dutch (referred to by the natives as Swannekins, or salt water people) and the Wilden (as the Dutch called the natives) had vastly different conceptions of ownership and use of land -- so much so that they did not understand each other at all. The Dutch thought that their proffer of gifts in the form of sewant or manufactured goods was a trade agreement and defense alliance, which gave them exclusive rights to farming, hunting, and fishing. Often, the Indians did not vacate the property, or reappeared seasonally, according to their migration patterns. They were willing to share the land with the Europeans, but the Indians did not intend to leave or give up access. This misunderstanding and other differences led to violent conflict later. At the same time, such differences marked the beginnings of a multicultural society.
Like the French in the north, the Dutch focused their interest on the fur trade. To that end, they cultivated contingent relations with the Five Nations of the Iroquois to procure greater access to key central regions from which the skins came.
The Dutch encouraged a kind of feudal aristocracy over time, to attract settlers to the region of the Hudson River, in what became known as the system of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions. Further south, a Swedish trading company that had ties with the Dutch tried to establish its first settlement along the Delaware River three years later. Without resources to consolidate its position, New Sweden was gradually absorbed by New Holland and later in Pennsylvania and Delaware.
The earliest Dutch settlement was built around 1613, and consisted of a number of small huts built by the crew of the "Tijger '' (Tiger), a Dutch ship under the command of Captain Adriaen Block, which had caught fire while sailing on the Hudson. Soon after, the first of two Fort Nassaus was built, and small factorijen or trading posts went up, where commerce could be conducted with Algonquian and Iroquois population, possibly at Schenectady, Esopus, Quinnipiac, Communipaw, and elsewhere.
In 1617, Dutch colonists built a fort at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers where Albany now stands. In 1624, New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic, which had lowered the northern border of its North American dominion to 42 degrees latitude in acknowledgment of the claim by the English north of Cape Cod. The Dutch named the three main rivers of the province the Zuyd Rivier (South River), the Noort Rivier (North River), and the Versche Rivier (Fresh River). Discovery, charting, and permanent settlement were needed to maintain a territorial claim. To this end in May 1624, the VOC landed 30 families at Fort Orange and Noten Eylant (today 's Governors Island) at the mouth of the North River. They disembarked from the ship New Netherland, under the command of Cornelis Jacobsz May, the first Director of the New Netherland. He was replaced the following year by Willem Verhulst.
In June 1625, 45 additional colonists disembarked on Noten Eylant from three ships named Horse, Cow, and Sheep, which also delivered 103 horses, steers, cows, pigs, and sheep. Most settlers were dispersed to the various garrisons built across the territory: upstream to Fort Orange, to Kievets Hoek on the Fresh River, and Fort Wilhelmus on the South River. Many of the settlers were not Dutch but Walloons, French Huguenots, or Africans (most as enslaved labor, some later gaining "half - free '' status).
Peter Minuit became Director of the New Netherland in 1626 and made a decision that greatly affected the new colony. Originally, the capital of the province was to be located on the South River, but it was soon realized that the location was susceptible to mosquito infestation in the summer and the freezing of its waterways in the winter. He chose instead the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the river explored by Hudson, at that time called the North River.
Minuit traded some goods with the local population, in one of the most legendary real estate deals ever made, and reported that he had purchased it from the natives, as was company policy. He ordered the construction of Fort Amsterdam at its southern tip, around which grew the heart of the province called The Manhattoes in the vernacular of the day, rather than New Netherland.
The port city of New Amsterdam outside the walls of the fort became a major hub for trade between North America, the Caribbean, and Europe, and the place where raw materials were loaded, such as pelts, lumber, and tobacco. Sanctioned privateering contributed to its growth. It was given its municipal charter in 1653, by which time the Commonality of New Amsterdam included the isle of Manhattan, Staaten Eylandt, Pavonia, and the Lange Eylandt towns.
In the hope of encouraging immigration, the Dutch West India Company established the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions in 1629, which gave it the power to offer vast land grants and the title of patroon to some of its invested members. The vast tracts were called patroonships, and the title came with powerful manorial rights and privileges, such as the creation of civil and criminal courts and the appointing of local officials. In return, a patroon was required by the Company to establish a settlement of at least 50 families within four years who would live as tenant farmers. Of the original five patents given, the largest and only truly successful endeavour was Rensselaerswyck, at the highest navigable point on the North River, which became the main thoroughfare of the province. Beverwijck grew from a trading post to a bustling, independent town in the midst of Rensselaerwyck, as did Wiltwyck, south of the patroonship in Esopus country.
Willem Kieft was Director New Netherland from 1638 until 1647. The colony had grown somewhat before his arrival but it did not flourish, and Kieft was under pressure to cut costs. At this time, a large number of Indian tribes who had signed mutual defense treaties with the Dutch were gathering near the colony due to widespread warfare and dislocation among the tribes to the north. At first, he suggested collecting tribute from the Indians, as was common among the various dominant tribes, but his demands were simply ignored by the Tappan and Wecquaesgeek. Subsequently, a colonist was murdered in an act of revenge for some killings that had taken place years earlier and the Indians refused to turn over the perpetrator. Kieft suggested that they be taught a lesson by ransacking their villages. In an attempt to gain public support, he created the citizens commission the Council of Twelve Men.
They did not rubber - stamp his ideas, as he had expected them to, but took the opportunity to mention grievances that they had with the company 's mismanagement and its unresponsiveness to their suggestions. Kieft thanked and disbanded them and, against their advice, ordered that groups of Tappan and Wecquaesgeekbe be attacked at Pavonia and Corlear 's Hook, even though they had sought refuge from their more powerful Mahican enemies per their treaty understandings with the Dutch. The massacre left 130 dead. Within days, the surrounding tribes united and rampaged the countryside, in a unique move, forcing settlers who escaped to find safety at Fort Amsterdam. For two years, a series of raids and reprisals raged across the province, until 1645 when Kieft 's War ended with a treaty, in a large part brokered by the Hackensack sagamore Oratam.
The colonists were disenchanted with the previous governor, his ignorance of indigenous peoples, and the unresponsiveness of the WIC to their rights and requests, and they submitted the Remonstrance of New Netherland to the States General. This document was written by Leiden - educated New Netherland lawyer Adriaen van der Donck, condemning the VOC for mismanagement and demanding full rights as citizens of the province of the Netherlands.
Petrus Stuyvesant arrived in New Amsterdam in 1647, the only governor of the colony to be called Director - General. Some years earlier land ownership policy was liberalized and trading was somewhat deregulated, and many New Netherlanders considered themselves entrepreneurs in a free market.
During the period of his governorship, the province experienced exponential growth. Demands were made upon Stuyvesant from all sides: the West India Company, the States General, and the New Netherlanders. Dutch territory was being nibbled at by the English to the north and the Swedes to the south, while in the heart of the province the Esopus were trying to contain further Dutch expansion. Discontent in New Amsterdam led locals to dispatch Adriaen van der Donck back to the United Provinces to seek redress. After nearly three years of legal and political wrangling, the Dutch Government came down against the VOC, granting the colony a measure of self - government and recalling Stuyvesant in April 1652. However, the orders were rescinded with the outbreak of the First Anglo - Dutch War a month later. Military battles were occurring in the Caribbean and along the South Atlantic coast. In 1654, the Netherlands lost New Holland in Brazil to the Portuguese, encouraging some of its residents to emigrate north and making the North American colonies more appealing to some investors. The Esopus Wars are so named for the branch of Lenape that lived around Wiltwijck, which was the Dutch settlement on the west bank of Hudson River between Beverwyk and New Amsterdam. These conflicts were generally over settlement of land by New Netherlanders for which contracts had not been clarified, and were seen by the natives as an unwanted incursion into their territory. Previously, the Esopus, a clan of the Munsee Lenape, had much less contact with the River Indians and the Mohawks.
New Netherlanders were not necessarily Dutch, and New Netherland was never a homogeneous society. An early governor, Peter Minuit, was a Walloon born in modern Germany who spoke English and worked for a Dutch company. The term New Netherland Dutch generally includes all the Europeans who came to live there, but may also refer to Africans, Indo - Caribbeans, South Americans and even the Native Americans who were integral to the society. Though Dutch was the official language, and likely the lingua franca of the province, it was but one of many spoken there. There were various Algonquian languages; Walloons and Huguenots tended to speak French, and Scandinavians brought their own tongues, as did the Germans. It is likely that the about 100 Africans (including both free men and slaves) on Manhattan spoke their mother tongues, but were taught Dutch from 1638 by Adam Roelantsz van Dokkum. English was already on the rise to become the vehicular language in world trade, and settlement by individuals or groups of English - speakers started soon after the inception of the province. The arrival of refugees from New Holland in Brazil may have brought speakers of Portuguese, Spanish, and Ladino (with Hebrew as a liturgical language). Commercial activity in the harbor could have been transacted simultaneously in any of a number of tongues.
The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven black slaves who worked as farmers, fur traders, and builders. Although enslaved, the Africans had a few basic rights and families were usually kept intact. Admitted to the Dutch Reformed Church and married by its ministers, their children could be baptized. Slaves could testify in court, sign legal documents, and bring civil actions against whites. Some were permitted to work after hours earning wages equal to those paid to white workers. When the colony fell, the company freed the first slaves and some others, establishing early on a nucleus of free negros.
The Union of Utrecht, the founding document of the Dutch Republic, signed in 1579, stated "that everyone shall remain free in religion and that no one may be persecuted or investigated because of religion ''. The Dutch West India Company, however, established the Reformed Church as the official religious institution of New Netherland. Its successor church, the Reformed Church in America still exists today. The colonists had to attract, "through attitude and by example '', the natives and nonbelievers to God 's word "without, on the other hand, to persecute someone by reason of his religion, and to leave everyone the freedom of his conscience. '' In addition, the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland were incorporated by reference in those first instructions to the Governors Island settlers in 1624. There were two test cases during Stuyvesant 's governorship in which the rule prevailed: the official granting of full residency for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews in New Amsterdam in 1655, and the Flushing Remonstrance, involving Quakers, in 1657. During the 1640s, two religious leaders, both women, took refuge in New Netherland: Anne Hutchinson and the Anabaptist Lady Deborah Moody.
Apart from the second Fort Nassau, and the small community that supported it, settlement along the Zuyd Rivier was limited. An attempt by patroons of Zwaanendael, Samuel Blommaert and Samuel Godijn was destroyed by the local population soon after its founding in 1631 during the absence of their agent, David Pietersen de Vries.
Peter Minuit, who had construed a deed for Manhattan (and was soon after dismissed as director), knew that the Dutch would be unable to defend the southern flank of their North American territory and had not signed treaties with or purchased land from the Minquas. After gaining the support from the Queen of Sweden, he chose the southern banks of the Delaware Bay to establish a colony there, which he did in 1638, calling it Fort Christina, New Sweden. As expected, the government at New Amsterdam took no other action than to protest. Other settlements sprang up as colony grew, mostly populated by Swedes, Finns, Germans, and Dutch. In 1651, Fort Nassau was dismantled and relocated in an attempt to disrupt trade and reassert control, receiving the name Fort Casimir. Fort Beversreede was built in the same year, but was short - lived. In 1655, Stuyvesant led a military expedition and regained control of the region, calling its main town "New Amstel '' (Nieuw - Amstel). During this expedition, some villages and plantations at the Manhattans (Pavonia and Staten Island) were attacked in an incident that is known as the Peach Tree War. These raids are sometimes considered revenge for the murder of an Indian girl attempting to pluck a peach, though it was likely that they were a retaliation for the attacks at New Sweden. A new experimental settlement was begun in 1673, just before the British takeover in 1674. Franciscus van den Enden had drawn up charter for a utopian society that included equal education of all classes, joint ownership of property, and a democratically elected government. Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy attempted such a settlement near the site of Zwaanendael, but it soon expired under English rule.
Few Dutch settlers to New Netherland made their home at Fort Goede Hoop on the Fresh River. As early as 1637, English settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony began to settle along its banks and on Lange Eylandt, some with permission from the colonial government and others with complete disregard for it. Developing simultaneously with that of New Netherland, the English colonies grew more rapidly, since settlement by religious groups (rather than trade) was the impetus for their creation and growth. The wal, or rampart, was originally built at contemporary Wall Street due to fear of an invasion by the English.
Initially, there was limited contact between New Englanders and New Netherlanders, but the two provinces engaged in direct diplomatic relations with a swelling English population and territorial disputes. The New England Confederation was formed in 1643 as a political and military alliance of the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. Connecticut and New Haven were actually on land claimed by the United Provinces, but the Dutch were unable to populate or militarily defend their territorial claim and therefore could do nothing but protest the growing flood of English settlers. With the 1650 Treaty of Hartford, Stuyvesant provisionally ceded the Connecticut River region to New England, drawing New Netherland 's eastern border 50 Dutch miles (approximately 250 km) west of the Connecticut 's mouth on the mainland and just west of Oyster Bay on Long Island. The Dutch West India Company refused to recognize the treaty, but it failed to reach any other agreement with the English, so the Hartford Treaty set the de facto border. Connecticut mostly assimilated into New England, although the western part of the state maintained stronger ties with the Tri-State Region.
In March 1664, Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland resolved to annex New Netherland and "bring all his Kingdoms under one form of government, both in church and state, and to install the Anglican government as in old England. '' The directors of the Dutch West India Company concluded that the religious freedom, which they offered in New Netherland, would dissuade English colonists from working toward their removal. They wrote to Director - General Peter Stuyvesant:
... we are in hopes that as the English at the north (in New Netherland) have removed mostly from old England for the causes aforesaid, they will not give us henceforth so much trouble, but prefer to live free under us at peace with their consciences than to risk getting rid of our authority and then falling again under a government from which they had formerly fled.
On August 27, 1664, four English frigates led by Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded New Netherland 's surrender. They met no resistance because numerous citizens ' requests had gone unheeded for protection by a suitable Dutch garrison against "the deplorable and tragic massacres '' by the natives. That lack of adequate fortification, ammunition, and manpower made New Amsterdam defenseless, as well as the indifference from the West India Company to previous pleas for reinforcement of men and ships against "the continual troubles, threats, encroachments and invasions of the English neighbors. '' Stuyvesant negotiated successfully for good terms from his "too powerful enemies ''. In the Articles of Transfer, he and his council secured the principle of religious tolerance in Article VIII, which assured that New Netherlanders "shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion '' under English rule. The Articles were largely observed in New Amsterdam and the Hudson River Valley, but they were immediately violated by the English along the Delaware River, where pillaging, looting, and arson were undertaken under the orders of English officer Sir Robert Carr, Kt. who had been dispatched to secure the valley. Many Dutch settlers were sold into slavery in Virginia on Carr 's orders, and an entire Mennonite settlement was wiped out, led by Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy near modern Lewes, Delaware. The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo - Dutch War; the Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland, and the status quo was maintained, with the Dutch occupying Suriname and the nutmeg island of Run.
Within six years, the nations were again at war. The Dutch recaptured New Netherland in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships led by Vice Admiral Cornelius Evertsen and Commodore Jacob Binckes, then the largest ever seen in North America. They chose Anthony Colve as governor and renamed the city "New Orange, '' reflecting the installation of William of Orange as Lord - Lieutenant (stadtholder) of Holland in 1672, who became King William III of England in 1689. Nevertheless, the Dutch Republic was bankrupt after the conclusion of the Third Anglo - Dutch War in 1672 -- 1674, the historic "disaster years '' in which the republic was simultaneously attacked by the French under Louis XIV, the English, and the Bishops of Munster and Cologne. The States of Zeeland had tried to convince the States of Holland to take on the responsibility for the New Netherland province, but to no avail. In November 1674, the Treaty of Westminster concluded the war and ceded New Netherland to the English.
New Netherland grew into the largest metropolis in the United States, and it left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life, "a secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism '' greatly influenced by the social and political climate in the Dutch Republic at the time, as well as by the character of those who immigrated to it. It was during the early British colonial period that the New Netherlanders actually developed the land and society that had an enduring impact on the Capital District, the Hudson Valley, North Jersey, western Long Island, New York City, and ultimately the United States.
The concept of tolerance was the mainstay of the province 's Dutch mother country. The Dutch Republic was a haven for many religious and intellectual refugees fleeing oppression, as well as home to the world 's major ports in the newly developing global economy. Concepts of religious freedom and free - trade (including a stock market) were Netherlands imports. In 1682, visiting Virginian William Byrd commented about New Amsterdam that "they have as many sects of religion there as at Amsterdam ''.
The Dutch Republic was one of the first nation - states of Europe where citizenship and civil liberties were extended to large segments of the population. The framers of the U.S. Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, though that influence was more as an example of things to avoid than of things to imitate. In addition, the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces from the Spanish throne, is strikingly similar to the later American Declaration of Independence, though there is no concrete evidence that one influenced the other. John Adams went so far as to say that "the origins of the two Republics are so much alike that the history of one seems but a transcript from that of the other. '' The Articles of Capitulation (outlining the terms of transfer to the English) in 1664 provided for the right to worship as one wished, and were incorporated into subsequent city, state, and national constitutions in the USA, and are the legal and cultural code that lies at the root of the New York Tri-State traditions.
Many prominent US citizens are Dutch American directly descended from the Dutch families of New Netherland. The Roosevelt family produced two Presidents and are descended from Claes van Roosevelt, who emigrated around 1650. The Van Buren family of President Martin Van Buren also originated in New Netherland. The Bush family descendants from Flora Sheldon are descendants from the Schuyler family.
The colors of the flag of New York City, of Albany and of Nassau County are those of the old but still used Dutch flag. The blue, white and orange are also seen in materials from New York 's two World 's Fairs and the uniforms of the New York Knicks basketball club, the New York Islanders hockey club, and the New York Mets baseball club. Hofstra University, founded in 1935, takes its flag from the original.
The seven arrows in the lion 's left claw in the Republic 's coat of arms, representing the seven provinces, was a precedent for the thirteen arrows in the eagle 's left claw in the Great Seal of the United States.
Any review of the legacy of New Netherland is complicated by the enormous impact of Washington Irving 's satirical A History of New York and its famous fictional author Diedrich Knickerbocker. Irving 's romantic vision of an enlightened, languid Dutch yeomanry dominated the popular imagination about the colony since its publication in 1809. To this day, many mistakenly believe that Irving 's two most famous short stories, "Rip Van Winkle '' and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow '', are based on actual folk tales of Dutch peasants in the Hudson Valley.
The tradition of Santa Claus is thought to have developed from a gift - giving celebration of the feast of Saint Nicholas on December 6 each year by the settlers of New Netherland. The Dutch Sinterklaas was Americanized into "Santa Claus '', a name first used in the American press in 1773, when, in the early days of the revolt, Nicholas was used as a symbol of New York 's non-British past. However, many of the "traditions '' of Santa Claus may have simply been invented by Irving in his 1809 Knickerbocker 's History of New York from The Beginning of the World To the End of The Dutch Dynasty.
Pinkster, the Dutch celebration of Spring is still celebrated in the Hudson Valley.
Dutch continued to be spoken in the region for some time. President Martin Van Buren grew up in Kinderhook, New York speaking only Dutch, later becoming the only president not to have spoken English as a first language. Pidgin Delaware developed early in the province as a vehicular language to expedite trade. A dialect known as Jersey Dutch was spoken in and around rural Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey until the early 20th century. Mohawk Dutch, spoken around Albany, is also now extinct.
Many Dutch words borrowed into English are evident in today 's American vernacular and emanate directly from the legacy of New Netherland. For example, the quintessential American word Yankee may be a corruption of a Dutch name, Jan Kees. Knickerbocker, originally a surname, has been used to describe a number of things, including breeches, glasses, and a basketball team. Cookie is from the Dutch word koekje or (informally) koekie. Boss, from baas, evolved in New Netherland to the usage known today.
Early settlers and their descendents gave many placenames still in use throughout the region that was New Netherland. Using Dutch, and the Latin alphabet, they also "Batavianized '' names of Native American geographical locations such as Manhattan, Hackensack, Sing - Sing, and Canarsie. Peekskill, Catskill, and Cresskill all refer to the streams, or kils, around which they grew. Schuylkill River is somewhat redundant, since kil is already built into it. Among those that use hoek, meaning corner, are: Red Hook, Sandy Hook, Constable Hook, and Kinderhook. Nearly pure Dutch forms name the bodies of water Spuyten Duyvil, Kill van Kull, and Hell Gate. Countless towns, streets, and parks bear names derived from Dutch places or from the surnames of the early Dutch settlers. Hudson and the House of Orange - Nassau lend their names to numerous places in the Northeast.
|
where will the college football national championship be played in 2019 | 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship - Wikipedia
The 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship is a college football bowl game that will determine the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2018 season. It will be played at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara, California on January 7, 2019. and will be the culmanting game of the 2018 -- 19 bowl season.
The teams playing in the national championship will be the winners of the two semifinal games the 2018 Orange Bowl and the 2018 Cotton Bowl Classic
Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara, California was announced as the host site for the fifth College Football Playoff National Championship on November 4, 2015..
Template: 2019 College Football Playoff
The game will be televised nationally by ESPN
|
how many states in usa have death penalty | Capital punishment in the United states - wikipedia
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in the United States, currently used by 31 states and the federal government. Its existence can be traced to the beginning of the American colonies. The United States is the only Western country currently applying the death penalty, one of 57 countries worldwide applying it, and was the first to develop lethal injection as a method of execution, which has since been adopted by five other countries.
There were no executions in the United States between 1967 and 1977. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down capital punishment statutes in Furman v. Georgia, reducing all death sentences pending at the time to life imprisonment.
Subsequently, a majority of states passed new death penalty statutes, and the court affirmed the legality of capital punishment in the 1976 case Gregg v. Georgia. Since then, more than 7,800 defendants have been sentenced to death; of these, more than 1,400 have been executed, 159 were exonerated before their execution, and more than 2,900 are still on death row. The death penalty is applied only for murder involving an "aggravating factor '' such as multiple victims, rape, or robbery.
The first recorded death sentence in the British North American colonies was carried out in 1608 on Captain George Kendall, who was executed by firing squad at the Jamestown colony for allegedly spying for the Spanish government.
The Bill of Rights adopted in 1789 included the Eighth Amendment which prohibited cruel and unusual punishment. The Fifth Amendment was drafted with language implying a possible use of the death penalty, requiring a grand jury indictment for "capital crime '' and a due process of law for deprivation of "life '' by the government. The Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 also requires a due process of law for deprivation of life by any state.
The Espy file, compiled by M. Watt Espy and John Ortiz Smykla, lists 15,269 people executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies between 1608 and 1991. From 1930 to 2002, there were 4,661 executions in the U.S., about two - thirds of them in the first 20 years. Additionally, the United States Army executed 135 soldiers between 1916 and 1955 (the most recent).
Three states abolished the death penalty for murder during the 19th century: Michigan in 1846 (has never executed a prisoner since achieving statehood), Wisconsin in 1853 and Maine in 1887. Rhode Island is also a state with a long abolitionist background, having repealed the death penalty in 1852, though it was theoretically available for murder committed by a prisoner between 1872 and 1984.
Other states which abolished the death penalty for murder before Gregg v. Georgia include: Minnesota in 1911, Vermont in 1964, Iowa and West Virginia in 1965 and North Dakota in 1973. Hawaii abolished the death penalty in 1948 and Alaska in 1957, both before their statehood. Puerto Rico repealed it in 1929 and the District of Columbia in 1981. Arizona and Oregon abolished the death penalty by popular vote in 1916 and 1964 respectively, but both reinstated it, again by popular vote, some years later: Arizona in 1918 and Oregon in 1978. Puerto Rico and Michigan are the only two U.S. jurisdictions to have explicitly prohibited capital punishment in their constitutions: in 1952 and 1964, respectively.
Nevertheless, capital punishment continued to be used by a majority of states and the federal government for various crimes, especially murder and rape, from the creation of the United States up to the beginning of the 1960s. Until then, "save for a few mavericks, no one gave any credence to the possibility of ending the death penalty by judicial interpretation of constitutional law, '' according to abolitionist Hugo Bedau.
The possibility of challenging the constitutionality of the death penalty became progressively more realistic after the Supreme Court of the United States decided Trop v. Dulles in 1958, when the court said explicitly for the first time that the Eighth Amendment 's cruel and unusual clause must draw its meaning from the "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society '' rather than from its original meaning. Also in the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama, the court made the first step of what would be later be called "death is different '' jurisprudence, when it held that any indigent defendant was entitled to a court - appointed attorney in capital cases -- a right that was only later extended to non-capital defendants in 1963, with Gideon v. Wainwright.
In Furman v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court considered a group of consolidated cases. The lead case involved an individual convicted under Georgia 's death penalty statute, which featured a "unitary trial '' procedure in which the jury was asked to return a verdict of guilt or innocence and, simultaneously, determine whether the defendant would be punished by death or life imprisonment. The last pre-Furman execution was that of Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.
In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court has never ruled the death penalty to be per se unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of Byron White and Potter Stewart, expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and William O. Douglas worried explicitly about racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty. Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan Jr. expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as cruel and unusual punishment.
The Furman decision caused all death sentences pending at the time to be reduced to life imprisonment, and was described by scholars as a "legal bombshell ''. The next day, columnist Barry Schweid wrote that it was "unlikely '' that the death penalty could exist anymore in the United States.
Instead of abandoning capital punishment, 37 states enacted new death penalty statutes that attempted to address the concerns of White and Stewart in Furman. Some states responded by enacting mandatory death penalty statutes which prescribed a sentence of death for anyone convicted of certain forms of murder. White had hinted that such a scheme would meet his constitutional concerns in his Furman opinion. Other states adopted "bifurcated '' trial and sentencing procedures, with various procedural limitations on the jury 's ability to pronounce a death sentence designed to limit juror discretion.
On July 2, 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Gregg v. Georgia and upheld 7 -- 2 a Georgia procedure in which the trial of capital crimes was bifurcated into guilt - innocence and sentencing phases. At the first proceeding, the jury decides the defendant 's guilt; if the defendant is innocent or otherwise not convicted of first - degree murder, the death penalty will not be imposed. At the second hearing, the jury determines whether certain statutory aggravating factors exist, whether any mitigating factors exist, and, in many jurisdictions, weigh the aggravating and mitigating factors in assessing the ultimate penalty -- either death or life in prison, either with or without parole. The same day in Woodson v. North Carolina and Roberts v. Louisiana, the court struck down 5 -- 4 statutes providing a mandatory death sentence.
Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when Gary Gilmore went before a firing squad in Utah. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.
In 1977, the Supreme Court 's Coker v. Georgia decision barred the death penalty for rape of an adult woman. Previously, the death penalty for rape of an adult had been gradually phased out in the United States, and at the time of the decision, Georgia and the U.S. Federal government were the only two jurisdictions to still retain the death penalty for that offense.
In the 1980 case Godfrey v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that murder can be punished by death only if it involves a narrow and precise aggravating factor.
The U.S. Supreme Court has placed two major restrictions on the use of the death penalty. First, the case of Atkins v. Virginia, decided on June 20, 2002, held that the execution of intellectually disabled inmates is unconstitutional. Second, in 2005, the court 's decision in Roper v. Simmons struck down executions for offenders under the age of 18 at the time of the crime.
In the 2008 case Kennedy v. Louisiana, the court also held 5 -- 4 that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to non-homicidal crimes against the person, including child rape. Only two death row inmates (both in Louisiana) were affected by the decision. Nevertheless, the ruling came less than five months before the 2008 presidential election and was criticized by both major party candidates Barack Obama and John McCain.
In 2004, New York and Kansas capital sentencing schemes were struck down by their respective state highest courts. Kansas successfully appealed the Kansas Supreme Court decision to the United States Supreme Court, who reinstated the statute in Kansas v. Marsh (2006), holding it did not violate the U.S. Constitution. The decision of New York Court of Appeals was based on the state constitution, making unavailable any appeal. The state lower house has since blocked all attempts to reinstate the death penalty by adopting a valid sentencing scheme. In 2016, Delaware 's death penalty statute was also struck down by its state supreme court.
In 2007, New Jersey became the first state to repeal the death penalty by legislative vote since Gregg v. Georgia, followed by New Mexico in 2009, Illinois in 2011, Connecticut in 2012, and Maryland in 2013. The repeals were not retroactive, but in New Jersey, Illinois and Maryland, governors commuted all death sentences after enacting the new law. In Connecticut, the Connecticut Supreme Court ruled in 2015 that the repeal must be retroactive. New Mexico is the only state with remaining death row inmates and no present death penalty statute.
Nebraska 's legislature also passed a repeal in 2015, but a referendum campaign gathered enough signatures to suspend it. Capital punishment was reinstated by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The same day, California 's electorate defeated a proposal to repeal the death penalty, and adopted another initiative to speed up its appeal process.
Since Furman, 11 states have organized popular votes dealing with the death penalty through the initiative and referendum process. All resulted in a vote for reinstating it, rejecting its abolition, expanding its application field, specifying in the state constitution that it is not unconstitutional, or expediting the appeal process in capital cases.
From 1976 to January 1, 2017, there were 1,442 executions, of which 1,267 were by lethal injection, 158 by electrocution, 11 by gas inhalation, 3 by hanging, and 3 by firing squad. Executions rose at a near - continuous pace until 1999, when it peaked at 98. After 1999, the number of executions lowered nearly every year, and the 20 executions in 2016 were the fewest since 1991.
The death penalty was a notable issue during the 1988 presidential election. It came up in the October 13, 1988 debate between the two presidential nominees George H.W. Bush and Michael Dukakis when Bernard Shaw, the moderator of the debate, asked Dukakis, "Governor, if Kitty Dukakis (his wife) were raped and murdered, would you favor an irrevocable death penalty for the killer? '' Dukakis replied, "No, I do n't, and I think you know that I 've opposed the death penalty during all of my life. I do n't see any evidence that it 's a deterrent, and I think there are better and more effective ways to deal with violent crime. '' Bush was elected and many, including Dukakis himself, cite the statement as the beginning of the end of his campaign.
In 1996, Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act to streamline the appeal process in capital cases. The bill was signed into law by President Bill Clinton, who had endorsed capital punishment during his 1992 presidential campaign.
A study found that at least 34 of the 749 executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001, or 4.5 %, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner ''. The rate of these "botched executions '' remained steady over the period. A study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43 % of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics in the prisoner was insufficient to ensure unconsciousness. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross) that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment.
Aggravating factors for seeking capital punishment of murder vary greatly among death penalty states. California has twenty - two; New Hampshire has seven. Some aggravating circumstances are nearly universal, such as robbery - murder, murder involving rape of the victim, and murder of an on - duty police officer.
Several states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors, but the victim 's age under which the murder is punishable by death varies. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.
In some states, the high number of aggravating factors has been criticized on account of giving prosecutors too much discretion in choosing cases where they believe capital punishment is warranted. In California especially, an official commission proposed in 2008 to reduce these factors to five (multiple murders, torture murder, murder of a police officer, murder committed in jail, and murder related to another felony). Columnist Charles Lane went further, and proposed that murder related to a felony other than rape should no longer be a capital crime when there is only one victim killed.
The opinion of the court in Kennedy v. Louisiana says that the ruling does not apply to "treason, espionage, terrorism, and drug kingpin activity, which are offenses against the State ''.
Since no one is on death row for such offenses, the court has yet to rule on the constitutionality of the death penalty applied for them.
Treason, espionage and large - scale drug trafficking are all capital crimes under federal law. Treason is also punishable by death in six states (Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and Missouri). Vermont still has a pre-Furman statute providing the death penalty for treason despite removing capital punishment for murder in 1965. Large - scale drug trafficking is punishable by death in two states (Florida and Missouri). Aircraft hijacking is a capital crime in Georgia and Mississippi.
The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty (2) sentencing, (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal habeas corpus.
Clemency, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.
While judges in criminal cases can usually impose a harsher prison sentence than the one demanded by prosecution, the death penalty can be handed down only if the accuser has specifically decided to seek it.
In the decades since Furman, new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by Pepperdine University School of Law published in Temple Law Review, surveyed the decision - making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors ' capital punishment filing decisions remain marked by local "idiosyncrasies, '' suggesting they are not in keeping with the spirit of the Supreme Court 's directive. This means that "the very types of unfairness that the Supreme Court sought to eliminate '' may still "infect capital cases. '' Wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances, '' making nearly all premeditated murders potential capital cases.
A proposed remedy against prosecutorial arbitrariness is to transfer the prosecution of capital cases to the state attorney general.
Of the 31 states with the death penalty, 29 provide the sentence to be decided by a jury, and 28 require a unanimous sentence.
However, the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a hung jury:
The first outcome is referred as the "true unanimity '' rule, while the third has been criticized as the "single - juror veto '' rule.
In Alabama, the sentence is decided by the jury and at least 10 jurors must concur. A retrial happens if the jury deadlock.
Nebraska is the only state in which the sentence is decided by a three - judge panel. If one of the judges on the panel opposes death, the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment. Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone.
In all states in which the jury is involved, only death - qualified veniremen can be selected in such a jury, to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it.
If a defendant is sentenced to death at the trial level, the case then goes into a direct review. The direct review process is a typical legal appeal. An appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether the decision was legally sound or not. Direct review of a capital sentencing hearing will result in one of three outcomes. If the appellate court finds that no significant legal errors occurred in the capital sentencing hearing, the appellate court will affirm the judgment, or let the sentence stand. If the appellate court finds that significant legal errors did occur, then it will reverse the judgment, or nullify the sentence and order a new capital sentencing hearing. Lastly, if the appellate court finds that no reasonable juror could find the defendant eligible for the death penalty, a rarity, then it will order the defendant acquitted, or not guilty, of the crime for which he / she was given the death penalty, and order him sentenced to the next most severe punishment for which the offense is eligible. About 60 percent survive the process of direct review intact.
At times when a death sentence is affirmed on direct review, supplemental methods to attack the judgment, though less familiar than a typical appeal, do remain. These supplemental remedies are considered collateral review, that is, an avenue for upsetting judgments that have become otherwise final. Where the prisoner received his death sentence in a state - level trial, as is usually the case, the first step in collateral review is state collateral review, which is often called state habeas corpus. (If the case is a federal death penalty case, it proceeds immediately from direct review to federal habeas corpus.) Although all states have some type of collateral review, the process varies widely from state to state. Generally, the purpose of these collateral proceedings is to permit the prisoner to challenge his sentence on grounds that could not have been raised reasonably at trial or on direct review. Most often these are claims, such as ineffective assistance of counsel, which requires the court to consider new evidence outside the original trial record, something courts may not do in an ordinary appeal. State collateral review, though an important step in that it helps define the scope of subsequent review through federal habeas corpus, is rarely successful in and of itself. Only around 6 percent of death sentences are overturned on state collateral review.
In Virginia, state habeas corpus for condemned men are heard by the state supreme court under exclusive original jurisdiction since 1995, immediately after direct review by the same court. This avoids any proceeding before the lower courts, and is in part why Virginia has the shortest time on average between death sentence and execution (less than eight years) and has executed 113 offenders since 1976 with only five remaining on death row as of June 2017.
To reduce litigation delays, other states require convicts to file their state collateral appeal before the completion of their direct appeal, or provide adjudication of direct and collateral attacks together in a "unitary review ''.
After a death sentence is affirmed in state collateral review, the prisoner may file for federal habeas corpus, which is a unique type of lawsuit that can be brought in federal courts. Federal habeas corpus is a type of collateral review, and it is the only way that state prisoners may attack a death sentence in federal court (other than petitions for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court after both direct review and state collateral review). The scope of federal habeas corpus is governed by the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA), which restricted significantly its previous scope. The purpose of federal habeas corpus is to ensure that state courts, through the process of direct review and state collateral review, have done a reasonable job in protecting the prisoner 's federal constitutional rights. Prisoners may also use federal habeas corpus suits to bring forth new evidence that they are innocent of the crime, though to be a valid defense at this late stage in the process, evidence of innocence must be truly compelling. According to Eric Freedman, 21 percent of death penalty cases are reversed through federal habeas corpus.
James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995. '' Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted. '' The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive: Freedam 's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.
A similar process is available for prisoners sentenced to death by the judgment of a federal court.
The AEDPA also provides an expeditious habeas procedure in capital cases for states meeting several requirements set forth in it concerning counsel appointment for death row inmates. Under this program, federal habeas corpus for condemned prisoners would be decided in about three years from affirmance of the sentence on state collateral review. In 2006, Congress conferred the determination of whether a state fulfilled the requirements to the U.S. attorney general, with a possible appeal of the state to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. As of March 2016, the Department of Justice has still not granted any certifications.
If the federal court refuses to issue a writ of habeas corpus, the death sentence becomes final for all purposes. In recent times, however, prisoners have postponed execution through another way of federal litigation using the Civil Rights Act of 1871 -- codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1983 -- which allows people to bring lawsuits against state actors to protect their federal constitutional and statutory rights.
While the aforementioned appeals are normally limited to one and automatically stay the execution of the death sentence, Section 1983 lawsuits are unlimited, but the petitioner will be granted a stay of execution only if the court believes he has a likelihood of success on the merits.
Traditionally, Section 1983 was of limited use for a state prisoner under sentence of death because the Supreme Court has held that habeas corpus, not Section 1983, is the only vehicle by which a state prisoner can challenge his judgment of death. In the 2006 Hill v. McDonough case, however, the United States Supreme Court approved the use of Section 1983 as a vehicle for challenging a state 's method of execution as cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The theory is that a prisoner bringing such a challenge is not attacking directly his judgment of death, but rather the means by which that the judgment will be carried out. Therefore, the Supreme Court held in the Hill case that a prisoner can use Section 1983 rather than habeas corpus to bring the lawsuit. Yet, as Clarence Hill 's own case shows, lower federal courts have often refused to hear suits challenging methods of execution on the ground that the prisoner brought the claim too late and only for the purposes of delay. Further, the Court 's decision in Baze v. Rees, upholding a lethal injection method used by many states, has narrowed the opportunity for relief through Section 1983.
While the execution warrant is issued by the governor in several states, in the vast majority it is a judicial order, issued by a judge or by the state supreme court at the request of the prosecution.
The warrant usually sets an execution day. Some states instead provide a longer period, such as a week or 10 days to carry out the execution. This is designated to avoid issuing a new warrant in case of a last - minute stay of execution that would be vacated only few days or few hours later.
Within the context of the overall murder rate, the death penalty can not be said to be widely or routinely used in the United States; in recent years the average has been about one death sentence for every 200 murder convictions.
Alabama has the highest per capita rate of death sentences. This is because Alabama was one of the few states that allowed judges to override a jury recommendation in favor of life imprisonment, a possibility it removed in March 2017.
The distribution of death sentences among states is loosely proportional to their populations and murder rates. California, which is the most populous state, has also the largest death row with over 700 inmates. Wyoming, which is the least populous state, has only one condemned man.
But executions are more frequent (and happen more quickly after sentencing) in conservative states. Texas, which is the second most populous state of the Union, carried out over 500 executions during the post-Furman era, more than a third of the national total. California has carried out only 13 executions during the same period.
African Americans made up 41 % of death row inmates while making up only 12.6 % of the general population. They have made up 34 % of those actually executed since 1976. However, this is an under - representation relative to the proportion of convicted murderers; 52.5 % of all homicide offenders between 1980 and 2008 were African Americans. According to a 2003 Amnesty International report, blacks and whites were the victims of murder in almost equal numbers, yet 80 % of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murders involving white victims.
Approximately 13.5 % of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent, while they make up 17.4 % of the general population.
As of October 1, 2014, men accounted for 98 % of people on death row and 99 % of executions since 1976.
All 31 states with the death penalty provide lethal injection as the primary method of execution.
Some states allow other methods than lethal injection, but only as secondary methods to be used merely at the request of the prisoner or if lethal injection is unavailable.
Several states continue to use the historical three - drug protocol: an anesthetic, pancuronium bromide a paralytic, and potassium chloride to stop the heart. Eight states have used a single - drug protocol, inflicting only an overdose of a single anesthetic to the prisoner.
While some state statutes specify the drugs required, a majority do not, giving more flexibility to corrections officials.
Pressures from anti-death penalty activists and shareholders have made it difficult for correctional services to get the chemicals. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011. In 2016, it was reported that more than 20 U.S. and European drug manufacturers including Pfizer (the owner of Hospira) had taken steps to prevent their drugs from being used for lethal injections.
Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as pentobarbital, etomidate, or fast - acting benzodiazepines like midazolam. Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members. In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.
In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone (a 333-fold overdose for an opioid - naïve patient of this narcotic analgesic closely related to and five times stronger than morphine; this is the equivalent of an entire 50 - ml bottle of Dilaudid HP, the most powerful commercially available form, although the advantage of hydromorphone is its very high solubility allowing for solutions of almost arbitrary concentration; 500 mg of hydromorphone HCl as pure powder can be dissolved in isotonic saline in volumes as small as under 2 cc) and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein can not be found for intravenous injection.
Lethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the U.S. Supreme Court in two cases: Baze v. Rees (2008) and Glossip v. Gross (2015).
In the following states, death row inmates with an execution warrant may choose to be executed by:
In five states (Arizona, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee and Utah), the alternative method is offered only to inmates sentenced to death for crimes committed prior to a specified date (usually when the state switched from the earlier method to lethal injection).
When an offender chooses to be executed by a means different from the state default method, which is always lethal injection, he loses the right to challenge its constitutionality in court (Stewart v. LaGrand, 1999).
The last executions by methods other than injection are as follows (all chosen by the inmate):
Depending on the state, the following alternative methods are statutorily provided in the event that lethal injection is either found unconstitutional by a court or unavailable for practical reasons:
Oklahoma is the only state allowing more than two methods of execution in its statutes, providing lethal injection, nitrogen hypoxia, electrocution and firing squad to be used in that order in the event that all earlier methods are unavailable. The nitrogen option was added by the Oklahoma Legislature in 2015 and has never been used in a judicial execution, though it is routinely used to give a painless death in animal euthanasia.
Three states (Oklahoma, Tennessee and Utah) have added back - up methods recently in 2014 or 2015 (or have expanded their application fields) in reaction to the shortage of lethal injection drugs.
Some states such as Florida have a larger provision dealing with execution methods unavailability, requiring their state departments of corrections to use "any constitutional method '' if both lethal injection and electrocution are found unconstitutional. This was designed to make unnecessary any further legislative intervention in that event, but the provision apply only to legal (not practical) infeasibility.
In May 2016, an Oklahoma grand jury recommended the state to use nitrogen hypoxia as its primary method of execution rather than as a mere backup, after experts testified that the method would be painless, easy and "inexpensive ''.
The method of execution of federal prisoners for offenses under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is that of the state in which the conviction took place. If the state has no death penalty, the judge must choose a state with the death penalty for carrying out the execution.
The federal government has a facility (at U.S. Penitentiary Terre Haute) and regulations only for executions by lethal injection, but the United States Code allows U.S. Marshals to use state facilities and employees for federal executions.
The last public execution in the U.S. was that of Rainey Bethea in Owensboro, Kentucky, on August 14, 1936.
It was the last execution in the nation at which the general public was permitted to attend without any legally imposed restrictions. "Public execution '' is a legal phrase, defined by the laws of various states, and carried out pursuant to a court order. Similar to "public record '' or "public meeting, '' it means that anyone who wants to attend the execution may do so.
Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall '' or "enclosure '' or to "exclude public view. '' Most states laws currently use such explicit wording to prohibit public executions, while others do so only implicitly by enumerating the only authorized witnesses.
All states allow news reporters to be execution witnesses for information of the general public, except Wyoming which allow only witnesses authorized by the condemned. Several states also allow victims ' families and relatives selected by the prisoner to watch executions. An hour or two before the execution, the condemned is offered religious services and to choose his last meal (except in Texas which abolished it in 2011).
The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001, was witnessed by over 200 people, most by closed - circuit television.
Gallup, Inc. monitors support for the death penalty in the United States since 1937 by asking "Are you in favor of the death penalty for a person convicted of murder? '' In their last poll in October 2016, 60 % of respondents said they were in favor and 37 % were opposed. A month earlier, a Pew Research poll found that 49 % of Americans supported the death penalty for convicted murderers and 42 % opposed, down from 80 % in 1974.
A 2010 poll found that 61 % of voters would choose a penalty other than the death sentence for murder. When persons surveyed are given a choice between the death penalty and life without parole for persons convicted of capital crimes, support for execution has traditionally been significantly lower than in polling that asks only if a person does or does not support the death penalty. In 2010, for instance, a Gallup poll that offered a choice showed 49 % favoring the death penalty and 46 % favoring life imprisonment.
On the other hand, in November 2009, another Gallup poll found that 77 % of Americans say that September 11 attacks ' mastermind Khalid Sheikh Mohammed should get the death penalty if convicted, including 12 who normally opposed the death penalty when asked the 1937 question. A similar result was found in 2001 when respondents were polled about the execution of Timothy McVeigh for the Oklahoma City Bombing that killed 168 victims.
Capital punishment is a controversial issue, with many prominent organizations and individuals participating in the debate. Amnesty International and other groups oppose capital punishment on moral grounds.
Some law enforcement organizations, and some victims ' rights groups support capital punishment.
The United States is one of four industrialized democracies that still practice capital punishment with Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan.
Religious groups are widely split on the issue of capital punishment. The Fiqh Council of North America, a group of highly influential Muslim scholars in the United States, has issued a fatwa calling for a moratorium on capital punishment in the United States until various preconditions in the legal system are met.
In October 2009, the American Law Institute voted to disavow the framework for capital punishment that it had created in 1962, as part of the Model Penal Code, "in light of the current intractable institutional and structural obstacles to ensuring a minimally adequate system for administering capital punishment. '' A study commissioned by the institute had said that experience had proved that the goal of individualized decisions about who should be executed and the goal of systemic fairness for minorities and others could not be reconciled. As of 2017, 159 prisoners have been exonerated due to evidence of their innocence.
Advocates of the death penalty say that it deters crime, is a good tool for prosecutors in plea bargaining, improves the community by eliminating recidivism by executed criminals, provides "closure '' to surviving victims or loved ones, and is a just penalty.
The murder rate is highest in the South (6.5 per 100,000 in 2016), where 80 % of executions are carried out, and lowest in the Northeast (3.5 per 100,000), with less than 1 % of executions. A report by the US National Research Council in 2012 stated that studies claiming a deterrent effect are "fundamentally flawed '' and should not be used for policy decisions.
According to a survey of the former and present presidents of the country 's top academic criminological societies, 88 % of these experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder. (Radelet & Lacock, 2009)
Data shows that the application of the death penalty is strongly influenced by racial bias. In addition, its use risks the execution of the innocent; it is unnecessarily barbaric in nature; it cheapens human life; and puts a government on the same base moral level as those criminals who have murdered. Furthermore, some opponents argue that it is applied in an arbitrary manner by a criminal justice system that has been shown to be biased through the systemic influence of socio - economic, geographic, and gender factors. Another argument in the capital punishment debate is the cost.
The largest number of clemencies was granted in January 2003 in Illinois when outgoing Governor George Ryan, who had already imposed a moratorium on executions, pardoned four death - row inmates and commuted the sentences of the remaining 167 to life in prison without the possibility of parole. When Governor Pat Quinn signed legislation abolishing the death penalty in Illinois in March 2011, he commuted the sentences of the fifteen inmates on death row to life imprisonment.
Previous post-Furman mass clemencies took place in 1986 in New Mexico, when Governor Toney Anaya commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing Ohio Governor Dick Celeste commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state 's death row. And during his two terms (1979 -- 1987) as Florida 's Governor, Bob Graham, although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-Furman involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of doubts about guilt or disproportionality.
All executions were suspended through the country between September 2007 and April 2008. At that time, the U.S. Supreme Court was examining the constitutionality of lethal injection in Baze v. Rees. This was the longest period with no executions in the United States since 1982. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld this method in a 7 -- 2 ruling.
In addition to the states that have no valid death penalty statute, the following states and jurisdictions are noted that have an official moratorium, or have had no executions for more than ten years, as of 2017:
Kansas, New Hampshire, Wyoming, and the U.S. Military have also no executions for over ten years, but in these states it is because of the lack of death row inmates having exhausted the appeal process.
Since 1976, four states have executed only condemned prisoners who voluntarily waived further appeals: Pennsylvania has executed three inmates, Oregon two, Connecticut one, and New Mexico one.
In North Carolina, executions are suspended following a decision by the state 's medical board that physicians can not participate in executions, which is a requirement under state law.
In California, United States District Judge Jeremy Fogel suspended all executions in the state on December 15, 2006, ruling that the implementation used in California was unconstitutional but that it could be fixed.
On November 25, 2009, the Kentucky Supreme Court suspended executions until the state adopts regulations for carrying out the penalty by lethal injection.
In November 2011, Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber announced a moratorium on executions in Oregon, canceling a planned execution and ordering a review of the death penalty system in the state.
On February 11, 2014, Washington Governor Jay Inslee announced a capital punishment moratorium. All death penalty cases that come to Inslee will result in him issuing a reprieve, not a pardon or commutation.
On February 13, 2015, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf announced a moratorium on the death penalty. Wolf will issue a reprieve for every execution until a commission on capital punishment, which was established in 2011 by the Pennsylvania State Senate, produces a recommendation. Effectively there was a moratorium in place, as the state had not executed anyone since Gary M. Heidnik in 1999.
|
when do you tag a runner in baseball | Tag out - wikipedia
In baseball, a tag out, sometimes just called a tag, is a play in which a baserunner is out because he is touched by the fielder who is holding a live ball either in hand or glove while the runner is advancing.
In baseball, a runner must sometimes advance to the next base because a batter, advancing to first, forces that runner to advance ahead of him to the next base. Two runners are not allowed on one base at one time, so a batter can, in effect, bumper - car a runner forward. Such a runner is spoken of as having been forced to the next base. A defensive play against that runner is called a force play and, if successful, a force out. In force plays, there are two ways a fielder can get a runner out: 1) with the ball in hand, simply touching or stepping on the targeted base before the runner does; 2) with the ball in hand, tagging the runner while they are running in between bases (more on the latter condition below; both of which are considered a forced out).
A batter can also advance to the next base because he chooses to. For example, suppose, with a runner on first, the batter hits a groundball single into the outfield. As the batter runs to first, the runner on first is forced to advance ahead of him to second. However, that runner can then choose to run past second and on to third. In this situation, a defensive play against such an unforced runner will be called a tag play and, if successful, a tag out. To get the runner out on a tag play, the fielder must tag him with the ball before the runner gets to the targeted base. Tag plays are much more difficult to execute than force plays.
Tag plays can also be utilized in other cases when the runner is in jeopardy. A baserunner is in jeopardy when:
A tag is therefore the most common way to retire baserunners who are not in danger of being forced out, but as noted above, a tag can put runners out on a forced play as well (in lieu of stepping on a force base in a forced play). Additionally, a tag out can be used on an appeal play.
Runners attempting to advance are sometimes thrown out, which means that a fielder throws the ball to someone covering the base, who then tags the runner before the runner touches the base. A runner who leads off a base too far might be picked off; that is, the pitcher throws to a fielder covering the base, who then tags the runner out.
When a runner is tagged out, a farther advanced runner who had been forced to advance no longer has to do so. For example, when a sharply hit ball is caught on one hop by the first baseman, he might immediately tag out the runner at first who is forced to advance to second; but when this is done a runner already at second is no longer forced to advance to third base. The result of such a tag is called "removing the force ''.
If a defensive player tags the runner with his glove and the baseball is in his other hand, or with his free hand while the baseball is in his glove, then the runner is not out. Attempted tag outs sometimes can instigate fights in baseball. Often the infielder will tag the baserunner too hard, or the baserunner will slide into base with enough speed and force to knock over the infielder attempting to tag out. Additionally, the runner may run the infielder over in an attempt to make the fielder drop the ball, but only at certain bases after rule changes put into effect to protect the catcher and the middle infielders. The runner may still run over the infielder at third base, but the middle infielders and the catcher are now protected. Runners must slide and avoid when possible, or they will be ruled out.
|
what kind of record player was in the movie the mechanic | Jason Statham - wikipedia
Jason Statham (/ ˈsteɪθəm /; born 26 July 1967) is an English actor, and a former model and competitive diver.
Statham is known for his roles in the Guy Ritchie crime films Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998), Snatch (2000), and Revolver (2005). He has also appeared in films such as the action thriller The Transporter trilogy (2002 -- 2008), the heist film The Italian Job (2003), the black comedy - action film Crank (2006), the action film War (2007), the science fiction action thriller Death Race (2008), the crime film The Bank Job (2008), and the action series The Expendables (2010 -- 14). Statham has joined The Fast and the Furious franchise, having a cameo appearance in Fast & Furious 6 and starred in Furious 7 and The Fate of the Furious. He usually performs his own stage combat and stunts, and is noted for being typecast as an antihero.
Statham was born in Shirebrook, Derbyshire, the son of Eileen (née Yates), a dancer, and Barry Statham, a street seller and lounge singer. He moved to Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, where he initially chose not to follow his father 's career working the local market stalls, instead practicing martial arts. He grew up with football player Vinnie Jones, alongside whom he would later act. Jones introduced him to football, and Statham went on to play for the local grammar school (1978 -- 1983), which he had attended since the age of 11, a passion that he shared with diving. He practiced daily in perfecting his diving techniques, and was a member of Britain 's National Diving Squad for twelve years. Statham competed for England at the 1990 Commonwealth Games.
Statham 's life in the media began when he was spotted by the agency Sports Promotions specialising in sports modelling while he was training at London 's Crystal Palace National Sports Centre. Afterwards, he became a model for the clothing brand French Connection. A spokesperson for the high street clothing chain said: "We chose Jason because we wanted our model to look like a normal guy. His look is just right for now: very masculine and not too male - modelly. '' However, he was still forced to follow in his father 's footsteps as a street seller to make ends meet, selling "fake perfume and jewellery on street corners '' according to Statham. He made small appearances in a few music videos including "Comin ' On Strong '' by The Shamen in 1993, "Run to the Sun '' by Erasure in 1994, and "Dream a Little Dream of Me '' by The Beautiful South in 1995.
While working as a model for French Connection, he was introduced to fledgling British director Guy Ritchie who was developing a film project and needed to fill the role of a street-wise con artist. After learning about Statham 's past as a black market salesman, Ritchie cast him to play the role of "Bacon '' in his 1998 crime comedy thriller Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels. The movie was well received by both critics and audiences, and helped put Statham in the public eye. Statham 's second collaboration with Ritchie came in the 2000 film Snatch, playing the role of "Turkish ''. Cast alongside popular actors Brad Pitt, Dennis Farina, and Benicio del Toro, and with the movie earning more than $80 million in box - office revenue, Statham was able to break into Hollywood and appeared in two movies in 2001: the science fiction action horror film Ghosts of Mars and the science fiction martial arts action film The One.
Statham was offered more film roles, and in 2002 he was cast as the lead role of driver Frank Martin in the action movie The Transporter, in which he was responsible for his own stunts (Statham has made this choice for all of his films). He has studied Wing Chun kung fu, karate, and kickboxing. The film spawned two sequels, Transporter 2 (2005) and Transporter 3 (2008).
He also played supporting roles in Mean Machine (2002), The Italian Job (2003) (in which he played Handsome Rob), and Cellular (2004) in which he played the lead villain. In 2005, Statham was once again cast by Ritchie to star in his new project, Revolver, which was a critical and box office failure. He played a dramatic role in the independent film London in 2006. That same year he played the lead role in the action film Crank which spawned the sequel Crank: High Voltage (2009).
In 2008, Statham starred in the British crime thriller The Bank Job and Death Race, a remake of Death Race 2000 (1975). American film critic Armond White hailed Statham 's ascension as an action film star. On the occasion of Death Race, White championed Statham 's "best track record of any contemporary movie star. '' Later in 2008, White praised Statham 's Transporter 3 as a great example of kinetic pop art.
In 2009, Statham started to develop a new movie written by David Peoples and Janet Peoples. Statham stated "We 've got a movie we 're trying to do, written by David Peoples and Janet Peoples, in the vein of an old film, The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. It 's not a remake or anything, but it 's a little bit like that, about relationships and how greed contaminates the relationships these three people have. The working title is The Grabbers. ''
In 2010, Statham appeared alongside fellow action stars Sylvester Stallone, Jet Li, and Mickey Rourke, among others in The Expendables. Statham plays Lee Christmas, a former SAS soldier and expert at close quarters combat using knives. In 2011, Statham starred in the remake of the 1972 Charles Bronson film, The Mechanic, and returned to British film in the police drama Blitz.
He also starred in the action film Killer Elite. The film was based on real events, which were the subject of Sir Ranulph Fiennes ' fictional novel The Feather Men. Statham played an assassin named Danny who comes out of retirement to save an old friend, played by Robert De Niro. In August 2011, he began filming Parker for director Taylor Hackford; the film was released in January 2013. Statham played Parker, the criminal antihero previously played by Mel Gibson in 1999 's Payback and by Lee Marvin in 1967 's Point Blank (though their characters were given different surnames).
He reprised his role as Lee Christmas in The Expendables 2 in 2012. In 2013, Statham had a cameo appearance at the end of Fast & Furious 6 as the brother of the film 's antagonist Owen Shaw (Luke Evans). He reprised the character, this time as the main antagonist, in Furious 7, which was released in April 2015. In 2013, he also starred opposite James Franco in the thriller Homefront, and headlined the British thriller Hummingbird. Statham made a cameo in the 2014 music video Summer of Calvin Harris as one of the car racers. In 2014, he returned as Lee Christmas in The Expendables 3, and in 2015, appeared in the action comedy Spy.
Statham has advocated for stunt performers to be given their own category at the Oscars.
In the comic book series Ultimate Spider - Man, that series ' version of the villain Vulture was rendered by artist Mark Bagley to resemble actor Statham, as per writer Brian Michael Bendis ' instructions.
Since 2010, he has been dating model Rosie Huntington - Whiteley. They announced their engagement on 10 January 2016 In February 2017, they announced that they were expecting their first child. They welcomed their son, Jack Oscar, on 24 June 2017.
|
who was chris fountains partner on dancing on ice | Chris Fountain - wikipedia
Christopher Ryan "Chris '' Fountain (born 3 September 1987) is an English actor, perhaps best known for his role as Justin Burton in the Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks, a role he played from 2003 to 2009 and his role as Tommy Duckworth in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street from 2011 until 2013.
Fountain was born in the West Yorkshire city of Bradford on 3 September 1987.
Fountain had minor roles in Blood Strangers (2002) and Bob and Rose (2001), and has appeared in the dramas Where the Heart Is (2002), The Royal (2003) and Burn It (2003).
He joined Hollyoaks in 2003 in the role of Justin Burton.
On 7 June 2006, Fountain injured himself on location whilst filming for Hollyoaks when he touched an electric fence.
In 2008 Fountain won the British Soap Award for Best Actor due to his role on Hollyoaks.
It was confirmed on 11 March 2009 that Fountain would be leaving Hollyoaks. He left on 3 June 2009 in a joint exit storyline alongside Jamie Lomas who plays Warren Fox.
Fountain was a runner up in the third series of ITV show Dancing on Ice, in which he was partnered with skater Frankie Poultney. He also won the Dancing on Ice Tour 2008 with 24 wins and went home with the Dancing on Ice Tour Winners Trophy for winning the most shows. Second place went to Suzanne Shaw with eleven wins and third place went to Kyran Bracken with nine wins.
On 30 January 2010 he appeared as a patient called Seb in Casualty. Fountain played the role of PC Paul Tait in the BBC drama Five Days in March 2010.
On 26 November 2010, it was announced that he would play the role of Tommy Duckworth in Coronation Street and made his first appearance in March 2011. He was sacked from Coronation Street in 2013 following revelations he had performed in offensive rap videos on YouTube advocating violence to women. He left immediately with his character getting an off - screen exit in October 2013.
In September 2016 he joined the touring cast of The Full Monty.
In July 2017 he joined the cast of new ITV drama Girlfriends in a supporting role. It is due to air in 2018.
In February 2006, Fountain came in third in the BBC show Just the Two of Us, a singing competition in which celebrities are paired up with professional singers and are voted off, day by day. His singing partner was former S Club 7 member Jo O'Meara.
Fountain played the title role in the pantomime Aladdin at the Manchester Opera House over the Christmas / New Year period of 2009 / 10. In 2010 he appeared in the new musical Departure Lounge for a short run at the Waterloo East Theatre in London.
Fountain appeared on All Star Family Fortunes on 14 April 2012. In December 2012, he took part in ITV game show Paddy 's 2012 Show and Telly
Following his sacking from Coronation Street, Fountain kept a low profile, but began DJing at a new club in Manchester in January 2014.
2005
2006
2007
2008
2012
In July 2012, Fountain made the shortlist for Best Actor on the TV choice awards. He is also up for Sexiest Male for the Inside Soap Awards.
|
what are the three largest latino groups in the us | Hispanic and Latino Americans - wikipedia
Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans (Spanish: Estadounidenses hispanos, pronounced (isˈpanos)) are people in the United States who are descendants of people from countries of Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. The United States has the largest population of Latinos and Hispanics outside of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self - identify as Hispanic or Latino, whether of full or partial ancestry. For the 2010 United States Census, people counted as "Hispanic '' or "Latino '' were those who identified as one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the census questionnaire ("Mexican '', "Puerto Rican '' or "Cuban '') as well as those who indicated that they were "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino. '' The national origins classified as Hispanic or Latino by the United States Census Bureau are the following: Argentine, Cuban, Colombian, Puerto Rican, Spaniards, Dominican, Mexican, Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Bolivian, Spanish, Chilean, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, and Venezuelan. Other U.S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese - speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably.
"Origin '' can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person 's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. As the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States (other than non-Hispanic / Latino), Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, or Colombian origin. The predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country.
Hispanic Americans are the second fastest - growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after Asian Americans. Hispanic / Latinos overall are the second - largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic whites (a group which, like Hispanics and Latinos, is composed of dozens of sub-groups of differing national origin).
Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565. After Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Many have Native American ancestry. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, as well as Florida. Its holdings included present - day California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona and Texas, all of which were part of the Republic of Mexico from its independence in 1821 until the end of the Mexican -- American War in 1848. Conversely, Hispanic immigrants to the New York - New Jersey metropolitan area derive from a broad spectrum of Latin American states.
A study published in 2015 in the American Journal of Human Genetics, based on 23andMe data from 8,663 self - described Latinos, estimated that Latinos in the United States carried a mean of 65.1 % European ancestry, 18.0 % Native American ancestry, and 6.2 % African ancestry. The study found that self - described Latinos from the Southwest, especially those along the Mexican border, had the highest mean levels of Native American ancestry.
The terms "Hispanic '' and "Latino '' refer to an ethnicity; people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the term "Latino '' includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish - language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry (mestizo). Others are wholly or predominantly of European ancestry or of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as other regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread, may be of sub-Saharan African descent as well.
The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some. The U.S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish - speaking countries of the Americas. After the Mexican -- American War concluded in 1848, term Hispanic or Spanish American was primarily used to describe the Hispanos of New Mexico within the American Southwest. The 1970 United States Census controversially broadened the definition to "a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race ''. This is now the common formal and colloquial definition of the term within the United States, outside of New Mexico. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions. One definition of Latino is "a Latin male in the United States ''. This is the oldest and the original definition used in the United States, first used in 1946. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas. Under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st - century usage by the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably.
A later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term "Latino - Americano '', the Spanish word for Latin - American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese - speaking origin from Latin America. However, an immigrant from Spain would be classified as European or White by American standards but not Latino by this definition.
While the U.S. Census Bureau 's definition of "Hispanic '' is limited to Spanish - speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term. The US Department of Transportation defines "Hispanic '' as "persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central or South American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin, regardless of race. '' This definition has been adopted by the Small Business Administration as well as by many federal, state, and municipal agencies. Unlike the Census Bureau 's definition, this clearly includes people with origins in Portuguese - speaking countries.
Preference of use between the terms among Hispanics and Latinos in the United States often depends on where users of the respective terms reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic, whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino. Both terms refer to ethnicity, as a person of Latino or Hispanic origin can be of any race.
In Spanish, Latina is used for persons of feminine gender; Latino is used for those of masculine gender, or by default. For example, a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos. In the 21st century, the neologisms Latinx and Latin @ were coined as a gender - neutral alternative to this traditional usage. The X functions as a variable, encompassing those who identify as male, female, or non-binary. The @ symbol is seen as containing both the masculine ' o ' and feminine ' a ', thus serving a similar purpose. Neither has been widely adopted.
Hispanic / Latinos have been settled continuously in the territory of the United States since the late 16th century, earlier than any other colonial group of European origin. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present - day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental United States was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida.
Within three decades of Ponce de León 's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present - day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition. They turned back to the interior, reaching their destination of Mexico City.
In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present United States. That same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today 's Arizona -- Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US territory include, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. In all, Spaniards probed half of today 's lower 48 states before the first English colonization effort in 1585 at Roanoke Island off the East Coast.
In 1565, the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded before Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and the New England Plymouth Colony (1620, of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame). Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements in El Paso, San Antonio, Tucson, Albuquerque, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, to name a few.
As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today 's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican -- American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring its three currently most populous states -- California, Texas and Florida.
During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic and Latino immigration to the United States increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965.
Hispanic and Latino contributions in the historical past and present of the United States are addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). To recognize the current and historic contributions of Hispanic and Latino Americans, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress 's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated National Hispanic Heritage Month.
As of 2011, Hispanics accounted for 16.7 % of the U.S. population, or around 52 million people. The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7 % -- about four times the rate of the nation 's total population growth (at 7.2 %). The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4 % -- about three and a half times the rate of the nation 's total population growth (at 1.0 %). Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the United States. The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2 % of the nation 's total projected population on that date.
Of the nation 's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49 % (21.5 million) live in California or Texas.
Over half of the Hispanic / Latino population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of the largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Latinos in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans, having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area, Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both the Great Lakes States and the South Atlantic States, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country, including the Western United States, South Central United States and Great Plains states.
As of 2007, approximately 64 % of the nation 's Hispanic population were of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9 % were of Puerto Rican origin, with about 3 % each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder were of other Central American or of South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. 60.2 % of all Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in the United States.
There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Latin America rather than English - speaking countries. Because of this, most Hispanics who identify themselves as Spaniard or Spanish also identify with Latin American national origin. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans, of whom 83 % were native - born, specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard. However, a larger number of people, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish '' as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not.
In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self - identify as "Hispanos '', "Spanish '' or "Hispanic ''. Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a Mestizo population. Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.
Chicanos, Californios, Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and or Mexican descent. Chicanos live in the Southwest, Nuevomexicanos in New Mexico, and Tejanos in Texas. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions. The term "Chicano '' became popular amongst Mexican Americans in the 1960s during the Chicano nationalism and Chicano Movement, and is today seen as an ethnic and cultural identity by some. Political activist César Chávez and novelist José Antonio Villarreal are famous Chicanos.
Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the United States. Famous Nuyoricans include US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor and singer Jennifer Lopez.
Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity '' by the United States Census Bureau. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 42 % of Hispanic and Latinos were White. The largest numbers of White Hispanics come from within the Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Colombian and Spanish communities.
A significant percentage of the Hispanic and Latino population self - identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian Ancestry. According to the 2010 United States Census, 36.7 % of Hispanic / Latino Americans identify as "some other race '' as these Hispanic / Latinos may feel the U.S. census does not describe their European or American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be. These "Some other race '' Hispanics are usually assumed to be mestizos or mulattos. Of all Americans who checked the box "Some Other Race '', 97 percent were Hispanic. Also, almost one third (32.4 %) of the multi-race respondents were Hispanics.
Half of the Hispanic / Latino population in the United States self - identifies as white. Most of the multi-racial population in the Mexican, Salvadoran, and Guatemalan communities are of European and Native American ancestry (Mestizo), while most of the multiracial population in the Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban communities are of European and African ancestry (Mulatto).
The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican, Panamanians, and Puerto Rican, communities.
The few hundred thousand Asian Hispanics are of various backgrounds, among which include Filipino mestizos with Spanish background, Asians of Latin American background (examples including Chinese Cubans and Japanese Peruvians), and those of recent mixed Asian and Hispanic background. Note that Filipinos are generally not counted as Hispanic, despite the fact that the Spanish colonized the Philippines and many Filipinos have Spanish names.
Hispanic and Latinos are racially diverse, although different "races '' are usually the majority of each Hispanic group. For example, of Hispanic Americans deriving from northern Mexico, most are White or biracial having White / Native American Ancestry, while of those deriving from southern Mexican ancestry, the majority are Native American or of Native American and European Ancestry. In Guatemala, Native American and bi-racial people of Native American and European descent make the majority, while in El Salvador, whites and Bi-racial people of Native American / European descent are the majority. In the Dominican Republic the population are largely made up of people with inter-mixed ancestries, in which there are even levels of African and European ancestry, with smaller numbers of Whites and Blacks as well.
In Puerto Rico, people with European ancestry are the majority. There are also populations of predominantly of African descent as well as populations of American Indian descent as well as those with intermixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of White Latin American ancestry, however there are also populations of Blacks and multi-racials as well. The race and culture of each Hispanic / Latino country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Mexicans represent the bulk of the US Hispanic / Latino population, and most Mexican Americans that migrate to the United States are of Native American and White descent, which causes many non-Hispanics to equate being Hispanic with being of mestizo or Native American ancestry. Official sources report the racial makeup of these Hispanic subgroups as follows, Argentina, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Chile, having the highest percentage of Hispanics self - identifying as white in their respective countries. As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race. The phenomenon of biracial people who are predominantly of European descent identifying as white is not limited to Hispanics or Spanish speakers but is also common among English speakers as well: researchers found that most White Americans with less than 28 percent African - American ancestry say they are White; above that threshold, people tended to describe themselves as African - American.
As of 2014, one third, or 17.9 million, of the Hispanic population was younger than 18 and a quarter, 14.6 million were Millennials. This makes them more than half of the Hispanic population within the United States.
With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Latinos have had a considerable impact on the K - 12 system. In 2011 - 12, Latina / os comprised 24 % of all enrollments in the United States, including 52 % and 51 % of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively. Further research shows the Latino population will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Latinos will populate U.S schools.
The state of Latina / o education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full - day programs. Second, Latinos in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs. Third, Hispanics ' average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over the last 10 years. Finally, Latina / os were more likely than other groups, including whites, to go to college.
However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lag behind other groups. For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group, except African Americans, and have the highest dropout rate of any group, 13 % despite decreasing from 24 %.
To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there is a Latino "Education Crisis '' due to failed school and social policies. To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant / nativity status resulting in Latinos not performing well academically.
Currently, Hispanic students make up 80 % of English language learners in the United States. In 2008 - 9, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade. This is a result of many students entering the education system at different ages, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign born. In order to provide English instruction for Latino students there have been a multitude of English Language programs. However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion, which arguably undermines the students ' culture and knowledge of their primary language. As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities.
Immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, due to the landmark Supreme Court case Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants are allowed access to K - 12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Latina / os. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin. Moreover, Latinos ' immigration / nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first - and second - generation Latinos outperform their later generational counterparts. Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well. This has major implications on their postsecondary futures.
Those with a bachelor 's degree or higher ranges from 50 % of Venezuelans compared to 18 % for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelor 's or higher was 25 % for Cuban Americans, 16 % of Puerto Ricans, 15 % of Dominicans, and 11 % for Mexican Americans. Over 21 % of all second - generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28 %) but significantly higher than U.S. - born Mexican Americans (13 %) and U.S. - born Puerto Rican Americans (12 %).
Hispanic and Latinos make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic and Latino enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8 % of students at Yale University to 15 % at Columbia University. For example, 18 % of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic.
Hispanics have significant enrollment in many other top universities such as University of Texas at El Paso (70 % of students), Florida International University (63 %), University of Miami (27 %), and MIT, UCLA, and UC - Berkeley at 15 % each. At Stanford University, Hispanics are the third largest ethnic group behind non-Hispanic Whites and Asians, at 18 % of the student population.
Hispanics study in universities around the country, but can also attend to Hispanic - serving institution, institutions that are part of a federal program designed to assist colleges or universities in the United States that attempt to assist first generation, majority low income Hispanic students. There are over 250 schools that have been designated as an HSI.
Hispanic and Latino Americans are the longest - living Americans, according to official data. Their life expectancy is more than two years longer than for non-Hispanic whites and almost eight years longer than for African Americans.
Of the 24 million americans who lack health insurance, 40 % are Hispanics. Factors such as immigration, acculturation and language affect their chances of getting health insurance. Furthermore, working Hispanics are less likely to receive health insurance from their employer in comparison to non-White Hispanics. Insurance from employers is most common source for workers. According to studies, Hispanics are most likely to have jobs in agriculture, domestic services, retail trade in comparison to Non-Hispanic whites and their administrative, and executive positions. Although insurance companies such as Medicare have enrolled many minority groups in order for them to receive medical care, the gap between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites is noticeable. In New York City, around 61 % Hispanics work with an employers who provides insurance whereas 89 % of Non-Hispanic whites work under an employer that provided health insurance. Those who do not receive health insurance is because either they do not qualify, the premiums are too expensive and the primarily because their employers do not offer health insurance.
Limited access to services adds another layer of trauma and misfortune to immigrants living in the United States and more specifically to Mexican women who have the highest uninsured rate (54.6 %) as compared to other immigrants (26.2 %), blacks (22.5 %) and non-Hispanic white (13.9 %). As an alternative, Mexican women with limited access to health services seek health coverage through community health centers and are end up being provided with inadequate services. Additionally, the 2010 Affordable Care act was a health legislation passed in order to help Mexican immigrant women gain access to quality health care services when they are without employer sponsored or private health insurance. However, the Affordable Care Act does not help undocumented immigrants and legal immigrants with less than five years residence in the U.S. Mexican women are the largest female immigrant group in the United States and are also the most at risk for developing preventable health conditions. Multiple factors such as limited access to health care, legal status and income increase the risk of developing preventable health conditions because many undocumented immigrants postpone routine visits to the doctor until they become seriously ill.
During the process of migrating to the United States, there are instances in their journey where families experience separation. Before the migration begins, those who are making the journey to the U.S. have to leave behind their families along with their homeland. Additionally, families who are in the process of crossing borders suffer being caught and separated by border patrol agents. Migrants are also in danger of separation if they do not have sufficient resources such as water for all members to continue crossing. Once migrants have arrived to the new country they fear workplace raids where immigrant parents are detained and deported.
Family separation puts U.S born children, undocumented children and their undocumented parents at risk for depression and family maladaptive syndrome. The effects are often long - term and the impact extends to the community level. Children will experience emotional traumas and long - term changes in behaviors. Additionally, when parents are forcefully removed, children develop feelings of abandonment and they might blame themselves for what has happened to their family. Children that are victims to family separation believe in the possibility of never seeing their parents again. These effects can cause negative parent - child attachment. Reunification may be difficult because of harsh immigration laws and re-entry restrictions which further affect the mental health of children and parents.
Parents who leave behind everything in their home country also experience negative mental health experiences. According to a study published in 2013, 46 % of Mexican migrant men who participated in the study reported elevated levels of depressive symptoms. In recent years, the length of stay for migrants has increased, from 3 years to nearly a decade. Migrants who were separated from their families, either married or single, experienced greater depression than married men accompanied by their spouses. Furthermore, the study also revealed that men who are separated from their families are more prone to harsher living conditions such as overcrowded housing and are under a greater deal of pressure to send remittance to support their families. These conditions put additional stress on the migrants and often worsens their depression. Families who migrated together experience better living conditions, receive emotional encouragement and motivation from each other, and share a sense of solidarity. They are also more likely to successfully navigate the employment and health care systems in the new country, and are n't pressured to send remittances back home.
Almost all groups of Latino immigrants arriving in the U.S have faced some type of discrimination because of where they come from. It is reported that 31 % of Latinos reported personal experiences with discrimination whilst 82 % believed that discrimination plays a crucial role in whether they will find success living in the U.S. The current legislation on immigration policies also plays crucial role in creating a hostile and discriminatory environment for immigrants. In order to measure discrimination for immigrants, it is taken from their perceived discrimination that they feel is towards them and can vary from: personal experiences, social attitudes and ethnic group barriers. The immigrant experience is associated to lower - self esteem, internalizing symptoms and problem behaviors amongst Mexican youth. It is also known that more time spent living in the U.S. is associated with increased feelings of distress, depression and anxiety. Like many other Hispanic and Latino American groups that migrate to the United States, these groups are often stigmatized and given a bad rep. An example would be after 9 / 11, the migrant "Latino Other '' along with the terms refugee and asylum seeker have often been seen as a threat to nation security. During the campaign of now President Donald Trump, he spoke on deporting drug lords and removing drugs from this country all while saying after these people are deported that he will get rid of all the other "bad hombres ''. The words of the president calling for increased homeland security in the country and at the borders to keep "illegals '' out has only helped foster a hostile environment for immigrants who are already in the country. The presidents sentiments can lead to further feelings of isolation and can reinforce migrants notions of being cautious in their everyday activities because of this spotlight on them.
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 significantly changed how the United States dealt with immigration. Under this new law, immigrants who overstayed their visas or were found to be in the U.S illegally were subject to be detained and / or deported without legal representation. Immigrants found themselves vulnerable and living in constant fear and mistrust because they may not be allowed back into the country indefinitely. Similarly, this law made it more difficult for other immigrants who want to enter the U.S or gain legal status. These laws also expanded the types of offenses that can be considered worthy of deportation for documented immigrants. Policies enacted by future presidents further limit the amount of immigrants entering the country and their expedited removal.
Many immigrant families can not enjoy doing everyday activities without exercising caution because they fear encountering immigration officers which limits their involvement in community events. Immigrant families also do not trust government institutions and services. Because of their of encountering immigration officers, immigrants often feel ostracized and isolated which can lead to the development of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. The harmful effects of being ostracized from the rest of society are n't limited to just that of undocumented immigrants but it affects the entire family even if some of the members are of legal status. Children often reported having been victims of bullying in school by classmates because their parents are undocumented. This can cause them to feel isolated and develop a sense of inferiority which can negatively impact their academic performance.
Despite the struggles Latinos families encounter, they have found ways to keep motivated. Many immigrants use religion as a source of motivation. Mexican immigrants believed that the difficulties they face are a part of God 's bigger plan and believe their life will get better in the end. They kept their faith strong and pray everyday, hoping that God will keep their families safe. Immigrants participat in church services and bond with other immigrants that share the same experiences. Undocumented Latinos also find support from friends, family and the community that serve as coping mechanisms. Some Latinos state that their children are the reason they have the strength to keep on going. They want their children to have a future and give them things they are n't able to have themselves. The community is able to provide certain resources that immigrant families need such as tutoring for their children, financial assistance, and counseling services. Some identified that maintaining a positive mental attitude helped them cope with the stresses they experience. Many immigrants refuse to live their life in constant fear which leads to depression in order to enjoy life in the U.S.. Since many immigrants have unstable sources of income, many plan ahead in order to prevent future financial stress. They put money aside and find ways to save money instead of spend it such as learning to fix appliances themselves.
Many latino families migrate to find better economic opportunities in order to send remittances back home. Being undocumented limits the possibilities of jobs that immigrants undertake and many struggle to find a stable job. Many Latinos report that companies turned them down because they do n't not have a social security number. If they are able to obtain a job, immigrants risk losing it if their employer finds out they are unable to provide proof of residency or citizenship. Many look towards agencies that do n't ask for identification but those jobs are often unreliable. In order to prevent themselves from being detained and deported, many have to work under exploitation. In a study, a participant reported "If someone knows that you do n't have the papers... that person is a danger. Many people will con them... if they know you do n't have the papers, with everything they say ' hey I 'm going to call immigration on you. ' ' '. These conditions lower the income that Latino families bring to their household and some find living each day very difficult. When an undocumented parent is deported or detained, income will be lowered significantly if the other parent also supports the family financially. The parent who is left has to look after the family and might find working difficult to manage along with other responsibilities. Even if families are n't separated, Latinos are constantly living in fear that they will lose their economic footing.
Living in poverty has been linked to depression, low self - esteem, loneliness, crime activities and frequent drug use among youth. Families with low incomes are unable to afford adequate housing and some of them are evicted. The environment in which the children of undocumented immigrants grow up in are often composed of poor air quality, noise, and toxins which prevent healthy development. Furthermore, these neighborhoods are prone to violence and gang activities, forcing the families to live in constant fear which can contribute to the development of PTSD, aggression, and depression.
In 2015, the median household income among Hispanic and Latino Americans was highest for Argentinean Americans ($60,640), and lowest for Honduran and Dominican Americans ($36,800). For other large Hispanic groups, the incomes were as follows: Mexican Americans ($44,200), Puerto Ricans ($40,500), Cuban Americans ($44,400), Salvadoran Americans ($47,600), Guatemalan Americans ($40,200) and Colombian Americans ($54,500).
According to the U.S. Census, the poverty rate among the six largest Hispanic groups during the period of 2007 - 2011 was: Dominican Americans (26.3 percent), Puerto Ricans (25.6), Guatemalan Americans (25.1), Mexican Americans (24.9 percent), Salvadoran Americans (18.9) and Cuban Americans (14.2). In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (12.8 percent) and Asian Americans (11.3 percent) were lower than those of any Hispanic group. African Americans (25.8 percent) had a higher poverty rate than Cuban Americans, Salvadoran Americans, Mexican Americans, Guatemalan Americans and Puerto Ricans, but had a lower poverty rate than Dominican Americans.
Poverty affects many underrepresented students as racial / ethnic minorities tend to stay isolated within pockets of low - income communities. This results in several inequalities, such as "school offerings, teacher quality, curriculum, counseling and all manner of things that both keep students engaged in school and prepare them to graduate. '' In the case of Latinos, the poverty rate for Hispanic children in 2004 was 28.6 percent. Moreover, with this lack of resources, schools reproduce these inequalities for generations to come. In order to assuage poverty, many Hispanic families can turn to social and community services as resources.
The geographic, political, social, economic and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and / or national origin. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds.
As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person 's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one 's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95 % of Hispanic adults said "it 's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish. '' Given the United States ' proximity to other Spanish - speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second - generation Hispanics, 80 % speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third - generation Hispanics, 40 % speak fluent Spanish. Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States.
Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States. First brought to North America by the Spanish during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century, Spanish was the first European language spoken in the Americas. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565. Today, 90 % of all Hispanics and Latinos speak English, and at least 78 % speak fluent Spanish. Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home for a total of 41.1 million.
With 40 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants, and with many of the 60 % who are U.S. - born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69 % of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22 % are monolingual English - speakers, and 9 % are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4 % speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.
The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person 's family heritage. However, generally, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish (or Chicano Spanish). An old, colonial variety of Spanish is spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado, which is New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of New Mexican Spanish is its heavy use of colonial vocabulary and verb tenses that make New Mexican Spanish uniquely American amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in Florida and in the Northeast is Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Canarian Spanish is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.
Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, or a mix of Spanish and English, may be a common way of speaking. Although they are fluent in both languages, speakers will switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic - majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles and New York City.
Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English. An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English.
The most methodologically rigorous study of Hispanic or Latino religious affiliation to date was the Hispanic Churches in American Public Life (HCAPL) National Survey, conducted between August and October 2000. This survey found that 70 % of all Hispanic and Latino Americans are Catholic, 20 % are Protestant, 3 % are "alternative Christians '' (such as Mormons or Jehovah 's Witnesses), 1 % identify themselves with a non-Christian religion (including Islam, Judaism, Buddhism...), and 6 % have no religious preference (with only 0.37 % claiming to be either atheist or agnostic). The results of this study suggest that Hispanics / Latinos are not only a highly religious, but also a highly Christian constituency.
It also suggests that Hispanic / Latino Protestants are a more sizable minority than is sometimes realized. Catholic affiliation is much higher among first - generation than it is among second - or third - generation Hispanic or Latino immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of defection to Protestantism. Also Hispanics and Latinos in the Bible Belt, which is mostly located in the South, are more likely to shift to Protestantism than those in other regions, as it is all around them. Protestant denominations that have attracted Hispanic / Latino converts are Pentecostalism, Southern Baptist, and the Episcopal Church. According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Latinos leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year. Hispanic or Latino Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members, as well as the spread of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal.
The United States is home to thousands of Spanish - language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low - power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.
Among the most notable Hispanic / Latino - oriented media outlets are:
Latino food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become so mainstream in American culture that many no longer see it as an ethnic food. Across the United States, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines have continued to increase sales. Tropical fruit, such as mango, guava, and passion fruit (maracuyá), have become more popular and are now common flavors in desserts, candies, and food dishes in the United States.
Due to the large Mexican - American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the United States. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami, and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba, and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami 's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had, often with a pastelito (pastry), at one of the city 's numerous coffee shops. The Cuban sandwich developed in Miami, and is now a staple and icon of the city 's cuisine and culture.
Hispanic and Latino culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.
Hispanics tend to be very group - oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well - being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, First Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.
Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the United States among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.
Latin American youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.
Hispanic Americans, like immigrant groups before them, are out - marrying at high rates. Out - marriages comprised 17.4 % of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008. The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7 % of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out - marriage rates of 9.4 % of whites, 17.1 % of blacks, and 27.7 % of Asians). The rate was larger for native - born Hispanics, with 36.2 % of native - born Hispanics (both men and women) out - marrying compared to 14.2 % of foreign - born Hispanics. The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.
In 2008, 81 % of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic Whites, 9 % married non-Hispanic Blacks, 5 % non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.
Of the 275,500 new intermarried pairings in 2010, 43.3 % were White - Hispanic (compared to White - Asian at 14.4 %, White - Black at 11.9 %, and Other Combinations at 30.4 %; other combinations consists of pairings between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians). Unlike those for marriage to Blacks and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to Whites do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White / Hispanic couples are lower than those of White / White couples but higher than those of Hispanic / Hispanic couples. 23 % of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10 % of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33 % of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college - educated compared to 13 % of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.
Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81 % of Whites, 76 % of Asians, and 73 % of Blacks "being fine '' with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13 % of Whites, 19 % of Asians, and 16 % of Blacks "being bothered but accepting of the marriage. '' Only 2 % of Whites, 4 % of Asians, and 5 % of Blacks would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.
Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 81 % "being fine '' with marriages to Whites and 73 % "being fine '' with marriages to Blacks. A further 13 % admitted to "being bothered but accepting '' of a marriage of a family member to a White and 22 % admitted to "being bothered but accepting '' of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 5 % of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 2 % to a non-Hispanic White.
Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Blacks varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans and Dominicans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with blacks, of all major Hispanic national groups. Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic Whites, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture. Mexican Americans, who are the majority of the US Hispanic population, are most likely to intermarry with Whites and Asians when marrying out.
As Latino migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin becomes most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed '' because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them. '' The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Latino in the global sphere.
The term agringados is a term for immigrants who have gone to America and allowed themselves to be Americanized, thus losing their Latino identity. This is the identity struggle youth and families face because they are forced to choose how much American culture they can adopt without having their Latino peers looking down on them for being "too American ''. Another way in which identity is compromised is shown through youth. Families who bring their young children into the United States allow them to be more exposed and vulnerable to adopting American identity. This becomes a problem for the parents because they struggle to understand their children and how to teach them, having grown up in their original country.
Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad '' which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Latinos perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States. '' This unites Latinos as one, creating cultural kin with other Latino ethnicities.
Migration to the United States can change identity for Latino youth in various way, including how they carry their gendered identities. In traditional Latino households, women and young girls are homebodies or muchachas de la casa ("girls of the house ''), showing that they abide "by the cultural norms... (of) respectability, chastity, and family honor (as) valued by the (Latino) community. '' However, when Latina women come to the United States, they tend to adapt to the perceived social norms of this new country, and their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners. The unassimilated community views these adapting women as being de la calle ("of (or from) the street ''), transgressive and sexually promiscuous. Some Latino families in the United States "deal with young women 's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in... (the sending country) with family members, regardless of whether or not... (the young women) are sexually active. ''
Along with the increase in independence amongst these young women, there is a diminution in the power of vergüenza ("shame '') in many of the relations between the two sexes. To have vergüenza is to assert male dominance in all spheres, especially in a man 's relationship with his female partner; the concept is enforced through shaming males into comporting themselves with a macho (literally, "male '' or "masculine '') archetype in order to establish respect, dominance, and manliness in their social ambits. Although many Latina women in the homeland as well as older Latina women in the United States reinforce this dynamic by not wanting a man who is a sinvergüenza ("shameless one ''), some Latinx youth accept the label of sinvergüenza and now wear it proudly. Feeling caught between two distinct societies causes youth to "meditate between the two cultures and (instills) ambivalence toward feeling a lack of vergüenza '', resulting in a group of youth who celebrate being sinvergüenza while still acknowledging the concept of vergüenza within a part of their increasingly composite culture.
With the Catholic Church remaining a large influence on the Latino culture, the subject of promiscuity and sexuality is often considered taboo. It is taught in many Latino cultures that best way to remain pure of sin and not become pregnant is to remain celibate and heterosexual. All are to be straight and women are to be virgins. A woman must carry herself like a Madonna in order to receive respect and keep the family 's honor.
However, despite being told that they should essentially suppress any natural feeling of sexual curiosity, through the globalization of encouraging sexual liberation, many young Latina women take their sexuality into their own hands and do not listen to the Madonna ideal. Despite this oppressive nature, "women are neither passive nor one - dimensional individuals who automatically adapt to these culturally and socially defined moral prescriptions shaping their sex lives in some way '' but instead "sophisticated, multidimensional, and active social agents who react to these prescriptions in multiform and complicated ways ''.
Latino youth are also taking control of their sexuality through migration, globalization, and tourism in places like Acapulco, Cancun, Vallarta, Mazatlan and Veracruz, all cities in Mexico. These cities are becoming popularized by gay youth, both Mexican and American, and have become somewhat of a safe haven for homosexual people as well as those whom have been labeled gay, not for their sexual preferences but because of the way that their gender is perceived by others. Due to the persecution for presenting as homosexual that is faced in Mexico along with the difficulty to immigrate north of the border, "many queer Mexican men and women migrating to urban areas within Mexico has proved to be a better alternative. '' The creation of this ambiente, is due to the not only globalization of queerness but as well as the way harsh immigration laws in the United States makes these cities one of their only options.
As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations, especially the African American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas. There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.
Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57 %) either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23 % identify as Republicans. This 34 - point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier.
Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous -- as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64 % of Hispanics and Latinos -- the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.
Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.
The United States has a population of 50 million of Hispanic and Latino Americans, of them, 27 Million are citizens eligible to vote (13 % of total eligible voters), therefore Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between two main parties is usually around 4 %.
In the 1996 presidential election, 72 % of Hispanics and Latinos backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000, the Democratic total fell to 62 %, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58 -- 40 against Bush. Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63 -- 32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56 -- 43 margin. Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50 -- 49 over their favorite son candidate, and Florida Latinos (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54 -- 45 margin.
In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration, and Republican - related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69 -- 30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly.
The runoff election in Texas ' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez 's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters; majority - Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and majority European - American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.
In the 2008 Presidential election 's Democratic primary Hispanics and Latinos participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group 's support. Pundits discussed whether Hispanics and Latinos would not vote for Barack Obama because he was African American. Hispanics / Latinos voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama. Among Hispanics, 28 % said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13 % for (non-Hispanic) whites. Obama defeated Clinton.
In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain, Hispanics and Latinos supported Obama with 59 % to McCain 's 29 % in the June 30 Gallup tracking poll. This was higher then expected, since McCain a had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort. However, McCain had retreated from reform during the Republican primary, damaging his standing among Hispanics and Latinos. Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish highlighting McCain 's reversal.
In the general election, 67 % of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Obama. with a relatively strong turnout in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70 % of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35 % of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The relative growth of non-Cuban vs Cuban Hispanics also contributed to his carrying Florida 's Latinos with 57 % of the vote.
While employment and the economy were top concerns for Hispanics and Latinos, almost 90 % of Latino voters rated immigration as "somewhat important '' or "very important '' in a poll taken after the election. Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 had damaged the party 's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos, especially in swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico. In a Gallup poll of Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18 % of participants identified as Republicans.
Hispanic and Latinos voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71 % and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27 % of the vote.
On June 26, 2018, Alexandria Ocasio - Cortez, a millennial, won the Democratic primary in New York 's 14th congressional district covering parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City, defeating the incumbent, Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley, in what has been described as the biggest upset victory in the 2018 midterm - election season. Ocasio - Cortez is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America and has been endorsed by various politically progressive organizations and individuals. If she is elected, as she is expected to, she will be the youngest woman ever elected to Congress.
Hispanic and Latino Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, film, literature, sports, business and finance, and science.
In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It 's a distinction given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza.
There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christopher Rios better known by his stage name Big Pun, Mariah Carey, Jennifer López, Joan Baez, Linda Ronstadt, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Selena Gomez, Jerry García, Demi Lovato, Dave Navarro, Santaye, Romeo Santos, Tom Araya, Becky G, Juan Luis Guerra, Shakira, Camila Cabello, Bad Bunny, all members of all - girl band Go Betty Go and two members of girl group, Fifth Harmony: Lauren Jauregui and Ally Brooke.
Latin American music imported from Cuba (chachachá, mambo, rhumba) and Mexico (ranchera and mariachi) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. Examples of artists include Celia Cruz, who was a Cuban - American singer and the most popular Latin artist of the 20th century, gaining twenty - three gold albums during her career. Bill Clinton awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 1994.
Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba '' and Herman Santiago wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love ''. Songs that became popular in the United States and are heard during the Holiday / Christmas season are "¿ Dónde Está Santa Claus? '' is a novelty Christmas song with 12 - year - old (Augie Ríos) was a record hit in 1959 which featured the Mark Jeffrey Orchestra. "Feliz Navidad '' by José Feliciano. Miguel del Aguila, wrote 116 works and has three Latin Grammy nominations
In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best - performing songs on Spanish - language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top - selling Latin albums in the United States. Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino '' (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50 % of its content recorded in Spanish.
In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish - language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys ''. In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish and Portuguese. Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Spanish - and Portuguese - speaking communities worldwide in Latin America, Spain and Portugal.
Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed some prominent actors and others in the film industry. Of Puerto Rican origin: José Ferrer (the first Hispanic actor to win an Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac), Auli'i Cravalho, Rita Moreno, Chita Rivera, Raul Julia, Rosie Perez, Rosario Dawson, Esai Morales, Jennifer Lopez and Benicio del Toro. Of Mexican origin: Ramón Novarro, Dolores del Río, Lupe Vélez, Anthony Quinn, Ricardo Montalbán, Katy Jurado, Edward James Olmos, Salma Hayek, Danny Trejo, Jessica Alba, Tessa Thompson and Becky G. Of Cuban origin: Cesar Romero, Andy García, Cameron Diaz and Eva Mendes. Of Dominican origin: Maria Montez and Zoe Saldana. Of Brazilian origin: Carmen Miranda, Sonia Braga, Rodrigo Santoro and Jordana Brewster. Of Spanish origin: Rita Hayworth, Martin Sheen and Antonio Banderas. Other outstanding figures are: Anita Page (of Salvadoran origin), Fernando Lamas (of Argentine origin), Raquel Welch (of Bolivian origin), Maria Conchita Alonso (of Venezuelan origin), John Leguizamo (of Colombian origin) and Oscar Isaac (of Guatemalan origin).
In stand - up comedy, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, Gabriel Iglesias and others are prominent.
Some of the Hispanic or Latino actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Charo, Selena Gomez, Carlos Pena Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, America Ferrera, Karla Souza, Diego Boneta, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award - winning producer, director, and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards, and Michael Jackson 's memorial service.
Hispanics and Latinos are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986. Together with numerous Latino civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout '' of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Latinos on any of their new prime time series that year. This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks.
Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.
In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic and Latino designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, Narciso Rodriguez, Manuel Cuevas, among others. Christy Turlington, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.
Notable Hispanic and Latino artists include Luis Jiménez and Richard Serra
The total number of Hispanic - owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.
Hispanic and Latino business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca - Cola Company. Advertising Mexican - American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club. Also a major sports team owner is Mexican - American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc. and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.
There are several Hispanics on the Forbes 400 list of richest Americans. Alejandro Santo Domingo and his brother Andres Santo Domingo inherited their fathers stake in SABMiller, now merged with Anheuser - Busch InBev. The brothers are ranked # 132 and are each worth $4.8 bn. Jorge Perez founded and runs The Related Group. He built his career developing and operating low - income multifamily apartments across Miami. He is ranked # 264 and is worth $3 bn.
The largest Hispanic - owned food company in the United States is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company 's founders. Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico 's first television station and now the second largest Spanish - language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co. Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest - profile Latina in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.
As of 2007, there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Latino origin.
In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco and Manuel Lujan Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Ileana Ros - Lehtinen, Jose E. Serrano, Luis Gutiérrez, Nydia Velázquez, Xavier Becerra, Lucille Roybal - Allard, Loretta Sanchez, Rubén Hinojosa, Mario Diaz - Balart, Raul Grijalva, Ben R. Lujan, Jaime Herrera Beutler, Raul Labrador and Alex Mooney -- in all, they number thirty. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat, and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.
Numerous Hispanics and Latinos hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States. Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Latina governor in the history of the United States. Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco and Bob Martinez.
Since 1988, when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women.
In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic or Latino origin.
The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.
Hispanics and Latinos have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward. 11 % to 13 % military personnel now are Latinos and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere. Hispanics and Latinos have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics and Latinos have been awarded the nation 's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics / Latinos in the military:
The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor: Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy '' Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago - Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace and Maximo Yabes.
Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize -- winning physicist, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1 '', a galactic cluster. F.J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N - slit laser interferometer. Alfredo Quiñones - Hinojosa is the Director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian - American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian - American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.
Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases. Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation 's cotton industry. Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican - American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican - American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women 's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Latina president of the American Public Health Association.
Some Hispanics and Latinos have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts: Franklin Chang - Diaz, the first Latin American NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and Director of Mars Exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández - Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center.
Olga D. González - Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle - Life Nickel - Hydrogen Batteries '' which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full - scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery - operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, Jose Hernández, Michael López - Alegría, John Olivas, and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.
The large number of Hispanic and Latino American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Alex Rodriguez, Alex Rios, Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrian Gonzalez, Jose Fernandez, David Ortiz, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Al López, Ozzie Guillén and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya.
There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked # 17 on Sporting News 's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest - ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics and Latinos in the National Football League (NFL).
Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginóbili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title, and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Tennis players includes legend Pancho Gonzales and Olympic tennis champions and professional players Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández and 2016 Puerto Rican Gold Medalist Monica Puig.
Hispanics are present in all major American sports and leagues, but have particularly influenced the growth in popularity of soccer in the United States. Soccer is the most popular sport across Latin America and Spain, and Hispanics brought the heritage of soccer playing to the United States. Major League Soccer teams such as Chivas USA, LA Galaxy, and the Houston Dynamo, for example, have a fanbase composed primarily of Mexican Americans. Association football players in the Major League Soccer (MLS) includes several like Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa and Carlos Bocanegra.
Boxing 's first Hispanic world champion was Panama Al Brown. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Brandon Ríos, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz and Carlos Ortiz.
Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nate Diaz, Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Kelvin Gastelum, and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.
In 1991, Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All - Star Games. In 1999, Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.
Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López, and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.
In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez, and executive Vickie Guerrero.
In countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of nativism. Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, economic and social conditions in Latin America, and use of the Spanish language. In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment. According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos almost doubled.
For the year 2009, the FBI reported that 483 of the 6,604 hate crimes committed in the United States were anti-Hispanic comprising 7.3 % of all hate crimes. This compares to 34.6 % of hate crimes being anti-Black, 17.9 % being anti-Homosexual, 14.1 % being anti-Jewish, and 8.3 % being anti-White.
Places of settlement in United States:
Diaspora:
Individuals:
Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics:
General:
|
where do the wizards come from in lotr | Wizard (Middle - earth) - wikipedia
In the fiction of J.R.R. Tolkien, the Wizards of Middle - earth are a group of beings outwardly resembling Men but possessing much greater physical and mental power. They are also called the Istari (Quenya for "Wise Ones '') by the Elves. The Sindarin word is Ithryn (sing. Ithron). They were sent by the Valar to assist the people of Middle - earth to contest Sauron.
The wizards of Middle - earth were Maiar: spirits of the same order as the Valar, but lesser in power. The first three of these five wizards were known in the Mannish tongues of the Lord of the Rings series as Saruman "man of skill '' (Rohirric), Gandalf "elf of the staff '' (northern Men), and Radagast "tender of beasts '' (possibly Westron). Tolkien never provided non-Elvish names for the other two; one tradition gives their names in Valinor as Alatar and Pallando, and another as Morinehtar and Rómestámo in Middle - earth. Each wizard in the series had robes of a characteristic colour: white for Saruman (the chief and the most powerful of the five), grey for Gandalf, brown for Radagast, and sea - blue for Alatar and Pallando (known consequently as the Blue Wizards or "Ithryn Luin ''). Gandalf and Saruman both play important roles in The Lord of the Rings, while Radagast appears only briefly. Alatar and Pallando do not feature in the story, as they are said to have journeyed far into the east after their arrival in Middle - earth.
Tolkien gives multiple names for all of them. In Quenya, Saruman was Curumo ("skillful one ''); Gandalf was Olórin ("dreaming '' or "dreamer ''); and Radagast was Aiwendil ("friend of birds ''). The Quenya names Morinehtar ("darkness - slayer '') and Rómestámo ("east - helper '') are given for Alatar and Pallando, though it is not clear which name goes with which wizard. Other names are noted in individual articles.
As the Istari were Maiar, each one served a Vala in some way. Saruman was the servant and helper of Aulë, and so learned much in the art of craftsmanship, mechanics, and metal - working, as was seen in the later Third Age. Gandalf was the servant of Manwë or Varda, but was a lover of the Gardens of Lórien, and so knew much of the hopes and dreams of Men and Elves. Radagast, servant of Yavanna, loved the things of nature, both Kelvar and Olvar. As each of these Istari learned from their Vala, so they acted in Middle - earth.
They came to Middle - earth around the year 1000 of the Third Age, when the forest of ' Greenwood the Great ' fell under shadow and became known as Mirkwood. The wizards already appeared old when they entered Middle - earth. They were "clothed '' in the bodies of old Men, as the Valar wished them to guide the inhabitants of Middle - earth by persuasion and encouragement, not by force or fear. They were forbidden to dominate the free peoples of Middle - earth or to match Sauron 's power with power. However, they aged very slowly and were in fact immortal. Physically they were "real '' Men, and felt all the urges, pleasures and fears of flesh and blood. Therefore, in spite of their specific and unambiguous goal, the Wizards were capable of human feelings; Gandalf, for example, felt great affection for the Hobbits. They could also feel negative human emotions such as greed, jealousy, and lust for power. It is hinted in the essay in Unfinished Tales that the Blue Wizards may have fallen prey to these temptations, though information published in The Peoples of Middle - earth seems to contradict this version of their history.
Although immortal, their physical bodies could be destroyed by violence -- thus Gandalf truly died in the fight with Durin 's Bane, beyond the power of the Valar to resurrect him; Eru Ilúvatar intervened to send Gandalf back. Similarly, Saruman was killed when his throat was cut by his servant in The Return of the King. The Istari also carried staves, which seem to aid their magic. When Saruman is defeated at Isengard, Gandalf casts him from the White Council and breaks his staff.
Even after his staff is broken, however, Saruman retains persuasive power over the heart and will of men. Similarly, when Gandalf 's staff is broken at the Bridge of Khazad - dûm he is still able to slay the Balrog, showing that a wizard 's strength was not entirely dependent on his staff.
Though the Valar intervened only rarely in Middle - earth, they sent the wizards as emissaries from Valinor because they had not forsaken the Men and Elves of Middle - earth. In imposing the prohibition against using force to compel the Children of Eru, the Valar sought with the wizards to avoid repeating an ancient error. They had tried direct intervention in the destiny of the Elves in the Years of the Trees by leading the Eldar into the West, but this resulted in many bloody wars and confrontations. In the struggle against the Dark Lord, they hoped instead to help Men achieve their own destiny. Thus Gandalf and the other wizards were meant to use their great wisdom to persuade Men to courses of action which would achieve Men 's own goals, rather than trying to dominate them, hence their power was ultimately restricted. Saruman failed in this when he tried to set himself up as a commander in opposition to Sauron, but Gandalf remained faithful to his charge.
The wizards landed at the Grey Havens in the North - west of Middle - earth, for the Valar felt that Arnor and Gondor, remnants of Elendil 's old kingdom, had the greatest hope of mounting resistance against Sauron. Few of Middle - earth 's inhabitants knew who the wizards really were; the wizards did not share their identities and purposes widely. Most thought they were Elves or wise Men; the name Gandalf, meaning "Wand - elf '', reflects the belief that he was an Elf.
Saruman originally was the most powerful of the five and was head of the White Council. In T.A. 2759 he took over the defence of Isengard with the consent of the Steward of Gondor, who gave him the key to Orthanc. Saruman was learned in the lore of the Rings of Power, and gradually became corrupted by desire for the Rings and by Sauron 's direct influence through the palantír of Orthanc. Eventually he took the title "Saruman of Many Colours '' and took robes to match. He assisted Sauron in the War of the Ring, biding time to secure the One Ring for himself, in order to supplant Sauron, but his plans and forces were thwarted by the power of the Ents. Gandalf broke his staff and cast him from the White Council. However, Saruman later invaded the hobbit lands of the Shire, ruling as a petty lord, but was eventually overthrown again by the hobbits. He was finally murdered by his servant Gríma Wormtongue.
During the War of the Ring, it was Gandalf who led the Free Peoples to victory over Sauron. He also became "Gandalf the White '', and defeated the traitorous Saruman. After the destruction of Sauron 's forces in front of the Black Gate at the mountainous borders of Mordor, Gandalf left Middle - earth and went over the Sea to Aman, along with the Ring - bearers and many of the Elves.
In the course of The Lord of the Rings, it is never made clear what exactly Gandalf and Saruman are. Treebeard tells Merry and Pippin that the wizards appeared after the Great Ships came over the Sea (ca. T.A. 1000, according to Appendix B, some 2,000 years before the time of The Lord of the Rings), but little else is revealed in the narrative. Riding with Pippin to Minas Tirith at the end of Book III, Gandalf ponders the ability of the palantíri to see into the past, and recalls events in Valinor from the Years of the Trees -- though whether from his own memory is not clear. Later in Minas Tirith, Pippin wonders what Gandalf really is, and realizes that this is the first time in his life that he has done so.
The essay given in Unfinished Tales was originally begun in order to be included in the appendices of The Lord of the Rings, but was not completed in time. A more explanatory passage on the nature of the wizards is found at the end of The Silmarillion.
In the Second Age, at least a thousand years before the Wizards described above, the Númenóreans referred to Sauron as Zigûr, which means ' wizard ' in their Adûnaic language.
In Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, three of the Istari are featured as characters: Saruman (portrayed by Christopher Lee), Gandalf (played by Ian McKellen), and Radagast (portrayed by Sylvester McCoy). Gandalf mentions the two Blue Wizards in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, but comments that he can not recall their names; this is a reference to the fact that they went unnamed in both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. In The Hobbit films, it is Radagast who first discovers the presence of the Necromancer at Dol Guldur, and alerts Gandalf who in turn informs the White Council, including Saruman. Gandalf is quick to deduce the Necromancer 's true identity, but Saruman is reluctant to accept that Sauron could have returned. At the behest of Galadriel, Gandalf and Radagast meet at the tomb of the Nine Kings of Men, and then travel to Dol Guldur. Radagast is then sent to take word to the White Council while Gandalf enters Dol Guldur alone, where he confronts and is captured by Sauron. The White Council arrived in force to rescue him, with Saruman, Elrond, and Galadriel confronting the evil there while Radagast took Gandalf to safety. Saruman later forbade pursuit of Sauron, feeling that their foe would never be able to rise again, while Gandalf and Radagast later took part in The Battle of the Five Armies.
As in the novels, Saruman later joined forces with Sauron, though he retained his white robes and was not shown to be seeking the One Ring for his own use. He and Gandalf are the only wizards featured or mentioned in the Lord of the Rings films, and for the most part go through the same experiences as in the novels. However, as seen in the extended edition of The Return of the King, Saruman is killed by Wormtongue atop Orthanc rather than in The Shire. The films place a greater emphasis on the connection between the Wizards ' powers being manifested through their staffs: Gandalf and Saruman are visibly seen employing their staffs in their battle inside Orthanc, and Gandalf is rendered helpless when Saruman takes his staff from him. In a departure from the books, Gandalf 's staff is shattered during his confrontation with the Witch - king.
|
where can i go with a brazilian passport | Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Brazil. As of 22 May 2018, Brazilian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 170 countries and territories, ranking the Brazilian passport 15th in terms of travel freedom, tied with the Argentine passport, according to the Henley Passport Index.
The Mercosur member states of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, together with most other South American countries (as shown below) do not even require a Brazilian passport; a national or state - issued Brazilian identity card is enough for entry into all UNASUR member states (with the exception of Guyana and Suriname).
Nevertheless, the identity card must be in good condition, must not have expired, and the holder must be clearly recognizable in the photograph.
Brazilians within Mercosur have unlimited access to any of the full members (Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay) and associated members (Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador) with the right to residence and work, with no requirement other than nationality. Citizens of these nine countries (including Brazil) may apply for the grant of "temporary residence '' for up to two years in another country of the bloc. Then, they may apply for "permanent residence '' just before the term of their "temporary residence '' expires.
Visas for Cambodia, Myanmar, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sri Lanka and Turkey are obtainable online.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. However, some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals); Albania; Belarus; Georgia; Honduras; Iceland; Jordan; Kuwait, Lebanon; Liechtenstein; Moldova; Monaco; Nauru; Panama, Saint Barthélemy; San Marino; Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
|
how to convert star to delta and delta to star | Y - Δ transform - wikipedia
The Y - Δ transform, also written wye - delta and also known by many other names, is a mathematical technique to simplify the analysis of an electrical network. The name derives from the shapes of the circuit diagrams, which look respectively like the letter Y and the Greek capital letter Δ. This circuit transformation theory was published by Arthur Edwin Kennelly in 1899. It is widely used in analysis of three - phase electric power circuits.
The Y - Δ transform can be considered a special case of the star - mesh transform for three resistors. In mathematics, the Y - Δ transform plays an important role in theory of circular planar graphs.
The Y - Δ transform is known by a variety of other names, mostly based upon the two shapes involved, listed in either order. The Y, spelled out as wye, can also be called T or star; the Δ, spelled out as delta, can also be called triangle, Π (spelled out as pi), or mesh. Thus, common names for the transformation include wye - delta or delta - wye, star - delta, star - mesh, or T - Π.
The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networks with three terminals. Where three elements terminate at a common node and none are sources, the node is eliminated by transforming the impedances. For equivalence, the impedance between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks. The equations given here are valid for complex as well as real impedances.
The general idea is to compute the impedance R y (\ displaystyle R_ (y)) at a terminal node of the Y circuit with impedances R ′ (\ displaystyle R '), R '' (\ displaystyle R ' ') to adjacent nodes in the Δ circuit by
where R Δ (\ displaystyle R_ (\ Delta)) are all impedances in the Δ circuit. This yields the specific formulae
The general idea is to compute an impedance R Δ (\ displaystyle R_ (\ Delta)) in the Δ circuit by
where R P = R 1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R 1 (\ displaystyle R_ (P) = R_ (1) R_ (2) + R_ (2) R_ (3) + R_ (3) R_ (1)) is the sum of the products of all pairs of impedances in the Y circuit and R o p p o s i t e (\ displaystyle R_ (\ mathrm (opposite))) is the impedance of the node in the Y circuit which is opposite the edge with R Δ (\ displaystyle R_ (\ Delta)). The formula for the individual edges are thus
Or, if using admittance instead of resistance:
Note that the general formula in Y to Δ using admittance is similar to Δ to Y using resistance.
The feasibility of the transformation can be shown as a consequence of the superposition theorem for electric circuits. A short proof, rather than one derived as a corollary of the more general star - mesh transform, can be given as follows. The equivalence lies in the statement that for any external voltages (V 1, V 2 (\ displaystyle V_ (1), V_ (2)) and V 3 (\ displaystyle V_ (3))) applying at the three nodes (N 1, N 2 (\ displaystyle N_ (1), N_ (2)) and N 3 (\ displaystyle N_ (3))), the corresponding currents (I 1, I 2 (\ displaystyle I_ (1), I_ (2)) and I 3 (\ displaystyle I_ (3))) are exactly the same for both the Y and Δ circuit, and vice versa. In this proof, we start with given external currents at the nodes. According to the superposition theorem, the voltages can be obtained by studying the superposition of the resulting voltages at the nodes of the following three problems applied at the three nodes with current:
The equivalence can be readily shown by using Kirchhoff 's circuit laws that I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0 (\ displaystyle I_ (1) + I_ (2) + I_ (3) = 0). Now each problem is relatively simple, since it involves only one single ideal current source. To obtain exactly the same outcome voltages at the nodes for each problem, the equivalent resistances in the two circuits must be the same, this can be easily found by using the basic rules of series and parallel circuits:
Though usually six equations are more than enough to express three variables (R 1, R 2, R 3 (\ displaystyle R_ (1), R_ (2), R_ (3))) in term of the other three variables (R a, R b, R c (\ displaystyle R_ (a), R_ (b), R_ (c))), here it is straightforward to show that these equations indeed lead to the above designed expressions. In fact, the superposition theorem establishes the relation between the values of the resistances, the uniqueness theorem guarantees the uniqueness of such solution.
Resistive networks between two terminals can theoretically be simplified to a single equivalent resistor (more generally, the same is true of impedance). Series and parallel transforms are basic tools for doing so, but for complex networks such as the bridge illustrated here, they do not suffice.
The Y - Δ transform can be used to eliminate one node at a time and produce a network that can be further simplified, as shown.
The reverse transformation, Δ - Y, which adds a node, is often handy to pave the way for further simplification as well.
Every two - terminal network represented by a planar graph can be reduced to a single equivalent resistor by a sequence of series, parallel, Y - Δ, and Δ - Y transformations. However, there are non-planar networks that can not be simplified using these transformations, such as a regular square grid wrapped around a torus, or any member of the Petersen family.
In graph theory, the Y - Δ transform means replacing a Y subgraph of a graph with the equivalent Δ subgraph. The transform preserves the number of edges in a graph, but not the number of vertices or the number of cycles. Two graphs are said to be Y - Δ equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a series of Y - Δ transforms in either direction. For example, the Petersen family is a Y - Δ equivalence class.
To relate (R a, R b, R c) (\ displaystyle \ (R_ (a), R_ (b), R_ (c) \)) from Δ to (R 1, R 2, R 3) (\ displaystyle \ (R_ (1), R_ (2), R_ (3) \)) from Y, the impedance between two corresponding nodes is compared. The impedance in either configuration is determined as if one of the nodes is disconnected from the circuit.
The impedance between N and N with N disconnected in Δ:
To simplify, let R T (\ displaystyle R_ (T)) be the sum of (R a, R b, R c) (\ displaystyle \ (R_ (a), R_ (b), R_ (c) \)).
Thus,
The corresponding impedance between N and N in Y is simple:
hence:
Repeating for R (N 2, N 3) (\ displaystyle R (N_ (2), N_ (3))):
and for R (N 1, N 3) (\ displaystyle R (N_ (1), N_ (3))):
From here, the values of (R 1, R 2, R 3) (\ displaystyle \ (R_ (1), R_ (2), R_ (3) \)) can be determined by linear combination (addition and / or subtraction).
For example, adding (1) and (3), then subtracting (2) yields
thus,
where R T = R a + R b + R c (\ displaystyle R_ (T) = R_ (a) + R_ (b) + R_ (c))
For completeness:
Let
We can write the Δ to Y equations as
Multiplying the pairs of equations yields
and the sum of these equations is
Factor R a R b R c (\ displaystyle R_ (a) R_ (b) R_ (c)) from the right side, leaving R T (\ displaystyle R_ (T)) in the numerator, canceling with an R T (\ displaystyle R_ (T)) in the denominator.
Note the similarity between (8) and ((1), (2), (3))
Divide (8) by (1)
which is the equation for R a (\ displaystyle R_ (a)). Dividing (8) by (2) or (3) (expressions for R 2 (\ displaystyle R_ (2)) or R 3 (\ displaystyle R_ (3))) gives the remaining equations.
|
how many years did it take to build the colosseum in rome | Colosseum - wikipedia
The Colosseum or Coliseum (/ kɒləˈsiːəm / kol - ə - SEE - əm), also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio (aŋfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo) or Colosseo (kolosˈsɛːo)), is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of travertine, tuff, and brick - faced concrete, it is the largest amphitheatre ever built. The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72, and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir Titus. Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81 -- 96). These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius).
The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles (for only a short time as the hypogeum was soon filled in with mechanisms to support the other activities), animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although partially ruined because of damage caused by earthquakes and stone - robbers, the Colosseum is still an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and is listed as one of the New7Wonders of the World. It is one of Rome 's most popular tourist attractions and also has links to the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross '' procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five - cent euro coin.
The Colosseum 's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheatre. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero. This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby This statue was later remodeled by Nero 's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero 's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world ''). This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron 's poem Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum '' had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as Coloseumul (Romanian), le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian 's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero 's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome.
Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general 's share of the booty. '' Along with the spoils, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war, and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction. The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried, along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome. Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70 -- 72 AD (73 -- 75 AD according to some sources) The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian 's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80, and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian 's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre 's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425 -- 455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime. The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585 -- 1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome 's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict 's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810 -- 1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome 's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3 m / € 20.6 m at 2000 prices).
In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti -- death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum 's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released, or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002), Paul McCartney (May 2003), Elton John (September 2005), and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free - standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present - day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall 's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half - columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Each of the arches in the second - and third - floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas - covered, net - like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two - thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.
The Colosseum 's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
According to the Codex - Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground ''). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two - level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators ' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian 's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum 's existence.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Other performances would also take place by acrobats and magicians, typically during the intervals.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena 's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story -- played by a condemned person -- was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year entering to view the interior arena. There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum on Good Fridays.
In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod 's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a € 25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years. Due to the controversial nature of using a public -- private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum 's history. The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum 's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground - level arches. Taking three years, the final product of this work was unveiled July 1, 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level. '' The project also plans to create a services center and to restore the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.. New to tours of the restored marvel beginning November 1, 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day - long event.
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2012
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2013
Colosseum 2014
Colosseum 2018
The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition. On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still - intact physical evidence or historical records. These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum -- their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods '', but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus. According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry, '' which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites. This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome ''), which claims the Circus Flaminius -- but not the Colosseum -- as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order, but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.
Pope Pius V (1566 -- 1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction. A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli 's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri 's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum 's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.
At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740 -- 1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, before he died in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:
The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.
Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheater.
The Colosseum has a wide and well - documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned. 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the feces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.
The Colosseum was featured in the 2010 video game Assassin 's Creed: Brotherhood. The Colosseum is of great importance to the entire Assassin 's Creed series as a whole: first, it was an entrance site to a Lair of Romulus, second, the Lair beneath the Colosseum led directly to the Temple of Juno Moneta which housed the Apple of Eden, third, it was used in a Passion Play depicting Jesus Christ 's crucifixion where an assassination attempt was unfoiled by the protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, fourth, in the 21st century, Desmond Miles freeran through the maze in the Colosseum in order to find the Temple of Juno Moneta below the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli and the Apple kept in it by Ezio in 1506 and fifth, it has a glyph at the top. In addition, the Colosseum is elliptical (oval - shaped) in reality, but it was made circular for Assassin 's Creed: Brotherhood, since devising shadows for different sides of the buildings would have "driven game designers nuts ''.
The iconic status of the Colosseum has led it to be featured in numerous films, such as Roman Holiday, Demetrius and the Gladiators, 20 Million Miles to Earth, Way of the Dragon, Gladiator (in which it was re-created via CGI), Megiddo: The Omega Code 2, The Core, The Lizzie McGuire Movie, Jumper, and the animated movie Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted.
Coordinates: 41 ° 53 ′ 24.61 '' N 12 ° 29 ′ 32.17 '' E / 41.8901694 ° N 12.4922694 ° E / 41.8901694; 12.4922694
|
ice hockey at the 2006 winter olympics women's tournament | Ice hockey at the 2006 Winter Olympics -- women 's tournament - wikipedia
The women 's tournament in ice hockey at the 2006 Winter Olympics was held in Turin, Italy from 11 to 20 February 2006. Eight countries qualified for the tournament.
Canada, United States, Finland and Sweden qualified as the top four teams in the IIHF World Ranking in 2004. Italy qualified as host team. The remaining three teams qualified from qualification tournaments.
All times are local (UTC + 1).
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; PIM = Penalties in Minutes; + / − = Plus - minus; POS = Position Source: IIHF.com
Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played at least 40 % of their team 's minutes, are included in this list.
TOI = Time on Ice (minutes: seconds); GA = Goals Against; GAA = Goals Against Average; SA = Shots Against; Sv % = Save Percentage; SO = Shutouts Source: IIHF.com
Source: IIHF.com
Source: IIHF.com
|
legend of the galactic heroes die neue these characters | Legend of the Galactic Heroes - wikipedia
Legend of the Galactic Heroes (銀河 英雄 伝説, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu), referred to as Heldensagen vom Kosmosinsel (incorrect German, translating to "heroic tales of the cosmic island '') in the opening credits and sometimes abbreviated as LOTGH (銀 英 伝, Gin'eiden), is a series of science fiction novels written by Yoshiki Tanaka. In humanity 's distant future, two interstellar states -- the monarchic Galactic Empire and the democratic Free Planets Alliance -- are embroiled in a never - ending war. The story focuses on the exploits of rivals Reinhard von Lohengramm and Yang Wen - li as they rise to power and fame in the Galactic Empire and the Free Planets Alliance respectively.
An anime adaptation of the novels, produced by Kitty Films and animated for the most part by Artland and Magic Bus, ran from 1988 to 1997. There is also a manga based on the novels, with art by Katsumi Michihara. In addition, there are several video game adaptations with the most recent release in 2008 being a real - time strategy game. The series did not receive an official English release until 2015, when North American anime and manga distributor Viz Media announced they had acquired the license to the novels. On the same day, North American anime licensor Sentai Filmworks announced their license to the anime and the anime was later released on Hidive starting in June 20, 2017.
In AD 2801 the Galactic Federation is formed, which results in political power moving away from the planet Earth (now named Terra) and the Space Era calendar replacing the Gregorian calendar, with 2801 AD now being SE 1. Rudolf von Goldenbaum, an ex-admiral turned dictatorial politician is elected to power, makes himself Emperor Rudolf I, absolute monarch of the renamed Galactic Empire, and restarts the calendar again, starting the Imperial Calendar on SE 310 / AD 3110. Rudolf adopts extremist policies including the suppression of any opposition and the extermination of anyone perceived too weak, such as the disabled and those in poverty, which he carried out until his death in IC 42 / SE 351 / AD 3151. He also moves the capital of the Empire to the planet Odin, third planet in the Valhalla system.
In IC 164 / SE 473 / AD 3273, a group of serfs in the Altair star system manage to escape captivity and make "the Long March of 10,000 Light - Years '' into the Sagittarius Arm to escape the Galactic Empire, which is located within the Orion Arm. These people set up the Free Planets Alliance, a democratic republic, using the Space Era calendar, founding the Alliance in SE 527 / IC 218 / AD 3327 on the planet Heinessen. In SE 640 / IC 331 / AD 3440 the first battle between the Empire and Alliance occurs, resulting in a major Alliance victory. The two realms have been at war ever since.
A third realm is also set up, the Dominion of Phezzan, a planet - state (city - state on a galactic scale) with connections to Terra. It technically remains a part of the Empire and pays tribute, but it also maintains a relationship with the Alliance. Ruled by a domain lord called the "landsherr '' Phezzan gains power by acting as both the paragon and trickster, providing the only link between the Empire and Alliance whilst simultaneously playing the two sides against one another.
The story is staged in the distant future within our own Milky Way Galaxy, starting in SE 796 / IC 487 / AD 3596. A portion of the galaxy is filled with terraformed worlds inhabited by interstellar traveling human beings. For 150 years two mighty space powers have intermittently warred with each other: the Galactic Empire and the Free Planets Alliance.
Within the Galactic Empire, based on mid 19th century Prussia, an ambitious military genius, Reinhard von Müsel, later conferred Reinhard von Lohengramm, is rising to power. He is driven by the desire to free his sister Annerose, who was taken by the Kaiser as a concubine. Later, he wants not only to end the corrupt Goldenbaum dynasty but also to defeat the Free Planets Alliance and to unify the whole galaxy under his rule.
In the Free Planets Alliance Star Fleet is another genius, Yang Wen - li. He originally aspired to become a historian through a military academy, and joined the tactical division only out of need for tuition money. He was rapidly promoted to an admiral because he demonstrated excellence in military strategy in a number of decisive battles and conflicts. He becomes the archrival of Reinhard, though they highly respect one another. Unlike Reinhard he is better known for his underdog victories and accomplishments in overcoming seemingly impossible odds and mitigating casualties and damages due to military operations.
As a historian, Yang often predicts the motives behind his enemies and narrates the rich history of his world and comments on it. One of his famous quotes is: "There are few wars between good and evil; most are between one good and another good. ''
Besides the two main heroes, the story is full of vivid characters and intricate politics. All types of characters, from high nobility, admirals and politicians, to common soldiers and farmers, are interwoven into the story. The story frequently switches away from the main heroes to the Unknown Soldier fighting for his life on the battlefield.
There is a third neutral power nominally attached to the Galactic Empire called the Phezzan Dominion, a planet - state which trades with both warring powers. There is also a Terraism cult, which claims that humans should go back to Earth, gaining popularity throughout the galaxy. Throughout the story executive political figures of Phezzan in concert with the upper - hierarchy of the Terraism cult orchestrate a number of conspiracies to shift the tide of the galactic war so that it may favor their objectives.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes (Japanese: 銀河 英雄 伝説, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu) is a series of ten science - fiction novels written by Tanaka Yoshiki, as well as a number of other, shorter stories set in the same universe. It won the Seiun Award for "Best Novel of the Year '' in 1988. On July 2, 2015, Viz Media had announced that they had licensed the novels for release in North America under their Haikasoru imprint. They have only licensed the first three novels, but will license more if sales are good. The first novel, Dawn was released on March 8, 2016 with Ambition released soon after on July 19, 2016.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes: My Conquest is the Sea of Stars (銀河 英雄 伝説 わが 征 く は 星 の 大海, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu: Waga Yuku wa Hoshi no Taikai) is the first animated adaptation of Yoshiki Tanaka 's Legend of the Galactic Heroes series of novels. It was originally released in Japan on 6 February 1988. The film chronicles the first combat encounter between Reinhard von Müsel (who later adopted the Lohengramm name) and Yang Wen - li, the two primary protagonists of the series. The main original video animation (OVA) series followed only months later.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes (銀河 英雄 伝説, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu), also known by the (ungrammatical) German title Heldensagen vom Kosmosinsel, which is written on the official logo, sometimes abbreviated as LOTGH. This is the main series. It is the second and longest - running animated adaptation of Yoshiki 's series of novels. It was released in direct home video installments during four separate periods between December 1988 and March 1997. The OVA comprises 110 episodes, which together total more than 2800 minutes of animation. It was later shown on television and has seen multiple releases on both DVD and Blu - ray formats.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Golden Wings (銀河 英雄 伝説 外伝 黄金 の 翼, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu: Ōgon no Tsubasa) is the third animated adaptation of Tanaka 's novels. It was originally released on home video in Japan in October 1992, then released in cinemas in December of the same year. Its art style is notable in that it follows the art style of the manga rather than the other animated works. Its ending theme song is "Futari Mita Yume ~ Two of Us ~ '', performed and composed by Hiroyuki Matsuda, written by Gorou Matsui and arranged by David Campbell.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Overture to a New War (銀河 英雄 伝説 外伝 新た なる 戦い の 序曲 (オーヴァチュア), Ginga Eiyū Densetsu: Arata Naru Tatakai no Ōvachua) is the fourth animated adaptation of Tanaka 's novels. It was originally released in Japan on 18 December 1993. It expands upon the events covered in the first two episodes of the 1988 OVA series.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes Gaiden (銀河 英雄 伝説 外伝, Ginga Eiyū Densetsu Gaiden) is the fifth animated adaptation (counting films) of Tanaka 's novel series. It was originally released in Japan between February 1998 and July 2000. It served as a prequel to the main series.
Series 1, released in February 1998, is the first animated adaptation of the Legend of the Galactic Heroes Gaiden, or side stories, series of novels, consisting of adaptations of the short stories Silver - White Valley, Dreams of the Morning, Songs of the Night, Dishonour and the novel A Hundred Billion Stars, a Hundred Billion Lights.
Series 2, released between December 1999 and July 2001, is the second animated adaptation of the side stories from the Legend of the Galactic Heroes series of novels, consisting of the adaptations of the novels Spiral Labyrinth and part of Star Crusher (adapted as The Third Battle of Tiamat), as well as the original stories The Mutineer, The Duellist and The Retriever.
Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Die Neue These started being produced by Production I.G during 2017. Shunsuke Tada directed the series and Noboru Takagi supervised the scripts. Yoko Kikuchi, Iwao Teraoka, and Katsura Tsushima designed the characters. The mecha designs by Naoyuki Kato were drafted by Atsushi Takeuchi, Shinji Usui, and Shinobu Tsuneki. DMM Pictures, Shochiku, and Tokuma Shoten were credited with production of the anime alongside Production I.G. The series was split into two seasons. Season 1, The Legend of the Galactic Heroes Die Neue These Kaikō (The New Thesis: Star - Crossed) began airing 12 episodes beginning April 3, 2018. Season 2, The Legend of the Galactic Heroes Die Neue These Seiran (The New Thesis: Stellar War) is to premiere in Japanese theaters as three films of four episodes each in 2019.
The anime stars Mamoru Miyano as Reinhard von Lohengramm, Kenichi Suzumura as Yang Wen - li & Yuichiro Umehara as Siegfried Kircheis (main characters). For season one, the opening theme is "Binary Star '' by Sawano Hiroyuki, and the ending theme is "Wish '' by Elisa.
On 12 February 2014, the latest stage production of Legend of the Galactic Heroes opened, and it ended with an announcement of a new anime adaptation. Tanaka 's secretary, Hirofumi Adachi, confirmed the news and relayed the producer 's comments that the new anime is not a remake of the earlier anime, but another anime adaptation of the original novels with a new staff.
On 2 July 2015, Sentai Filmworks announced their license to the anime series at their panel at Anime Expo and later commented that they hoped to create the "definitive release ''.
On 20 June 2017, Sentai Filmworks announced the streaming release on Hidive 's anime streaming service starting the same day.
The first manga adaptation is authored by Katsumi Michihara, and is derived from the first two volumes of the original - novel. This manga story is faithful to the original, possibly more faithful than the anime. However, there are some changes that could be considered major, e.g. the sex of several characters is changed. Akira Kasahara cooperated in drawing mechanics.
The series has been adapted as a musical by the all female performance troupe Takarazuka Revue.
|
where was the guardians of the galaxy 2 filmed | Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team Guardians of the Galaxy, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2014 's Guardians of the Galaxy and the fifteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is written and directed by James Gunn and stars an ensemble cast featuring Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Michael Rooker, Karen Gillan, Pom Klementieff, Elizabeth Debicki, Chris Sullivan, Sean Gunn, Sylvester Stallone, and Kurt Russell. In Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, the Guardians travel throughout the cosmos as they help Peter Quill learn more about his mysterious parentage.
The film was officially announced at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International before the theatrical release of the first film, along with Gunn 's return from the first film, with the title of the sequel revealed a year later in June 2015. Principal photography began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with many crew changes from the first film due to other commitments. Filming concluded in June 2016. Gunn chose to set the sequel shortly after the first film to explore the characters ' new roles as the Guardians, and to follow the storyline of Quill 's father established throughout that previous film. Russell was confirmed as Quill 's father in July 2016, portraying Ego, a departure from Quill 's comic father.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017 and was released in the United States on May 5, 2017, in 3D and IMAX 3D. It grossed more than $863 million worldwide, making it the sixth highest - grossing film of 2017, while also outgrossing its predecessor. The film received generally positive reviews, particularly for its visuals, soundtrack and cast, though critics deemed it not as "fresh '' as the original. A sequel, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, is being developed, with Gunn returning to write and direct, and is scheduled to be released in 2020.
In 2014, Peter Quill, Gamora, Drax, Rocket, and Baby Groot are renowned as the Guardians of the Galaxy. Ayesha, leader of the Sovereign race, has the Guardians protect valuable batteries from an inter-dimensional monster in exchange for Gamora 's estranged sister Nebula, who was caught attempting to steal the batteries. After Rocket steals some for himself, the Sovereign attacks the Guardians ' ship with a fleet of drones. These are destroyed by a mysterious figure, and the Guardians crash - land on a nearby planet. There this figure reveals himself as Quill 's father, Ego, and invites Quill, Gamora, and Drax to his home planet. Rocket and Groot remain behind to repair the ship and guard Nebula.
Ayesha hires Yondu Udonta and his crew, who have been exiled from the greater Ravager community for child trafficking, to recapture the Guardians. They capture Rocket, but when Yondu hesitates to turn over Quill, whom he raised, his lieutenant Taserface leads a mutiny with help from Nebula. Taserface imprisons Rocket and Yondu aboard Yondu 's ship and executes Yondu 's loyalists. Nebula leaves to find and kill Gamora, whom she blames for the torture inflicted on her by their father, Thanos. While imprisoned, Rocket and Yondu bond. Groot and Kraglin, a remaining Yondu loyalist, free Rocket and Yondu, and they destroy the ship and its crew as they escape, though not before Taserface warns the Sovereign.
Ego, a god - like Celestial that manipulated the matter around its consciousness to form this "home '' planet, explains that it projected a humanoid guise to travel the universe and discover a purpose, eventually falling in love with Quill 's mother Meredith. Ego hired Yondu to collect the young Quill after Meredith 's death, but the boy was never delivered and Ego has been searching for him ever since. He teaches Quill to manipulate Celestial power. Nebula arrives at Ego 's planet and tries to kill Gamora, but the pair reach an uneasy alliance when they discover caverns filled with skeletal remains. Ego reveals to Quill that in his travels, he planted seedlings on thousands of worlds which can terraform them into new extensions of himself, but they can only be activated by the power of two Celestials. To that end, he impregnated countless women and hired Yondu to collect the children, but killed them all when they failed to access the Celestial power. Under Ego 's influence, Quill helps him activate the seedlings, which begin to consume every world, but Quill fights back when Ego reveals that he killed Meredith due to the distraction she posed.
Mantis, Ego 's naïve empath servant, grows close to Drax and warns him of Ego 's plan. Gamora and Nebula also learn of the plan as Rocket, Yondu, Groot and Kraglin arrive. As they come under attack from the Sovereign 's drones, the reunited Guardians find Ego 's brain at the planet 's core. Rocket makes a bomb using the stolen batteries, which Groot plants on the brain. Quill fights Ego with his newfound Celestial powers to distract him long enough for the other Guardians and Mantis to escape. The bomb then explodes, killing Ego and disintegrating the planet. Yondu sacrifices himself to save Quill, who realizes that the reason Yondu kept him was to spare him from the fate of Ego 's other progeny, and that Yondu was Quill 's true "daddy ''. Having reconciled with Gamora, Nebula still chooses to leave and attempts to kill Thanos by herself. The Guardians hold a funeral for Yondu, which is attended by dozens of Ravager ships, acknowledging Yondu 's sacrifice and accepting him as a Ravager again.
In a series of mid - and post-credit scenes, Kraglin takes up Yondu 's telekinetic arrow and control - fin; Ravager leader Stakar Ogord reunites with his ex-teammates; Groot starts growing back to normal size, acting like a teenager in the process; Ayesha creates a new artificial being with whom she plans to destroy the Guardians, naming him Adam; and a group of uninterested Watchers abandon their informant, who is discussing several experiences on Earth.
Additionally, reprising their roles from the first film are Laura Haddock as Meredith Quill, Gregg Henry as her father, Seth Green as the voice of Howard the Duck, and canine actor Fred as Cosmo. Members of Yondu 's Ravager crew appearing in the film include Evan Jones as Retch, Jimmy Urine as Half - Nut, Stephen Blackehart as Brahl, Steve Agee as Gef, Mike Escamilla as Scrote, Joe Fria as Oblo, Terence Rosemore as Narblik, and Tommy Flanagan as Tullk, as well as Charred Walls of the Damned drummer and Howard Stern Show personality Richard Christy in a cameo appearance. Many of these actors are close friends with Gunn. The other members of Stakar and Yondu 's old team, based on the comic 's original incarnation of the Guardians of the Galaxy, include Michael Rosenbaum as Martinex, Ving Rhames as Charlie - 27, and Michelle Yeoh as Stakar 's female counterpart Aleta Ogord. Also included in the team are the CG characters Krugarr and Mainframe, with the latter voiced, in an uncredited cameo, by Miley Cyrus. Rosenbaum had previously auditioned to play Peter Quill in Vol. 1. Gunn cast Yeoh because of his love of 1990s Hong Kong films, and Cyrus after admiring "the tone of her voice '' while watching her as a judge on The Voice. He added that the team would return in future MCU films alongside Stallone 's Stakar.
Stan Lee appears as an informant to the Watchers, discussing previous adventures that include his cameos in other MCU films; he specifically mentions his time as a FedEx delivery man, referring to Lee 's cameo in Captain America: Civil War. This acknowledged the fan theory that Lee may be portraying the same character in all his cameos, with Gunn noting that "people thought Stan Lee is (Uatu the Watcher) and that all of these cameos are part of him being a Watcher. So, Stan Lee as a guy who is working for the Watchers was something that I thought was fun for the MCU. '' Feige added that Lee "clearly exists, you know, above and apart from the reality of all the films. So the notion that he could be sitting there on a cosmic pit stop during the jump gate sequence in Guardians... really says, so wait a minute, he 's this same character who 's popped up in all these films? '' Lee filmed several different versions of the scene, including an alternative where he references his role in Deadpool, which would have been the first acknowledgment of the X-Men film series by an MCU film. Gunn later admitted that the Civil War reference is a continuity error, given Vol. 2 is set before the events of Civil War, saying, "I screwed up; I was n't thinking. But I 'm going to say that probably Stan Lee used the guise of a Fed Ex guy more than one time. ''
David Hasselhoff makes a cameo appearance as himself, when Ego shape - shifts to his likeness, while Rob Zombie once again has a Ravager voice cameo. Footage of Jeff Goldblum dancing as the Grandmaster from the set of Thor: Ragnarok is used briefly during the end credits, with Feige explaining that Marvel "thought it would be fun to put it in there '' especially since the comic version of Grandmaster is the brother of the Collector, who appeared in the first Guardians film. Ben Browder, the star of the series Farscape which Gunn is a big fan of, cameos as a Sovereign Admiral. Jim Gunn Sr. and Leota Gunn, parents of James and Sean Gunn, also make cameo appearances in the film.
In May 2014, Disney CEO Bob Iger talked about the future of Guardians of the Galaxy, saying, "We believe it has strong franchise potential. '' He added that their goal was to create "another Avengers ''. Director and co-screenwriter James Gunn said that he would like to return for a sequel, and that he was contractually obligated to if asked. The next month, producer Kevin Feige said there are "places we can take (the franchise) and we have ideas of where we 'd like to go '' based on the wide array of characters, worlds and storylines from the comics. In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-screenwriter Nicole Perlman confirmed a sequel, saying it was "going to happen '' due to the positive internal response to the first film at Disney, and that Gunn would write and direct. At San Diego Comic - Con International soon after, the sequel was given a release date of July 28, 2017.
Gunn had begun work on the film within a month, and said there would be at least one more Guardian from the comics appearing in the film. In October, Gunn confirmed that all five original Guardians and other characters from the original film would return, and the release date was moved up to May 5, 2017. In the following months, Michael Rooker said he would return for the sequel as Yondu, and was looking forward to exploring new areas of the character; Chris Pratt, who played Peter Quill / Star - Lord in the first film, confirmed the sequel would be one of his next projects; and Bradley Cooper expressed interest and excitement when asked if he would return as Rocket for the sequel. Vin Diesel also confirmed he would return as Groot. In March 2015, Gunn revealed that filming would take place in Atlanta, Georgia with "major crew changes '' from the first film, and that his brother, Sean Gunn, would return as Kraglin alongside Karen Gillan as Nebula. He also discussed his relationship with Marvel, explained that the company "let me go and do my thing, and I truly listen to their notes and ideas. I 've never been told to put in any character or plot element at all... When they trust you they give you a wide berth... we just fit. ''
In May, Gunn said the sequel would feature fewer characters than the first film, and that he had planned to introduce two major new characters in the script -- Mantis and Adam Warlock. Talks had begun with an actor Gunn had in mind to portray Mantis, while he had decided to remove Warlock due to the film "getting too busy '', explaining, "one of the main things with Guardians of the Galaxy is not to add a bunch of characters, not to make it bigger in that way but to go deeper with the characters... and getting to know them more emotionally... everything is just getting too sprawling and too crazy for me in these superhero comic book movies. '' Gunn added, "I adored what we had done with him. I think we did something really creative and unique with Adam Warlock. But it was one character too many and I did n't want to lose Mantis and Mantis was more organically part of the movie anyway. '' He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The character 's future introduction is hinted at in one of the film 's mid-credits scenes. Gunn noted that Marvel gave him "some blowback '' for including the Warlock teaser because they felt fans would believe the character would be appearing in Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel, which was not the case. By including the scene, Gunn promised Marvel he would use his social media presence to clarify for fans that the character would not be seen in either Avengers film.
After the film 's announcement, Gunn said he knew "a lot of where I want to go (in the sequel) '', having written the backstory of Peter Quill, his father, and his history with Yondu during the making of the first film with the intention of exploring them in a future film. Gunn wanted to give the sequel a different structure from the first film, since "one of the reasons people like Guardians is because it 's fresh and different, so the second one will be fresh and different from the first one. '' Before starting on the script, Gunn hoped to further explore Drax the Destroyer, Nebula, Kraglin, and the Collector, and expand on Xandarian, Kree, Krylorian, and Ravager culture. He also hoped to introduce more female characters in the sequel, though wanted to avoid including "earthlings '' such as Carol Danvers, as well as Novas Richard Rider or Sam Alexander, saying, "I think Quill being the only earthling is important. That serves the entire movie - going audience and not just the handful of Nova (and Carol Danvers) fans. ''
Feige said exploring Quill 's father "would certainly be part of a next Guardians adventure... I think there 's a reason we seeded it at the very end of the (first) film like that. '' Gunn also stated that he wanted to make sure "Yondu 's place in everything made sense '' in regards to his relationship to Quill and his father, and also revealed Quill 's father would not be J'son as in the comics. Gunn "was less confident (Marvel) was going to buy in on Baby Groot than '' including Ego the Living Planet, since "adult Groot was the most popular character from the first film and I did n't think they 'd want to risk a good thing. '' However, by changing Groot, Gunn felt it "opened the film up '' creatively, allowing Gunn to bring out "new aspects of our other characters. '' Gunn said Thanos would only appear in the sequel "if he helps our story and he will not show up at all if not. Thanos is not the most important thing in Guardians 2, that 's for damn sure. There 's the Guardians themselves and other threats the Guardians are going to be facing that are not Thanos. '' Feige later confirmed that Thanos would not appear in the sequel, as he was being saved for a "grander '' return. When asked about how the film would connect with the other Phase Three films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Gunn said, "I do n't feel beholden to that stuff at all. I think it 's really about the Guardians and what they are doing. ''
Gunn set the film two - to - three months after the first film, "because he felt the group are just such fragile egos and he did n't think this story could start years later. '' Major planets visited in the film include Sovereign, Berhart and Contraxia. Feige also stated two or three other worlds would be seen, as well as "a little bit of Earth in this film, but it 's not these characters going to Earth. '' In December 2014, Gunn revealed the story for the film was written, saying, "It 's (still) constantly shifting, but I feel like it 's pretty strong. I 'm excited about it. '' By early February 2015, Gunn was "a few short weeks '' away from submitting a full story treatment to Marvel, and said that when he first presented his idea for the sequel to the company they thought it was "risky ''. He described it as "not really based on anything '' from the comics, being mainly an original story. Gunn later referred to the full treatment as a "scriptment '', "a 70 - page combination of a script and a treatment and it goes through every beat of the movie ''. By April, he was preparing to write the screenplay, and in May he was hoping to complete the script before he began work on The Belko Experiment in June 2015.
On June 2, 2015, Gunn announced on social media that he had completed the first draft of the screenplay, and that the film 's title would not simply be Guardians of the Galaxy 2. The same week, he confirmed the return of Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, and Cooper as Gamora, Drax, and Rocket, respectively. At the end of the month, Gunn announced the film 's title as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, saying he "came up with a LOT of titles for Vol. 2. But because ' Guardians of the Galaxy ' is already so wordy, it seemed strange to add another bunch of words after it. I liked Vol. 2 the best, so that 's what I stuck on the cover of the screenplay -- and, fortunately, (Marvel) liked it. ''
In September 2015, Gunn said in a Facebook post that he wanted to use Sneepers, an alien race that first appeared in Marvel Comics in 1964, as background characters in the film, but was advised against it by Marvel 's legal department because the name was too similar to snípur, the Icelandic word for clitoris. The Marvel legal department later cleared the use of Sneepers in the film, in part because of all the media coverage Gunn 's initial post received. At the end of the month, Feige stated casting announcements would be made "over the next few months before the end of the year '', and by the end of October, Pom Klementieff was cast as Mantis. Also, Matthew McConaughey was offered the role of the film 's antagonist, but had passed on it in favor of The Dark Tower. McConaughey felt he would have been "an amendment '' in Vol. 2 in "a colorful part (made) for another big - name actor. '' In December, Gunn said that he was corresponding with John C. Reilly about him reprising his role as Nova Corpsman Rhomann Dey, while Kurt Russell entered early talks to play Quill 's father. After the death of David Bowie in January 2016, Gunn said that there had been discussions for Bowie to appear in the film as a member of Yondu 's original crew. Gunn also stated that he had completed the final draft of the script. Benicio del Toro, who portrayed the Collector in the first film, expressed interest in portraying the character again, despite Marvel not contacting him about the sequel; Gunn explained that the Collector "just did n't fit '' into Vol. 2. In early February, comedian Steve Agee was revealed to be in the film.
Prop master Russell Bobbitt had difficulty finding the cassette decks that had been used in the first film, and all of the Sony Walkman headsets they sourced for the sequel were broken. Sony also did not have any headsets available for filming, while three pairs Bobbitt found on eBay cost around $1,800 and were not the exact model. Bobbitt eventually created six from scratch for Vol. 2. Other props he created for the film included two sets of blasters for Quill, with removable blaster cartridges, and "steampunk - looking weapons and belts '' for the Ravagers; Bobbitt explained that four different weapons were designed for the latter group, and then 15 -- 20 versions of those were produced to be used by the various Ravager actors (there could be up to 85 -- 95 Ravagers per scene). For their belts, the props team cut the leather themselves rather than buying existing belts, and then parts from different electronic devices such as radios and cell phones were glued together to make each belt "a unique piece of art ''. The prop department also made edible props for certain scenes: a prop of a stinkbug - inspired insect was made from chocolate and injected with black honey so it could be eaten on screen and "when he bit down the honey poured out of his mouth ''; similarly, a "yarrow root '' was designed based on enlarged images of pollen, and then created with non-dairy white chocolate to be eaten onscreen.
Pre-shooting began on February 11, 2016, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, under the working title Level Up, with Henry Braham serving as cinematographer and Scott Chambliss as production designer. Gunn noted that many of the crew from the first film, such as cinematographer Ben Davis and production designer Charles Wood, signed on to work on Doctor Strange, and due to a late change in production schedule for that film, were unable to work on Vol. 2.
Principal photography began on February 17, with Marvel confirming that Russell had joined the cast, and revealing that Elizabeth Debicki and Chris Sullivan had also been cast, all in undisclosed roles. The production used all 18 stages at Pinewood Atlanta, an increase in stage space from what was used for the first film. Gunn said the sequel required more sets than the first and "our sets are very large, even though a lot of the film is CGI. I like to have as many practical sets as we can and make the environments as real as possible so it balances out the CGI elements. '' Despite this, Gunn noted that there were less locations featured in the sequel, with the focus instead on being more specific and detailed with the fewer places shown. Sets constructed for the film included: several for the Sovereign planet, for which Chambliss used a "1950s pulp fiction variation on 1930s art deco design aesthetic ''; the Ravager 's main ship in the film, the Eclector, which was constructed in sections to provide a complete 360 - degree view of the ship as well as the ability to move sections around and portray different areas of the ship; and the Iron Lotus establishment on the "pleasure planet '' of Contraxia, which Chambliss wanted to feel like it had been put together from "a whole yard of repurposed junk where old spaceships are cast away and industrial materials that are n't of use anymore are just left to rot '', creating a "kind of neon jungle in its own way and covered in ice and snow. '' Interiors for other ships were also constructed, to limit the amount of blue screen the actors had to interact with; this includes the cockpit of Quill 's ship that had been built for the first film before being stored in London which was transported to Atlanta for the sequel.
Vol. 2 was the first film to be shot with an 8K resolution camera, the Red Weapon 8K. Gunn had wanted to use a different camera than the Alexa 65 that had been used for several other Marvel films, because he found it to be a "very big and heavy camera ''. He wanted a camera that could deliver equivalent image quality to the Alexa 65, and tested multiple options. He eventually met with Red, whom he had a positive experience with working on The Legend of Tarzan, and they introduced him to an early prototype for the Weapon 8K. He, Gunn, and Marvel decided to use the camera in September 2015, when only that single prototype existed, and spent months working with Red to get the camera ready for filming. For the sequence where Rocket and Yondu escape from the Ravagers, a Phantom Camera was used to film scenes up to 2000 frames per second, with the footage able to be moved from slow - motion to high - speed within a single shot. Each shot using the camera had to be carefully set up and choreographed. Additional scenes were also shot in IMAX and its aspect ratio. Braham filmed almost 85 percent of the film using a stabilizing technology he had contributed to called Stabileye, which he called "a handheld dolly '' which allowed "a spontaneity to the way the camera moves that is different and that felt appropriate for this movie. '' For filming the cockpits of spaceships, Braham surrounded the practical sets with video panels and other light sources that he could use to create realistic lighting no matter the environment outside the ship. Exteriors of the ships were filmed with the camera on a technocrane, but any shots inside the cockpits again used the Stabileye which is "so small that you can get it in there next to the actors ''.
In April, Gunn stated that Reilly would not be part of the film, and that Glenn Close would be filming scenes to reprise her role of Nova Prime Irani Rael from the first film, though it was unclear whether they would make it to the final cut of the sequel. He added that there were many other characters he could not include in the film due to rights issues, as 20th Century Fox "owns so many awesome cosmic villains and minor characters that I 'd love to play around with '' such as Annihilus and Kang the Conqueror. When filming Stan Lee 's cameo, Gunn also filmed two other cameos with Lee including one for Doctor Strange, to limit the amount of travel Lee had to do. Additional filming for Vol. 2 took place in Cartersville, Georgia, a state park north of Portland, Oregon, and in St. Charles, Missouri. The Georgia International Convention Center served as additional soundstage space after pre-production on Spider - Man: Homecoming began at several Pinewood Atlanta soundstages. Principal photography wrapped on June 16, 2016.
At San Diego Comic - Con 2016, Russell and Debicki were revealed to be playing Ego, Quill 's father, and Ayesha, respectively. Sylvester Stallone was also revealed to be in the film, with his role later revealed as Stakar Ogord. Gunn also introduced multiple actors who were playing Ravager characters, since the Ravagers have a larger presence in the film. On the decision to reveal Russell as Ego and Quill 's father when he did, Gunn felt that since "people were going to figure it out eventually... it was better that we took the reins in our own hands '' and make the reveal. Gunn also felt that this would move the focus of audiences from wanting to discover who Quill 's father is to "the story and the relationship that these characters have ''. In August 2016, Gunn confirmed the film would feature a post-credits scene, later stating there would be five in total, with four mid-credits scenes and one post-credits. Gunn also planned a sixth scene, where the Ravager Gef is found "mortally wounded '' on the ship, but "it ended up being a little confusing. ''
In November, Gillan revealed that the film was undergoing reshoots. That February, it was reported that the film had scored a perfect 100 in test screenings, the highest for any Marvel Studios film. The Hollywood Reporter noted this score could not necessarily be compared to any non-Marvel movies due to Marvel 's specific testing process that selects its audience "from a more select pool of recruits, what it terms ' friends and families screenings ' ''. In March 2017, Gunn revealed that Michael Rosenbaum would appear in the film, and that Gunn would provide reference for Baby Groot 's dancing "in a much bigger way (than the first film). I actually had to do like a full day 's worth of dancing to get Groot 's dance down this time. Last time it was me in front of an iPhone, and this time it 's me dancing on a huge soundstage and shooting it from five different angles. '' Fred Raskin and Craig Wood returned from the first film to serve as editors. On scenes that were cut from the film, Gunn said Nathan Fillion, who had had a voice cameo in the first film, was going to appear as Simon Williams in a sequence that would have shown several movie posters for films starring Williams, including films in which he portrays Arkon and Tony Stark. Gunn chose Williams for Fillion 's cameo because he wanted Fillion to have a bigger role in the MCU at some point and so did n't want to give him a role that could prevent him from taking a more substantial one later. Gunn still considered Fillion 's cameo canon to the MCU, despite it being cut. He also confirmed that Close 's scenes had been cut from the film, because it felt like he "was trying to cram Nova Prime into the second movie as opposed to having it happen organically. ''
Visual effects for the film were created by Framestore, Weta Digital, Trixter, Method Studios, Animal Logic, Scanline VFX, Lola VFX, Luma, and Cantina Creative. Previsualization was done by The Third Floor. Framestore created 620 shots for the film, Weta Digital created 530, Method Studios more than 500, and Animal Logic created 147. Framestore once again created Rocket and Groot, with Method Studios, Weta Digital and Trixter also working on Rocket. Framestore rebuilt Rocket "from the ground up '' for Vol. 2, giving him an updated fur simulation, new facial shapes and phonemes, as well as a new eye rig, which came from a rig used for the character Gnarlack from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Trixter 's work on Rocket included when he sets off a trap for the Ravagers, additionally working on the sequence when Rocket, Yondu and Kraglin jump across space. Other work from Framestore included creatures, spaceships, Ayesha 's lair, the space chase, the Eclector scenes, and the adolescent Groot post-credit scene.
Framestore also created the film 's opening sequence. Despite appearing as a single shot, it ultimately was composed of 11 different visual effect shots. Gunn provided reference video for Baby Groot 's dancing in the sequence. Framestore animation supervisor Arsland Elver noted that the majority of the opening sequence includes CGI and digital doubles, with three moments (Quill falling on the ground near Baby Groot, Gamora talking to Baby Groot, and Drax rolling behind Baby Groot) actually photography. As with the first film, Sarofsky created the typography for the opening, using the same style from Guardians of the Galaxy for consistency, "this time in rusty gold and glowing blue neon ''. Executive Creative Director Erin Sarofsky noted the challenge of placing the credits while the sequence was being refined by Framestore. Sarofsky proposed several different options for the credits, including having "a little hovering character that projected a hologram up on the screen '', but Gunn did not want another character in the sequence to deal with. A simpler 2D option was used instead. Sarofsky also worked on the end credits, the first time for the company, integrating the actual credits from company Exceptional Minds with designs inspired by old music album art, taking albums and scanning them for their old textures and scratches.
The destruction of the Ravager ship the Eclector was handled by Weta Digital. Weta Digital also handled Ego during his fight with Quill, utilizing a digital double of Russell for many of their shots. Weta also needed to create a digital double for David Hasselhoff for the moment when Ego shifts into Hasselhoff 's guise. Guy Williams, Weta 's visual effects supervisor, said, "We tried morphing to a live action Hoff -- but it did not hold up as well. The Kurt version looked better than the Hoff version,... and while we had built a very detailed Kurt digi - double, - we did n't want to go to the same level on the Hoff for just two shots. But in the end we did have to do a partial build digi - double of the Hoff. The reason we did the Kurt digi - double in the first place was to make sure all the effects stuck correctly to the body... so we went with the approach of a full digi - double, the hair, the side of the face everything on Kurt. For the Hoff, we got pretty close, but it is not quite as detailed as for Kurt. '' Additional work by Weta included the inside of Ego 's planet, known as the Planet Hollow, which was inspired by the fractal art of Hal Tenny, who Gunn hired to help design Ego 's environment. Gunn added that there are "over a trillion polygons on Ego 's planet, '' calling it "the biggest visual effect of all time. There 's nothing even close to it. ''
Animal Logic and Method Studios also worked on the various parts of Ego 's planet, with Animal Logic focusing on Ego 's cathedral, and Method on the arrival sequence and Baby Groot 's "not that button '' sequence in the Planet Hollow. Animal Logic 's work for Ego 's cathedral was also based on fractal art. The team at Animal Logic were initially brought on to the film to work on the story vignettes that were used to explain the backstory, which started as oil paintings before evolving to falling sand, and eventually the final plastic sculptures that were used. Method also created the film 's final sequence for Yondu 's funeral. To make Rocket shedding a tear convincing, Method used in - house footage of Animation Supervisor Keith Roberts "performing the scene for reference, studying the macro facial movements like minor eye darts or blinks, in addition to what was filmed on set and in the sound booth by '' Cooper. Additional work included the scenes on the planet Berhart. Lola VFX worked on de-aging Russell, having previously done similar work in other MCU films; they also added to various characters, including Nebula. To achieve the younger Ego, Lola referenced Russell 's performance in Used Cars, as "he had a lot of the (facial) action '' the visual effects artists were looking for. They also used a younger stand in, Aaron Schwartz, since he had "big broad jaw, chin, and most importantly the way the laugh lines move (d) and crease (d) as he talk (ed) '', similar to Russell 's. Laura Haddock, reprising her role from the first film of Meredith Quill in the sequence, was also slightly de-aged to play the younger version of that character. Luma worked on the Sovereign people and their world, and Adam Warlock 's cocoon.
By August 2014, Gunn had "some ideas listed, but nothing for sure '' in terms of songs to include in Quill 's Awesome Mix Vol. 2 mixtape, for which he felt "a little pressure for the soundtrack because so many people loved (the first film 's soundtrack) and we went platinum and all that other stuff. But I feel like the soundtrack in the second one is better. '' By June 2015, Gunn had chosen all of the songs and built them into the script, calling Awesome Mix Vol. 2 "more diverse '' than the first one, with "some really incredibly famous songs and then some songs that people have never heard. '' Tyler Bates had returned to score the film by August 2015. As with Guardians of the Galaxy, Bates wrote some of the score first so Gunn could film to the music, as opposed to Bates scoring to the film. Recording for the score began in January 2017 at Abbey Road Studios. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Volume 2, along with the film score album composed by Bates, were released on April 21, 2017. A cassette version of Awesome Mix Volume 2 was released on June 23, 2017, while a deluxe edition vinyl LP featuring both Awesome Mix Volume 2 and Bates ' score was released on August 11, 2017.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 made its world premiere in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and its Hollywood premiere on April 19 at the Dolby Theatre. The film began its international release on April 25, in Australia, New Zealand, and Italy, alongside a total of 37 markets in its first weekend, with 176 IMAX screens in 35 of those markets. Its North American release on May 5 took place in 4,347 theaters, of which over 3,800 were in 3D, 388 in IMAX and IMAX 3D, 588 premium large - format, and 194 D - Box locations. The film 's opening in China was in 400 IMAX theaters, the largest ever for the country. On May 4, 2017, 550 theaters in the United States had a special RealD Guardians of the Galaxy double feature event before preview screenings of Vol. 2. Guests who attended received an exclusive mini poster and a set of souvenir collectible buttons. Vol. 2 was originally intended to be released on July 28, 2017.
In June 2016, Marvel announced plans for an expanded merchandising program for the film from the original, with Groot playing a central role. Gunn ensured the film 's female characters received more representation in the merchandise than in the first. Paul Gitter, senior VP of licensing at Disney Consumer Products, said they intended to build Guardians of the Galaxy into a tentpole franchise. Partners in the campaign included Hasbro, Lego, Funko, LB Kids, GEICO, Ford Motor Company, Go - Gurt, Hanes, Synchrony Bank, Dairy Queen, M&M 's, Screenvision, Sprint Corporation and Wrigley Company. Additionally, Marvel partnered with Doritos for their Rock Out Loud campaign to create a custom "limited - edition series of Doritos bags featuring a built - in cassette tape deck - inspired player that plays '' Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and can be recharged. The custom bags were available to purchase on Amazon.com, with Doritos also hosting Rock Out Loud pop - up recording booths in New York and Los Angeles where fans could sing the songs from Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and have the opportunity to win various prizes, including the custom bags, concert tickets, and free bags of Doritos. ''
In July 2016, Gunn, Pratt and other members of the cast attended San Diego Comic - Con to promote the film, showing footage and revealing additional character information. On October 19, a "sneak peek '' teaser was released ahead of the first full teaser trailer. Ethan Anderton of / Film felt the teaser was strong, despite not showing any of the new characters or relying on Baby Groot, while The A.V. Club 's Esther Zuckerman called it "an immediate crowd - pleaser ''. According to media - measurement firm comScore and its PreAct service, the teaser was the top trailer for the week it released, generating 108,000 new social media conversations. In early December, before Gunn revealed the first teaser trailer at Comic Con Experience 2016, he said that finding scenes and moments to showcase in the trailer without revealing too much of the film resulted in hard choices, since "people really go through every single little shot and try to figure out what the movie 's about. And there 's a lot of mysteries in Guardians 2. '' Describing the teaser trailer, Jacob Hall of / Film felt, "It 's telling that this trailer can get away without actually selling the plot of the movie. Audiences did n't fall in love with the first Guardians of the Galaxy because they were entranced by yet another Marvel Studios movie built around a villain who gets his hands on an Infinity Stone... the bulk of this trailer is dedicated to this group bouncing off one another, which is the real star attraction. '' The teaser trailer had 81 million views in 24 hours, becoming the second-most viewed teaser behind Beauty and the Beast and largest Marvel Studios teaser ever. Additionally, Sweet 's "Fox on the Run '' reached number one on the iTunes Rock Chart after featuring in the teaser.
A second trailer aired during Super Bowl LI. Germain Lussier for io9 called it "hilarious '', while Anderton said it was "one hell of a '' Super Bowl spot, "one that probably overshadows the game itself for people like me... There 's plenty of badass cosmic action, the humor we all love, a stellar soundtrack, and some great new footage from the sequel. '' The spot generated the most Twitter conversation volume during the game with 47,800 conversations, according to comScore, who measured the volume of trailers that aired during the game from the time it aired through the end of the game. The film also topped a Fandango survey of fans ' favorite film trailer during the Super Bowl. An additional trailer debuted on February 28, 2017, on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Haleigh Foutch at Collider.com felt the trailer added "hype '' to the film, and was "just an all - around wonderful trailer, lit up with the wacky humor and irreverent charm that made the first film such a hit, with an extra dose of visual splendor. '' Pratt and Saldana appeared at the 2017 Kids ' Choice Awards, where they debuted an exclusive clip. In mid-July, Marvel created a 1980s - inspired infomercial and an 800 number to promote the film 's home media release.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on August 8, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on August 22. The Ultra HD Blu - ray version is the first Disney home media release in 4K resolution. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; and a music video for the song "Guardians Inferno ''. The digital release also exclusively features the breakdown of three scenes, from their initial ideas to their completed versions, and a behind - the - scenes look at the Disney California Adventure ride Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission: Breakout! The 1970s - style music video for "Guardians Inferno '' was directed by David Yarovesky, and features Hasselhoff alongside James Gunn, Pratt, Saldana, Bautista, Klementieff, Gillan, Rooker, and Sean Gunn. Stan Lee and Guillermo Rodriguez also make cameo appearances in the video.
The digital release of the film had the most digital downloads and largest opening week of any Marvel Studios film. The physical releases in its first week of sale were the top home media release, selling "nearly three times as many discs as the rest of the top 10 sellers combined '', according to NPD VideoScan data. The Blu - ray version accounted for 83 % of the sales, with 10 % of total sales coming from the Ultra HD Blu - ray version. In its second week, the film was once again the top home media release. As well, in the United Kingdom where it was also the top film, total sales of Vol. 2 were more than the other films in the top 40 combined.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 grossed over $389.8 million in the United States and Canada, and over $473.7 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $863.6 million. The film had earlier surpassed the first film 's gross ($773 million) by Memorial Day weekend with $783.3 million worldwide, and became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film a week later.
Since tickets went on sale on April 24, 2017, the film was the number one seller on Fandango, and surpassed the advance sales of Avengers: Age of Ultron in the similar time frame. Over 80 % of sales on MovieTickets.com were for the film ahead of its release. Vol. 2 earned $146.5 million in its opening weekend, with IMAX contributing $13 million. The $17 million that came from Thursday night previews was the highest preview amount of 2017. The film had previously been projected to earn upwards of $160 million in its opening weekend, with Deadline.com predicting that the film could reach the $179 million debut of Captain America: Civil War. It remained at number one in its second weekend, and fell to second in its third, behind Alien: Covenant. Vol. 2 remained at number two in its fourth weekend, this time behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, and crossed $337.6 million, surpassing the domestic gross of the first film. By its fifth weekend, the film fell to fourth, and in its next, fell to fifth. Vol. 2 continued to remain in the top 10 for two more weeks, placing ninth in its seventh weekend, and tenth in its eighth weekend.
Outside of the United States and Canada, the film earned $106 million in its first weekend from 37 markets, becoming the top film in all markets except Portugal, Turkey and Vietnam. IMAX contributed $5 million to the opening weekend gross. The film also outperformed the first film 's opening weekend in all markets except Belgium. In its second weekend, it opened as the top film in South Korea, China, and Russia. It was the highest opening for an MCU film in Austria, the second - highest MCU opening in Australia ($11.8 million), the Netherlands ($500,000), Germany ($9.3 million), and the United Kingdom ($16.9 million), and was the third - highest in New Zealand ($400,000), Italy ($1.4 million), and Russia ($11.6 million). The New Zealand and Netherlands openings were also the highest of 2017 for the countries, while Germany and the United Kingdom 's were the second - highest for 2017. South Korea had the biggest opening day of 2017 ($3.3 million), the biggest May opening day, the third - highest opening day for an MCU film, and the second - best opening weekend of 2017 ($13.3 million). The opening - weekend gross surpassed the entire earnings from the first film in the country. Ukraine had the second - largest opening ever, while in Puerto Rico, the film was the largest IMAX opening. By its third weekend, multiple markets saw their gross for Vol. 2 surpass the total gross from the first film, followed by China a week later. Its fifth weekend saw Vol. 2 's gross in other markets ($451.1 million) surpass the international gross of the first film ($440 million). The film 's three biggest markets in total earnings were: China ($99.3 million), the United Kingdom ($51.3 million), and Germany ($28 million).
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83 %, based on 325 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's action - packed plot, dazzling visuals, and irreverent humor add up to a sequel that 's almost as fun -- if not quite as thrillingly fresh -- as its predecessor. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety called the film "an extravagant and witty follow - up, made with the same friendly virtuosic dazzle... and just obligatory enough to be too much of a good thing. '' He cautioned that "this time you can sense just how hard (Gunn) is working to entertain you. Maybe a little too hard. '' Mike Ryan at Uproxx noted the continued sense of humor and tone from the first film, and appreciated Gunn 's difference in overall structure in the sequel (which he compared to The Empire Strikes Back). Ryan was positive of the cast, particularly Rooker in his expanded role as "the heart '' of the film. Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film a "blast '' and gave it three stars out of four, praising the film for its tone and fun, soundtrack, and characters. He noted that "Vol. 2 ca n't match the sneak - attack surprise of its predecessor... (but) the followup, while taking on some CGI bloat and sequel slickness, has n't lost its love for inspired lunacy. Chicago Sun - Times 's Richard Roeper also gave the film three stars, writing, "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is n't quite as much fun, not quite as clever, not quite as fresh as the original -- but it still packs a bright and shiny and sweet punch. '' Roeper continued that "even with all the silliness and all the snarkiness, the Guardians can put a lump in your throat '', and praised the cast, especially Rooker, with "one of the best roles in the movie ''.
At The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 plays like a second ride on a roller - coaster that was a real kick the first time around but feels very been - there / done - that now. '' Mara Reinstein of Us Weekly gave the film two - and - a-half stars out of four, feeling "excited audiences desperate for escapism (will) lap up the film 's inherent joyfulness '', but Gunn "has doubled down on all his once - nifty novelties. Strip them away and what remains is a bloated semi-mess. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times was positive of the film 's soundtrack and cast, especially Russell, but felt Gunn was trying too hard to re-capture the magic of the first film, and the increased scope of effects and action becomes weary. Turan concluded, "There are enough reminders of the first Guardians to make the sequel an acceptable experience, (but it 's) less like itself and more like a standard Marvel production. '' Manohla Dargis at The New York Times said the film "certainly has its attractions, but most of them are visual rather than narrative. '' She also felt Gunn was trying too hard, and found many elements of the sequel to be too serious even with Russell balancing that with a much - needed "unforced looseness ''.
In November 2014, when Gunn said he had the "basic story '' for Vol. 2 while working on the first film, he also said he had ideas for a potential third film. Despite this, Gunn was unsure in June 2015 if he would be involved with a third Guardians film, saying it would depend on his feelings after making Vol. 2. In April 2016, Feige said the future MCU films are "still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond, but certainly I would say Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there. I do n't know what exactly the order will be. '' In March 2017, Gunn stated there would be a third film "for sure. We 're trying to figure it out, '' also adding, "There are no specific plans for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. But we know unless something goes horribly -- which is always possible, you never know -- I think that Marvel would want to make another movie. '' He also reiterated he was still unsure if he would be involved with the film, and that he would figure out his involvement and his next project "over the next couple of weeks. '' The following month, Gunn announced he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. Klementieff is expected to reprise her role as Mantis. Vol. 3 is scheduled to be released in 2020.
|
what are the names of the 5 finger lakes | Finger Lakes - wikipedia
The Finger Lakes are a group of 11 long, narrow, roughly north -- south lakes in an area called the Finger Lakes region in Central New York, in the United States. It is defined as a bioregion and is a popular tourist destination.
The lakes ' shapes reminded early map - makers of human fingers, and the name stuck. They are also characteristic glacial finger lakes. Cayuga (435 feet deep, 133 m) and Seneca (618 feet, 188 m) Lakes are among the deepest in the United States, with bottoms well below sea level. They are also the longest Finger Lakes, though neither 's width exceeds 3.5 miles (5.6 km); Seneca Lake is 38.1 miles (61.3 km) long, and 66.9 square miles (173 km), the largest in total area.
The 11 Finger Lakes, from east to west, are:
Cazenovia Lake to the east, although smaller, is sometimes called "the 12th Finger Lake '', because it is similar in shape. It is located in Appalachian hill terrain, with a historic village linked to other Finger Lakes by US 20. It may have been formed in the same manner as the Finger Lakes, as satellite photos show three valleys similar in character and spacing to the Finger Lakes east of Otisco Lake. The first is the Tully Valley, which includes a chain of small lakes at the south end that could be a "Finger Lake '' that never formed because of a terminal moraine. The moraine caused the Tioughnioga River to flow south instead of north, the opposite of the Finger Lakes ' waters. The next two valleys to the east contain Butternut Creek, which flows north, and the East Branch of the Tioughnioga River, which flows south. The next valley contains Limestone Creek, which flows north. The next valley after that contains Cazenovia Lake.
Oneida Lake, to the northeast of Syracuse, New York, is sometimes included as the "thumb '', although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest. Onondaga Lake, though located just north of the Finger Lakes region, is not considered one of the Finger Lakes. As with Oneida and Cazenovia Lakes, it drains into Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Likewise, Chautauqua Lake, Findley Lake and Kinzua Lake to the west are not considered Finger Lakes; all three drain into the Allegheny River and eventually into the Gulf of Mexico, and in the case of Kinzua and Findley, the lakes are the artificial creation of dams.
Conesus, Hemlock, Canadice, Honeoye, and Otisco are considered the minor Finger Lakes. Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka lakes, dot this region. Silver Lake, west of Conesus Lake, would seem to qualify because it is in the Great Lakes watershed, but Waneta and Lamoka lakes are part of the Susquehanna River watershed as they drain into a tributary of the Chemung River.
East of Oneida and Cazenovia Lakes are the headwaters of the Susquehanna River and Hudson River watersheds (the former in the foothills of the Catskills, the latter through the Mohawk Valley and southern Adirondack Mountains).
The 2,000 - acre (8 km) muckland of a valley located in Potter, New York, which is part of Torrey Farms, was almost a 12th Finger Lake, as the waterline is just below the surface. It lies between Lakes Canandaigua and Seneca, and was once a swamp.
These glacial finger lakes originated as a series of northward - flowing streams. Around two million years ago, the first of many continental glaciers of the Laurentide Ice Sheet moved southward from the Hudson Bay area, initiating the Pleistocene glaciation. These scouring glaciers widened, deepened, and accentuated the existing river valleys. Glacial debris, possibly terminal moraine left behind by the receding ice, acted as dams, allowing lakes to form. Despite the deep erosion of the valleys, the surrounding uplands show little evidence of glaciation, suggesting that the ice was thin, or at least unable to cause much erosion at these higher altitudes. The deep cutting by the ice left some tributaries hanging high above the lakes -- both Seneca and Cayuga have tributaries hanging as much as 120 m above the valley floors.
Much of the Finger Lakes area lies upon the Marcellus Shale and the Utica Shale, two prominent natural gas reserves. Due to the recent increase in fracking technology, the natural gas is now available to extraction. While some large landowners have leased their lands, and a number of small landowners would like to follow suit, many residents of the Finger Lakes oppose the process of extraction due to concerns about groundwater contamination and the industrial impact of the extraction related activities. The first direct actions and local legislative actions against fracking occurred in the Finger Lakes bioregion. In December 2014, the government of New York banned all fracking within the state, citing pollution risks.
The Finger Lakes region contains evidence of pre-Iroquois habitation, such as The Bluff Point Stoneworks, but little is known about who may have constructed these enigmatic works.
The Finger Lakes region is a central part of the Iroquois homeland. The Iroquois tribes include the Seneca and Cayuga nations, for which the two largest Finger Lakes are named. The Tuscarora tribe lived in the Finger Lakes region as well, from ca. 1720. The Onondaga and Oneida tribes lived at the eastern edge of the region, closer to their namesake lakes, Oneida Lake and Onondaga Lake. The easternmost Iroquois tribe was the Mohawk.
During colonial times, many other tribes moved to the Finger Lakes region, seeking the protection of the Iroquois. For example, in 1753 remnants of several Virginia Siouan tribes, collectively called the Tutelo - Saponi, moved to the town of Coreorgonel at the south end of Cayuga Lake near present - day Ithaca, until 1779 when their village was destroyed.
Major Iroquois towns in the Finger Lakes region included the Seneca town of Gen - nis - he - yo (present - day Geneseo), Kanadaseaga (Seneca Castle, near present - day Geneva), Goiogouen (Cayuga Castle, east of Cayuga Lake), Chonodote (Cayuga town, present - day Aurora), Catherine 's Town (near present - day Watkins Glen) and Ganondagan State Historic Site in Victor, New York.
As one of the most powerful Indian nations during colonial times, the Iroquois were able to prevent European colonization of the Finger Lakes region for nearly two centuries after first contact, often playing the French off against the British interests in savvy demonstrations of political competence. Tribal politics and the military reality that the Iroquois held the strongest military force in North America were well appreciated. By the late 18th century with the French governmental influence gone from Canada Iroquois power had weakened, relative to the steady growth in European - Americans ' populations, and internal strife eroded the political unity of the Iroquois Confederacy as they faced pressures from colonists itching to move west and a desire to keep them out of Amerindian lands. During the American Revolutionary War, some Iroquois sided with the British and some with the Americans, resulting in civil war among the Iroquois. In the late 1770s, British - allied Iroquois attacked various American frontier settlements, prompting counter-attacks, culminating in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which destroyed most of the Iroquois towns and effectively broke Iroquois power. After the Revolutionary War, the Iroquois and other Indians of the region were assigned reservations. Most of their land, including the Finger Lakes region, was opened up to purchase and settlement.
Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1790. The region was rapidly settled at the turn of the 19th century, largely by a westward migration from New England, and to a lesser degree by northward influx from Pennsylvania. The regional architecture reflects these area traditions of the Federal and Greek Revival periods.
The Finger Lakes region, together with the Genesee Country of Western New York, has been referred to as the burned - over district. There, in the 19th century, the Second Great Awakening was a revival of Christianity; some new religions were also formed.
The region was active in reform and utopian movements. Many of its Underground Railroad sites have been documented. For example, the Harriet Tubman Home at Auburn recalls the life and work of the African - American "Moses of her people. ''
On the northern end of the Finger Lakes are also Seneca Falls, the birthplace of the Women 's suffrage movement; Waterloo, the birthplace of Memorial Day; and Palmyra, the birthplace of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church). An annual outdoor drama, The Hill Cumorah Pageant, produced by the LDS Church, draws thousands of visitors each year.
Hammondsport was the home of aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, and favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for glider pilots. Elmira, just to the south, was the home of Mark Twain in his later life, and the site of an infamous Civil War prison. Corning is most noted as the home of Corning Glass Works and the Corning Museum of Glass. Hornell, just southwest of the Finger Lakes, was a major railroad center; locomotives were repaired there until recently. Conesus remains the home of the oldest producer of pure grape sacramental wine in the Western hemisphere.
Notable among the historic buildings of the region (most linked below) is the Granger Homestead (1816), a large village house in Federal Style at Canandaigua, New York. Another example of the Federal Style is the Prouty - Chew House (1829) at Geneva, portions of which were altered at various times in new fashions.
Three Greek Revival mansions are situated near three lakes: The Richard DeZeng House, Skaneateles (1839); Rose Hill, Geneva (1839); and Esperanza, Penn Yan (1838). The latter two are open to the public.
The Seward House in Auburn, a National Historic Landmark, is a mansion more characteristic of the Civil War era, virtually unchanged from the nineteenth century. Belhurst Castle, Geneva, a stone mansion in the Romanesque Revival style, now serves as an inn. Sonnenberg mansion at Canandaigua is later nineteenth - century residence in the Queen Anne style, known for its restored period gardens. Geneva on the Lake is a villa (1910 -- 14) that recalls those on Italian lakes. Now an inn, it has European - style gardens. Many buildings and historic districts of the Finger Lakes region are notable, other than these historic houses.
Implemented in August 2010, the Hemlock - Canadice State Forest covers 6,684 acres (27.05 km) that encompass the two western Finger Lakes, Hemlock and Canadice. These lakes have provided drinking water for the City of Rochester for more than 100 years. To protect water quality, the city acquired much of the property around the lakes. Over the decades, the land reforested, but a few traces of its past, such as stone walls or cottage foundations, remain. Today these two lakes, with their steep, forested, largely undeveloped shorelines and deep clear water, provide visitors a glimpse of the Finger Lakes of the past. The Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) manages this State Forest for compatible public access for recreation, including fishing, hunting, nature study, boating and hiking. Activities in Hemlock - Canadice State Forest are subject the DEC 's Rules and Regulations for the Use of State Lands, 6 NYCRR Part 190, as well as any other applicable state statutes, rules and regulations. These are sensitive areas because they protect public drinking water.
Hemlock Lake is home to the state 's oldest nesting bald eagle site, dating back to the early 1960s. The nesting bald eagles of Hemlock Lake have fostered a resurgence of bald eagles throughout New York State. Hemlock Lake, originally known as "O - Neh - Da '' which is Seneca for "Lake of Hemlock Trees '', is home to the nation 's oldest sacramental winery, founded by Bishop McQuaid in 1872. Today, O - Neh - Da Vineyard continues to make premium natural pure grape wine for churches and foodies alike.
The Finger Lakes area is New York 's largest wine producing region. Over 100 wineries and vineyards are located around Seneca, Cayuga, Canandaigua, Keuka, Conesus, and Hemlock Lakes. Because of the lakes ' great depth, they provide a lake effect to the lush vineyards that flank their shores. Retaining residual summer warmth in the winter, and winter 's cold in the spring, the grapes are protected from disastrous spring frost during shoot growth, and early frost before the harvest. The main grape varieties grown are Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot noir, Cabernet Franc, Vidal blanc, Seyval blanc and many Vitis labrusca (American native) varieties or cultivars.
With the passage of the Farm Winery Act in 1976, numerous wineries are now open to visitors. Wineries are a growth industry of the region, contributing through their production and by attracting visitors.
The Finger Lakes American Viticulture Area (AVA) includes two of America 's oldest wineries, O - Neh - Da Vineyard (1872) on Hemlock Lake and The Pleasant Valley Wine Company (1860) on Keuka Lake.
The area is also known for education; the largest institution is Cornell University in Ithaca. Other notable schools are Ithaca College, also located in Ithaca; the University of Rochester, Nazareth College, St. John Fisher College and Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester; Elmira College in Elmira; Tompkins Cortland Community College in Dryden, Ithaca, and Cortland; Wells College in Aurora; Hobart and William Smith Colleges in Geneva; Keuka College in Keuka Park; Finger Lakes Community College in Canandaigua and Geneva; and The State University of New York at Cortland in Cortland; New York Chiropractic College in Seneca Falls; Cayuga Community College in Auburn; and The State University of New York at Geneseo in Geneseo.
The Finger Lakes region is home to several museums. These include the Corning Museum of Glass, the Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University, the Strong National Museum of Play, the Glenn H. Curtiss Museum, the Finger Lakes Boating Museum, the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center, the Sciencenter, the Museum of the Earth, the National Soaring Museum, the Rockwell Museum, the Seward House Museum, the William H. Seward and the Samuel Warren Homesteads of the York Historical Society, birthplace of New York State 's first successful commercial winery.
The Women 's Rights National Historic Park is located in Seneca Falls. The park includes the home of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Wesleyan Chapel, where she held the first convention on women 's rights in 1848.
Notes
Bibliography
Media related to Finger Lakes at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 42 ° 40 ′ N 76 ° 50 ′ W / 42.667 ° N 76.833 ° W / 42.667; - 76.833
|
write the names of three african countries located in the sahara desert region | Sahara - wikipedia
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى , aṣ - ṣaḥrāʼ al - kubrá, ' the Great Desert ') is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi) is comparable to the area of China or the United States.
The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Sahara can be divided into several regions including: the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, and the Libyan Desert.
The name ' Sahara ' is derived from dialectal Arabic word for "desert '', ṣaḥra (صحرا / ˈsʕaħra /).
The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), amounting to 31 % of Africa. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division.
The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada (stone plateaus), Ergs (sand seas - large areas covered with sand dunes) form only a minor part, but many of the sand dunes are over 180 metres (590 ft) high. Wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), dry lakes (oued), and salt flats (shatt or chott). Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania.
Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad.
The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.
To the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White and geographer Robert Capot - Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of date palm cultivation and the southern limit of the range of esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation.
To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a drought - tolerant member of the Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long - term average, since precipitation varies annually).
Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Béchar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaïa, and El Oued in Algeria; Timbuktu in Mali; Agadez in Niger; Ghat in Libya; and Faya - Largeau in Chad.
The Sahara is the world 's largest low - latitude hot desert. The area is located in the horse latitudes under the subtropical ridge, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm - core high pressure where the air from upper levels of the troposphere tends to sink towards the ground. This steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere. The sinking air prevents evaporating water from rising and, therefore, prevents the adiabatic cooling, which makes cloud formation extremely difficult to nearly impossible.
The permanent dissolution of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The stability of the atmosphere above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal risk of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical high - pressure systems are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominant factor that explains the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) of this vast region. The lowering of air is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert which is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rain-less '' place on the planet rivaling the Atacama Desert, lying in Chile and Peru.
The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing air mass lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North - African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this extreme heating process, a thermal low is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The Sahara High represents the eastern continental extension of the Azores High, centered over the North Atlantic Ocean. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods.
The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper - level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain - bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by his geographical configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara can not be only explained by the subtropical high pressure. The Atlas Mountains, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier causing a strong rain shadow effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the polar front which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates.
The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a continuous belt of low - pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular rainy season to the Sahel and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year - round; negligible rates of relative humidity; a significant diurnal temperature variation; and extremely high levels of potential evaporation which are the highest recorded worldwide.
The sky is usually clear above the desert and the sunshine duration is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert enjoys more than 3,600 h of bright sunshine annually or over 82 % of the time, and a wide area in the eastern part experiences in excess of 4,000 h of bright sunshine a year or over 91 % of the time. The highest values are very close to the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4,300 h or 98 % of the time would be recorded in Upper Egypt (Aswan, Luxor) and in the Nubian Desert (Wadi Halfa). The annual average direct solar irradiation is around 2,800 kWh / (m year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.
The constantly high position of the sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of vegetation and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest continuously large area worldwide, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 ° C or 100.4 to 104.0 ° F during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes. The highest officially recorded average high temperature was 47 ° C or 116.6 ° F in a remote desert town in the Algerian Desert called Bou Bernous with an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) meters above sea level. It is the world 's highest recorded average high temperature and only Death Valley, California rivals it. Other hot spots in Algeria such as Adrar, Timimoun, In Salah, Ouallene, Aoulef, Reggane with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs around 46 ° C or 114.8 ° F during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 ° C or 110.8 ° F, 46.4 ° C or 115.5 ° F, 45.5 ° C or 113.9 ° F and 41.9 ° C or 107.4 ° F in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the Azalai, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F. The southern central part of the desert experiences up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F which shows the constancy and the length of the really hot season in the Sahara. Some examples of this are: Bilma, Niger and Faya - Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 ° C or 68 ° F everywhere and can approach 30 ° C or 86 ° F in the hottest regions year - round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 ° C or 77 ° F.
Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach 80 ° C or 176 ° F or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 ° C (182.3 ° F) has been recorded in Port Sudan. Ground temperatures of 72 ° C or 161.6 ° F have been recorded in the Adrar of Mauritania and a value of 75 ° C (167 ° F) has been measured in Borkou, northern Chad.
Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually features high diurnal temperature variations between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara. The average diurnal temperature range is typically between 13 and 20 ° C or 23.4 and 36.0 ° F. The lowest values are found along the coastal regions due to high humidity and are often even lower than 10 ° C or 18 ° F, while the highest values are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high - elevation areas. The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive. This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly.
The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper - arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31 % of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17 % of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long - term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year. Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of Ain Sefra.
The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals.
The Atlantic coastal desert is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania.
The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is along the northern desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper - arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The Sahara Desert ecoregion covers the hyper - arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.
The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper - arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.
In the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo - Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the Tassili n'Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Aïr of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria.
The Tibesti - Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of Date palm, acacias, myrtle, oleander, tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.
The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to halophytic (salt - adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.
The Tanezrouft is one of the harshest regions on Earth as well as one of the hottest and driest parts of the Sahara, with no vegetation and very little life. It is along the borders of Algeria, Niger)) and Mali, west of the Hoggar mountains.
The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert. Floristically, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received -- the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones -- the Mediterranean - Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone.
The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of vascular plants. Approximately a quarter of these are endemic. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts.
The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapotranspiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.
Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the fennec fox, pale fox and Rüppell 's fox. The addax, a large white antelope, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The dorcas gazelle is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the rhim gazelle and dama gazelle.
The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild.
Other animals include the monitor lizards, hyrax, sand vipers, and small populations of African wild dog, in perhaps only 14 countries and red - necked ostrich. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African silverbill and black - faced firefinch, among others. There are also small desert crocodiles in Mauritania and the Ennedi Plateau of Chad.
The deathstalker scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of agitoxin and scyllatoxin and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The Saharan silver ant is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.
Dromedary camels and goats are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by nomads.
Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.
Researchers from Hacettepe University (Yücekutlu, N. et al., 2011) have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available iron and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.
People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the end of the last glacial period. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth 's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which led to the abrupt desertification of North Africa about 5,400 years ago. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.
The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the Neolithic Subpluvial. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as Gobero, located in Niger in the Ténéré Desert. The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara desert. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet. The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height. Craniometric analysis indicates that this early Holocene population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians and early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene Mechta groups. Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years. After this time, the Tenerian culture colonized the area.
Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by Paul Sereno, which sought dinosaur remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early Holocene Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene Tenerian culture. The Kiffians were a prehistoric people who preceded the Tenerians and vanished approximately 8000 years ago, when the desert became very dry. The desiccation lasted until around 4600 BC, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups. Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo tusks and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately - unlikely if they had died of a plague - the cause of their deaths is a mystery.
Uan Muhuggiag appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BC to about 2700 BC, although not necessarily continuously. The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well - preserved mummy of a young boy of approximately 2 1 / 2 years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves. The boy 's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from decomposing. An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck. Radiocarbon dating determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient Egypt. In 1958 - 1959, an archaeological expedition led by Antonio Ascenzi conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The specimen was determined to be that of a 30 - month old child of uncertain sex, who possessed Negroid features. A long incision on the specimen 's abdominal wall also indicated that the body had been initially mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position. However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about 7500 BP.
During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el - Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution '', living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world 's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food - gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west.
By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth 's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.
The people of Phoenicia, who flourished from 1200 -- 800 BCE, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the people of ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of people who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.
The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber - speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.
Sometime between 633 BCE and 530 BCE, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.
By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert.
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al - Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (who were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes ' capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes ' territory. The Garamantes ' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.
The Berber people occupied (and still occupy) much of the Sahara. The Garamantes Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert. The Tuareg nomads continue to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces to the present day.
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present - day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present - day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present - day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans - Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.
The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from Toulouse (HQ of famed Aéropostale), to Oran and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to Bamako and Dakar, as well as trans - Sahara bus services run by La Companie Transsaharienne (est. 1927). A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain René Wauthier documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.
Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820 -- 22, founded Khartoum in 1823, and conquered Darfur in 1874. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo - Egyptian condominium.
Spain captured present - day Western Sahara after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under Sahrawi influence. In 1912, Italy captured parts of what was to be named Libya from the Ottomans. To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert, Pope Pius IX appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara.
Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo - Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British - Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.
Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory.
In the post-World War II era, several mines and communities have developed to utilize the desert 's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.
A number of Trans - African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo -- Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans - Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli -- Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to N'Djamena in Chad, and the Cairo -- Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.
The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the Amaziɣ including the Turūq, various Arabized Amaziɣ groups such as the Hassaniya - speaking Sahrawis, whose populations include the Znaga, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic Zenaga language. Other major groups of people include the: Toubou, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, Beja, and Fula / Fulani (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe).
Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro - Asiatic or Hamito - Semitic family. Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation, '' contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.
Coordinates: 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23; 13
|
who is the first miss world in india | Reita Faria - Wikipedia
Grant Medical College & Sir J.J. Group of Hospitals, Mumbai
Reita Faria Powell (born 23 August 1943) born to Goan parents in British Bombay (now Mumbai) is an Indian model, doctor and beauty pageant titleholder who won the Miss World title in the year 1966, making her the first Asian woman to win the event. She is also the first Miss World winner to qualify as a Doctor.
Faria was born in Goa. After winning the Miss Mumbai Crown, she won the Eve 's Weekly Miss India contest (not to be confused with the Femina Miss India 1966 competition, won by Yasmin Daji).
During the Miss World 1966 contest, she won the sub-titles ' Best in Swimsuit ' and ' Best in Eveningwear ' for wearing a saree. She eventually went on to win the Miss World 1966 crown at the end of the event, besting 51 delegates from other countries.
After her one - year tenure as Miss World, she began receiving various offers to act in films. Faria refused modeling and films and instead concentrated on medical studies. Reita Faria was a student at the Grant Medical College & Sir J.J. Group of Hospitals where she completed her M.B.B.S. degree. Thereafter she went on to study at King 's College Hospital, London. She married her mentor David Powell in 1971, and in 1973, the couple shifted to Dublin, where she started her medical practice.
Reita was a judge at Femina Miss India in 1998, and has come back to judge the Miss World competition on a few occasions. For instance she was a judge along with Demis Roussos at the Miss World final of 1976 held in London where Cindy Breakespeare was crowned Miss World.
She now lives in Dublin, Ireland, with her husband, endocrinologist David Powell, whom she married in 1971. They have two children (Deirdre and Ann Marie) and five grandchildren (Patrick, Cormac, David, Maria and Johnny).
Africa Johanna Maud Carter
Americas Marlucci Manvailler Rocha
Asia & Oceania Reita Faria
Europe Gigliola Carbonara
Miss Universe Margareta Arvidsson
Miss World Reita Faria
|
how many holy days of obligation are there in the catholic church | Holy day of obligation - wikipedia
Corpus Juris Canonici
Ancient Church Orders
Collections of ancient canons
Other
Holy Orders
Confession
Eucharist
Tribunal Officers
Tribunal Procedure
Juridic persons
In the Catholic Church, holy days of obligation (also called holydays, holidays, or days of obligation) are days on which the faithful are expected to attend Mass.
The expection is attached to the holy day, even if transferred, as sometimes happens in the Roman Rite, to another date because of coinciding with a higher - ranking celebration. However, in some countries a dispensation is granted in such circumstances.
The holy days of obligation for Latin Catholics are indicated in canon 1246 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law:
Can. 1246. § 1. Sunday, on which by apostolic tradition the paschal mystery is celebrated, must be observed in the universal Church as the primordial holy day of obligation. The following days must also be observed: the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Epiphany, the Ascension, the Body and Blood of Christ, Holy Mary the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her Assumption, Saint Joseph, Saint Peter and Saint Paul the Apostles, and All Saints.
§ 2. With the prior approval of the Apostolic See, however, the conference of bishops can suppress some of the holy days of obligation or transfer them to a Sunday.
Placed in the order of the civil calendar, the ten days (apart from Sundays) that this canon mentions are:
The number of holy days of obligation was once much greater. With the motu proprio Supremi disciplinae of 2 July 1911, Pope Pius X reduced the number of such non-Sunday holy days from 36 to 8: the above 10 dates (1 January was then the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ) minus the feasts the Body and Blood of Christ, and Saint Joseph. The present list was established in canon 1247 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law, now canon 1246 of the current Code of Canon Law.
In many countries the bishops had obtained, even before the time of Pius X, the Holy See 's approval to diminish the number of non-Sunday holy days of obligation, making it far less than 36. Today too, Episcopal Conferences have availed themselves of the authority granted them in law to reduce the number below the ten mentioned above.
Non-Sunday holy days of obligation all have the rank of solemnity. Accordingly, if in Ordinary Time one of them falls on a Sunday, the Sunday celebration gives way to it; but the Sundays of Advent, Lent and Eastertide take precedence over all solemnities, which are then transferred to another day (but the precept is not). Very occasionally, the Feast of the Sacred Heart may fall on St. Peter and Paul 's feast day, in which case it takes precedence over it; the precept then applies to the feast of the Sacred Heart.
While episcopal conferences may suppress holy days of obligation or transfer them to Sunday, some of them have maintained as holy days of obligation some days that are not public holidays. For most people, such days are normal working days, and they therefore can not observe the obligation "to abstain from those works and affairs which hinder the worship to be rendered to God, the joy proper to the Lord 's day, or the suitable relaxation of mind and body ''. However, they remain bound by the obligation to participate in Mass. For these days, referred to as "working holy days '', churches may have a special timetable, with Mass available outside the normal working hours and on the previous evening.
In Ireland the only holy days of obligation that are also public holidays are Christmas and Saint Patrick 's Day, so that it has five working holy days. Similarly, Slovakia has only four holy days of obligation that are also public holidays: Christmas, Solemnity of Mary Mother of God, Epiphany and All Saints ', leaving it with five working holy days. In the Netherlands, the bishops conference decreed that, with effect from 1 January 1991, the feasts of the Assumption and All Saints, each of which it had previously decided to celebrate on the following Sunday, were to be of obligation as regards Mass, but not for abstaining from work.
In Vatican City, but not in the rest of the Diocese of Rome, Sundays and all 10 days listed in canon 1246 are observed as holy days of obligation. This is also the case in the Diocese of Lugano (covering the Swiss canton of Ticino), but perhaps nowhere else.
Some countries have as holy days of obligation feasts that are not among those listed in canon 1246. Ireland has Saint Patrick 's Day. Germany has St. Stephen on the "Second Christmas Day '' (26 December), Easter Monday and Pentecost Monday (Whit Monday).
In countries where they are not holy days of obligation, three of the ten feast days listed above are assigned to a Sunday as their proper day:
If they are thus assigned to a Sunday, they are not included in the following national lists of holy days of obligation, since in every country all Sundays are holy days of obligation.
No formal legislative norm of the Episcopal Conference of Belgium exists in which the holy days of obligation are listed. However, the four days mentioned above have been Belgium 's holy days of obligation since the concordat of 1801 (which itself is not recognized as legally binding in Belgium since independence). Therefore, the current system is in force because of canon 5 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law.
In the Diocese of Hong Kong, Christmas is the only holy day of obligation. In the diocese of Macau and in the other Chinese dioceses (including territories controlled by the Republic of China), no regulations seem to exist, which means the 10 holy days of obligations apply to those areas.
In Czech Republic, holy days of obligation are, by Czech Bishops ' Conference, reduced to only two days, which are also public holidays in the Czech Republic:
Since the other holy days of obligation mentioned in the Code of Canon Law are not public holidays, the Czech Bishops ' Conference does not make attendance at Mass obligatory for Catholics, but only recommends it, as it does also on the feast days of Saints Cyril and Methodius (5 July) and Saint Wenceslas (28 September). Attendance at Mass is of course obligatory on all Sundays.
The following day is also a holy day of obligation in all of the Dominican Republic:
(See Liturgy Office)
According to a 1984 decision of the Bishops ' Conference, Holydays which fall on Saturday or Monday (with the exception of Christmas) are transferred to the adjacent Sunday.
There are different regulations for Scotland and for Ireland.
(See Catholic Church in Finland: Practical Matters)
The following days are also holy days of obligation in all of Germany:
In addition, almost all dioceses have one or more of the following holy days of obligation:
The solemnities of Saint Joseph, Saints Peter and Paul and the Immaculate Conception of Mary are observed nowhere in Germany as holy days of obligation -- these days are also not usually transferred to a Sunday (though for Sts. Peter and Paul, this is theoretically possible). Attendance at the liturgical service (which is not Mass) on Good Friday, a public holiday, is also generally observed, although it is not a holy day of obligation.
(See Feiertagsregelung)
Instead of being transferred to the following Sunday, the Feast of the Ascension of Our Lord, though not a holy day of obligation in Greece, is kept on the Thursday of the sixth week of Easter, in order to celebrate it on the same day as the Orthodox Church of Greece.
Bishops ' Conference of Indonesia has not issued regulation about holy day of obligation, so ten holy days on Can. 1246 § 1 applied.
The following day is also a holy day of obligation in all of Ireland:
(See "Working holy days '', above)
"Ireland '' includes the entire island of Ireland, i.e. both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
All Saints Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God
"Korea '' includes the entire Korean Peninsula.
The following is also a holy day of obligation:
The following day is also a holy day of obligation in all of Mexico:
(See "Working holy days '', above)
The following day is also a holy day of obligation in Peru:
For the Archdiocese of Cebu, the following Holy Days of Obligation are added to be made effective on March 19, 2018:
(See "Working holy days '', above)
See Serbian Orthodox Church.
According to a (Bishops ' Conference of Scotland, 1986). Holydays which fall on Saturday or Monday (with the exception of Christmas) are transferred to the adjacent Sunday. There are different regulations for Ireland and for England and Wales.
All the holy days of obligation listed in the Code of Canon Law except the Solemnity of Saint Joseph are maintained in Slovakia, although only Solemnity of Mary, Epiphany, All Saints ' Day and Christmas are also public holidays. See "Working holy days '', above.
Additionally, the Slovak Bishops ' Conference recommends Mass attendance on the following solemnities, because of their nationwide importance:
The following day is also a holy day of obligation in all of Spain:
(See Calendario Litúrgico Pastoral)
The following days are also holy days of obligation in Switzerland:
In the Diocese of Lugano (covering the canton of Ticino), the following three days are also holy days of obligation:
This probably makes the diocese of Lugano the only diocese in the world (except for the Vatican City part of the Diocese of Rome) where all ten holy days of obligation are observed.
These regulations also apply on the Crimean peninsula, including Sevastopol,
In most of the United States, the Ascension is transferred to the following Sunday (which would otherwise be the Seventh Sunday of Easter). It is only celebrated as a holy day of obligation on Thursday in the ecclesiastical provinces of Boston, Hartford, New York, Newark, Omaha, and Philadelphia, as well as by members of the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter.
According to a complementary norm issued by the USCCB, "Whenever January 1, the solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, or August 15, the solemnity of the Assumption, or November 1, the solemnity of All Saints, falls on a Saturday or on a Monday, the precept to attend Mass is abrogated. ''
In years when 8 December falls on Sunday, the Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception is normally transferred to 9 December, as it is outranked by the Second Sunday of Advent. In this case, the precept to attend mass, however, is abrogated by the transfer. However, in the 1962 extraordinary form of the Roman Rite, the Immaculate Conception outranks the Second Sunday of Advent and so remains on 8 December.
In Hawaii, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception and Christmas are the only Holy Days of Obligation, as decreed by the Bishop of Honolulu in 1992, pursuant to an indult from the Holy See and as approved by the national episcopal conference.
The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO) lays down the relevant norms regarding holy days of obligations for Eastern Catholic Churches. There are five holy days of obligation, beyond Sundays, specified as common to all of the Eastern Churches:
The CCEO provides that only the "supreme authority '' of the Church can "establish, transfer or suppress feast days and days of penance which are common to all of the Eastern Churches, '' although the particular law of a sui juris Church can suppress one of these days or transfer it to Sunday, provided that said particular law has been approved by the Apostolic See. The authority competent to establish the particular law of a sui iuris Church may constitute, transfer, or suppress other feast days and days of penance (i.e., ones that are not common to all the Eastern Churches), under certain conditions.
The faithful of the Eastern Catholic Churches "are bound by the obligation to participate on Sundays and feast days in the Divine Liturgy or, according to the prescriptions or legitimate customs of their own Church sui iuris, in the celebration of the divine praises. ''
|
where are they building star wars land in disney world | Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge - wikipedia
Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge is an upcoming Star Wars - themed area being developed in Disneyland Park at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, as well as in Disney 's Hollywood Studios at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, outside of Orlando. It will encompass 14 acres at each park.
The lands were announced August 2015, and construction at both parks began on April 14, 2016. The lands are scheduled to open at both locations in 2019, with the Disneyland version opening in the summer, followed by the Disney 's Hollywood Studios version in the late fall. Walt Disney Imagineering executive Scott Trowbridge is supervising the development of the new land at both parks.
A Star Wars - themed area will also open at Walt Disney Studios Park in Paris, but it is unknown if it will also be a Galaxy 's Edge.
Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge was first publicly announced by The Walt Disney Company Chairman and CEO Bob Iger at the D23 Expo on August 15, 2015, though it did not have an official name at the time. According to Iger, it will be "occupied by many inhabitants; humanoids, aliens and droids... the attractions, the entertainment, everything we create will be part of our storytelling. Nothing will be out of character or stray from the mythology. '' Bob Chapek, chairman of Walt Disney Parks, Experiences and Consumer Products, stated that the land "will introduce you to a Star Wars planet you 've never seen before -- a gateway planet located on the outer rim, full of places and characters familiar and not so familiar. ''
In an interview for the winter 2015 issue of the official Disney fan club publication Disney twenty - three, Trowbridge stated: "(O) ur intent is to make it feel as if you just walked into one of the movies... Bringing Star Wars to life in the physical world gives us the opportunity to play with a whole bunch of things we 've never done before... to really engage all of the senses. What does that street feel like? What does that animal smell like? What does blue milk taste like? ''
Iger announced in March 2016 that construction on both versions of the land would begin in April 2016. Construction began at both locations on April 14, 2016. In February 2017, Iger stated that the lands are scheduled to open in 2019 at both Disneyland and Hollywood Studios. In July 2017 at the D23 Expo, Chapek revealed that the themed lands would be called Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge. Chapek also announced that the Disneyland version will open first.
In November 2017, Trowbridge announced that the planet portrayed by the land is called Batuu, which appears in the 2018 novel Star Wars: Thrawn: Alliances. In May 2018, Trowbridge revealed that the name of the planet 's village is Black Spire Outpost, an organization briefly mentioned in the 2018 film Solo: A Star Wars Story. It was also announced that the Disneyland version of the land would open in summer 2019, followed by the Disney 's Hollywood Studios version in late fall 2019.
Walt Disney Imagineering designed the project in collaboration with the Lucasfilm Story Group, with Imagineer Scott Trowbridge supervising the project, Asa Kalama and Chris Beatty serving as executive creative directors, and Lucasfilm 's Pablo Hidalgo and designer Doug Chiang of Industrial Light & Magic involved as consultants. Together, the team decided to set the lands on a new planet, located within the Outer Rim of the Unknown Regions. Described as a "remote frontier outpost '', the planet Batuu has not previously appeared in other media, although it has existed within canon "for thousands and thousands of years. '' The team chose to create a newly designed world instead of using an existing planet from the films such as Tatooine or Hoth, because those locations evoked a pre-existing familiarity with guests, with Trowbridge explaining, "We wanted to build new Star Wars stories, new Star Wars destinations, but this time you could be in that story that required us to go to a new place. ''
This used to be a vibrant trading port back in the old sub-lightspeed days, but now with advent of hyperspace, its prominence has kind of fallen and faded a little bit which has made it a great spot for those who did n't want to be on that kind of mainstream path. The smugglers, the bounty hunters, the rogue adventurers looking to crew up, the people who do n't want to be found -- basically all the interesting people.
The development team drew inspiration from real - world locations, including as Istanbul and Morocco, and traveled there to study the architecture, culture, and weather. The team also cited Ralph McQuarrie 's concept art for the original Star Wars trilogy as a basis for the aesthetic look of the land. The timeline is set during the events of the sequel trilogy, and will depict the rising presence of both the First Order and Resistance. Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge will have two new attractions: one will allow riders to control the Millennium Falcon, which will feature a "customized secret mission '', and the other will place guests into the middle of a battle between the First Order and the Resistance. Concept art depicts a full - size Millennium Falcon situated among alien buildings built into tall cliffs.
In addition, the area will feature Oga 's Cantina, which will be the first location in Disneyland Park to sell alcoholic drinks to the public. Riders ' performances on the Millennium Falcon will influence how they are treated at the cantina, adding to the immersive experience. According to the Disney Parks Blog, "perform with skill and you may earn extra galactic credits, while bringing the ship back banged up could put you on the list of a bounty hunter. End up on Harkos 's list and you may face a problem if you show up at the local cantina. '' The cantina 's music will be provided by RX - 24, a droid that was first seen in Star Tours, and is now the cantina 's DJ.
The Black Spire Outpost marketplace will contain a toy stall run by a Toydarian, an alien species that was seen on Tatooine in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. There will also be a creature stall.
At Disneyland, Galaxy 's Edge is being built to the north of Frontierland, where Big Thunder Ranch and backstage areas were located. As a result of the expansion, Disney purchased nearby properties to relocate the office and warehouse space that was on the land.
On January 11, 2016, several attractions in Frontierland and Critter Country were closed. Big Thunder Ranch closed permanently, including the multifunction event space, barbecue restaurant, and petting zoo. Other attractions closed temporarily, including the Disneyland Railroad and Rivers of America. Tom Sawyer Island reopened on June 16, 2017, and Fantasmic! reopened on July 17, 2017. The Disneyland Railroad, Mark Twain Riverboat, Sailing Ship Columbia, and Davy Crockett Explorer Canoes reopened on July 29.
The construction of Galaxy 's Edge resulted in a reconfigured route for the Disneyland Railroad and Rivers of America. A first look at how these changes would impact the park were revealed in January 2016, when concept art was released depicting the northern bank of the river after construction was completed.
At Disney 's Hollywood Studios, Galaxy 's Edge is replacing the majority of the park 's Streets of America, including the Lights, Motors, Action! Extreme Stunt Show and Honey, I Shrunk the Kids: Movie Set Adventure which closed on April 2, 2016, as well as the surrounding backlot facades, restaurants, and shops. Together with the previously closed Legend of Captain Jack Sparrow attraction, Galaxy 's Edge will be part of a major expansion of the park that includes Toy Story Land. The remaining operating portions of Streets of America (containing Muppet * Vision 3D) were refurbished as Grand Avenue and Grand Park, a Los Angeles - themed street. The land will be accompanied by the Star Wars Hotel.
|
what is the origin and insertion of the semimembranosus | Semimembranosus muscle - wikipedia
The semimembranosus (/ ˌsɛmimɛmbrəˈnoʊsəs /) is the most medial of the three hamstring muscles. It is so named because it has a flat tendon of origin. It lies posteromedially in the thigh, deep to the semitendinosus.
The semimembranosus, so called from its membranous tendon of origin, is situated at the back and medial side of the thigh.
Its origin is the superolateral aspect of the ischial tuberosity and it inserts on the medial condyle and nearby margin of tibia; intercondylar fossa of femur and lateral condyle of femur; and the ligament of the popliteal region (at the back of the knee). It arises by a thick tendon from the upper and outer impression on the ischial tuberosity, above and medial to the biceps femoris and semitendinosus.
The tendon of origin expands into an aponeurosis, which covers the upper part of the anterior surface of the muscle; from this aponeurosis, muscular fibers arise, and converge to another aponeurosis which covers the lower part of the posterior surface of the muscle and contracts into the tendon of insertion.
It is inserted mainly into the horizontal groove on the posterior medial aspect of the medial condyle of the tibia.
The semimembranosus is wider, flatter, and deeper than the semitendinosus (with which it shares very close insertion and attachment points).
The tendon of insertion gives off certain fibrous expansions: one, of considerable size, passes upward and laterally to be inserted into the posterior lateral condyle of the femur, forming part of the oblique popliteal ligament of the knee - joint; a second is continued downward to the fascia which covers the popliteus muscle; while a few fibers join the medial collateral ligament of the joint and the fascia of the leg.
The muscle overlaps the upper part of the popliteal vessels.
The semimembranosus is innervated by the tibial part of the sciatic nerve. The sciatic nerve consists of the anterior divisions of ventral nerve roots from L4 through S3. These nerve roots are part of the larger nerve network -- the sacral plexus. The tibial part of the sciatic nerve is also responsible for innervation of semitendinosus and the long head of biceps femoris.
It may be reduced or absent, or double, arising mainly from the sacrotuberous ligament and giving a slip to the femur or adductor magnus.
The semimembranosus helps to extend (straighten) the hip joint and flex (bend) the knee joint.
It also helps to medially rotate the knee: the tibia medially rotates on the femur when the knee is flexed. It medially rotates the femur when the hip is extended. The muscle can also aid in counteracting the forward bending at the hip joint.
Right hip bone. External surface.
Bones of the right leg. Posterior surface.
The popliteal, posterior tibial, and peroneal arteries.
Back of left lower extremity.
Semimembranosus muscle
Semimembranosus muscle
Muscles of thigh. Lateral view.
Muscles of thigh. Cross section.
Muscles of thigh. Anterior views.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 479 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
|
how many u.s. airlines have filed for bankruptcy since jetblue's launch | List of airline Bankruptcies in the United States - wikipedia
A number of major airlines have declared bankruptcy and have either ceased operations, or reorganized under bankruptcy protection. Airlines, like any business, are susceptible to market fluctuations and economic difficulties. The economic structure of the airline industry may contribute to airline bankruptcies as well. One major element in almost every airline bankruptcy is the rejection by the debtor of its current collective bargaining agreements with employees. After satisfying certain requirements, bankruptcy law permits courts to approve rejection of labor contracts by the debtor - employer. With this tool, airline managers reduce costs. Terms of an employee contract negotiated over years can be eliminated in months through Chapter 11. Terms of the Railway Labor Act, amended in 1936 to cover airlines, prevent most labor union work actions before, during and after an airline bankruptcy.
This is a timeline of airlines who have filed for bankruptcy protection. Also see list of defunct airlines for a list of airlines which are no longer operating.
This is a list of airlines that have filed for bankruptcy protection via Chapter 7 in the United States.
This is a list of airlines that have filed for bankruptcy protection via Chapter 11 in the United States.
|
do uk passport holders need a visa for japan | Visa requirements for British citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for British citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the United Kingdom. As of 10 July 2018, British citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 186 countries and territories, ranking the British passport 4th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Austrian, Dutch, Luxembourgish, Norwegian, Portuguese and the United States passports) according to the Henley Passport Index. Additionally, the World Tourism Organisation also published a report on 15 January 2016 ranking the British passport 1st in the world (tied with Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and Singapore) in terms of travel freedom, with a mobility index of 160 (out of 215 with no visa weighted by 1, visa on arrival weighted by 0.7, eVisa by 0.5, and traditional visa weighted by 0).
Visa requirements for other classes of British nationals such as British Nationals (Overseas), British Overseas Citizens, British Overseas Territories Citizens, British Protected Persons or British Subjects are different.
Visa requirements for British citizens were lifted by some European nations following World War II. The first changes occurred in 1947 with visa restrictions for British citizens being removed by France on 1 January 1947.
This was then quickly followed by Belgium on 15 February 1947, Luxembourg 15 February 1947, Norway on 1 March 1947, Denmark on 22 March 1947, Sweden on 1 April 1947, Netherlands on 15 April 1947, Switzerland on 24 June 1947 Liechtenstein on 24 June 1947 and Iceland on 1 July 1947.
The following year, the requirement to obtain a visa in advance of travel was lifted by Italy on New Years Day, 1 January 1948, Monaco (8 November 1948), Austria (15 May 1955), Paraguay (27 November 1966), United States (1 July 1988), Poland (1 July 1992), Bulgaria (March 1997), Romania (1 January 2001), Serbia and Montenegro (31 May 2003), Ukraine (1 May 2005), Georgia (1 June 2006), Moldova (1 January 2007), Kyrgyzstan (27 July 2012), Armenia (10 January 2013), Kazakhstan (15 July 2014), Indonesia (13 June 2015), Vietnam (1 July 2015) and Belarus (12 February 2017).
Electronic visas for British citizens were introduced: India (15 August 2015) and Djibouti (18 February 2018).
Visas on arrival were discontinued for British citizens by Mali (March 2015) and Malawi (1 October 2015) (was resumed).
Holders of various categories of official British passports have additional visa - free access to the following countries - China (diplomatic passports), Kuwait (diplomatic or official passports), Mongolia (diplomatic or official passports), Qatar (diplomatic or official passports and British Diplomatic Messenger or Queen 's Messenger Passports) and the United Arab Emirates (diplomatic or official passports). Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde, Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe. Holders of British official and diplomatic passports require a visa for South Africa.
Currently, when in a non-EU country where there is no British embassy, British citizens, like all other EU citizens, have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country.
See also List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom.
On 23 June 2016, the British electorate voted to leave the European Union in a nationwide referendum in England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and Gibraltar. The UK sent notification of their intention to leave the EU to the European Council through Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty. After notifying the European Council, the UK has two years to negotiate with other member states until it leaves, and British citizens will only then cease to be citizens of the European Union. British citizens will still have the right of freedom of movement until the UK formally leaves. It has since been suggested that British citizens wishing to travel to EU countries may have to apply for a visa or apply online for an American style ESTA visa waiver and pay a fee in order to enter the country of destination.
This issue will be a major topic of discussions taking place between the British government and all leaders of the 27 European Union countries during the two - year - long Brexit negotiations.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. However, some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals); Albania; Belarus; Georgia; Honduras; Iceland; Jordan; Kuwait, Lebanon; Liechtenstein; Moldova; Monaco; Nauru; Panama, Saint Barthélemy; San Marino; Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
According to the Foreign travel advice provided by the British Government (unless otherwise noted) these are the numbers of British visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
|
who did the song put the lime in the coconut | Coconut (song) - wikipedia
"Coconut '' is a novelty song written and first recorded by American singer - songwriter Harry Nilsson, released as the third single from his 1971 album, Nilsson Schmilsson. It was on the U.S. Billboard charts for 10 weeks, reaching # 8, and was ranked by Billboard as the # 66 song for 1972. It charted minorly in the UK, reaching # 42. "Coconut '' did best in Canada, where it peaked at # 5.
In 1998, a cover version was released by Australian singer Dannii Minogue as a single, peaking at # 62 on the ARIA singles chart.
The lyrics feature four characters (the narrator, the brother, the sister, and the doctor), three of whom (narrator, sister, and doctor) are sung in different voices by Nilsson. The song describes a story in which a girl has a stomachache and calls her doctor who prescribes her a drink. With the help of her brother, they concoct a beverage consisting of lime and coconut. When the sister calls the doctor late at night, the doctor (annoyed at being awakened by such a complaint) laughs her off and recommends that she "put the lime in the coconut and drink ' em both together '' -- then call him in the morning.
There are no chord changes in the song: an arpeggiated C7th accompanies the song.
According to the 1971 LP credits:
Dannii Minogue recorded the song in 1994 with UK dance producers DNA. When Minogue parted ways with Mushroom Records in 1995 and signed to Eternal Records in 1996, she had the track remixed by producers Flexifinger.
The track was originally used as a hidden bonus track on her third album Girl. It was subsequently released in Australia on November 16, 1998 as the fourth and final single from that album, peaking at # 62 on the ARIA singles chart upon its debut, on the chart dated week commencing 23 November 1998.
In 2009, the original version of "Coconut '' was made available on the compilation The 1995 Sessions.
|
what's a nice girl like you doing in a place like this casablanca | What 's a Nice Girl Like You Doing in a Place Like This? - Wikipedia
What 's a Nice Girl Like You Doing in a Place Like This? is a 1963 short film that Martin Scorsese created while a student at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts. It is a comedic piece about a writer who becomes obsessed with a picture he has on his wall.
|
song in the eye of the storm christian | Eye of the Storm (Ryan Stevenson song) - Wikipedia
"Eye of the Storm '' is a song recorded by Christian musician Ryan Stevenson for his 2015 studio album Fresh Start. It peaked at number one on both the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Christian Airplay charts, his first single to reach such feat.
|
star wars knight of the old republic mmo | Star Wars: the Old Republic - Wikipedia
Star Wars: The Old Republic is a massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG) based in the Star Wars universe. Developed by BioWare Austin and a supplemental team at BioWare Edmonton, the game was announced on October 21, 2008. The video game was released for the Microsoft Windows platform on December 20, 2011 in North America and part of Europe. Early access to the game began one week before release, on December 13, 2011, for those who had pre-ordered the game online; access opened in "waves '' based on pre-order date.
This story takes place in the Star Wars fictional universe shortly after the establishment of a tenuous peace between the re-emergent Sith Empire and the Galactic Republic. The game features eight different classes. Each of the eight classes has a three act storyline that progresses as the character levels up. Players join either the Republic or the Sith, but players may possess a morality at any point along the light / dark spectrum. Different classes favor different styles of gameplay, and the game features extensive customization options, fully voiced dialogue, companion characters, and dialogue options similar to BioWare 's own Mass Effect series.
Although not officially disclosed, based on estimates, it is one of the most developmentally expensive games made. The game had one million subscribers within three days of its launch, making it the world 's "fastest - growing MMO ever '', though in the following months the game lost a fair share of its subscriptions. The game has since adopted the hybrid free - to - play business model with remaining subscription option. The game was met with positive reception upon release and has received several updates and expansion packs. Several books and comics based on the game have been released. It is estimated that the game made $139 million in additional revenues on top of the subscription income in 2013.
This story takes place in the Star Wars fictional universe shortly after the establishment of a tenuous peace between the re-emergent Sith Empire and the Galactic Republic, 300 years after the events of the Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic games, and more than 3,600 years before the events in the Star Wars films.
The Jedi are held responsible for the success of the Sith during the devastating 28 - year - long Great Galactic War (which led to the Treaty of Coruscant prior to the "cold war ''), and thus choose to relocate from Coruscant to Tython, where the Jedi Order had initially been founded, to seek guidance from the Force. The Sith control Korriban, where they have re-established a Sith Academy. The game 's "Return '' cinematic trailer depicts the events where Korriban is re-conquered by the Sith.
During these events, a smuggler named Nico Okarr is being led to his prison cell in a jail orbiting Korriban by a Jedi, Satele Shan, and her master, Kao Cen Darach. Suddenly, a Sith named Darth Malgus, and his master Vindican, along with several Sith troops, attack the base. Satele, a trooper named Jace Malcom, and Okarr escape the attack, but Darach is cut down by Malgus. Malgus then kills Vindican, who was wounded by Darach. 10 years later, new conflicts have arisen. In the "Hope '' cinematic trailer, Satele and some troops destroy a Sith party that includes Malgus, and Malcom, who has become the troop 's commander, states that, despite the losses, there is still hope amongst even "a single spark of courage ''. Later in the "Deceived '' cinematic trailer, however, Malgus, having appeared to survive the earlier attack albeit with a mask covering his nose and mouth, leads an army of Sith into the Jedi Temple on Coruscant, killing many Jedi including the Jedi Master Ven Zallow.
After the death of Jedi Grand Master Zym, Master Satele Shan is named the new Jedi Grand Master. The game itself is set in the cold - war soon after these events, with the Jedi Order and Galactic Republic struggling to maintain their control of the core worlds while the Sith plot their downfall and the expansion of the Sith Empire. The conflict opens on many fronts and across many planets, while native factions are engaged in political struggles or civil war.
BioWare stated, prior to release, that the game would have a significant focus on the storyline. Each of the eight classes has a three act storyline that progresses as the character levels up. A collaborative effort between BioWare, LucasArts, EA Games and Dark Horse Comics has resulted in webcomics entitled Star Wars: The Old Republic -- Threat of Peace and Star Wars: The Old Republic -- Blood of the Empire, the purpose of which is to establish the backstory as the game opens and closes.
Players join as members of either of the two main factions -- the Galactic Republic and the Sith Empire. Although each faction is led by a benevolent or malevolent leader, it is emphasized that an individual member may possess a morality at any point along the light / dark spectrum. The project 's key focus is to differentiate between the player 's faction and morality. For instance, a member with ties to the Galactic Republic may belong to the Darkside while attempting to achieve their own ends, which may be misaligned or dissimilar from the Republic 's vision.
Player advancement occurs by a combination of mission completion, exploration, and defeating enemies. New skills, unlocked by level, are taught by trainers and can be learned in game at a multitude of locations. Heroic missions exist that require the cooperation of multiple players to complete objectives, and can be repeated normally on a daily basis.
While each class in The Old Republic favors a certain play style (ranged / melee damage, healing or support skills, or tanking), customization combined with companion characters allow for a class to be able to tackle many different situations, with or without the support of other player characters, and without requiring specific other classes in order to move forward.
Players ' choices permanently open or close storylines and affect players ' non-player character (NPC) companions. It is intended that the game should provide more context for characters ' missions than any previous MMORPG. Every character in the game, including the player character, features full voice dialog to enhance gameplay, and interactions feature a dialogue system similar to that used in the Mass Effect series. Players are able to choose from a variety of NPCs, although spending time with a single companion will help more in developing story and content than dividing time among several, and may even develop a love interest. It is possible for players to "blow it big time '' if they fail to meet NPCs ' expectations. Players also have access to several planets, including Korriban, Ord Mantell, Nal Hutta, Tython, Coruscant, Balmorra, Alderaan, Tatooine, Dromund Kaas, Taris, Belsavis, Voss, Hoth, Corellia, Ilum and Quesh, and the moon Nar Shaddaa. The planet Makeb was added in Patch 2.0, along with the Rise of the Hutt Cartel Expansion.
Every player receives their own starship, which was announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010. Footage of space combat was released at Gamescom. The short clip provided by BioWare revealed that space combat would be a "tunnel shooter. '' A tunnel shooter, otherwise known as a scrolling shooter or rail shooter, is a flying game where the player is on a predetermined track. Game play includes moving right and left on the X axis and up and down on the Y axis; however, players do not have control of the speed of their space craft. Jake Neri, LucasArts Producer, told PC Gamer in their October 2010 issue that their goal was to "capture the most cinematic moments that we can create. We want players to get in and feel like they 're in the movies. It 's about highly cinematic, controlled combat moments... very heroic, action - packed, exciting, visceral and dangerous encounters that 'll make you pee your pants. '' With the December 2013 release of the free expansion, Galactic Starfighter (GSF), players now have a free flight PVP space combat experience, with multiple ships and roles independent of other aspects of the game.
Like many other MMORPGs, the game features dungeons and raids in the form of Flashpoints and Operations respectively.
A range of playable species are available for the player to choose from, some limited to their factions. Both sides can play Human, Cyborg (human - based), Twi'lek or Zabrak (whose appearances are initially different depending on which side the character is from). The Republic - only races are the Miraluka and Mirialan, while the Empire - only races are the Chiss, Rattataki and Sith Pureblood. Humans and Zabrak can pick any class available, while the other species are restricted to limited choices of classes by default.
More playable species are said to be available in the future through major updates and the Legacy system with the ability to use other classes ' abilities through this system. The Cathar were added to the game during Patch 2.1, and is available to all players who unlock the species through the Cartel Market. The Togruta race was announced in January 2015 as a new playable race to be made available in 2015.
The release of the expanded "Legacy '' system in April 2012 allows for species to be able to play all classes (both Empire and Republic) by unlocking that species with an infusion of in - game money or by levelling a character of that race to level 50. Under this system, for example, a player may choose Chiss, which by default can only choose the non-Sith classes on the Empire side, as a new Sith character. Likewise, a Sith Pureblood, which by default can only choose the Force - powered classes, could choose to be a non-Force class. Along the same vein, both species, which are restricted to the Empire, could even choose the option of fighting for the Republic, including training as a Jedi. By the same method, unlocking the Zabrak species allows to play both appearances regardless from which side the character is from.
Each faction contains different classes, each with a distinct backstory and a branching storyline affected by players ' moral choices. Classes are exclusive to one faction or the other. However, the classes of one faction mirror the classes of the other (for example, Jedi Knight and Sith Warrior). Eight classes exist: the Bounty Hunter, Sith Warrior, Imperial Agent, and Sith Inquisitor for the Sith Empire; and the Trooper, Smuggler, Jedi Knight, and Jedi Consular for the Galactic Republic. Although each class has a distinct storyline, they are integrated with the game 's overall arc.
Once a character earns enough experience, each class may also choose from two advanced classes, resulting in a total of 8 advanced classes per faction. Advanced classes share the same storyline as their base class. Lightsaber and blaster colors are not faction or class restricted, but some are restricted based on level and / or Lightside or Darkside alignment. For example, some lightsabers can only be bought if Light or Darkside aligned.
Each class has their own starship, which serves as the player 's base of operations. Bounty Hunters have the D5 - Mantis patrol craft. Sith Warriors and Sith Inquistors have the Fury. Imperial Agents have the X-70B Phantom. Smugglers have the XS Freighter. Troopers have the BT - 7 Thunderclap. Jedi Knights and Jedi Consulars have the Defender. Certain pieces of these ships can be upgraded, allowing them to perform better in space combat missions.
The game features a passive form of crafting, known as Crew Skills, in which a player 's companions carry out gathering and crafting tasks asynchronously to the player 's adventures out in the world. Each class gets five companions via their storyline. The player can assign up to five companions to perform up to 3 various skills. Crafting skills allow the player 's companions to create items, and the player can reverse engineer many items to possibly learn to make a better version. The item is destroyed in the process, but the player gets some of the materials back. Gathering skills allow the player or their companions to gather resources out in the world. Mission skills allow the player 's companions to perform acts on the player 's behalf, gaining the player Light or Darkside influence and other rewards, such as medical items or companion gifts.
During E3 2011, a video was shown with gameplay footage of the Bounty Hunter, along with a Jawa companion named Blizz. The developers stated during the chat that only the Bounty Hunter would be able to get Blizz and that other classes would have unique companions as well, including some companions that are force users. It was also shown that companions would have a similar character screen as the players and can have gear just like a player character.
BioWare announced same - sex romance options with companions or other NPCs before release. The options were implemented for some non-companions in Rise of the Hutt Cartel, and expanded with Shadow of Revan. Options for some new companions were implemented in Knights of the Fallen Empire.
During patch 1.5, HK - 51 was added for all classes on both Empire and Republic factions. He was the first companion added to every classes, and can be obtained through a questline. He is an assassin droid based on the popular HK - 47 from the original Knights of the Old Republic series.
A female Ewok companion, Treek, was implemented in patch 2.3 and is available to all classes. This companion requires either a purchase from the Cartel Market or a 1,000,000 credit fee along with a Legacy Level of 40.
The Old Republic required a monthly subscription to play, following a month of play included with the initial purchase. Options are available to pay for one month, two month, three month, or six month blocks, with discounted rates for multiple month blocks. Payment is by credit card or time card. The free - to - play version integrates most of the primary features in the game, but has several restrictions, such as credit limits and reduced leveling speed.
After launch, the game 's subscribers rose to 1.7 million by February 2012. By May 2012, those numbers fell to 1.3 million. By July 2012, the subscriber base fell below 1 million, prompting EA to convert the game to free - to - play. EA stated that 500,000 subscribers were needed to make the game profitable saying that they were "well above '' that number, By May 2013, subscriptions had fallen below 500,000 but at the time, stabilized there. On November 15, 2012, the free - to - play option went live on all servers. As of August 2014 the game has over one million monthly players.
The Old Republic is BioWare 's first entry into the massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG) market, and is the second Star Wars MMORPG after Star Wars Galaxies, which was shut down in December 2011. BioWare had long been interested in working on a MMORPG, but waited until they had "the right partners, the right team, and the right I.P. '' A major focus in the game is on developing characters ' individual stories and, in October 2008, BioWare considered this game to have more story content than all of their other games combined. The writing team worked on the project longer than any of the game 's other development teams. An October 2008 preview noted some of the 12 full - time writers had been working on The Old Republic for more than two years at that point. Although BioWare has not disclosed development costs, industry leaders and financial analysts have estimated it to be between $150 million and $200 million or more, making it, at the time, the most expensive video game made, though if marketing costs are included, it is eclipsed by Grand Theft Auto V, with an estimated cost of $265 million. The game had 1 million subscribers within three days of its launch, making it the world 's "fastest - growing MMO ever ''. However, in the following months the game lost a fair share of its subscriptions, but has remained profitable. The game has since adopted the hybrid free - to - play business model with remaining subscription option. It is estimated that the game made $139 million in additional revenues, in addition to the subscription income, in 2013.
The game 's first cinematic trailer, "Deceived '', was shown at the Electronic Arts 2009 E3 Press Conference on June 1, 2009. A public live demo was shown for the first time at the Gamescom. On September 29, 2009, BioWare announced that they would be accepting applications for testers from the game community. Within minutes, the official website was down due to traffic, and BioWare announced shortly after that the site was being changed in order to accommodate the increase in visitors. A second cinematic trailer, "Hope '', was released on June 14, 2010, that depicts another battle that happened before the game, the Battle of Alderaan. On June 6, a new trailer "Return '' was released at E3 2011 depicting the initial Sith invasion force as it retakes its home world of Korriban. Game testing was officially announced to be underway on July 9, 2010, for testers from North American territories.
Although released in most regions of the world, EA have said Australasia will be getting the game at a later date. The reason behind this is to hold back digital and boxed copies for a smooth launch so to avoid any problems encountered during launch. However, BioWare revealed that the game would not be region or IP blocked, allowing players to purchase the game from other regions. Additionally, BioWare allowed Australian and New Zealand players to take part in the beta stages of the game. BioWare community manager Allison Berryman said "Data from this test will be used to inform decisions about the launch of the game in Oceanic regions '', however, she was unable to provide any information in regards to the game 's launch in those regions.
On October 11, 2011, BioWare announced that Star Wars: The Old Republic would be released globally on December 20, 2011. However, this ' global ' launch only included North America and a part of Europe, as the launch date had delayed for the Asia and Oceanic regions. On December 21, 2011, BioWare announced that an Australian and New Zealand release date had been set for March 1, 2012.
On January 18, 2012, the first content patch (1.1) was released, adding a new Flashpoint and adding four bosses to an existing Operation. Patch (1.2) was released on April 12, 2012. The update included the new Legacy system, a new Flashpoint, Operation, a PVP Warzone, as well as improved character textures and advanced options such as user interface customization. Guild banks and player character pets are also introduced. A Weekend Pass Free Trial was made available for new players but has since closed. Patch 1.3 was released in June 2012. The game update featured a New Group Finder, the ability to augment every item, and adaptable social gear. In addition, players will be able to request that their characters are able to transfer to other servers. Subsequent patches have introduced a ' Cartel Market ' where players can purchase virtual currency to spend on cosmetic items in - game. These items include armour sets, lightsaber colour crystals, mounts, pets and character - perk unlocks.
In January 2012, Star Wars: The Old Republic was officially recognized by Guinness World Records as the "Largest Entertainment Voice Over Project Ever '', with over 200,000 lines of recorded dialogue. This feat is recorded in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition book. On April 26, 2012, BioWare announced that the game was available in the Middle East and remaining European countries who were excluded from the original launch.
In October 2012, BioWare announced The Old Republic 's first digital expansion pack, Rise of the Hutt Cartel. The expansion is centered on the rising threat of the Hutt Cartel, which has arisen to challenge the Galactic Republic and the Sith Empire for control of the galaxy. The battle with the Hutts is centered on the planet Makeb, which hides a "powerful secret ''. Much like the main game, the campaign on Makeb is fully voiced. The level cap was raised to 55, with the leveling from 50 onwards centered on Makeb.
Rise of the Hutt Cartel was released on April 14, 2013. Those who pre-ordered the expansion prior to January 7, 2013, were allowed early access on April 9. In late September, Rise of the Hutt Cartel became free after subscribing to the game.
In October 2013, BioWare announced a major update, Galactic Starfighter, which introduces 12v12 space - based PvP combat on two maps, with 2 ' capture - the - flag ' combat missions. Three stock starfighters were made available - a scout, a strike fighter, and a gunship. More are accessible for Cartel Coins. Subscribers began their early access on December 3, 2013, with full subscriber awards if they maintained an active subscription on November 1. "Preferred access '' players, those who do not have an active subscription but have purchased items via the Cartel Market, will receive their early access on January 14, 2014, with some rewards. Full access to all players with an account opened on February 4, 2014. A new ' deathmatch ' game style was added with the update, as well as a new starfighter class, the bomber.
In January 2014, BioWare revealed plans for 2014 including two expansion packs, with one similar to Galactic Starfighter in scope and one more closely resembling Rise of the Hutt Cartel. The first is entitled Galactic Strongholds, introducing player housing and flagships for guilds. Subscribers received early access August 19, 2014, as well as access to the exclusive "Nar Shaddaa Sky Palace ''; preferred access players received early access starting in September. Full access to all players with an account opened in October.
On October 6, BioWare announced the second planned expansion, entitled Shadow of Revan. The expansion is centered on the Order of Revan, formerly a fringe group that appeared early in Imperial missions, now a great army seeking to establish a new galactic order, led by the reborn Revan himself. The campaign raised the level cap to 60, and takes place on two new worlds: Rishi, a tropical pirate haven on the edge of the galaxy, and Yavin 4 (which first appeared in the original Star Wars film), home of an ancient Sith warrior sect called the Massassi. Shadow of Revan was available for preorder. Players who preordered before November 2, 2014, received an experience boost that granted twelve times multiplicative experience for class - related missions, seven days of early access, a grand statue of Revan for placement in strongholds, and a free edition of Rise of the Hutt Cartel (to give to another player). The expansion was released on December 9, 2014.
In June 2015, the third expansion for the game, titled Knights of the Fallen Empire, was announced at EA 's E3 2015 press conference. Knights of the Fallen Empire features a renewed focus on cinematic storytelling, as well as new planets, new companions, a dynamic story affected by player choices and a level cap of 65. A cinematic trailer, titled "Sacrifice '', was released along with the initial announcement. The trailer, made by Blur Studio, received critical acclaim, and was awarded the "Best Trailer of E3 '' Award by IGN. The first nine chapters of Knights of the Fallen Empire were launched on October 27, 2015, with additional chapters starting in early 2016. Subscribers received one level 60 character token. After the release of Knights of the Fallen Empire, Rise of the Hutt Cartel and Shadow of Revan became free for those subscribing to the game, and access remains on the account if a subscription is canceled.
The release of Knights of the Fallen Empire depicts the story of "The Outlander '' - the player character. The expansion introduced new companion characters available to all classes. One feature introduced with the expansion was the Alliance system. It entails recruiting allies, including some companions from other classes that formerly were restricted, from across the galaxy to join the fight against the Eternal Empire. Players were given the ability to strengthen their rebellion by providing resources to "Specialists '' that oversee four areas of operation: Technology, Underworld Trade, Military and Force - Usage. Most of the early game content was heavily streamlined, allowing players to level up a character by completing solely story and class - specific missions if they so choose. A solo mode was also introduced for story - critical flashpoints. The new storyline, featuring primarily solo content, has 13 chapters.
In December 2016, Knights of the Eternal Throne was released as the sixth expansion that coincided with the game 's five - year anniversary. It continues the story of the Outlander. Subscribers received one level 65 character token, with additional tokens available at the cartel store. The storyline has nine chapters of solo content and it raises the level cap to 70. The expansion focuses on defeating Empress Vaylin and the Eternal Empire.
Chronicle Books released The Art and Making of Star Wars: The Old Republic in November 2011, which chronicles the creation of the game and includes concept artwork and interviews from the development team. The book was written by former Star Wars Insider editor Frank Parisi and BioWare writing director Daniel Erickson. The book includes a foreword by Penny Arcade 's Mike "Gabe '' Krahulik.
Leading up to game 's release on December 20, BioWare released music tracks from the game each day which were not included with the soundtrack which came with the Collector 's Edition of the game. The first track released was titled "The Mandalorian Blockade ''.
Razer released several peripherals based on the game to coincide with the launch date. The peripherals included custom made keyboards, mice, gaming headsets and mouse pads.
In August 2012, Lego announced plans to release two sets based on the game, the Sith Fury - class Interceptor and the Striker - class Starfighter.
An internet comic produced by Dark Horse and written by The Old Republic developer Rob Chestney offers backstory to the game. The story spans ten years from the signing of the Treaty of Coruscant to the events that start the game. The comic, titled Threat of Peace, was released bi-monthly, and reached its conclusion in March 2010.
A second internet comic titled Blood of the Empire has been released and follows the story of a Sith apprentice on a dangerous secret mission. It is produced by Dark Horse and written by BioWare 's senior writer Alexander Freed. The story is set 25 years before the Treaty of Coruscant, and offers readers a new perspective of the events leading up to the start of The Old Republic. A sneak preview of the art was released, followed by the first issue on April 23, 2010.
A 256 - page novel called Deceived was released by Del Rey on March 22, 2011. This story, by Paul S. Kemp, tells of Darth Malgus, the Sith Lord responsible for the sacking of Coruscant. Another novel written by Sean Williams called Star Wars: The Old Republic: Fatal Alliance was published on July 21, 2010. Drew Karpyshyn wrote a novel titled Revan, published on November 15, 2011. It features Revan, revealing his fate after the Knights of the Old Republic games. Karpyshyn wrote another novel, The Old Republic: Annihilation, that was released on November 13, 2012.
Star Wars: The Old Republic has received generally positive reviews from critics, with a score of 85 on Metacritic and an 83.87 % on GameRankings. G4TV gave a review of 5 / 5 and praised the game for "Top notch music and voice acting '' and "hundreds of hours of content. '' PC Gamer gave a 93 / 100, praising the story, voice acting, and the amount of content available. Gamespy gave a review of 4 / 5, praising the story lines and companion system but criticising the "standard kill and fetch '' quests. GameSpot gave the game 8.0 / 10, saying "(The Old Republic) is n't the next step in online role - playing games. Instead, it 's a highly entertaining refinement of what has come before it. '' GamesRadar gave the game 8 / 10 calling it "an extremely satisfying experience that sets the stage for a bright future ''. The game has received a 9.0 / 10 "Amazing '' rating from IGN.com.
During Star Wars: The Old Republic 's launch week, long queue times were seen on some servers, with BioWare increasing population caps and adding more servers to attempt to resolve them. Some pre-order users discovered they had invalid registration codes. After release, at least one reviewer was less favorable as Eurogamer lowered their rating to a 4 / 10 from its initial high score.
MSNBC awarded Star Wars: The Old Republic as game of the year. In 2012, The AbleGamers Foundation awarded Star Wars: The Old Republic as their Mainstream Game for 2011 for being able to accommodate gamers with special needs. It praised the game 's features which included many accessibility options, including full subtitles, queue - able actions, multiple action bars, area looting, auto looting, and built - in mouse sensitivity.
One character, a slave companion for the Sith Warrior named Vette, drew controversy. Writing for Kotaku, Mike Fahey, after playing the game, recalled players boasting of their torturing of Vette and her low affection rating for them. The Daily Mail ran an article about Fahey 's story on their Mail Online website, remarking on how the option to treat Vette decently did not seem popular, and while noting Star Wars was "no stranger to slavery '' said "the idea of playing ' master ' yourself is unsavoury ''. The Mail was criticised for its lack of evidence for its statements and its selective information. Forbes 's Erik Kain criticised gaming as overly focused on "teenage boys '', calling the inclusion of a shock - collar - wearing slave "not so much surprising as it is disappointing '' and "really creepy ''. Kain commented how it enforced how gaming could be a "hostile environment '' for girls and felt that the inclusion of choice failed to make the situation better. The Mary Sue contributor Becky Chambers felt Vette 's inclusion was less "sexist '' than "shortsighted ''. Religion Dispatches researched the matter, surveying 369 players to ask them how they acted. The survey 's findings suggested that most players chose the good options and felt uncomfortable doing any evil ones. They suggested that the presence of characters like Vette influenced the player 's actions, making them want to take choices that would gain Affection.
|
where did le tour de france start in 2017 | 2017 Tour de France - Wikipedia
The 2017 Tour de France was the 104th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling 's Grand Tours. The 3,540 km (2,200 mi) - long race commenced with an individual time trial in Düsseldorf, Germany on 1 July, and concluded with the Champs - Élysées stage in Paris on 23 July. A total of 198 riders from 22 teams entered the 21 - stage race, which was won by Chris Froome of Team Sky, his fourth overall victory. Rigoberto Urán (Cannondale -- Drapac) and Romain Bardet (AG2R La Mondiale) finished second and third, respectively.
Geraint Thomas (Team Sky) won the opening stage and became the Tour 's first rider to wear the general classification leader 's yellow jersey. Froome, who performed the best in the opening stage out of the pre-race favourites, took the lead after the fifth stage 's summit finish. He held the lead until it was taken by Fabio Aru (Astana) at the end of stage twelve, where Froome lost time on the steep summit finish to Peyragudes. Froome retook the yellow jersey after the fourteenth stage and held it until the end of the race.
The points classification was won by Michael Matthews of Team Sunweb, with teammate Warren Barguil, winner of two high mountain stages, taking the mountains classification as well as the award for most combative rider. Orica -- Scott 's Simon Yates, in seventh place overall, won the young rider classification. The team classification was won by Team Sky.
The 2017 edition of the Tour de France consisted of 22 teams. All eighteen UCI WorldTeams were entitled, and obliged, to enter the race. On 26 January 2017, the organiser of the Tour, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), announced the four second - tier UCI Professional Continental teams given wildcard invitations, of which three were French - based (Cofidis, Direct Énergie and Fortuneo -- Oscaro) and one was Belgian (Wanty -- Groupe Gobert, which participated in the race for the first time). Fortuneo -- Oscaro were initially invited to the race as Fortuneo -- Vital Concept, before a change of sponsorship prior to the opening day of racing. The presentation of the teams -- where the members of each team 's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries -- took place in front of a crowd of 15,000 at the Burgplatz (de) square in Düsseldorf, Germany, on 29 June, two days before the opening stage held in the city.
Each squad was allowed a maximum of nine riders, resulting in a start list total of 198 riders. Of these, 49 were competing in their first Tour de France. The total number of riders that finished the race was 167. The riders came from 32 countries. Six countries had more than 10 riders in the race: France (39), Italy (18), Belgium (16), Germany (16), the Netherlands (15), and Spain (13). The average age of riders in the race was 29.4 years, ranging from the 22 - year - old Élie Gesbert (Fortuneo -- Oscaro) to the 40 - year - old Haimar Zubeldia (Trek -- Segafredo). Cannondale -- Drapac had the youngest average age while Team Dimension Data had the oldest.
UCI WorldTeams
UCI Professional Continental teams
In the lead up to the 2017 Tour de France, Chris Froome (Team Sky) was seen by many as the top pre-race favourite for the general classification. His closest rivals were thought to be Richie Porte (BMC Racing Team), Nairo Quintana (Movistar Team), Alberto Contador (Trek -- Segafredo), Romain Bardet (AG2R La Mondiale) and Fabio Aru (Astana). The other riders considered contenders for the general classification were Alejandro Valverde (Movistar Team), Jakob Fuglsang (Astana), Thibaut Pinot (FDJ), Esteban Chaves (Orica -- Scott), Geraint Thomas (Team Sky), Dan Martin (Quick - Step Floors), Simon Yates (Orica -- Scott), and Louis Meintjes (UAE Team Emirates).
Froome, who won the 2013, 2015 and 2016 editions of the Tour, had not won a race in the 2017 season prior to the Tour 's start. His best result was fourth overall at the Critérium du Dauphiné, a race considered to be the warm - up for the Tour and one he has won before his three previous Tour victories. Despite this, he was thought to have one of the strongest teams in the race that would ride in total support of him. The 32 - year - old Porte, who placed fifth in the 2016 Tour, won the general classification in two stage races so far in 2017, the Tour Down Under and the Tour de Romandie, and came second in the Dauphiné. Quintana, third in the 2016 Tour, placed second at the Giro d'Italia, with overalls wins at the Tirreno -- Adriatico and the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana earlier in the season. The two - time winner (2007 and 2009) 34 - year - old Contador came second overall in four stage races in 2017 before the Tour, Paris -- Nice, the Vuelta a Andalucía, the Volta a Catalunya and the Tour of the Basque Country. Bardet, the 2017 Tour runner - up, placed sixth overall in the Dauphiné, with his best other result sixth in the one - day Classic race Liège -- Bastogne -- Liège. Aru started the Tour sharing team leadership with the Dauphiné winner Fuglsang. Aru won the Italian National Road Race Championships a week before the Tour and placed fifth at the Dauphiné.
The sprinters considered favourites for the points classification and wins on the flat or hilly bunch sprint finishes were Peter Sagan (Bora -- Hansgrohe), Marcel Kittel (Quick - Step Floors), Mark Cavendish (Team Dimension Data), André Greipel (Lotto -- Soudal), and Alexander Kristoff (Team Katusha -- Alpecin). Others expected to contend for sprint finishes included Michael Matthews (Team Sunweb), Arnaud Démare (FDJ), Dylan Groenewegen (LottoNL -- Jumbo), John Degenkolb (Trek -- Segafredo), Sonny Colbrelli (UAE Team Emirates) and Nacer Bouhanni (Cofidis). Double reigning world road race champion Sagan had won the five previous points classifications of the Tour, one away from matching Erik Zabel 's record of six from 1996 to 2001. His form in the 2017 season before the Tour included winning the one - day race Kuurne -- Brussels -- Kuurne and the points classifications in Tirreno -- Adriatico, the Tour de Suisse and the Tour of California. Kittel had gained eight wins so far in 2017, as well as the general and points classifications in the Dubai Tour at the start of the season. Cavendish 's season before the Tour was affected by glandular fever, missing around three months; his only success had been a stage win and the points classification at the Abu Dhabi Tour. Greipel had amassed four wins in 2017 before the Tour, including one at the Giro. Kristoff had taken six wins so far in 2017, and the points classifications at the Tour of Oman, the Étoile de Bessèges and the Three Days of De Panne.
The start of the 2017 Tour de France (known as the Grand Départ) was originally scheduled to be in London, United Kingdom; this would have been the third time the Tour had visited London, following the 2007 and 2014 editions. In September 2015, a week before this was due to be announced, Transport for London pulled out of the bid. It was later revealed that this was the decision of the then Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, on the grounds of cost: hosting the Grand Depart would have cost £ 35 million. In December 2015, the ASO announced that the Grand Départ would take place with stages based in Düsseldorf; the fourth time the Tour has begun in Germany and the first since 1987. The bid to host the Tour was only narrowly approved by the city council. The return to Germany followed a resurgence in German professional cycling. On 14 January 2016, details of the opening two stages were announced. The first stage would be a 13 - kilometre (8.1 mi) individual time trial in Düsseldorf itself. The second stage would also begin in Düsseldorf. The full route was announced by race director Christian Prudhomme on 18 October 2016 at the Palais des Congrès in Paris.
After the first time trial, the race left Germany during stage two, which finished in the Belgian city of Liège. Stage three headed south, and after a brief passage through Luxembourg, ended with a climb in Longwy. After a transitional stage, stage five saw the first major climb, the finish at La Planche des Belles Filles. The next two stages headed south - west, before stage eight in the Jura Mountains, featured three categorised climbs. The ninth stage included the steep climbs of the Col de la Biche (fr), the Col du Grand Colombier, and, after a 42 - year absence, the Signal du Mont du Chat, its summit 25 km (15.5 mi) from the finish in Chambéry. After a transfer during the rest day, stage ten took place in the Dordogne region, between Périgueux and Bergerac. Stage eleven was a transitional stage, followed by two stages in the Pyrenees. Stage twelve started from Pau and ended at the Peyragudes ski resort. The next stage was short, at 110 km (68 mi), but included three climbs before a descent finish into Foix. After leaving the Pyrenees, the riders headed north - east; stage fourteen finished with a climb towards the end of the stage. Stage fifteen featured the first appearance of the Col de Peyra Taillade, with its conclusion in Le Puy - en - Velay. Stage sixteen, the first after the final rest day, was a transitional stage, heading east, towards the Alps. Stage seventeen included the Col d'Ornon, the Col de la Croix de Fer, the Col du Télégraphe and the highest point of elevation in the race, the Col du Galibier, before a descent finish into Serre Chevalier. Stage eighteen was the final day of mountains; it had two climbs, the Col de Vars and the finishing climb, the Col d'Izoard. It was the first time the Tour finished on the 2,360 m (7,743 ft) - high mountain pass. After another transitional stage, heading south, came stage twenty, a 23 km (14.3 mi) individual time trial in Marseille. Starting at the Stade Vélodrome, the course headed around the city, designated 2017 European Capital of Sport, before ending also at the Stade Vélodrome. The final stage started in Montgeron, which hosted the start of the first Tour, before concluding with the traditional laps of the Champs - Élysées.
There were 21 stages in the race, covering a total distance of 3,540 km (2,200 mi), 13 km (8.1 mi) shorter than the 2016 Tour. There were two time trial events, both of which were individual, a total of 36 km (22.4 mi). Of the remaining nineteen stages, eight were officially classified as flat, six as medium mountain and five as high mountain. The longest mass - start stage was stage 19, at 222.5 km (138 mi), and the shortest was stage 13, at 101 km (63 mi). For the first time since the 1992 edition, the route included all five of mainland France 's mountainous regions; the Vosges, the Jura, the Pyrenees, the Massif Central and the Alps. There were summit finishes on stage 12 to Peyragudes and stage 18 to the Col d'Izoard. Additionally, the hilly stage 3 had a hilltop finish in Longwy, and stage 5 ended at La Planche des Belles Filles. There were seven hors catégorie (English: "out of category '') rated climbs in the race. The Tour included ten new start or finish locations. The rest days were after stage 9, in the Dordogne, and 15, in Le Puy - en - Velay.
The opening stage 's individual time trial was won by Geraint Thomas with a time of 16 min 4 s over the 14 km (8.7 mi) course. Thomas took the yellow and green jerseys as the leader of the general and points classifications respectively. Chris Froome was the highest placed of the general classification favourites, in sixth place, sixteen seconds down. Overall contender Alejandro Valverde crashed on the wet roads and his injuries forced him to withdraw from the Tour. Marcel Kittel won stage two 's bunch sprint, and with it the green jersey. Breakaway rider Taylor Phinney (Cannondale -- Drapac) took the first polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification. The uphill sprint finish of stage three was won by Peter Sagan; Nathan Brown (Cannondale -- Drapac) took over the polka dot jersey. The fourth stage ended with a bunch sprint and was won by Arnaud Démare (FDJ), with him also taking the green jersey. There were two crashes leading up to the finish, the first was in the peloton around 1 km (0.6 mi) to go and the second involved the sprinters at the end. In the sprint finish, Mark Cavendish crashed into the barriers at the side of the road, withdrawing later that day from the race from his injuries. Sagan, second in the stage, was disqualified after race officials judged that he caused Cavendish to crash, with the jury president Philippe Marien saying that he "endangered some of his colleagues seriously ''.
In the fifth stage, a group containing the overall contenders caught the last of the breakaway riders 5 km (3.1 mi) from the summit finish at La Planche des Belles Filles. With 2.4 km (1.5 mi) remaining, Fabio Aru attacked and won with a margin of sixteen seconds over the group. Thomas lost twenty seconds on the group and lost the yellow jersey to teammate Froome. Aru took over the lead of the mountains classification. Kittel won the following two stages which ended in bunch sprints. The latter stage was decided by a photo finish, with Kittel 6 mm ahead of Edvald Boasson Hagen (Team Dimension Data); Kittel regained the green jersey. In stage eight, the first high mountain stage, Lilian Calmejane of Direct Énergie attacked over the category 1 climb of Montée de la Combe de Laisia Les Molunes from a six - strong lead breakaway and soloed for 11.5 km (7.1 mi) to take the win 37 seconds ahead of second placed and lone chaser Robert Gesink (LottoNL -- Jumbo). Calmejane put himself into the polka dot jersey. The ninth stage saw a select group of general classification favourites join Warren Barguil (Team Sunweb) after the final of the Mont du Chat and contest a sprint finish, won by Rigoberto Urán (Cannondale -- Drapac). Barguil took lead of the mountains classification. Richie Porte crashed descending the Mont du Chat whilst in the group of overall contenders and withdrew from the race. The following day was the Tour 's first rest rest day.
Stages ten and eleven were won from bunch sprints by Kittel, taking his total of wins at the race to five. The twelfth stage saw the overall contenders all reach the foot of the short steep climb to Peyragudes; Romain Bardet won by a margin of two seconds. Froome came seventh, 22 seconds down, and lost the overall lead to third - placed Aru. The 101 km (62.8 mi) - long stage thirteen was won by Barguil, who won the sprint after a descent from an elite group with Nairo Quintana, Alberto Contador and Mikel Landa (Team Sky). The chasing group of overall contenders came in 1 min 39 s down. In the fourteenth stage, a reduced peloton contested the uphill sprint finish at Rodez, which was won Team Sunweb rider Michael Matthews. Aru 's advantage of six seconds over Froome was changed to a deficit of eighteen, after Aru came in thirty seconds down in thirtieth place and Froome was seventh, one second behind the Matthews.
Stage fifteen saw Trek -- Segafredo 's Bauke Mollema attack a breakaway group over the top of the Col de Peyra Taillade with 31 km (19.3 mi) to go and solo to victory. In the large group containing the overall contenders, Bardet 's team AG2R La Mondiale forced a high pace on the Peyra Taillade. A further 6 km (3.7 mi) later on the climb, Froome suffered a broken spoke, and, after receiving a new wheel from a teammate and some assistance from three other teammates, he was able to chase back up to the group. The next day was the second rest day of the race. In the sixteenth stage, the high pace set by Matthews 's Team Sunweb dropped the green jersey wearer Kittel; Matthews, who was second to Kittel in points classification, won the stage. Primož Roglič (LottoNL -- Jumbo), second behind Barguil in the mountains classification, won the following mountainous stage after a solo attack on the Col du Galibier, finishing in Serre Chevalier after a descent over a minute ahead of a four - man group containing the new top overall top three in the general classification Froome, Urán and Bardet, respectively, and also Barguil. Aru dropped from second overall to fourth. Kittel crashed and withdrew from the Tour, putting Matthews in the green jersey.
The final high mountain stage of the Tour, the eighteenth, saw Barguil claim his second victory of the race on the summit finish at Col d'Izoard; he was initially caught by the group of overall favourites on the final climb after being the one of last survivors from the breakaway, with only Darwin Atapuma (UAE Team Emirates) ahead. Barguil 's winning move came with 3 km (1.9 mi) remaining, passing Atapuma to win by twenty seconds. A three - way sprint for fourth place saw Bardet finish just ahead of Froome with Urán placing fifth; Bardet moved up to second overall, six seconds ahead of Urán, with Froome holding a 23 second advantage. Boasson Hagen won stage nineteen with an attack from a reduced breakaway with 2.5 km (1.6 mi) to go. Maciej Bodnar of Bora -- Hansgrohe won the 22.5 km (14.0 mi) individual time trial of the penultimate stage, setting a time of 28 min 15 s. Froome was third, six seconds down, increasing his lead in the general classification to 54 seconds. Bardet dropped to third overall after he lost over two minutes in the stage, and Urán was 31 seconds in arrears.
The final stage in Paris was won by Dylan Groenewegen in a bunch sprint on the Champs - Élysées. Froome finished the race to win his fourth Tour de France. Urán placed second overall, 54 seconds down, with Bardet 2 min 20 s behind, just one second ahead of Landa (fourth overall). Matthews won the points classification with a total of 370, 136 ahead of André Greipel in second. Barguil won the mountains classification with 169 points, 89 ahead of second - placed Roglič. The best young rider was seventh - placed overall Simon Yates, who was followed by Louis Meintjes (eighth overall) in second, 2 min 6 s down. An Orica -- Scott rider won the classification for the second consecutive year, after Yates ' twin brother Adam won in 2016. Team Sky finished as the winners of the team classification, 7 min 14 s ahead of second - placed AG2R La Mondiale.
There were four main individual classifications being contested in the 2017 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider 's finishing times on each stage. Time bonuses were awarded at the end of every stage apart from the two individual time trials. The first three riders get 10, 6, and 4 seconds, respectively. For crashes within the final 3 km (1.9 mi) of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, any rider involved received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred. The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered to be the overall winner of the Tour. The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey.
The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage 's type. The leader was identified by a green jersey.
The third classification was the mountains classification. Points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit of the most difficult climbs first. The climbs were categorized, in order of increasing difficulty, as fourth -, third -, second -, and first - category and hors catégorie. Double points were awarded on the summit finish of the Col d'Izoard on stage 18. The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.
The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1992. The leader wore a white jersey.
The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie. The riders in the team that led this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets.
In addition, there was a combativity award given after each stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship ''. No combativity awards were given for the time trials and the final stage. The winner wore a red number bib the following stage. At the conclusion of the Tour, Warren Barguil won the overall super-combativity award, again, decided by a jury.
A total of € 2,280,950 was awarded in cash prizes in the race. The overall winner of the general classification received € 500,000, with the second and third placed riders getting € 200,000 and € 100,000 respectively. All finishers in the top 160 were awarded with money. The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they led; the final winners of the points and mountains were given € 25,000, while the best young rider and most combative rider got € 20,000. The team classification winners were given € 50,000. € 11,000 was given to the winners of each stage of the race, with smaller amounts given to places 2 -- 20. There was also a special award with a prize of € 5,000, the Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given to first rider (Primož Roglič) to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour, the Col du Galibier on stage seventeen.
The race was the 25th of the 38 events in the UCI World Tour, with riders from the WorldTeams competing for individually and for their teams for points that contributed towards the rankings. Riders from both the WorldTeams and Professional Continental teams also competed individually and for their nations for points that contributed towards the UCI World Ranking, which included all UCI races. Both rankings used the same points scale, awarding points to the top sixty in the general classification, each yellow jersey given at the end of a stage, the top five finishers in each stage and for the top three in the final points and mountains classcifications. The points accrued by Chris Froome moved him up to sixth from twentieth in the World Tour and kept his fifth in the World Ranking. Greg Van Avermaet (BMC Racing Team) held the lead of both individual rankings, with Etixx -- Quick - Step and Belgium also holding the lead of the World Tour team ranking and World Ranking nation ranking respectively.
|
where did bang for your buck come from | Bang for the buck - wikipedia
Bang for the buck is an idiom meaning the worth of one 's money or exertion. The phrase originated from the slang usage of the words "bang '' which means "excitement '' and "buck '' which means "money ''. Variations of the term include "bang for your buck, '' "bang for one 's buck, '' "more bang for the buck, '' "bigger bang for the buck, '' and mixings of these. "More bang for the buck '' was preceded by "more bounce to the ounce '', an advertising slogan used in 1950 to market the carbonated soft drink Pepsi.
The phrase "bigger bang for the buck '' was notably used by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Secretary of Defense, Charles Erwin Wilson, in 1954. He used it to describe the New Look policy of depending on nuclear weapons, rather than a large regular army, to keep the Soviet Union in check. Today, the phrase is used to mean a greater worth for the money used.
William Safire discussed "bang for the buck '' in his 1968 book, New Language of Politics. Safire stated that U.S. Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson used the phrase in 1954 to summarize the New Look policy. The New Look, a 1950s national security policy during the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was called "more bang for the buck '' and "bigger bang for the buck ''. "More bang for the buck '' was also used in the late 1960s by the U.S. military to refer to how it wanted to receive more combat power from the armaments it possessed. The United States, instead of supporting a large regular army, increasingly depended on nuclear weapons to hold the Soviet Union in check.
"Bigger bang for the buck '' is similar to the phrase "more bounce to the ounce '', an advertising catchphrase used in 1950 by PepsiCo to market its soft drink product Pepsi.
Sometimes the phrase is used to mean "a better value for the money spent ''.
In 2001, author Matthew L. Stone wrote that the phrase "has been overused almost to the point of becoming meaningless ''. In her 2010 book The Trouble with Thinking, Lauren Powers wrote that whenever she hears the cliché "bigger bang for the buck '', she becomes "distracted '' by the phrase 's history and can not continue paying attention to the speaker 's words.
|
who is buried at the car lot eastenders | Jay Brown - wikipedia
James "Jay '' Brown (also Mitchell) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Jamie Borthwick. He made his first appearance on 14 December 2006. Jay 's storylines include being part of a gang, coping with the death of his father Jase Dyer (Stephen Lord), being orphaned by age 14 which results in his going into foster care and then being taken care of by the Mitchell family, as well as maturing from a wayward teen, becoming a surrogate brother to Ben Mitchell (Joshua Pascoe / Harry Reid), helping Ben cover up the murder of Heather Trott (Cheryl Fergison), being arrested for having indecent images of a child on his mobile phone after discovering his girlfriend Linzi Bragg (Amy - Leigh Hickman) is below the age of consent, drug dealing and developing a drug habit by taking cocaine. In August 2017, in a two - hander episode between Phil and Jay, Jay finds out that Phil accidentally killed his biological father, a homeless boy who was at the Car Lot the night that Phil set it alight. However, it later turns out to be a lie, which Jay is n't aware of.
Jay is mentioned in 2006 when his dying grandmother Evie Brown (Marji Campi) tells his grandfather Bert Atkinson (Dave Hill) that he has a grandson. Their daughter, Karen, is Jay 's mother and is dead from breast cancer. Jay appears after Evie 's funeral, when he is taken to live with Bert in Walford, per Evie 's wishes. Jay is a troublesome youth: he steals, breaks into Pauline Fowler 's (Wendy Richard) house, and offends Yolande Trueman (Angela Wynter) with a racist slur to impress his peers. When Jay 's father Jase Dyer (Stephen Lord) arrives, Bert leaves to allow Jay and Jase to bond. Jay continues getting into trouble, becoming involved with a gang of older boys, known as the E20 crew, led by Tegs Teague (Ben Smith). Jay helps them shoplift, and they give him a knife. The gang terrorises Dot Branning (June Brown) and Jay steals her keys so they can break into her house. The gang orders Jay to throw a brick through Dot 's window, but realising it is wrong, Jay refuses and is rejected from the gang. Tegs later confronts Jay and a fight ensues, with Jay being stabbed in the leg. Tegs is arrested and his mother Tina Teague (Kerry Ann White) tries to threaten Jay from testifying against her son at his trial. However, she is scared off by Jase 's girlfriend Dawn Swann (Kara Tointon). Jay gives evidence at the trial and Tegs is sentenced to two years in a Young Offenders Institute. li Jay and Jase try to flee Walford when Jase double - crosses a football firm but Dawn stops their departure by setting a date for her and Jase 's wedding. The firm, led by Terry Bates (Nicholas Ball), holds Jay hostage to get revenge on Jase. Jase is able to save Jay with Billy Mitchell 's (Perry Fenwick) help but is beaten to death by Terry 's men, and Billy, too frightened to intervene, leaves Jase to die. Jay accuses Dawn of causing his father 's death and goes into care to get away from her. Jay is later fostered by Billy, who is wracked with guilt for not saving Jase from the gang. Jay 's behaviour worsens when he plans an arson attack on Dawn, but Billy is able to stop him and Jay eventually makes amends with Dawn. Jay and Billy move into a flat with Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks), who tries to get rid of Jay by stealing and blaming it on him. Feeling unwanted, Jay befriends Marissa Moore (Finn Atkins), who works at a brothel, and they plan to run away together. When Marissa backs out, Jay runs away alone and sleeps rough, until Billy convinces him to move back in. Terry 's trial for Jase 's murder approaches and Jay is furious to learn that, rather than attempting to help Jase, Billy hid to save himself. Terry 's wife, Viv Bates (Dido Miles), threatens to hurt Jay if Billy testifies. Jay is taken hostage by Terry 's firm as a security measure, and Billy risks his own life to save him. Billy and Jay are both rescued by the police and Billy testifies, which results in Terry receiving life imprisonment for murder, partially redeeming himself in the eyes of Jay.
Billy and Jay move in with Billy 's relative Phil Mitchell 's (Steve McFadden). Phil gives Jay a job as a mechanic and they bond. Phil is proud of Jay when he overpowers Connor Stanley (Arinze Kene), a man who sells stolen goods for Phil. In doing so, Jay stops Connor stealing Phil 's profits. Impressed with Jay 's courage, Phil is pleased when Jay decides to change his surname to Mitchell, though it upsets Phil 's son Ben Mitchell (Joshua Pascoe). Despite initial animosity between Ben and Jay, they grow fond of each other, referring to themselves as "brothers ''. Jay starts dating Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) despite objections from her father Max Branning (Jake Wood), who thinks Jay is only interested in sex. Jay and Abi do plan to have sex several times, but on each occasion, they are unable to go through with it. Despite Abi 's insecurities over Jay 's friendship with Lola Pearce (Danielle Harold), she and Jay remain together, and eventually Max comes to accept them as a couple.
In 2012, Phil is imprisoned for the murder of his ex-partner Stella Crawford (Sophie Thompson), who abused Ben then jumped from a building in 2007 after Phil confronted her. It transpires that Ben is behind Phil 's arrest, having given a false testimony to the police to punish his father for rejecting him for being gay. Ben admits giving false testimony to his half - brother, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt), but Heather Trott (Cheryl Ferguson) overhears. Although it is Ian who tells the police about Ben 's lie, Ben assumes it is Heather; he confronts her and in a rage, strikes her over the head with a picture frame, killing her. Jay witnesses the murder and is persuaded by Phil, who has just been released from prison, to cover - up Ben 's involvement. Jay is traumatised by the murder and incensed to discover Ben has kept evidence to frame him for Heather 's murder, should he need to. When Heather 's finacé Andrew Cotton (Ricky Grover) is falsely charged with Heather 's murder, Jay is unable to see him sent to prison and tells the police Andrew is innocent, saying he saw him elsewhere at the time of Heather 's murder; Andrew is released without charge. With Phil and Ben frequently fighting in the wake of the cover - up, Jay decides he can not remain living with them and moves in with Abi 's family. However, after a long discussion with Max, Jay returns home to live with Phil and his partner Shirley Carter (Linda Henry), who is unaware of Jay 's involvement in Heather 's death as she was Heather 's best friend. Jay is upset when he discovers Abi is planning to go to Costa Rica and proposes to her. She tells him she does not want to be a young bride and leaves for Costa Rica, leaving him heartbroken. Jay seeks comfort in Lola, and after breaking into The Queen Victoria pub, Lola kisses a stunned Jay. While cleaning under Ben 's bed, Jay finds the photo frame that Ben used to murder Heather. Horrified, Jay wants to report Ben to the police, but Ben hides the frame in a bin bag. They both agree to dispose of the frame but later find it is missing, as it has been handed in to the local charity shop.
Jay supports Lola through her labour and bonds with the baby, Lexi, in the absence of the biological father. Shirley eventually uncovers the truth about Heather 's murder and is horrified that Phil and Jay knew. Ben confesses to the police and they find the photo frame. Jay then backs up Ben 's story, is charged with perverting the course of justice and released on bail to live with Billy (unable to return to Phil 's as he is a witness). Jay visits Phil, who orders him to change his statement so Ben will not go to prison. However, Jay refuses and Phil disowns him. Jay is comforted by Patrick Trueman (Rudolph Walker). Billy then tells Jay he can not stay with him; Jay brands him a coward, and breaks down as he misses his father. He is forced to sleep rough and Kat Moon (Jessie Wallace) lets him in for food and drink until her husband Alfie Moon (Shane Richie) turns him away. Jay then secretly sees Lola but she is scared of him and tells him not to go near Lexi. Rejected by the rest of the community, Jay then stays with Patrick, who has offered him a place to stay. Abi returns from her trip and learns from her parents about Jay 's involvement in Heather 's murder, and she rejects him. The next day she tells him he should have done more to stop Ben. He resumes his friendship with Lola and helps her steal cleaning supplies to make money, and they end up sharing a kiss in front of Abi. Abi insists she is happy for them both, however, Lola says she was just winding Abi up, and the three friends reunite. Jay gains employment from Max but is sacked when Phil refuses to work with Jay, when he has to collect cars from Phil. Abi consoles Jay, and after she is attacked by Alexa Smith (Saffron Coomber), Jay comforts her and they declare their love for each other. Jay is later pleased when Lola asks him to be Lexi 's godfather, he has doubts whether he will be good enough but Abi 's grandmother and Lexi 's godmother Cora Cross (Ann Mitchell) assures him he will be. In court, Jay is sentenced to community service for his part in Heather 's death.
Jay, Abi, Lola, Dexter Hartman (Khali Best), Peter Beale (Ben Hardy) and Cindy Williams (Mimi Keene) go on a caravan holiday, where Abi discovers her period is late and tells Jay that she could be pregnant. Jay and Abi argue because she wants an abortion if she is pregnant, while Jay would rather be a father. Abi is not pregnant but Jay thinks their relationship is over, so kisses barmaid Kitty (Chloe May - Cuthill), witnessed by Dexter. Jay and Abi reunite but he feels guilty, and when Kitty keeps calling him, he tells her to stop, but is overheard by Lola. Jay promises Lola that he only loves Abi, and Lola agrees to say nothing to Abi. Dexter reveals Jay 's infidelity to Abi in an argument. Abi is devastated, but ultimately forgives Jay.
Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) is murdered by an unknown assailant (see Who Killed Lucy Beale?), and Jay discovers that Max is having a fling with a detective involved in the case, Emma Summerhayes (Anna Acton). He agrees to keep quiet for the sake of the investigation. Emma and her colleagues organise an appeal to raise public awareness into the murder inquiry, and display CCTV footage of a man in a beanie hat on the same bus as Lucy on the night she died. Jay is skittish on seeing the footage and later burns the hat. He then makes arrangements to move away with Abi when she gets accepted into the Bolton University. On hearing that the police have a new lead on the man on the bus, Jay makes plans to leave for Bolton with Abi immediately after saying goodbye to Phil at a barbecue, but during the proceedings Summerhayes and her superior, DI Samantha Keeble (Alison Newman) arrive and question Jay (as seen in scenes available online) over a robbery at a shop near to where Lucy was killed, and it is revealed he was with another man at the time. He denies any involvement and is released without charge. He later confides in Shirley that he was with Ben on the day Lucy was killed, but he has only seen Ben twice since he was released from prison. Shirley forces him to tell Phil, and his initial anger leads Jay to move in with Abi for a while, and he plans to move to Bolton before Phil marries Sharon Rickman (Letitia Dean). Jay later reconciles with Phil and reunites him with Ben. It is revealed that, under Ben 's instruction, Jay buried Lucy 's phone and purse in the allotment. On the day of Sharon and Phil 's wedding, Jay and Abi split up when Abi realises Jay is harbouring feelings for Lola. When Phil is accidentally shot by Shirley, Jay and Ben are instructed by Ronnie Mitchell (Samantha Womack) to throw the gun in the canal. The Mitchells, including Phil, decide to cover for Shirley by saying that a random person shot Phil.
Jay is horrified to discover that Ben and Abi have begun a relationship and Abi later moves in with the Mitchells. Jay develops feelings for Lola again, who rejects Jay 's offer to start a relationship. When Max tricks Ben into signing The Arches over to him, Jay discovers that most of the cars he has been fixing are stolen. Phil lets Max believe that the stolen cars have been located by the police and Max signs the business back to Phil. When Ben is arrested on suspicion of killing Lucy, Jay tells Sharon, Lola and Billy that Ben mugged Lucy. Jay and Lola begin a romantic relationship. Jay realises he could be implicated in Lucy 's murder, as her phone and wallet have been handed to the police. He leaves Walford, taking Lola and Lexi. They return to Walford the next day to collect their belongings before moving to Newcastle, but when Billy phones the police in a last ditch effort for more time with Lola, Jay is arrested, and Lola and Lexi move to Newcastle alone. Jay receives a suspended prison sentence and a three - month curfew. Although he intends to join her when the curfew is finished, Lola later calls Jay to end their relationship.
Jay starts a relationship with Linzi Bragg (Amy - Leigh Hickman), but they agree to take things slowly. When they plan to have sex for the first time, and she sends him a video of herself in her new underwear. However, Jay is forced to pick up Louise Mitchell (Tilly Keeper) from school after she gets into a fight. There, Jay discovers Louise was fighting with Linzi, realising that he has been dating a 14 - year - old schoolgirl whose real name is Star. Linzi begs Jay not to end their relationship but he tells her to forget that it ever happened, and she reluctantly agrees. Jay then asks Louise not to tell anybody the truth. An unaware Ben texts Linzi from Jay 's phone and she comes to Walford but Jay tells her to leave him alone. Linzi is comforted by Bex Fowler (Jasmine Armfield), who tells Linzi 's mother, Thelma Bragg (Lorraine Stanley) about the relationship. Thelma goes to The Queen Vic, asking who has had sex with her 14 - year - old daughter; in front of everyone, Bex says it is Jay. At home, Jay explains to his family that he did not have sex with Linzi and ended the relationship as soon as he found out her age, but Phil disowns Jay. Jay is arrested after Thelma calls the police. The photos that Linzi sent Jay are found on his phone, and Jay pleads guilty to save Linzi the ordeal of giving evidence in court and the images being shown. Jay is ordered to do 150 hours of unpaid work and to sign the Sex Offenders Register for five years. Phil refuses to harbour Jay after seeing him plead guilty, and when Jay leaves the house, he is cornered by members of Linzi 's family and brutally beaten. He spends the night in hospital and then meets Ben, who says he has done nothing wrong and they should carry on as normal, however he is refused service in the pub. Billy allows Jay to stay with him. Pam Coker (Lin Blakley) suggests that he starts working at the undertakers, something her husband Les Coker (Roger Sloman) is not impressed with. However, Jay loses the job when they can not afford to pay him. Jay struggles to live life as a convicted sex offender and when no one will employ him due to his conviction, he turns to drug dealing. Billy discovers this, warning him that he will start using drugs as well. When Honey finds out about the drug dealing and that Billy knew, she evicts them both. Jay tries to steal money from Honey and Billy 's wedding fund, but they catch him doing so and Honey calls the police. The police alert social services and Jay decides to move out, so that Billy and Honey 's children will not be taken into care.
Jay supports Ben after his boyfriend Paul Coker (Jonny Labey) is killed in a homophobic attack and helps Ben to find the attackers. The killers break into the Mitchells ' house and kidnap Jay and Ben, putting them into a back of a van. Ben is rescued by his uncle Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp) but Jay is left behind, but escapes when the police arrive. Shortly after giving a statement to the police, Jay decides to leave Walford. However, he is found at a homeless shelter by Pam, who takes him back to the Square and convinces Sharon to let him move back into the Mitchell house and Billy to give him his job back at the funeral home, from which he steals money to give to a drug dealer, Mike Rendon (Bailey Patrick). Mike demands more money, threatening to kill Jay, so Jay steals cash gifts from Lee Carter (Danny - Boy Hatchard) and Whitney Carter 's (Shona McGarty) wedding reception. Jay also steals jewellery from a corpse but when Billy 's son Will Mitchell catches him, he returns it. Jay is unable to repay Mike, so Mike forces Jay to deal drugs. Billy finds out and sacks Jay. Phil is released from hospital does not want Jay living in his house, but later Phil promises to help Jay with his problem with Mike, telling him to report Mike to the police. Mike is arrested and Phil lets Jay stay with the Mitchells, and Billy gives him his job back. Jay confides in Billy his fear that no woman will want a relationship with him due to his name being on the sex offenders register, but Billy assures him that he will eventually find the right woman, and he is pleased that Billy gave a nurse his number. In August 2017, Ben is devastated when Phil leaves Jay the lucrative car lot, believing his dad prefers everyone else. This leads Jay to confront Phil who announces he killed Jay 's father, then reveals the homeless man who died in the fire in 1994 was actually Jay 's dad, however a phone call exposes Phil 's lie. Jay starts to resent Phil for the death of his apparent father. He decides to stay with his grandfather Bert but Bert returns to Walford unannounced.
Borthwick was 12 years old when he joined the cast of EastEnders. He attended three auditions, followed by a screen test, after which he was offered the part of Jay. Originally a recurring character, Jay was considered a regular from July 2007. He was involved in a minor racism storyline, where he called another character a "black cow ''. EastEnders ' executive producer Diederick Santer said this was inspired by the race row in Channel 4 's reality show, Celebrity Big Brother, commenting: "The Celebrity Big Brother race row kicked off as I took charge of my first scripts. I thought it was fascinating because it showed there was a real need for a debate about race in Britain. (Big Brother) did n't do it particularly well, so I thought it could be something EastEnders should do. Our stuff wo n't be overly moralistic or preachy but it will tackle this serious issue head on. '' Another controversial storyline saw Jay get involved with a gang of youths, ending with him being stabbed in the thigh. A BBC spokesperson said "This is easily one of the most shocking and controversial storylines EastEnders has ever done. It is not a decision bosses have taken lightly, but it is an issue that is top of the news agenda. (...) We 're going to tread very carefully -- it wo n't be gratuitous. The plan is to screen the episodes in the usual slots before the watershed. Hopefully by showing the suffering that gang violence can cause, some people may think twice about getting involved. ''
In December 2015, it was announced that one of the biggest storylines of 2016 would be for Jay, and it was speculated that February 2016 's introduction of a new love interest for Jay, Linzi Bragg (Amy - Leigh Hickman), would be linked to this storyline. The episode airing on 18 April 2016 reveals that Linzi is, unbeknownst to Jay, an underage schoolgirl. It was said that Jay would face "severe consequences ''. Hannah Verdier from The Guardian called it "the most unsavoury of storylines '', while Kevin O'Sullivan from The Sun said Jay had been "unfairly convicted '' and "ruined by British justice ''.
In January 2008, the BBC received 184 complaints from viewers over 13 - year - old Jay 's stabbing storyline, angry that children would have seen it. Ofcom received a further seven complaints. The BBC allowed the controversial broadcast despite a clampdown on soap violence being ordered. John Beyer of Mediawatch - uk said: "I think this shows that at a flagship programme such as EastEnders they are prepared to ignore public opinion, prepared to ignore the regulator and the complaints and carry on regardless. '' A BBC spokesperson defended the storyline, stating: "EastEnders has always tackled difficult issues and we acknowledge that some viewers could consider this storyline challenging. However, we aim to reflect real issues and during this storyline the audience will see Jay 's torment through to him deciding not to yield to peer pressure like his father did many years ago. This is part of a long - running storyline that in no way glamorises the use of knives, or portrays violence in a positive light. In fact the storyline will culminate in the character of Jay doing the right thing. ''
Borthwick has been praised by critics for his portrayal of Jay. Nancy Banks - Smith of The Guardian wrote that the episode in which his father died "offered Jason 's young son, Jay (Jamie Borthwick), a chance to steal the show, which he duly did with a touching torrent of grief. His father, a thief himself, would have been proud of him. '' Borthwick won the award for ' Best Dramatic Performance from a Young Actor or Actress ' at the 2008 British Soap Awards, and was nominated for ' Best Child Actor ' at the 2008 Digital Spy Soap Awards. The Jay / Linzi storyline and Borthwick 's performance was praised by viewers on social media. Laura - Jayne Tyler of Inside Soap stated, "EastEnders ' Jamie Borthwick is the undisputed ' bullseye ' star of the week. His performance as Jay was simply outstanding as the fella paid the price for his relationship with Linzi. It 's a storyline that tested allegiances, divided a community -- and won our vote as one of the best plots of the year. Truly exceptional. ''
|
who's the highest paid referee in the nba | Dick Bavetta - wikipedia
Richard W. Bavetta (born December 10, 1939) is an American retired professional basketball referee for the National Basketball Association (NBA). Since starting in 1975, he had never missed an assigned game and holds the league record for most officiated games. His game on April 12, 2013 in Washington was his 2,600 th consecutive game as an NBA official.
Bavetta was born in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York on December 10, 1939. His father was an officer for the New York Police Department, and his mother was a homemaker. Bavetta attended Power Memorial Academy in New York City (the same school future NBA star Kareem Abdul - Jabbar attended) and is a 1962 graduate of St. Francis College in New York and played on the schools ' basketball teams. He began officiating after his brother, Joe, who officiated for the American Basketball Association, convinced him that it would be an interesting career. A Wall Street broker for Salomon Brothers with an MBA in finance from the New York Institute of Finance, Bavetta began officiating games between fellow brokers in the Wall Street League, played at New York 's Downtown Athletic Club, and later worked high school games. For ten years, he officiated Public and Catholic High School leagues in New York and later nine years in the Eastern Professional Basketball League, which later became the Continental Basketball Association.
In mid-1960s, he began to attend regional referee tryouts in the hopes of becoming an NBA referee; however, he was rejected for nine straight years due to his small physique and unimposing size. Bavetta was finally hired by the NBA in 1975 following the retirement of Mendy Rudolph. He debuted December 2, 1975 at Madison Square Garden in an NBA game between the New York Knicks and the Boston Celtics. His first ten years in the league were tough as he was constantly ranked bottom among NBA referees in performance evaluations and led the league in technical fouls and ejections called.
To improve his officiating, Bavetta refereed games for the New Jersey pro league and Rucker League in Harlem during the off - seasons and studied NBA rulebooks. In 1983, he became the first referee to undergo rigorous physical training. He ran six to eight miles and took three - hour naps every day. His effort paid off when he emerged as one of the best referees. In the 1980s, he was named chief referee, who has the power to approve or overrule calls made by other officials. He was assigned to officiate his first playoff game in 1986.
Bavetta 's most memorable game occurred during a 1980s nationally televised contest between the Philadelphia 76ers and Boston Celtics when he was forced to officiate an NBA game by himself after his partner, Jack Madden, broke his leg in a collision with Celtics guard Dennis Johnson. At one point in the game, Celtics forward Larry Bird and 76ers guard Julius Erving began to strangle each other and were ejected by Bavetta. Bavetta believed that this game assisted in the progression of his career in the NBA.
From 1990 to 2000, Bavetta regularly refereed playoff games and was ranked at the top among referees in terms of performance evaluation. In 2000, he was one of the highest - paid referees in the NBA, earning over $200,000 a year. Among those playoff games included Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals, in which Bavetta ruled that a three - point basket made by Howard Eisley of the Utah Jazz was released after the shot clock buzzer sounded and thus would not count. However, television replays on NBC showed otherwise. Bavetta 's career was threatened when he was accidentally hit in the nose by Pacers forward Jalen Rose, who was trying to punch Knicks center Patrick Ewing during a 1999 game between the Indiana Pacers and the New York Knicks. Bavetta did not leave the game immediately, opting to wait until later in the day to have surgery. He returned the next day to officiate a New Jersey Nets game.
On February 8, 2006, Bavetta officiated his 2,135 th NBA game, setting a league record for most games officiated that was previously held by Jake O'Donnell. Bavetta said the secret to his longevity was "wearing five pairs of socks '', which he claims helped keep his feet in good shape. Contributing to his good health, Bavetta says he runs five to eight miles every day. For his longevity in the league, he has received the nickname "the Cal Ripken, Jr. of referees ''.
During the 2006 -- 07 season, Bavetta officiated a December 16, 2006 game between the New York Knicks and Denver Nuggets. The game involved a brawl where all ten players on the court were ejected by Bavetta and his officiating crew. The league eventually suspended seven players for a total of 47 games and fined both teams $500,000.
After 39 years of officiating in the NBA, Bavetta officially retired on August 19, 2014.
Bavetta is also actively involved in charitable works. He has established and financed the Lady Bavetta Scholarships since 1986 in honor of his daughters, awarded to high school minority children based on their needs. He has volunteered since 1992 with Double H - Hole in the Woods Ranch working with children with cancer and HIV. He also works with the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation and serves as the Upstate New York Regional Director for the Juvenile Diabetes Foundation.
During the 2007 NBA All - Star Weekend, Bavetta raced Turner Network Television (TNT) studio analyst and former NBA player Charles Barkley for a $75,000 charitable donation ($50,000 contributed by the NBA and $25,000 by TNT) to the Las Vegas Boys & Girls Clubs of America, but lost by a narrow margin. The distance of the race was three and one half full lengths of the court (or 329 feet). Bavetta lost the race despite a last - second dive and Barkley running the last portion of the race backwards. The dive resulted in an abrasion injury to Bavetta 's right knee.
According to Darryl Dawkins ' autobiography, Bavetta was officiating an NBA game during the mid-1970s between the Philadelphia 76ers and New Jersey Nets with Earl Strom as his partner for that game. Bavetta overruled Strom on a crucial last - second personal foul call against the Nets, which would have been a victory for the 76ers. When the game ended and players were walking to their respective locker rooms, the door to the referees ' locker room flew open and Bavetta came staggering out. His uniform was allegedly ripped and he was wearing a big welt over his eye, running to get away from Strom. Strom stepped out into the hallway and hollered after Bavetta, "You 'll take another one of my fucking calls again, right, you motherfucker? '' Strom was fined for the incident.
Bavetta had another altercation with Strom when Strom tried to choke Bavetta during halftime of an NBA game in 1989 for allegedly siding with the home crowd. Strom reportedly apologized two weeks later.
Bavetta was one of three referees for the Game 6 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals between the Kings and the Lakers. Former referee Tim Donaghy has alleged that at least one of the referees working this game had subjective motives for wanting the Lakers to defeat the Kings, and made officiating calls to effectuate this outcome. NBA rules prohibited active referees from commenting on the situation publicly. The New York Times reported on June 12, 2008 that the Federal Bureau of Investigation investigated allegations that Game 6 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals had been manipulated to further the series to a seventh game
In a 2002 article, Bill Simmons named the worst officiated games of the prior four years, alleging that the games involved either extending a series so it did not end quickly or advancing a large market team for the NBA 's benefit. All seven games named had been officiated by Bavetta.
|
who plays beverly's son in tommy boy | Tommy Boy - wikipedia
Tommy Boy is a 1995 American road comedy film directed by Peter Segal, written by Bonnie and Terry Turner, produced by Lorne Michaels, and starring former Saturday Night Live castmates and close friends Chris Farley and David Spade. The film was shot primarily in Toronto and Los Angeles under the working title "Rocky Road ''. It tells the story of a socially and emotionally immature man (Farley) who learns lessons about friendship and self - worth following the sudden death of his industrialist father. The film did well commercially, but received mixed reviews from critics. However, since its release, Tommy Boy has become a cult classic due to being very successful on home video.
After seven years at college, Thomas R. "Tommy '' Callahan III (Chris Farley) barely graduates from Marquette University and returns to his hometown of Sandusky, Ohio. His father, industrialist and widower Thomas R. "Big Tom '' Callahan, Jr. (Brian Dennehy), gives him an executive job at the family 's auto parts plant, Callahan Auto. In addition to the new job and office, Big Tom reveals that he plans to marry Beverly Barrish - Burns (Bo Derek), a woman he had met at a fat farm, and that her son Paul (Rob Lowe) will become Tommy 's new stepbrother. At the wedding, Big Tom suddenly dies of a heart attack. After the funeral, doubting the future of the company without Big Tom, the bank reneges on promises of a loan for a new brake pad division and seeks immediate payment of Callahan Auto 's debts. Ray Zalinsky (Dan Aykroyd), owner and operator of rival automotive parts company Zalinsky Auto Parts in Chicago, offers to buy them out while the company 's shares are high, but Tommy suggests a deal: he will let the bank hold his inherited shares and house in exchange for helping to sell the new brake pads. The bank agrees, but they also want the company to prove it still has viability by selling 500,000 brake pads. If they fail, the bank will foreclose, but if they succeed, the bank will underwrite Big Tom 's brake pad venture. Tommy volunteers to go on a cross-country sales trip with his father 's sycophantic assistant, Richard Hayden (David Spade), a childhood acquaintance who has a particularly antagonistic relationship with Tommy.
Meanwhile, Beverly and Paul are shown kissing romantically, revealing that they are not mother and son, but rather married con artists with criminal records. Paul thinks Big Tom 's death is ideal, since their original plan was to eventually divorce Big Tom and take half of his estate, but Beverly thinks they are in trouble, as Big Tom only left her a controlling interest in Callahan Auto, which may evaporate. She authorizes the quick sale to Zalinsky to make a fast buck.
On the road, Tommy 's social anxiety and hyperactivity alienate numerous potential buyers. The lack of any progress leads to tension between Tommy and Richard. Additionally, the duo encounters a variety of incidents that lead to the near destruction of Richard 's car. When all seems lost, Tommy persuades a surly waitress to serve him chicken wings after the kitchen closes. Richard realizes that Tommy has the ability to read people, just like his father, and suggests this is how he should sell. The two mend their friendship and start to sell effectively to numerous automotive plants, eventually putting them over the half million mark.
However, Paul sabotages the company 's computers, causing sales posted by sales manager Michelle Brock (Julie Warner) to either be lost or rerouted. With half of the sales now canceled, the bank forecloses. Beverly and Paul approve the sale of Callahan Auto to Zalinsky. Hoping that they can persuade Zalinsky to reconsider, Tommy and Richard travel to Chicago, boarding a plane as flight attendants. In Chicago, they get a brief meeting with Zalinsky, but he informs them he only wants Callahan for the brand name, not the employees, and that after the sale he will dissolve the company, leaving the Sandusky workers destitute.
Tommy and Richard are denied entry to the Zalinsky boardroom since Tommy does not have any standing (his shares having been repossessed due to the apparent failure). After briefly wallowing on the curb in self - pity, Michelle arrives with Paul and Beverly 's police records. Tommy devises ' a plan ': dressed as a suicide bomber by using road flares, he gains the attention of a live television news crew and then, with Michelle and Richard, forces his way into the boardroom. Back in Sandusky, Callahan workers watch the drama on a television. In a final move of pure persuasion, Tommy quotes Zalinsky 's own advertising slogan, that he is on the side of the "American working man. '' As the TV audience watches, Zalinsky signs Tommy 's purchase order for 500,000 brake pads. Although Zalinsky says that the purchase order is meaningless since he will soon own Callahan Auto, Michelle reveals the police records, which include Paul 's outstanding warrants for fraud. Since Paul is the true husband of Beverly, her marriage to Big Tom was bigamous and therefore illegitimate. Therefore, Beverly 's inheritance is voided and Tommy is the next of kin, and thus the rightful heir of Big Tom. Since Tommy refuses to sell the shares, the deal with Zalinsky is off, and since Tommy still holds Zalinsky 's purchase order, the company is saved. Paul attempts to escape but is arrested. Zalinsky admits that Tommy outplayed him and honors the large sales order. Later, Tommy assumes the presidency of Callahan Auto Parts, giving a speech to the employees that the door is always open to them. The film ends with Tommy drifting in his dinghy on a lake, telling his father 's spirit he will continue his legacy at Callahan and says he must go ashore to have dinner with Michelle 's family.
Tommy Boy opened on March 31, 1995 and grossed $8 million in its opening weekend, finishing first at the box office. The film had a total box office gross of $32.7 million.
Tommy Boy received mixed reviews from critics upon its release. Rotten Tomatoes rates the film at 44 %, based on 41 reviews, with the critical consensus reading, "Though it benefits from the comic charms of its two leads, Tommy Boy too often feels like a familiar sketch stretched thin. ''
Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Daily News gave the film a positive review, calling it "sweet natured... '' and a "good belly laugh of a movie ''. Brian Webster of the Online Film Critics Society also received the film positively, saying that the film would please Farley fans. Dan Marcucci and Nancy Serougi of Broomfield Enterprise said the film was "Farley at his best '', and Scott Weinberg of DVDTalk.com said that it was "pretty damn funny ''.
Among the negative reviews, Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert wrote: "Tommy Boy is one of those movies that plays like an explosion down at the screenplay factory. You can almost picture a bewildered office boy, his face smudged with soot, wandering through the ruins and rescuing pages at random. Too bad they did n't mail them to the insurance company instead of filming them. '' The film is on Ebert 's "Most Hated '' list. Caryn James of The New York Times wrote that the film was "the very poor cousin of a dopey Jim Carrey movie ''. Owen Gleiberman graded the film a "C '' on an A+ to F scale, and Ken Hanke of Mountain Xpress said that it was "nothing great. '' Bo Derek was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actress.
Incidentally, the soundtrack album was not released by Tommy Boy Records (a Warner subsidiary at one time).
|
where can you find out the latest service pack that is used by windows | Service pack - wikipedia
In computing, a service pack comprises a collection of updates, fixes, or enhancements to a computer program software program delivered in the form of a single installable package. Companies often release a service pack when the number of individual patch computing patches to a given program reaches a certain (arbitrary) limit, or the software release has shown to be stabilized with a limited number of remaining issues based on users ' feedback and bug tracking such as Bugzilla In large software applications such as office suites, operating systems, database software, or network management, it is not uncommon to have a service pack issued within the first year or two of a product 's release. Installing a service pack is easier and less error - prone than installing many individual patches, even more so when updating multiple computers over a network, where service packs are common.
Service packs are usually numbered, and thus shortly referred to as SP1, SP2, SP3 etc. They may also bring, besides bug fixes, entirely new features, as is the case of SP2 of Windows XP (e.g. Windows Security Center), or SP3 and SP4 of the heavily database dependent Trainz 2009: World Builder edition.
Service Packs for Microsoft Windows were cumulative through Windows XP. This means that the problems that are fixed in a service pack are also fixed in later service packs. For example, Windows XP SP3 contains all the fixes that are included in Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2). Windows Vista SP2 was not cumulative, however, but incremental, requiring that SP1 be installed first.
Office XP, Office 2003, Office 2007, Office 2010 and Office 2013 service packs have been cumulative.
Application service packs replace existing files with updated versions that typically fix bugs or close security holes. If, at a later time, additional components are added to the software using the original media, there is a risk of accidentally mixing older and updated components. Depending on the operating system and deployment methods, it may then be necessary to manually reinstall the service pack after each such change to the software. This was, for example, necessary for Windows NT service packs; however, from Windows 2000 onwards, Microsoft redirected setup programs to use updated service pack files instead of files from original installation media in order to prevent manual reinstalls.
Service packs for versions of Microsoft Windows have been declining.
|
between the euphrates and the tigris which river has more tributaries | Tigris -- Euphrates river system - wikipedia
The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia. From sources originating in the Armenian Highlands of eastern Turkey they flow by / through Syria through Iraq into the Persian Gulf. The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris -- Euphrates ecoregion, which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Jordan.
From their sources and upper courses in the mountains of eastern Anatolia, the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. The rivers flow in a south - easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al - Qurnah to form the Shatt al - Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf.
The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region, in which civilization is believed to have first emerged.
The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes, swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in the Uruk period, for which reason it is often described as a "Cradle of Civilization ''.
In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the Iran -- Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were almost completely dried out, and have only recently shown signs of recovery.
The Tigris -- Euphrates Basin is shared by Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Kuwait. Many Tigris tributaries originate in Iran and a Tigris -- Euphrates confluence forms part of the Kuwait -- Iraq border. Since the 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam 's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
The general climate of the region is subtropical, hot and arid. At the northern end of the Persian Gulf is the vast floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers, featuring huge permanent lakes, marshes, and forest. The aquatic vegetation includes reeds, rushes, and papyrus, which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and the Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo, two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals.
Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein 's government water - control projects drained the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area 's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water.
The marshlands were an extensive natural wetlands ecosystem which developed over thousands of years in the Tigris -- Euphrates basin and once covered 15 -- 20,000 square kilometers. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation, between 84 % and 90 % of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of the wetlands were destroyed by Hussein 's regime -- drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs. Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying.
The drying of the marshes led to the disappearance of the salt - tolerant vegetation; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar, red fox, buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat.
The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in the 1960s when Turkey implemented a public - works project (the GAP project) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey 's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War. However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria.
The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans - boundary river flows. Although the drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large amount of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq 's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect.
In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart the Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris -- Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water - flow - monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m3 / s, but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey 's last large GAP dams on the Tigris -- the Ilisu Dam -- is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife.
The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with the breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four - year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50 % of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes.
|
who won the first icc t20 world cup | ICC World Twenty20 - wikipedia
The ICC World Twenty20 (also referred to as the World T20, and colloquially as the T20 World Cup) is the international championship of Twenty20 cricket. Organised by cricket 's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), the tournament currently consists of 16 teams, comprising all ten ICC full members and six other associate or affiliate members chosen through the World Twenty20 Qualifier. All matches played are accorded Twenty20 International status.
The event has generally been held every two years. However, the next edition of the tournament is scheduled to take place in 2020 in Australia, four years after the conclusion of the 2016 edition. In May 2016, the ICC put forward the idea of having a tournament in 2018, with South Africa being the possible host. But at the conclusion of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, the ICC announced that the next edition of the World T20 would take place in 2020 in Australia, as originally scheduled.
Six tournaments have so far been played, and only the West Indies, who currently hold the title, has won the tournament on multiple occasions. The inaugural event, the 2007 World Twenty20, was staged in South Africa, and won by India, who defeated Pakistan in the final at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg. The 2009 tournament took place in England, and was won by the previous runner - up, Pakistan, who defeated Sri Lanka in the final at Lord 's. The third tournament was held in 2010, hosted by the countries making up the West Indies cricket team. England defeated Australia in the final in Barbados, which was played at Kensington Oval. The fourth tournament, the 2012 World Twenty20, was held in Asia for the first time, with all matches played in Sri Lanka. The West Indies won the tournament by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, winning its first international tournament since the 2004 Champions Trophy. The fifth tournament, the 2014 ICC World Twenty20, was hosted by Bangladesh, and was won by Sri Lanka, who became the first team to play in three finals. West Indies are the current World T20I holders, beating England in the 2016 final, winning their second title.
When the Benson & Hedges Cup ended in 2002, the ECB needed another one day competition to fill its place. Cricketing authorities were looking to boost the game 's popularity with the younger generation in response to dwindling crowds and reduced sponsorship. It was intended to deliver fast - paced, exciting cricket accessible to thousands of fans who were put off by the longer versions of the game. Stuart Robertson, the marketing manager of the ECB, proposed a 20 over per innings game to county chairmen in 2001 and they voted 11 -- 7 in favour of adopting the new format.
The first official Twenty20 matches were played on 13 June 2003 between the English counties in the Twenty20 Cup. The first season of Twenty20 in England was a relative success, with the Surrey Lions defeating the Warwickshire Bears by 9 wickets in the final to claim the title. The first Twenty20 match held at Lord 's, on 15 July 2004 between Middlesex and Surrey, attracted a crowd of 27,509, the largest attendance for any county cricket game at the ground other than a one - day final since 1953.
Soon after with the adoption of Twenty20 matches by other cricket boards, the popularity of the format grew with unexpected crowd attendance, new regional tournaments such as Pakistan 's Faysal Bank T20 Cup and Stanford 20 / 20 tournament and the financial incentive in the format.
The West Indies regional teams competed in what was named the Stanford 20 / 20 tournament. The event was financially backed by convicted fraudster Allen Stanford, who gave at least US $28,000,000 funding money, the fruit of his massive Ponzi scheme. It was intended that the tournament would be an annual event. Guyana won the inaugural event, defeating Trinidad and Tobago by 5 wickets, securing US $1,000,000 in prize money. A spin - off tournament, the Stanford Super Series, was held in October 2008 between Middlesex and Trinidad and Tobago, the respective winners of the English and Caribbean Twenty20 competitions, and a Stanford Superstars team formed from West Indies domestic players; Trinidad and Tobago won the competition, securing US $280,000 prize money. On 1 November, the Stanford Superstars played England in what was expected to be the first of five fixtures in as many years with the winner claiming a US $20,000,000 in each match.
On 17 February 2005 Australia defeated New Zealand in the first men 's full international Twenty20 match, played at Eden Park in Auckland. The game was played in a light - hearted manner -- both sides turned out in kit similar to that worn in the 1980s, the New Zealand team 's a direct copy of that worn by the Beige Brigade. Some of the players also sported moustaches / beards and hair styles popular in the 1980s taking part in a competition amongst themselves for best retro look, at the request of the Beige Brigade. Australia won the game comprehensively, and as the result became obvious towards the end of the NZ innings, the players and umpires took things less seriously -- Glenn McGrath jokingly replayed the Trevor Chappell underarm incident from a 1981 ODI between the two sides, and Billy Bowden showed him a mock red card (red cards are not normally used in cricket) in response.
It was first decided that every two years an ICC World Twenty20 tournament is to take place, except in the event of an Cricket World Cup being scheduled in the same year, in which case it will be held the year before. The first tournament was in 2007 in South Africa where India defeated Pakistan in the final. Two Associate teams had played in the first tournament, selected through the 2007 ICC World Cricket League Division One, a 50 - over competition. In December 2007 it was decided to hold a qualifying tournament with a 20 - over format to better prepare the teams. With six participants, two would qualify for the 2009 World Twenty20 and would each receive $250,000 in prize money. The second tournament was won by Pakistan who beat Sri Lanka by 8 wickets in England on 21 June 2009. The 2010 ICC World Twenty20 tournament was held in West Indies in May 2010, where England defeated Australia by 7 wickets. The 2012 ICC World Twenty20 was won by the West - Indies, by defeating Sri Lanka at the finals. For the first time, a host nation competed in the final of the ICC World Twenty20. There were 12 participants for the title including Ireland and Afghanistan as 2012 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier. It was the first time the T20 World Cup tournament took place in an Asian country.
The 2012 edition was to be expanded into a 16 team format however this was reverted to 12. The 2014 tournament, held in Bangladesh was the first to feature 16 teams including all ten full members and six associate members who qualified through the 2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier. However the top eight full member teams in the ICC T20I Championship rankings on 8 October 2012 were given a place in the Super 10 stage. The remaining eight teams competed in the group stage, from which two teams advance to the Super 10 stage. Three new teams (Nepal, Hong Kong and UAE) made their debut in this tournament.
All ICC full members qualify automatically for the tournament, with the remaining places filled by other ICC members through a qualification tournament, known as the World Twenty20 Qualifier. Qualification for the inaugural 2007 World Twenty20 came from the results of the first cycle of the World Cricket League, a 50 - over league for ICC associate and affiliate members. The two finalists of the 2007 WCL Division One tournament, Kenya and Scotland, qualified for the World Twenty20 later in the year. A separate qualification tournament was implemented for the 2009 World Twenty20, and has been retained since then. The number of teams qualifying through the World Twenty20 Qualifier has varied, however, ranging from two (in 2010 and 2012) to six (in 2014 and 2016).
In each group stage (both the preliminary round and the Super 10 round), teams are ranked against each other based on the following criteria:
In case of a tie (that is, both teams scoring the same number of runs at the end of their respective innings), a Super Over would decide the winner. In the case of a tie occurring again in the Super Over, the match is won by the team that has scored the most sixes in their innings. This is applicable in all stages of the tournament, having been implemented during the 2009 tournament. During the 2007 tournament, a bowl - out was used to decide the loser of tied matches.
The International Cricket Council 's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining bids from the nations which have expressed an interest in holding the event. After South Africa in 2007, England, West Indies and Sri Lanka hosted the tournament in 2009, 2010 and 2012 respectively. Bangladesh hosted the tournament in 2014. India hosted the last edition of the tournament in 2016.
In December 2015, Tim Anderson, the ICC 's head of global development, suggested that a future tournament be hosted by the United States. He believed that hosting the event could help spur growth of the game in the country, where it is relatively obscure and faces competition by other sports such as baseball.
Note:
The ICC does not adjudicate rankings but only rounds a team achieves e.g. Semis, round one etc. The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams in the ICC World Twenty20.
The team ranking in each tournament is according to ICC. For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.
Team appearing for the first time, in alphabetical order per year.
|
where did the flesh eating bacteria come from | Necrotizing fasciitis - wikipedia
Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), commonly known as flesh - eating disease, is an infection that results in the death of the body 's soft tissue. It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly. Symptoms include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting. The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum.
Typically the infection enters the body through a break in the skin such as a cut or burn. Risk factors include poor immune function such as from diabetes or cancer, obesity, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and peripheral vascular disease. It is not typically spread between people. The disease is classified into four types, depending on the infecting organism. Between 55 % and 80 % of cases involve more than one type of bacteria. Methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is involved in up to a third of cases. Medical imaging is helpful to confirm the diagnosis.
Necrotizing fasciitis may be prevented with proper wound care and hand washing. It is usually treated with surgery to remove the infected tissue and intravenous antibiotics. Often a combination of antibiotics are used such as penicillin G, clindamycin, vancomycin, and gentamicin. Delays in surgery are associated with a higher risk of death. Despite high quality treatment, the risk of death is between 25 % and 35 %.
Necrotizing fasciitis affects 0.4 to 1 person per 100,000 per year. Both sexes are affected equally. It becomes more common among older people and is very rare in children. Necrotizing fasciitis has been described at least since the time of Hippocrates. The term "necrotising fasciitis '' first came into use in 1952.
Symptoms may include fever, swelling, and complaint of excessive pain when compared to a small, benign swelling on the skin. The initial skin changes are similar to cellulitis and abscess, thus making the diagnosis of necrotising fasciitis at early stages difficult. Induration (hardening of the skin and soft tissue) and swelling beyond the area of skin changes are commonly present in those with early necrotizing changes. The redness and swelling usually blends into surrounding normal tissues. The overlying skin may appear shiny and tense. Other signs which are more suggestive of necrotising changes (but present in later stages in 7 % to 44 % of the cases) are: formation of bullae, skin ecchymosis which is present before skin necrosis (skin turning from red to purple and black due to thrombosis of blood vessels), presence of gas in tissues and reduced or absent sensation over the skin (due to the necrosis of the underlying nerves). Rapid progression to shock despite antibiotic therapy is another indication of necrotizing fasciiitis. When necrotising changes affects the groin it is known as Fournier gangrene.
However, those who are immunocompromised (malignancy, corticosteroid usage, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, HIV / AIDS, prior organ or bone marrow transplantation) may not show normal signs and symptoms. Immunocompromised persons also have two fold higher risk of death from necrotising infections. Therefore, higher suspicion should be maintained in this group.
More than 70 % of cases are recorded in people with at least one of the following clinical situations: immunosuppression, diabetes, alcoholism / drug abuse / smoking, malignancies, and chronic systemic diseases. For reasons that are unclear, it occasionally occurs in people with an apparently normal general condition.
Necrotising fasciitis can occur at any part of the body but it is more commonly seen at the extremities, perineum, genitals. Only few of such cases arises from chest and abdomen. Trauma is the usual cause of the infection such as intravenous drug injection, insulin injection, animals and insect bites, catheter insertion over the skin, or a fistula connecting skin to the internal body organs. Skin infections such as abscess, ulcers can also complicates into necrotising fasciitis. Spreading of infection through blood has been suggested for those with Streptococcal pharyngitis. For infection of the perineum and genitals (Fournier gangrene), trauma, surgery, urinary tract infection, stones, and Bartholin gland abscess are the usual causes.
Types of soft tissue necrotising infection can be divided into four classes according to the types of bacteria infecting the soft tissue. This classification system was first described by Giuliano and his colleagues in 1977.
Type I infection - This is the most common type of infection which accounts for 70 to 80 % of the cases. It is caused by a mixture of bacterial types, usually in abdominal or groin areas. This type of infection is usually inhabited by various species of gram positive cocci, (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes and enterococci) gram negative rods, (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and anaerobes, (Bacteroides and Clostridial species). Population of those affected are typically older with medical co-morbidities such as diabetes mellitus, obesity, and immunodeficiency. Usually, trauma is not the cause of such infections. Previous history of abscess infection, gut perforation with bacterial translocation may be elicited. Clostridial infection accounts for 10 % of Type I infection. Types of Clostrdium species involved are: Clostridium perfringens (typically causes gas gangrene), Clostridium septicum, and Clostridium sordellii. Clostrodium species produces two types of deadly toxins: alpha - toxin and theta - toxin. Alpha toxins causes excessive platelet aggregation which blocks blood vessels and deprive the vital organs of oxygen supply. This creates an acidic, oxygen deficient environment for the proliferation of bacteria. When alpha - toxin is absorbed by soft tissues, it can inhibits the migration of white blood cells from the blood vessels into the soft tissue, thus impairing phagocyte function. These two toxins together can cause destruction of red blood cells in blood vessels, damages the integrity of the blood vessels and suppress heart function. These species are usually found in the heroin injection users. Those with Clostridial infection typically have severe pain at the wound site; where the wound typically drains foul smelling blood mixing with serum (serosanguinous discharge). Shock can progress rapidly after initial hours injury or infection, and once the state of shock is established, the chance of dying exceeds 50 %. Another bacteria with similar rapid progression is Group A streptococcal infection (mostly Streptococcus pyogenes). Meanwhile, other bacterial infections requires two or more days to become symptomatic.
Type II infection - This infection accounts for 20 to 30 % of the cases, mainly involving the extremities. This infection mainly involves the Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria or in combination with Staphylococcal infections. Both types of bacteria can progress rapidly and manifests as toxic shock syndrome. Streptococcus has M protein which acts as superantigen, thus stimulating a massive systemic immune response which is not effective against the bacteria antigen, precipitating shock. Type II infection more commonly infects young, healthy adults with history of injury.
Type III infection - Vibrio vulnificus, a bacterium found in saltwater, is a rare cause of this infection. Infection occurs through a break in the skin. Disease progression can be as rapid as Type II infection without any visible skin changes.
Type IV infection - Some authors have described the Type IV infection as fungal infection.
Early diagnosis is difficult as the disease often looks early on like a simple superficial skin infection. While a number of laboratory and imaging modalities can raise the suspicion for necrotizing fasciitis, the gold standard for diagnosis is a surgical exploration in the setting of high suspicion. When in doubt, a small incision can be made into the affected tissue, and if a finger easily separates the tissue along the fascial plane, the diagnosis is confirmed and an extensive debridement should be performed.
Imaging has a limited role in the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. The time delay in performing imaging is a concern. Plain radiography may show subcutaneous emphysema (gas in the subcutaneous tissue) which is strongly suggestive of necrotising changes, but it is not sensitive enough to detect all the cases. This is because necrotising skin infections caused by the bacteria other than clostridial infections usually do not show subcutaneous emphysema. If the diagnosis is still in doubt, computed tomography (CT scan) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are more sensitive modalities than plain radiography. However, both the CT scan and MRI are not sensitive enough rule out necrotizing changes completely. CT scan may show fascial thickening, edema, subcutaneous gas, and abscess formation. In MRI, when there is fluid collection with deep fascia involvement, thickening or enhancement with contrast injection, necrotising fasciitis should be strongly suspected. Meanwhile, ultrasonography can show superficial abscess formation but is not sensitive enough to diagnose necrotizing fasciitis. CT scan is able to detect approximately 80 % of cases while MRI may pick up slightly more.
A white blood cell count less than 15,000 cells / mm3 and serum sodium level greater than 135 mmol / L has a sensitivity of 90 % in detecting the necrotising soft tissue infection. It also has 99 % chance of ruling out necrotising changes if the values has shown otherwise. There are various scoring system being developed to determine the likelihood of getting necrotising fasciitis but a scoring system developed by Wong and colleagues in 2004 is the most commonly used. It is the Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis (LRINEC) score which can be utilized to risk stratify people having signs of severe cellulitis or abscess to determine the likelihood of necrotizing fasciitis being present. It uses six labolatory values: C - reactive protein, total white blood cell count, hemoglobin, sodium, creatinine and glucose. A score greater than or equal to 6 indicates that necrotizing fasciitis should be seriously considered. The scoring criteria are as follows:
However, the scoring system has not been validated. The values would be falsely positive if there is any other inflammatory conditions present. Therefore, the values derived from this scoring system should be interpreted with caution. 10 % of patients with necrotizing fasciitis in the original study still had a LRINEC score < 6. A validation study done in 2008 showed that patients with a LRINEC score ≥ 6 have a higher rate of both death and amputation.
Prevention is by good wound care and handwashing.
Surgical debridement (cutting away affected tissue) is the mainstay of treatment for necrotizing fasciitis. Early medical treatment is often presumptive; thus, antibiotics should be started as soon as this condition is suspected. Given the dangerous nature of the disease, a high index of suspicion is needed. Cultures are taken to determine appropriate antibiotic coverage, and antibiotics may be changed when culture results are obtained. Besides, blood pressure and hydration support should be initiated for those with unstable vital signs with low urine output.
Treatment for necrotizing fasciitis may involve an interdisciplinary care team. For example, in the case of a necrotizing fasciitis involving the head and neck, the team could include otolaryngologists, speech pathologists, intensivists, infectious disease specialists, and plastic surgeons or oral and maxillofacial surgeons. Maintaining strict asepsis during any surgical procedure and regional anaesthesia techniques is vital in preventing the occurrence of the disease.
In necrotizing fasciitis, aggressive wound debridement (removal of unhealthy tissues) is always necessary to keep it from spreading and is the only treatment available. Surgical incisions should extend beyond the area of induration because dermal lymphatic blockage and thrombosis of small veins are the causes of such induration. However, cellulitic soft tissue can be spared from debridement for later skin coverage of the wound. The subcutaneous tissue should be debrided until the healthy, bleeding tissue is seen. A second look operation maybe planned within 24 hours to remove additional necrotic tissue and an average of 3 to 4 operations is required for one person. Sometimes, amputation of the affected limb or the debridement of internal organs may be necessary. After the wound debridement, adequate dressings should be applied to prevent exposure of bones, tendons, and cartilages so that such structures would not dry out and to promote wound healing.
For necrotising infection of the perineal area (Fournier gangrene), wound debridement and wound care in this area can be difficult because of the excretory products that often renders this area dirty and affect the wound healing process. Therefore, regular dressing changes with a faecal management system can help to keep the wound at the perineal area clean. Sometimes, colostomy maybe necessary to divert the excretory products to keep the wound at the perineal area clean.
Necrotic tissue from the left leg surgically removed
Post surgical debridement and skin grafting
Post knee disarticulation amputation
Broad spectrum antibiotics that covers the gram positive, gram negative and anaerobes should be used with the consideration of Methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) coverage. Examples of antibiotics used are: penicillin G, clindamycin, vancomycin, and gentamicin. Penicillin G is effective against the Streptococcal and Clostridial infections. Clindamycin is effective in reducing the alpha toxins produced by Clostridial species, reducing the production of M protein by Streptococcal species, and reducing the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha production by monocytes. Vancomycin is the treatment of choice for MRSA. Meanwhile, gentamicin is useful against many gram negative rods and anaerobic bacteria. Fluoroquinolone may be used instead of gentamicin for those with acute kidney injury for kidney protection. Antibiotics are typically continued until the cultures come back for appropriate narrowing of antibiotic spectrum or until the completion of wound debridement and the person 's vital signs are stable with normal white blood cell count.
Hyperbaric oxygen treatment is sometimes used to treat necrotizing soft tissue infection in combination with antibiotics and debridement. A person is placed inside a high pressure chamber where oxygen is delivered at 2 to 3 times the atmosphereic pressure. This resulted with arterial oxygen tension of 2000 mmHg and tissue oxygen tension of 300 mmHg as compared with 300 mmHg arterial oxygen tension and 75 mmHg tissue oxygen tension when breathing 100 % oxygen. Humana and animal studies has shown that high oxygen tension in tissues help to reduces oedema, stimulate fibroblast growth, increasing the killing ability of white blood cells, toxic effects on anoerobes, inhibit bacterial toxin release and increase antibiotics efficacy. However, there is a lack of compelling evidence regarding its efficacy for this purpose. Therefore, hyperbaric oxygen therapy is only limited for those with stable vital signs in conditions where surgical debridement will not be delayed.
Intravenous immunoglobulin is considered for the treatment of necrotising soft tissue infection. This is because the immunglobulins can bind to the exotoxins produced by Streptococcal and Staphylococcal infections, which subsequently limits immune response of the human body. However, there is limited data on the efficacy of this therapy. Therefore, such therapy is limited only for those who are critically ill.
Wound dressings applied on the should allow for ambulation in order to prevent hospital acquired pneumonia, urinary tract infection, and deep vein thrombosis. The use of Mafenide (2.5 or 5 % dilution) or Dakin solution, pulse lavage (wound irrigation using pressurised jets of normal saline to remove fibrinous material and bacteria), and negative - pressure wound therapy (vacuum dressing; promotes vascularisation of wound bed). Wound closure should be delayed if there is hypoperfusion of the tissues due to hypotension. Wound closure can be started once the wound bed is clean with good tissue perfusion.
Pain control is another important modality in wound management as pain can affect wound healing. The severity of pain can be assessed by Wong - Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale and Numeric Rating Scale according to the age and cultural background of the those in pain. Pain can be divided into three types: background pain, breakthrough pain, and procedural pain. Background pain is relatively constant and may be started before the onset of necrotising fasciitis which can range from mild to moderate pain. Such pain can be treated by methadone. Breakthough pain is the sudden worsening of pain in addition to background pain which is precipitated by movements or emotions. This type of pain can be treated by morphine, or oxycodone with combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Procedural pain the intense burning or stinging pain when procedures are performed such as wound debridement, changing of dressings, or physiotherapy. Morphine or oxycodone, in combination with short acting anxiolytic drugs such as midazolam and lorazepam. Gabapentin, an anticonvulsant, can be used to control neuropathic pain in surgical debridements and ampuatations. Skin graft and tissue rearrangement can be used to achieve wound closure.
Necrotizing fasciitis affects about 0.4 in every 100,000 people per year in the United States. There were about 1,000 cases of necrotising fasciitis cases per year in the United States, however, the rates have been increasing. This could be due to increasing awareness of this condition, leading to increased reporting, or there could be increasing bacterial virulence, or increasing bacterial resistance against antibiotics. In some areas of the world it is as common as 1 in every 100,000 people.
Higher rates of necrotising fasciities are seen in those with obesity, diabetes, immunocompromised, alcholic, or with peripheral vascular disease. However, such disease may also occurs in young healthy adults with no underlying illnesses. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) may have increase the rates of necrotising infections due to the modification of immune response in the body. This is because NSAIDs inbihits the cycloxygenase - 1 and cycloxygenase - 2 enzymes which are important in producing thromboxane and prostaglandin E2. Prostaglandin has been responsible for fever, inflammation, and pain. The inhibition of prostangladin E2 production reduces inflammatory response and leukocyte adhesion, thus reduces immune response against bacterial invasion, giving rise to soft tissue infection.
In the 5th century BC, Hippocrates described necrotising soft tissue infection as a disease which was the complication of Streptococcal infection where those affected would have "erysipelas all over the body while the cause was only a trivial accident. Bones, flesh, and sinew (cord, tendon, or nerve) would fall off from the body and there were many deaths ''. The first English description for necrotising soft tissue infection was by British surgeon Leonard Gillespie and British physicians Gilbert Blaine and Thomas Trotter in the 18th century. At that time, necrotising soft tissue infection was known as phagedaenic (gnaw - biting or chewing which gradually make a hole or destroying it) ulcer, phagedena gangrenous, gangrenous ulcer, malignant ulcer, putrid ulcer, or hospital gangrene. Later the word "hospital gangrene '' become more commonly used. In 1871, Confederate States Army surgeon Joseph Jones reported 2,642 cases of hospital gangrene with mortality rate of 46 %. In 1883, Dr Jean - Alfred Fournier described the necrotising infection of the perineum and scrotum which termed as Fournier gangrene today. The term "Necrotising fasciitis '' was first coined by Wilson in 1952. The definition of necrotising fasciitis has become broader, to include not only infection of fascia, but also other soft tissue infection.
|
the sailor who fell from grace with the sea movie review | The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea (film) - wikipedia
The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea is a 1976 British drama film starring Kris Kristofferson and Sarah Miles, directed by Lewis John Carlino. It was adapted from the 1963 novel The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea by the Japanese writer Yukio Mishima. The location was changed to the English town of Dartmouth, Devon, the area where it was also filmed.
Jonathan Osborne, the 14 - year - old son of widow Anne Osborne, has become involved with a group of boys led by a neo-Nietzschean sadistic boy named "Chief. '' Anne daydreams about her husband who died three years earlier. When a large merchant ship anchors temporarily in the harbour, Anne arranges to give her son a tour of the vessel. They meet the second officer of the ship, Jim Cameron. Jim takes a liking to both the boy and his mother. Jim and Anne become involved romantically which throws Jonathan into a rage of jealousy. Cameron returns to sea and while he is gone, Jonathan reveals his jealous sentiment to the group leader, Chief. When Cameron comes back to renew his relationship with Anne and forsake his life on the sea, Chief and the boys concoct a sinister plot to do away with the intruder.
The movie was filmed on location in and around Dartmouth, Devon, England.
On June 19, 2012, Shout! Factory released the film to Blu - ray.
|
the cast of alice where are they now | Alice (TV series) - wikipedia
Alice is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from August 31, 1976, to March 19, 1985. The series is based on the 1974 film Alice Does n't Live Here Anymore. The show stars Linda Lavin in the title role, a widow who moves with her young son to start life over again, and finds a job working at a roadside diner in a suburb of Phoenix, Arizona. Most of the episodes revolve around events at Mel 's Diner, where Alice is employed.
Alice Hyatt (Lavin) is an unemployed widow after her husband, Donald, is killed in a trucking accident, and with her young son Tommy (played by Alfred Lutter in the pilot episode, reprising his role from the film, but played by Philip McKeon thereafter) heads from their New Jersey home to Los Angeles so that she can pursue a singing career. Her car breaks down on the way in Phoenix (from a presumed engine fire, as seen in the opening credits), and we meet her soon after she has taken a job as a waitress at Mel 's Diner, on the outskirts of Phoenix. (The later seasons ' exterior shots were of a real diner, named Mel 's, still in operation in Phoenix.) Alice works alongside Mel Sharples (Vic Tayback), the grouchy, stingy owner and cook of the greasy spoon, and fellow waitresses and friends, sassy, man - hungry Florence Jean "Flo '' Castleberry (Polly Holliday), and neurotic, scatterbrained Vera Louise Gorman (Beth Howland).
Each episode invariably started inside the diner, and most if not all subsequent scenes took place there as well. A frequent set for non-diner scenes was Alice 's one - bedroom apartment in the Desert Sun apartments. (Tommy used the bedroom and Alice slept on a sleeper sofa in the living room.) Vera and Mel 's studio apartments and Flo 's trailer were occasionally seen. Two of the diner 's biggest competitors, Barney 's Burger Barn and Vinnie 's House of Veal, were sometimes mentioned.
The diner had its share of regular customers through the years, such as Tommy 's basketball coach, Earl Hicks (Dave Madden), local trucker Chuck (Duane R. Campbell), and Henry Beesmeyer (Marvin Kaplan), a telephone repairman who always made jokes about Mel 's cooking. Henry 's oft - mentioned wife Chloe was seen in one episode, played by Ruth Buzzi. Celebrities playing either themselves or other characters (including Martha Raye, George Burns, Robert Goulet, Desi Arnaz, and Jerry Reed) were a hallmark of the show.
Polly Holliday left the show to star in her own spin - off series, Flo. In the episode airing February 24, 1980, Flo leaves to take a hostess job in Houston. On the way to Houston, Flo stops at her hometown Fort Worth, Texas (which she refers to by its moniker "Cowtown ''). Flo decides to buy and run a failing roadhouse bar there, which she renames Flo 's Yellow Rose. Polly Holliday never made a guest appearance on Alice after beginning Flo, although flashbacks including Flo were shown in the final episode of Alice. Vic Tayback made one guest appearance on Flo.
Diane Ladd, who received an Academy Award nomination for her portrayal of Flo in the film version joined the cast in 1980 as Isabelle "Belle '' Dupree, a hard - edged but kind - hearted woman. She had been a waitress of Mel 's in the past, and the two had a romantic relationship during that time. In spite of Ladd 's Golden Globe - winning performance as Belle, the character was not retained for the duration of the series and was replaced early in 1981, the character making one last appearance in which she telephones the diner to inform everyone that she had taken a job as a backup singer in Nashville, Tennessee. It has been said that Ladd clashed with her co-stars, and no flashbacks including Belle were shown during the final episode of the series.
Theatre actress Celia Weston then joined the cast as the good - natured, boisterous truck driver Jolene Hunnicutt, who came from Myrtle Point, South Carolina. Jolene arrives as she and her male driving partner are in the midst of an argument over his unwelcome advances, during which she throws and breaks many of Mel 's dishes. Mel agrees to hire her "temporarily '' to work off the cost of the dishes, but she stays until the end of the series. Jolene frequently mentions her grandmother, "Granny Gums '', who had only three or four teeth. Jolene also mentions her distant relative Jefferson Davis "Boss '' Hogg, a character from the concurrent CBS series The Dukes of Hazzard. In one episode Sorrell Booke guest stars in this role, along with fellow Dukes character, Enos (Sonny Shroyer).
The latter years of the show focused on some character development, such as the hasty courtship and marriage of Vera and lovable cop Elliot (Charles Levin). Tommy eventually goes to college and is seen less frequently. In the final season, the character of Alice was absent several times due to Lavin 's directing a number of episodes and playing the character of Mrs. Walden, Vera 's wizened and abrasive landlady of arbitrary foreign origin. The final story arc began in the spring of 1985, when country singer Travis Marsh (played by Lavin 's real - life husband Kip Niven), discovering that he 's falling for Alice, "kidnaps '' her to take her to Nashville, telling her it 's time to follow her dream there. Bewildered at the thought of her dreams finally coming true, Alice agrees, but not without extracting a promise from Travis to drive her back to Phoenix so she can get her affairs in order, including ending her current relationship with a writer.
In the series finale, which aired March 19, 1985, typical of sitcoms of the era, news of several life - changing events is revealed within a matter of minutes. Alice, after nine years of trying, finally gets a recording contract and is moving to Nashville with Travis Marsh. Vera announces she is pregnant and decides to be a full - time mother, Elliott having been promoted from officer to detective. Jolene 's "Granny Gums '' has died and leaves her granddaughter enough money to open her own beauty parlor in her hometown. Besides all three waitresses suddenly leaving simultaneously, by an amazing coincidence Mel has just sold the diner for a large amount of money to a real estate developer, and must close within days. On closing day, he surprisingly gives each waitress a $5,000 farewell bonus. The remainder of the episode shows flashbacks to humorous and major events, and many of the big stars who had appeared on the show, including Polly Holliday. Finally, while cleaning out her locker, Alice finds the "Waitress Wanted '' sign that first drew her to the diner. The series ' regular customers, including Henry, Chuck and Earl say their emotional farewells, followed by Elliot, and finally the principal characters Tommy, Jolene, Vera, and Alice. The last thing we see is Mel putting up the "Closed '' sign and locking up.
Flo 's catchphrase, "Kiss my grits! '', enjoyed widespread popularity at the time the character appeared on Alice. According to Polly Holliday, the line was originally written as, "Kiss my honeydew! '', but did not get any laughs. (In the original film, Flo, as played by Diane Ladd, tells Mel in one scene to, "Kiss me where the sun do n't shine. '') Another of Flo 's catchphrases was, "When donkeys fly! '' Since her portrayal of Flo, Polly Holliday has refused to repeat her famous "grits '' line.
In an attempt to duplicate the success of Flo 's "Kiss my grits! '', Belle began using a new put - down: "Butter my biscuits! ''. Belle often used the phrase, "My little voice '', who called her "Isabelle '', which she usually used when starting to tell others what she thinks is best.
Mel would snipe, "Stow it! '' at anyone he had qualms with, especially his waitstaff. "Stow it! '' was usually followed by either "Alice '', "Vera '', "Flo '' "Belle '', or "Blondie '' (in reference to Jolene). He would also bark, "Bag it, Blondie! '' to Jolene. He eventually gave Vera the nickname "Dinghy '' and would occasionally bellow "Stow it, Dinghy '' at her. Jolene would sometimes say, "When pigs wear perfume. ''
In a handful of episodes, Alice put on a double - breasted suit and fedora to assume the character of husky - voiced "Sam Butler '', a mobster she made up as a ruse to fool her intended target. Linda Lavin also played the role of Mrs. Walden in the last season, once even playing both Alice and Mrs. Walden in a split - screen dual role.
Part of Mel 's Diner was often destroyed, such as by Flo 's crashing a truck through the front, Mel chopping down a tree which landed in the diner, Mel accidentally having the building targeted for demolition, and the waitresses crashing a hot air balloon through the roof (upon which Jolene cries, "We went to the bad place and it looks just like Mel 's! ''). In one episode, a wrecking ball destroyed the front of the diner because someone could not read Mel 's handwriting.
Mel was a stickler for punctuality. In the fourth season, he installs a time clock, which ends up working to the waitresses ' advantage due to significant overtime, and he finally smashes it onto the floor. Mel also had a strict rule against moonlighting, often leading to one or more waitresses getting fired, but he always rehired them before the end of each episode.
Although he had a fairly loyal clientele, Mel 's food and cooking were constantly criticized by his waitresses and customers alike -- especially Henry, who always blamed it for his indigestion. However, Mel 's chili was popular and became a plot point of several episodes. During the first season, a newspaper food critic (played by Victor Buono) dropped dead while eating Mel 's chili, but it turned out that tainted Peking Duck from a Chinese restaurant was to blame. Guest star Art Carney in one episode was to be the spokesperson for retail distribution of Mel 's Chili ("Chili con Carney '') but backed out when he discovered Vera was a distant relative with part ownership in the venture. The popularity of Mel 's Chili also led to an appearance on Dinah Shore 's talk show, which led to some bickering among the waitresses because Mel could take only one person along, but everyone ended up going. Mel refused to reveal his "secret ingredient '' to Dinah and her TV audience during the cooking demonstration.
The shot of Vera with the "exploding straws '' was the only one used during the opening credits for the entire run of the series, with the exception of the pilot episode, which had no scenes from Mel 's Diner in the opening.
Opening titles cast members:
Other recurring cast members:
Other notable guest stars: Eve Arden, Desi Arnaz, Brice Beckham, Fred Berry, Joan Blondell, George Burns (as himself), Ruth Buzzi (as Chloe Beesmeyer, Henry 's wife), Art Carney (as himself), Corey Feldman, Robert Goulet, Joel Grey (as himself), Florence Halop, Eileen Heckart (as Rose Hyatt, Alice 's interfering mother in - law), Florence Henderson, Jay Leno, Bill Maher, Nancy McKeon (Philip 's sister, appeared twice in different roles), Frank Nelson, Donald O'Connor (as himself), Kelly Parsons, Jerry Reed (as himself), Debbie Reynolds, Kim Richards, Telly Savalas (as himself), and Jerry Stiller.
The show 's theme was called "There 's a New Girl in Town '', with music by David Shire, lyrics by Alan Bergman and Marilyn Bergman; performed by Linda Lavin. Several different arrangements of this tune were used throughout the series ' run; the lyrics were altered after the second season.
The Mel 's Diner set made changes over the years; in the pilot the diner contained a blue refrigerator, but in the series the refrigerator was a dirty stainless steel, then later was changed to clean and shiny stainless steel in 1979 -- 81 and much later the set featured an even shinier stainless steel refrigerator and better appliances. The rest of the set, however, remained the same.
The men 's and ladies ' restrooms were confined to one room in the pilot and during the first season. From 1977 -- 85, there were separate restrooms with "Ladies '' and "Men '' written on them.
The storeroom was inside the diner where the Men 's restroom would later be and said "Private '' on it during the 1976 -- 77 season. The storeroom from 1977 to 1985 was confined to the back of the diner. Here, the waitresses took their breaks, had their lockers, and stored their uniforms. Mel also conducted his business from this space.
The payphone was a touch tone and was located on the left of the "Restrooms '' door in the pilot episode. For the first season, it was moved to the right of the doors that led to the kitchen section of the diner. For the second season, it was moved to the wall between the two doors that became two separate restrooms and was replaced by a phone with a rotary dial. From 1978 to 1985, the phone was a touch tone and was located at a section that was a few steps away from the entrance to the diner.
In the first season, the diner was decorated in an Aztec and Cowboy motif to accommodate the feel of Arizona. For the second season, the walls had pink wallpaper with red lines on it. For the third season, the walls had wallpaper with orange leaves on it.
The giant "14 - ounce coffee cup '' sign used in later seasons was seen by a producer scouting Phoenix for an establishing shot for the show 's later seasons. It was at "Chris ' Diner '' and the owner agreed to change the name to Mel 's for the show.
Alice 's apartment remained more or less unchanged during most of the show 's run; the apartments of Mel and Vera and Flo 's trailer were occasionally seen. (The set for Flo 's trailer was also used on the spinoff Flo.)
The pilot episode was taped at CBS Television City in Hollywood, California. After this, the series was taped at The Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.
Alice had many contrasts with the film on which it was based, Alice Does n't Live Here Anymore. The tone and style of the series differed greatly from the film, and there were a number of factual differences concerning the characters and setting.
Alice was seen in reruns:
Alice was shown in the UK by Channel 4, starting on 27 August 1984. At first, the series was shown each weekday at 5.00 pm, before moving to a twice - weekly slot later. No breaks between seasons were made and the final episode was shown in October 1986.
DVD On June 27, 2006, six episodes of Alice were released on DVD as part of the Warner Bros. ' Television Favorites Compilation. The episodes were hand picked by fans at SitcomsOnline.com and are as follows:
Season releases Warner Home Video has released the first four seasons on DVD in Region 1 via their Warner Archive Collection. These are manufacture - on - demand (MOD) releases, available through Warner 's online store Warner Archives Collection (only sold in the USA), and also through Oldies.com (which distributes and sells worldwide), and through Amazon and eBay.
Season 5 was released on August 1, 2017. Season 6 was released on December 5, 2017.
Streaming
Alice the whole series is available from Apple iTunes Store and Amazon Video for downloading. In addition, a holiday episode for Season 3 is also available from Amazon.
The "Tommy 's Lost Weekend '' episode, written by Bob Bendetson, Howard Bendetson, and Robert Getchell, based on a story by Arnold Anthony Schmidt, received an Emmy nomination in 1984.
|
when was powder coating invented and who invented it | Powder coating - wikipedia
Powder coating is a type of coating that is applied as a free - flowing, dry powder. The main difference between a conventional liquid paint and a powder coating is that the powder coating does not require a solvent to keep the binder and filler parts in a liquid suspension form. The coating is typically applied electrostatically and is then cured under heat to allow it to flow and form a "skin ''. The powder may be a thermoplastic or a thermoset polymer. It is usually used to create a hard finish that is tougher than conventional paint. Powder coating is mainly used for coating of metals, such as household appliances, aluminum extrusions, drum hardware and automobile and bicycle parts. Newer technologies allow other materials, such as MDF (medium - density fibreboard), to be powder coated using different methods. The powder coating process was invented around 1945 by Daniel Gustin US Patent 2538562.
Because powder coating does not have a liquid carrier, it can produce thicker coatings than conventional liquid coatings without running or sagging, and powder coating produces minimal appearance differences between horizontally coated surfaces and vertically coated surfaces. Because no carrier fluid evaporates away, the coating process emits few volatile organic compounds (VOC). Finally, several powder colors can be applied before curing them all together, allowing color blending and bleed special effects in a single layer.
While it is relatively easy to apply thick coatings which cure to smooth, texture - free coating, it is not as easy to apply smooth thin films. As the film thickness is reduced, the film becomes more and more orange peeled in texture due to the particle size and glass transition temperature (Tg) of the powder.
Most powder coatings have a particle size in the range of 2 to 50 μ (Microns), a softening temperature Tg around 80 ° C, a melting temperature around 150 ° C, and are cured at around 200 ° C. for minimum 10 minutes to 15 minutes (exact temperatures and times may depend on the thickness of the item being coated). For such powder coatings, film build - ups of greater than 50 μ (Microns) may be required to obtain an acceptably smooth film. The surface texture which is considered desirable or acceptable depends on the end product. Many manufacturers actually prefer to have a certain degree of orange peel since it helps to hide metal defects that have occurred during manufacture, and the resulting coating is less prone to showing fingerprints.
There are very specialized operations where powder coatings of less than 30 micrometres or with a Tg below 40 ° C are used in order to produce smooth thin films. One variation of the dry powder coating process, the Powder Slurry process, combines the advantages of powder coatings and liquid coatings by dispersing very fine powders of 1 -- 5 micrometre particle size into water, which then allows very smooth, low film thickness coatings to be produced.
For garage - scale jobs, small "rattle can '' spray paint is less expensive and complex than powder coating. At the professional scale, the capital expense and time required for a powder coat gun, booth and oven are similar to a spray gun system. Powder coatings have a major advantage in that the overspray can be recycled. However, if multiple colors are being sprayed in a single spray booth, this may limit the ability to recycle the overspray.
There are two main categories of powder coating: thermosets and thermoplastics. The thermosetting variety incorporates a cross-linker into the formulation. When the powder is baked, it reacts with other chemical groups in the powder to polymerize, improving the performance properties. The thermoplastic variety does not undergo any additional actions during the baking process as it flows to form the final coating.
The most common polymers used are: polyester, polyurethane, polyester - epoxy (known as hybrid), straight epoxy (fusion bonded epoxy) and acrylics.
The powder coating process involves three basic steps:
Removal of oil, dirt, lubrication greases, metal oxides, welding scale etc. is essential prior to the powder coating process. It can be done by a variety of chemical and mechanical methods. The selection of the method depends on the size and the material of the part to be powder coated, the type of impurities to be removed and the performance requirement of the finished product.
Chemical pre-treatments involve the use of phosphates or chromates in submersion or spray application. These often occur in multiple stages and consist of degreasing, etching, de-smutting, various rinses and the final phosphating or chromating of the substrate & new nanotechnology chemical bonding. The pre-treatment process both cleans and improves bonding of the powder to the metal. Recent additional processes have been developed that avoid the use of chromates, as these can be toxic to the environment. Titanium zirconium and silanes offer similar performance against corrosion and adhesion of the powder.
In many high end applications, the part is electrocoated following the pretreatment process, and subsequent to the powder coating application. This has been particularly useful in automotive and other applications requiring high end performance characteristics.
Another method of preparing the surface prior to coating is known as abrasive blasting or sandblasting and shot blasting. Blast media and blasting abrasives are used to provide surface texturing and preparation, etching, finishing, and degreasing for products made of wood, plastic, or glass. The most important properties to consider are chemical composition and density; particle shape and size; and impact resistance.
Silicon carbide grit blast medium is brittle, sharp, and suitable for grinding metals and low - tensile strength, non-metallic materials. Plastic media blast equipment uses plastic abrasives that are sensitive to substrates such as aluminum, but still suitable for de-coating and surface finishing. Sand blast medium uses high - purity crystals that have low - metal content. Glass bead blast medium contains glass beads of various sizes.
Cast steel shot or steel grit is used to clean and prepare the surface before coating. Shot blasting recycles the media and is environmentally friendly. This method of preparation is highly efficient on steel parts such as I - beams, angles, pipes, tubes and large fabricated pieces.
Different powder coating applications can require alternative methods of preparation such as abrasive blasting prior to coating. The online consumer market typically offers media blasting services coupled with their coating services at additional costs.
The most common way of applying the powder coating to metal objects is to spray the powder using an electrostatic gun, or corona gun. The gun imparts a positive electric charge to the powder, which is then sprayed towards the grounded object by mechanical or compressed air spraying and then accelerated toward the workpiece by the powerful electrostatic charge. There are a wide variety of spray nozzles available for use in electrostatic coating. The type of nozzle used will depend on the shape of the workpiece to be painted and the consistency of the paint. The object is then heated, and the powder melts into a uniform film, and is then cooled to form a hard coating. It is also common to heat the metal first and then spray the powder onto the hot substrate. Preheating can help to achieve a more uniform finish but can also create other problems, such as runs caused by excess powder. See the article "Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coatings ''
Another type of gun is called a tribo gun, which charges the powder by (triboelectric) friction. In this case, the powder picks up a positive charge while rubbing along the wall of a Teflon tube inside the barrel of the gun. These charged powder particles then adhere to the grounded substrate. Using a tribo gun requires a different formulation of powder than the more common corona guns. Tribo guns are not subject to some of the problems associated with corona guns, however, such as back ionization and the Faraday cage effect.
Powder can also be applied using specifically adapted electrostatic discs.
Another method of applying powder coating, named as the fluidized bed method, is by heating the substrate and then dipping it into an aerated, powder - filled bed. The powder sticks and melts to the hot object. Further heating is usually required to finish curing the coating. This method is generally used when the desired thickness of coating is to exceed 300 micrometres. This is how most dishwasher racks are coated.
Electrostatic fluidized bed application uses the same fluidizing technique as the conventional fluidized bed dip process but with much less powder depth in the bed. An electrostatic charging medium is placed inside the bed so that the powder material becomes charged as the fluidizing air lifts it up. Charged particles of powder move upward and form a cloud of charged powder above the fluid bed. When a grounded part is passed through the charged cloud the particles will be attracted to its surface. The parts are not preheated as they are for the conventional fluidized bed dip process.
A coating method for flat materials that applies powder with a roller, enabling relatively high speeds and accurate layer thickness between 5 and 100 micrometres. The base for this process is conventional copier technology. It is currently in use in some coating applications and looks promising for commercial powder coating on flat substrates (steel, aluminium, MDF, paper, board) as well as in sheet to sheet and / or roll to roll processes. This process can potentially be integrated in an existing coating line.
When a thermoset powder is exposed to elevated temperature, it begins to melt, flows out, and then chemically reacts to form a higher molecular weight polymer in a network - like structure. This cure process, called crosslinking, requires a certain temperature for a certain length of time in order to reach full cure and establish the full film properties for which the material was designed. Normally the powders cure at 200 ° C (390 ° F) for 10 minutes. The curing schedule could vary according to the manufacturer 's specifications. The application of energy to the product to be cured can be accomplished by convection cure ovens, infrared cure ovens, or by laser curing process. The latter demonstrates significant reduction of curing time.
Methylene chloride and acetone are generally effective at removing powder coating. Most other organic solvents (thinners, etc.) are completely ineffective. Recently the suspected human carcinogen methylene chloride is being replaced by benzyl alcohol with great success. Powder coating can also be removed with abrasive blasting. 98 % sulfuric acid commercial grade also removes powder coating film. Certain low grade powder coats can be removed with steel wool, though this might be a more labor - intensive process than desired.
Powder coating can also be removed by a burning off process, in which parts are put into a large high - temperature oven with temperatures typically reaching an air temperature of 300 - 450 ° C. The process takes about four hours and requires the parts to be cleaned completely and re-powder coated. Parts made with a thinner - gauge material need to be burned off at a lower temperature to prevent the material from warping.
According to a market report prepared in August 2016 by Grand View Research, Inc., the global powder coatings market is expected to reach USD 16.55 billion by 2024. Increasing use of powder coatings for aluminum extrusion used in windows, doorframes, building facades, kitchen, bathroom and electrical fixtures will fuel industry expansion. Rising construction spending in various countries including China, the U.S., Mexico, Qatar, UAE, India, Vietnam, and Singapore will fuel growth over the forecast period. Increasing government support for eco-friendly and economical products will stimulate demand over the forecast period. General industries were the prominent application segment and accounted for 20.7 % of the global volume in 2015. Increasing demand for tractors in the U.S., Brazil, Japan, India, and China is expected to augment the use of powder coatings on account of its corrosion protection, excellent outdoor durability, and high - temperature performance. Moreover, growing usage in agricultural equipment, exercise equipment, file drawers, computer cabinets, laptop computers, cell phones, and electronic components will propel industry expansion.
|
who played sarah on law and order svu | Stephanie March - wikipedia
Stephanie Caroline March (born (1974 - 07 - 23) July 23, 1974) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Alexandra Cabot in the long - running NBC series, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
March was born in Dallas, Texas, the daughter of John and Laura March, and has a sister, Charlotte. She attended McCulloch Middle School in Highland Park, and Highland Park High School, where Law & Order 's Angie Harmon, who also played the role of an assistant district attorney on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit attended concurrently. After her parents ' divorce, her mother married Robert Derby. In 1996, March graduated from Northwestern University, where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta sorority.
At Northwestern University, she played Helena in A Midsummer Night 's Dream in Chicago, where she continued to pursue her stage career. In 1997, she made her screen debut in an episode of CBS series, Early Edition. In 1999, March moved to New York and made her Broadway debut in the highly acclaimed production of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman, opposite Brian Dennehy. She later co-starred in the television film Death of a Salesman, based on the play. In 2000, she also performed in the Broadway premiere of Eric Bogosian 's Talk Radio, starring Liev Schreiber, in 2007. She also starred in Howard Korder 's Boy 's Life alongside Jason Biggs.
In 2003, March made her film debut with a supporting role in the political comedy Head of State opposite Chris Rock. She later appeared in the films Mr. & Mrs. Smith, The Treatment, and Falling for Grace, the latter two romantic comedies. March also appeared in the 2009 film The Invention of Lying as the woman Ricky Gervais 's character tells the world will end unless she has sex with him. She later co-starred in the independent films Why Stop Now? and Innocence.
On television, March guest starred on 30 Rock, Grey 's Anatomy, Rescue Me, and Happy Endings. She was regular cast member on the short - lived CBS legal comedy - drama, Made in Jersey in 2012, but left the series after the pilot episode.
March is best known for her role as Assistant District Attorney Alexandra Cabot on the NBC crime legal drama series, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, a role she played from 2000 to 2003. She departed in the season 5 episode "Loss '', when Cabot is shot and placed in witness protection. She returned to the series for a six - episode arc in season 10 and then continued as a main character in season 11. After her departure near the end of season 11, she returned again in season 13 as a recurring character.
March reprised her role as Cabot, now the Bureau Chief ADA of the homicide bureau, on the short - lived NBC courtroom drama Conviction, which debuted in spring 2006. The show, which was part of the Law & Order universe, only lasted one 13 - episode season before being cancelled.
March married celebrity chef Bobby Flay on February 20, 2005. She has appeared on four of Flay 's Food Network shows -- Boy Meets Grill, Grill It! with Bobby Flay, Iron Chef America, and Throwdown with Bobby Flay -- as a guest judge. According to media reports, March and Flay separated in March 2015 and their divorce was finalized on July 17, 2015.
March became a celebrity ambassador to World of Children Awards in January 2010. Additionally, she has served as a board member for Safe Horizon, an advocacy organization for victims of crime and abuse. March is an advocate for women 's rights and a supporter of Planned Parenthood. In 1938, her great - grandmother, Ruby Webster March, founded the West Texas Mother 's Health Center, which later became part of Planned Parenthood of West Texas.
March wrote an essay, published in June 2016, that detailed her experience with breast augmentation surgery in 2014, and the subsequent removal of the implants due to infection.
On September 1, 2017, March married businessman Dan Benton in Katonah, New York.
|
where are you allowed to carry a gun | Open carry in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, open carry refers to the practice of "openly carrying a firearm in public '', as distinguished from concealed carry, where firearms can not be seen by the casual observer. The practice of open carry, where gun owners openly carry firearms while they go about their daily business, has seen an increase in the U.S. in recent years. This has been marked by a number of organized events intended to increase the visibility of open carry and public awareness about the practice. Proponents of open carry point to history and statistics, noting that criminals usually conceal their weapons, a stark contrast to the law - abiding citizens who display their sidearms. Encouraged by groups like The Modern American Revolution, OpenCarry.org, GeorgiaCarry.org and some participants of the Free State Project, open carry has seen a revival in recent years, but it is not yet clear if this represents just a short - term trend.
The gun rights community has become supportive of the practice. Alan Gottlieb of the Second Amendment Foundation has been cautious in expressing support, while groups such as the aforementioned OpenCarry.org and GeorgiaCarry.org, and certain national groups such as the NRA and Gun Owners of America (GOA) have been more outspoken in favor of the practice.
Open carry is strongly opposed by gun control groups such as the Brady Campaign and the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence.
Today in the United States, the laws vary from state to state regarding open carry of firearms. The categories are defined as follows:
In the United States, the laws concerning open carry vary by state and sometimes by municipality. The following chart lists state policies for openly carrying a loaded handgun in public.
On open carry:
In my opinion, Act 746 's amendments to § 5 - 73 - 120 mean that (1) the statute only criminalizes a person 's "possess (ing) a handgun on or about his or her person, in a vehicle occupied by the person, or otherwise readily available for use '' if he or she simultaneously has the intent "to attempt to unlawfully employ the handgun... as a weapon '' against a person, and (2) this unlawful intent may not be presumed simply because that person possesses a loaded handgun.
On Concealed Carry:
Nothing in Act 746, § 5 - 73 - 120 (a), or this opinion is intended to suggest a person may carry a concealed handgun in public without a properly issued concealed - carry license. In fact, except during a journey, it is likely that the Arkansas Supreme Court would allow the presumption that a person who has flouted the concealed - carry regime in Arkansas law by possessing a concealed handgun without a concealed - carry license has the requisite unlawful intent for a violation of § 5 - 73 - 120 (a).
Point 4 requires additional explanation. In my opinion, a person may not lawfully carry a concealed handgun in public without a properly issued concealed - carry license. I believe this necessarily follows from the concealed - carry licensing scheme that predates Act 746 and that, in my opinion, was unaffected by Act 746. The licensing requirement is recognized in the "concealed handgun '' exception under § 5 - 73 - 120:
Attorney General Leslie Rutledge has also stated that open carry may generate reasonable suspicion for an officer to stop and briefly detain a person
The constitutionality of the general ban on open carry is currently being challenged in the Florida Supreme Court case of Norman v. State
F.S. 790.25 (3) states the provisions of ss. 790.053 (open carry ban) and 790.06 (concealed carry license) do not apply in the following instances, and, despite such sections, it is lawful for the following persons to own, possess, and lawfully use firearms and other weapons, ammunition, and supplies for lawful purposes. A few instances are listed below: (h) A person engaged in fishing, camping, or lawful hunting or going to or returning from a fishing, camping, or lawful hunting expedition; (i) A person engaged in the business of manufacturing, repairing, or dealing in firearms, or the agent or representative of any such person while engaged in the lawful course of such business; (j) A person firing weapons for testing or target practice under safe conditions and in a safe place not prohibited by law or going to or from such place; (k) A person firing weapons in a safe and secure indoor range for testing and target practice; (l) A person traveling by private conveyance when the weapon is securely encased or in a public conveyance when the weapon is securely encased and not in the person 's manual possession; (m) A person while carrying a pistol unloaded and in a secure wrapper, concealed or otherwise, from the place of purchase to his or her home or place of business or to a place of repair or back to his or her home or place of business; (n) A person possessing arms at his or her home or place of business;
Utah allows unlicensed carry of a firearm in a vehicle (loaded handguns or unloaded long guns; loaded long guns in vehicles is prohibited). Unlicensed open carry on foot is also allowed if the firearm is at least 2 actions from firing. For example, a semi-auto may have a full mag but the chamber must be empty (thus requiring 1. racking the slide, and 2. pulling the trigger).
Open carry has never been authoritatively addressed by the United States Supreme Court. The most obvious predicate for a federal "right '' to do so would arise under the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
In the majority opinion in the case of District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), Justice Antonin Scalia wrote concerning the entirety of the elements of the Second Amendment; "We find that they guarantee the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation. '' However, Scalia continued, "Like most rights, the Second Amendment right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose. ''
Forty five states ' constitutions recognize and secure the right to keep and bear arms in some form, and none of those prohibit the open carrying of firearms. Five state constitutions provide that the state legislature may regulate the manner of keeping or bearing arms, and advocates argue that none rule out open carry specifically. Nine states ' constitutions indicate that the concealed carrying of firearms may be regulated and / or prohibited by the state legislature. Open carry advocates argue that, by exclusion, open carrying of arms may not be legislatively controlled in these states. But this is not settled law.
Section 1.7 of Kentucky 's state constitution only empowers the state to enact laws prohibiting "concealed carry ''.
In 2015, former Florida congressman Allen West opined, regarding the 2015 Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, "Using the same ' due process clause ' argument as the Supreme Court just applied to gay marriage, my concealed carry permit must now be recognized as valid in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. '' This opinion echoes reasoning contained in an Amicus curiae brief in Obergefell. Others have indicated support or expressed skepticism for this line of reasoning.
KCC10. 12.080 Amendment: It is unlawful to shoot, fire or explode any firearm, firecracker, fireworks, torpedo or explosive of any kind or to carry any firearm or to shoot or fire any air gun, BB gun, bow and arrow or use any slingshot in any park, except the park director may authorize archery, slinging, fireworks and firing of small bore arms at designated times and places suitable for their use.
State laws on open carry vary widely. Four states, the Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands and the District of Columbia fully prohibit the open carry of handguns. On the other side, twenty - five states permit open carry of a handgun without requiring the citizen to apply for any permit or license. Fifteen states require some form of permit (often the same permit as allows a person to carry concealed), and the remaining five states, though not prohibiting the practice in general, do not preempt local laws or law enforcement policies, and / or have significant restrictions on the practice, such as prohibiting it within the boundaries of an incorporated urban area. Illinois allows open carry on private property only.
On October 11, 2011, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law that it would be a "misdemeanor to openly carry an exposed and unloaded handgun in public or in a vehicle. '' This does not apply to the open carry of rifles or long guns or persons in rural areas where permitted by ordinance.
On November 1, 2011, Wisconsin explicitly acknowledged the legality of open carry by amending its disorderly conduct statute (Wis. Stat. 947.01). A new subsection 2 states "Unless other facts and circumstances that indicate a criminal or malicious intent on the part of the person apply, a person is not in violation of, and may not be charged with a violation of, this section for loading, carrying, or going armed with a firearm, without regard to whether the firearm is loaded or is concealed or openly carried. ''
On May 15, 2012, Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin signed Senate Bill 1733, an amendment to the Oklahoma Self Defense Act, which will allow people with Oklahoma concealed weapons permits to open carry if they so choose. The law took effect November 1, 2012. "Under the measure, businesses may continue to prohibit firearms to be carried on their premises. SB 1733 prohibits carrying firearms on properties owned or leased by the city, state or federal government, at corrections facilities, in schools or college campuses, liquor stores and at sports arenas during sporting events. ''
The Federal Gun Free School Zones Act limits where a person may legally carry a firearm by generally prohibiting carry within 1000 ft of the property line of any K - 12 school in the nation, with private property excluded. A state - issued permit to carry may exempt a person from the restriction depending on the laws of the state, and most issuing states qualify for the exception. However, according to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the exception in federal law is inapplicable to permit holders outside the state that physically issued their permit, and it does not exempt people with out - of - state permits even if the permit is recognized by state reciprocity agreements. BATFE letter explaining reciprocity of CCW permit holders and how it applies to Gun - Free School Zones.
In a 1995 Supreme Court case, the Act was declared unconstitutional: "The Court today properly concludes that the Commerce Clause does not grant Congress the authority to prohibit gun possession within 1,000 feet of a school, as it attempted to do in the Gun - Free School Zones Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101 - 647, 104 Stat. 4844. ''
The law was reenacted in the slightly different form, in 1996.
|
which of these english worda have indian roots | List of English words of Indian origin - Wikipedia
This is a list of words in the English language that originated in the languages of India.
Badhapadadam
|
who wrote the theme song to leave it to beaver | Paul Smith (composer) - wikipedia
Paul J. Smith (October 30, 1906 -- January 25, 1985) was an American music composer.
Smith was born in Calumet, Michigan on October 30, 1906. Upon graduating high school, he studied music at The College of Idaho from 1923 to 1925 before he was accepted into the Bush Conservatory of Music in Chicago, Illinois. His abilities in theory and composition earned him a scholarship to study music theory at Juilliard, however, it is unclear if he ever pursued this invitation.
Smith spent much of his life working at Disney as composer for many of its films ' scores, animated and live - action alike, movie and television alike; from 1962 to 1963, he also composed music for Leave It to Beaver. In Fantasia, he is one of the studio employees in the orchestra. He also composed the scores for several of the True - Life Adventures episodes.
Smith 's main collaborator and partner was Hazel "Gil '' George, who wrote the song title for The Light in the Forest with him and Lawrence Edward Watkin. Smith also did the stock music for the Blondie series of the late 1940s and early 1950s. He won an Academy Award for Best Original Score with Leigh Harline and Ned Washington for Pinocchio, which was his first and only Oscar win.
Smith died on January 25, 1985 in Glendale, California, from Alzheimer 's Disease at age 78. In 1994, he was posthumously honored as a Disney Legend.
|
where do tornadoes usually occur in the world | Tornado Climatology - wikipedia
Tornadoes have been recorded on all continents except Antarctica and are most common in the middle latitudes where conditions are often favorable for convective storm development. The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, as well as the strongest and most violent tornadoes. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States popularly known as Tornado Alley. Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include significant portions of Europe, South Africa, Philippines, Bangladesh, parts of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern and southeast Brazil, northern Mexico, New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.
The United States averaged 1,274 tornadoes per year in the last decade while Canada reports nearly 100 annually (largely in the southern regions). However, the UK has most tornadoes per area per year, 0.14 per 1000 km2, although these tornadoes are generally weak, and many other European countries have a similar number of tornadoes per area.
The severity of tornadoes is commonly measured by the Enhanced Fujita Scale, which scales tornado intensity from EF0 to EF5 by wind speed and the amount of damage they do to human environments. These judgments are made after the tornado has dissipated and the damage trail is carefully studied by weather professionals.
Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter. The seasonal transition during autumn and spring promotes the development of extratropical cyclones and frontal systems that support strong convective storms. Tornadoes are also common in landfalling tropical cyclones, where they are focused in the right poleward section of the cyclone. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. However, favorable conditions for tornado development can occur any time of the year.
Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating. Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm. Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day, as evidenced by the Gainesville Tornado of 1936 (one of the deadliest tornadoes in history) that occurred at 8: 30 am local time.
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country. Many of these form in an area of the central (with some definitions including Southern) United States known as Tornado Alley. This area extends into Canada, particularly the Prairie Provinces and Ontario; however, activity in Canada is less frequent and intense than that of the US. The high frequency of tornadoes in North America is largely due to geography, as moisture from the Gulf of Mexico is easily advected into the midcontinent with few topographic barriers in the way. The Rocky Mountains block Pacific - sourced moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloping winds and causing cyclogenesis downstream to the east of the mountains. Downsloping winds off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong, while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low - level moisture. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long - lived storms throughout the year. This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, and strong tornadoes can also occur in northern Mexico.
A large region of South America is characterized by storms that reach the level of supercells and produce intense hailstorms, floods, and tornadoes during the spring, summer, and early fall. The region recently appointed as the Tornado Corridor (South America) is considered as the second largest in the world in terms of the formation of extreme weather events. It covers most of central Argentina, southern Paraguay, southeastern Brazil, and Uruguay.
Bangladesh and surrounding areas of eastern India suffer from a couple tornadoes annually of similar severity to stronger tornadoes in the US. These occur with a greater recurrence interval (although over a smaller region), and tend to be under - reported due to the scarcity of media coverage of a developing country. The annual human death toll from tornadoes in Bangladesh is estimated at about 179 deaths per year, which is much greater than in the US. This is likely due to the density of population, poor quality of construction, lack of tornado safety knowledge and warnings, and other factors.
Other areas of the world that have frequent strong tornadoes include Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Spain, China, and the Philippines. Australia, France, Russia, areas of the Middle East, Japan, and parts of Mexico have a history of multiple damaging tornado events.
The United States averaged 1,274 tornadoes per year in the last decade. April 2011 saw the most tornadoes ever recorded for any month in the US National Weather Service 's history, 875; the previous record was 542 in one month. It has more tornadoes yearly than any other country and reports more violent (F4 and F5) tornadoes than anywhere else.
Tornadoes are common in many states but are most common to the west of the Appalachian Mountains and to the east of the Rockies. The Atlantic seaboard states -- North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Virginia -- are also very vulnerable, as well as Florida. The areas most vulnerable to tornadoes are the Southern Plains and Florida, though most Florida tornadoes are relatively weak. The Southern United States is one of the worst - affected regions in terms of casualties.
Tornado reports have been officially collated since 1950. These reports have been gathered by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), based in Asheville, North Carolina. A tornado can be reported more than once, such as when a storm crosses a county line and reports are made from two counties.
Some people mistakenly believe that tornadoes only occur in the countryside. This is hardly the case. While it is true that the plains states are the most tornado - prone places in the nation, it should be noted that tornadoes have been reported in every U.S state, including Alaska and Hawaii. One likely reason tornadoes are so common in the central U.S is because this is where Arctic air, cold fronts that have not been "weakened '' yet first collide with warm tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. As these fronts head further east, they sometimes lose their strength as they travel over more warm air. For this reason, tornadoes are not as common on the East Coast as they are in the Midwest. However, they have happened on rare occasion, such as the F3 twister that struck Limerick Township, Pennsylvania near Philadelphia on 27 July 1994, the F2 twister that struck the northern suburbs of New York City on 12 July 2006, the EF2 twister in the borough of Brooklyn on 8 August 2007, or the F4 twister that struck La Plata, Maryland on 28 April 2002.
Tornadoes can occur west of the continental divide, but they are infrequent and usually relatively weak and short - lived. Recently, tornadoes have struck the Pacific coast town of Lincoln City, Oregon (1996), Sunnyvale, California (1998), and downtown Salt Lake City, Utah (1999 - see Salt Lake City Tornado). The California Central Valley is an area of some frequency for tornadoes, albeit of weak intensity. Though tornadoes that occur on the Western Seaboard are typically weak, more powerful and damaging tornadoes, such as the tornado that occurred on 22 May 2008 in Perris, California, can also occur.
More tornadoes occur in Texas than in any other US state. The state which has the highest number of tornadoes per unit area is Florida, although most of the tornadoes in Florida are weak tornadoes of EF0 or EF1 intensity. A number of Florida 's tornadoes occur along the edge of hurricanes that strike the state. The state with the highest number of strong tornadoes per unit area is Oklahoma. The neighboring state of Kansas is also a particularly notorious tornado state. It records the most EF4 and EF5 tornadoes in the country.
Canada also experiences numerous tornadoes, although fewer than the United States. On average 62 are reported per year, but this number is expected to be higher due to undetected tornadoes in large expanses of underpopulated areas. NOAA has a higher average 100 per year in Canada. This causes tens of millions of dollars in damage. Most are weak F0 or F1 in intensity, but there are on average a few F2 or stronger that touch down each season.
For example, the tornado frequency of Southwestern Ontario is about half that of the most tornado - prone areas of the central US plains. The last multiple tornado - related deaths in Canada were caused by a tornado in Ear Falls, Ontario on 9 July 2009, where 3 died, and the last killer tornado was on 3 August 2018 in Alonsa, Manitoba. The two deadliest tornadoes on Canadian soil were the Regina Cyclone of 30 June 1912 (28 fatalities) and the Edmonton Tornado of 31 July 1987 (27 fatalities). Both of these storms were rated an F4 on the Fujita scale. The city of Windsor was struck by strong tornadoes four times within a 61 - year span (1946, 1953, 1974, 1997) ranging in strength from an F2 to F4. Windsor has been struck by more significant tornadoes than any other city in Canada. Canada 's first official F5 tornado struck Elie, Manitoba on 22 June 2007. Tornadoes are most frequent in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario.
Europe has about 300 tornadoes per year -- much more than estimated by Alfred Wegener in his classic book Wind - und Wasserhosen in Europa ("Tornadoes and Waterspouts in Europe ''). They are most common in June -- August, especially in the inlands -- rarest in January -- March. Strong and violent tornadoes (F3 -- F5) do occur, especially in some of the interior areas and in the south -- but are not as common as in parts of the US. As in the US, tornadoes are far from evenly distributed. Europe has some small "tornado alleys '' -- probably because of frontal collisions as in the south and east of England, but also because Europe is partitioned by mountain ranges like the Alps. Parts of Styria (Steiermark) in Austria may be such a tornado alley, and this county has had at least three F3 tornadoes since 1900. F3 and perhaps one F4 tornado have occurred as far north as Finland.
Since 1900, deadly tornadoes have occurred in Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Italy (such as the F5 / T10 of Udine - Treviso on 24 July 1930, which killed 23 people,), Malta, Poland, Ukraine, Portugal (such as the F3 / T7 of Castelo Branco on 6 November 1954, which killed 5 and injured 220), Romania, Russia and the United Kingdom. The 1984 Ivanovo -- Yaroslavl outbreak, with more than 400 fatalities and 213 injured, was the century 's deadliest tornado or outbreak in Europe. It included at least one F5 and one F4. Europe 's perhaps deadliest tornado ever (and probably one of the World 's deadliest tornadoes) hit Malta in 1551 (or 1556) and killed about 600.
One notable tornado of recent years was the Birmingham Tornado (UK) which struck Birmingham, United Kingdom, in July 2005. A row of houses was destroyed, but no one was killed. A strong F3 (T7) Tornado hit the small town Micheln in Saxony - Anhalt, Germany on 23 July 2004 leaving 6 people injured and more than 250 buildings massively damaged.
Bangladesh and the eastern parts of India are very exposed to destructive tornadoes causing higher deaths and injuries. Bangladesh, Philippines, and Japan have the highest number of reported tornadoes in Asia.
The world 's single deadliest tornado struck the Manikganj District of Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, killing an estimated 1,300 people, injuring 12,000, and leaving approximately 80,000 people homeless. Five other recorded tornadic events have killed more than 500 people in Bangladesh, the most recent on May 13, 1996 when multiple tornadoes swept through the Jamalpur and Tangail districts, killing more than 600.
China occasionally experiences destructive tornadoes. In June 2016, a storm producing multiple tornadoes and hail struck a densely populated area of farms and factories near the city of Yancheng in Jiangsu province, about 800 kilometers (500 miles) south of Beijing, China, killing at least 78 people and destroying buildings. Nearly 500 people were injured, 200 of them critically, the official Xinhua News Agency reported. Throughout China, an estimate 100 tornadoes may occur per with a few exceeding F4 in intensity, with activity most prevalent in eastern regions.
South America has its own tornado alley, composed of central and northern Argentina, southern and southeast Brazil, Uruguay, and part of Paraguay, and is considered the second highest frequency tornado region in the world. Argentina has areas with high tornadic activity, and the strongest tornadoes in the southern hemisphere like the F5 in San Justo, and the tornado outbreak in Buenos Aires with more than 300 tornadoes registered in less than 24 hours.
This region is favorable for tornadoes and severe thunderstorms, due to the large size of the Pampas Plain where the cold air from Patagonia and Antarctica collides with warm, moist air from areas of Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguay, and dry air from the Andes.
On 16 September 1816, one of the first tornadoes recorded in South America destroyed the town of Rojas (240 kilometres (150 mi) west of Buenos Aires) An EF4 tornado struck the city of Encarnación, Paraguay, on 20 September 1926 and killed over 300 people, making it the second deadliest tornado in South America. On 21 April 1970, an F4 struck Fray Marcos in Uruguay and killed 11, making it the strongest in Uruguay 's history. On 10 January 1973, an F5 struck the city of San Justo, Argentina, 105 km (65 mi) north of the city of Santa Fe. The San Justo tornado is considered the worst tornado ever to occur in the Southern Hemisphere, with winds that exceeded 400 kilometres per hour (250 mph). On 6 May 1992, Estación López (in Spanish), in Buenos Aires Province, was devastated by an EF4 tornado that caused 4 deaths among the 150 residents. The province of Buenos Aires (Argentina) was impacted by the largest tornado outbreak in South American history on 13 April 1993. More than 300 tornadoes were recorded over 24 hours with intensities ranging from F1 to F3. On 28 October 1978, an EF4 tornado with winds of 270 km / h (170 mph) hit the city of Morteros in the province of Córdoba, killing 5 people. The 26 December 2003 Córdoba Tornado (in Spanish) struck 6 km (3.7 mi) west of Córdoba 's city center. It was rated an F3 with winds exceeding 300 km / h (190 mph), killing 5 and injuring hundreds. An EF4 tornado destroyed the town of San Pedro, Misiones, on the night of 7 September 2009, killing 11 people. The same tornado hit the nearby town of Guaraciaba, Brazil, killing 6. The neighboring towns of Veloso Santo and Santa Cecilia were seriously damaged and were declared in a state of emergency.
Tornadoes do occur in South Africa. In October 2011 (i.e. in the spring), two people were killed and nearly 200 were injured after a tornado formed, near Ficksburg in the Free State; more than 1,000 shacks and houses were flattened. There is also the seasonal incidence of tornadoes in the coast of western Africa. These occur during the onset of rainy season when tumultuous winds accompanied by sheets of rain as well as spectacular thunder and lightning batter the coast. The tornadoes, however, were welcomed by settlers in the region since it dissipates extreme heat and humidity during the last days of the dry season. These tornadoes are often embedded in the African squall lines and produced by the severe thunderstorms that they bring. There are experts that attribute the formation of the tornado to the large hail, supported by wind shears in the northern part of the squall lines that veer and increase in height. These tornadoes damage crops, diminishing the positive impact of its rains.
Australia has about 16 tornadoes per year -- excluding waterspouts, which are common. In New Zealand, a tornado hit the northern suburbs of Auckland on 3 May 2011, killing one and injuring at least 16 people.
Tornadoes can form in any month, providing the conditions are favorable. For example, a freak tornado hit South St. Louis County Missouri on 31 December 2010, causing pockets of heavy damage to a modest area before dissipating. The temperature was unseasonably warm that day. They are least common during the winter and most common in spring. Since autumn and spring are transitional periods (warm to cool and vice versa) there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in thunderstorms. Tornadoes in the late summer and fall can also be caused by hurricane landfall.
Not every thunderstorm, supercell, squall line, or tropical cyclone will produce a tornado. Precisely the right atmospheric conditions are required for the formation of even a weak tornado. On the other hand, 700 or more tornadoes a year are reported in the contiguous United States.
On average, the United States experiences 100,000 thunderstorms each year, resulting in more than 1,200 tornadoes and approximately 50 deaths per year. The deadliest U.S. tornado recorded is the 18 March 1925, Tri-State Tornado that swept across southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois and southern Indiana, killing 695 people. The biggest tornado outbreak on record -- with 353 tornadoes over the course of just 3 1 / 2 days, including four F5 and eleven F4 tornadoes -- occurred starting on 25 April 2011 and intensifying on 26 April and especially the record - breaking day of 27 April before ending on 28 April. It is referred to as the 2011 Super Outbreak. Previously, the record was 148 tornadoes, dubbed the 1974 Super Outbreak. Another such significant storm system was the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak of 1965, which affected the United States Midwest on 11 April 1965. A series of continuous tornado outbreaks is known as a tornado outbreak sequence, with significant occurrences in May 1917, 1930, 1949, and 2003.
Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day. Austria, Finland, Germany, and the United States ' peak hour of occurrence is 5 pm, with roughly half of all tornado occurrence between 3 p.m. and 7 p.m. local time, due to this being the time of peak atmospheric heating, and thus the maximum available energy for storms; some researchers, including Howard B. Bluestein of the University of Oklahoma, have referred to this phenomenon as "five o'clock magic. '' Despite this, there are several morning tornadoes reported, like the Seymour, Texas one in April 1980.
The time of year is a big factor of the intensity and frequency of tornadoes. On average, in the United States as a whole, the month with the most tornadoes is May, followed by the months June, April, and July. There is no "tornado season '' though, as tornadoes, including violent tornadoes and major outbreaks, can and do occur anywhere at any time of year if favorable conditions develop. Major tornado outbreaks have occurred in every month of the year.
July is the peak month in Austria, Finland, and Germany. On average, there are around 294 tornadoes throughout the United States during the month of May, and as many as 543 tornadoes have been reported in the month of May alone (in 2003). The months with the fewest tornadoes are usually December and January, although major tornado outbreaks can and sometimes do occur even in those months. In general, in the Midwestern and Plains states, springtime (especially the month of May) is the most active season for tornadoes, while in the far northern states (like Minnesota and Wisconsin), the peak tornado season is usually in the summer months (June and July). In the colder late autumn and winter months (from early December to late February), tornado activity is generally limited to the southern states, where it is possible for warm Gulf of Mexico air to penetrate.
The reason for the peak period for tornado formation being in the spring has much to do with temperature patterns in the U.S. Tornadoes often form when cool, polar air traveling southeastward from the Rockies overrides warm, moist, unstable Gulf of Mexico air in the eastern states. Tornadoes therefore tend to be commonly found in front of a cold front, along with heavy rains, hail, and damaging winds. Since both warm and cold weather are common during the springtime, the conflict between these two air masses tends to be most common in the spring. As the weather warms across the country, the occurrence of tornadoes spreads northward. Tornadoes are also common in the summer and early fall because they can also be triggered by hurricanes, although the tornadoes caused by hurricanes are often much weaker and harder to spot. Winter is the least common time for tornadoes to occur, since hurricane activity is virtually non-existent at this time, and it is more difficult for warm, moist maritime tropical air to take over the frigid Arctic air from Canada, occurrences are found mostly in the Gulf states and Florida during winter (although there have been some notable exceptions). There is a second active tornado season of the year, late October to mid-November. Autumn, like spring, is a time of the year when warm weather alternates with cold weather frequently, especially in the Midwest, but the season is not as active as it is during the springtime and tornado frequencies are higher along the Atlantic Coastal plain as opposed to the Midwest. They usually appear in late summer.
The reliable climatology of tornadoes is limited in geographic and temporal scope; only since 1976 in the United States and 2000 in Europe have thorough and accurate tornado statistics been logged. However, some trends can be noted in tornadoes causing significant damage in the United States, as somewhat reliable statistics on damaging tornadoes exist as far back as 1880. The highest incidence of violent tornadoes seems to shift from the Southeastern United States to the southern Great Plains every few decades. Also, the 1980s seemed to be a period of unusually low tornado activity in the United States, and the number of multi-death tornadoes decreased every decade from the 1920s to the 1980s, suggesting a multi-decadal pattern of some sort.
|
how did the hundred years war marked the end of the feudal age in europe | Hundred Years ' war - wikipedia
Kingdom of France
Duchy of Brittany Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of Bohemia Duchy of Lorraine Republic of Genoa Crown of Castile Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Majorca
Kingdom of England
Duchy of Brittany Duchy of Burgundy County of Flanders County of Hainaut Kingdom of Portugal Kingdom of Navarre
The Hundred Years ' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, over the succession to the French throne. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.
Ever since the Norman conquest of 1066, the King of England held lands in France, which made him a vassal of the King of France. Tensions over the status of the English monarch 's French fiefs led to conflicts between the crowns of France and England, and the extent of these lands varied throughout the medieval period. The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce these possessions, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.
In 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV of France died without sons or brothers in 1328, his closest male relative was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward 's mother, Isabella of France, sister of Charles IV, claimed the French throne for her son, but the French rejected it, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess. A French count, Philip of Valois, first cousin of Charles IV in the male line, succeeded to the throne as Philip VI of France. For about nine years (1328 -- 1337), the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne, but several disagreements between both monarchs prompted Philip VI to confiscate Edward III 's lands in France, which in turn convinced Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne. Several overwhelming English victories in the war -- especially at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt -- raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph, and convinced the English to continue pouring money and manpower into the war over many decades. However, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive French victories at Orléans, Patay, Formigny, and Castillon concluded the war in favour of France, with England permanently losing most of its possessions on the continent.
Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian War (1337 -- 1360); the Caroline War (1369 -- 1389); and the Lancastrian War (1415 -- 1453). Local conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were contemporarily related to the war, including the War of the Breton Succession (1341 -- 1365), the Castilian Civil War (1366 -- 1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356 -- 1369) in Aragon, and the 1383 -- 1385 succession crisis in Portugal, were availed by the parties to advance their agendas. Later historians adopted the term "Hundred Years ' War '' as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events, thus constructing the longest military conflict in European history.
The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, and artillery became important. The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the belligerents, in France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free - companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 1487).
The root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic, economic and political crises of 14th century Europe. The outbreak of war was motivated by a gradual rise in tension between the kings of France and England about Gascony, Flanders and Scotland. The dynastic question, which arose due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians, was the official pretext.
The question of female succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son John I lived only a few days. Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that women were ineligible to succeed to the French throne. Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V. By the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1322.
Charles IV died in 1328, leaving a daughter and a pregnant wife. If the unborn child was male, he would become king; if not, Charles left the choice of his successor to the nobles. A girl ended up being born, therefore rendering the main male line of the House of Capet extinct.
By proximity of blood, the nearest male relative of Charles IV was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward was the son of Isabella, the sister of the dead Charles IV, but the question arose whether she should be able to transmit a right to inherit that she did not herself possess. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the prospect of being ruled by Isabelle and her lover Roger Mortimer, who were widely suspected of having murdered the previous English king, Edward II. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV 's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decided that he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon papacy confirmed that under Salic law males should not be able to inherit through their mothers.
Eventually, Edward III reluctantly recognized Philip VI and paid him homage for his French fiefs. He made concessions in Guyenne, but reserved the right to reclaim territories arbitrarily confiscated. After that, he expected to be left undisturbed while he made war on Scotland.
Tensions between the French and English monarchies can be traced back to the 1066 Norman conquest of England, in which the English throne was seized by the Duke of Normandy, a vassal of the King of France. As a result, the crown of England was held by a succession of nobles who already owned lands in France, which put them among the most powerful subjects of the French king, as they could now draw upon the economic power of England to enforce their interests in the mainland. To the kings of France, this dangerously threatened their royal authority, and so they would constantly try to undermine English rule in France, while the English monarchs would struggle to protect and expand their lands. This clash of interests was the root cause of much of the conflict between the French and English monarchies throughout the medieval era.
The Anglo - Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end when Henry, the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda and great - grandson of William the Conqueror, became the first of the Angevin kings of England in 1154 as Henry II. The Angevin kings directly ruled over more French territory than the kings of France. However, they still owed homage for these territories to the French king. From the 11th century onward, the Angevins had autonomy within their French domains, effectively neutralising the issue.
King John of England inherited the Angevin domains from his brother Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of much of the Angevin continental possessions. Following John 's reign, the Battle of Bouvines (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the War of Saint - Sardos (1324), the English king 's holdings on the continent, as Duke of Aquitaine (Guyenne), were limited roughly to provinces in Gascony.
The dispute over Guyenne is even more important than the dynastic question in explaining the outbreak of the war. Guyenne posed a significant problem to the kings of France and England: Edward III was a vassal of Philip VI of France because of his French possessions and was required to recognize the suzerainty of the King of France over them. In practical terms, a judgment in Guyenne might be subject to an appeal to the French royal court. The King of France had the power to revoke all legal decisions made by the King of England in Aquitaine, which was unacceptable to the English. Therefore, sovereignty over Guyenne was a latent conflict between the two monarchies for several generations.
During the War of Saint - Sardos, Charles of Valois, father of Philip VI, invaded Aquitaine on behalf of Charles IV and conquered the duchy after a local insurrection, which the French believed had been incited by Edward II of England. Charles IV grudgingly agreed to return this territory in 1325. To recover his duchy, Edward II had to compromise: he sent his son, the future Edward III, to pay homage.
The King of France agreed to restore Guyenne, minus Agen. But the French delayed the return of the lands, which helped Philip VI. On 6 June 1329, Edward III finally paid homage to the King of France. However, at the ceremony, Philip VI had it recorded that the homage was not due to the fiefs detached from the duchy of Guyenne by Charles IV (especially Agen). For Edward, the homage did not imply the renunciation of his claim to the extorted lands.
In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne - et - Gascogne). The Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous. At the beginning of Edward III 's reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.
For the first 10 years of Edward III 's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. This argument was rejected by the French so in 1329 the 17 - year - old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals approach their liege unarmed with heads bare. Edward protested by attending the ceremony wearing his crown and sword. Even after this pledge of homage the French continued to pressure the English administration.
Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward 's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court.
France was an ally of the Kingdom of Scotland as English kings had for some time tried to subjugate the area. In 1295, a treaty was signed between France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that France would support the Scots if England invaded their country. Similarly, France would have Scotland 's support if its own kingdom was attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland if the Scots could count on French support.
Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However, the plan was abandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England. To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time '', the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time, ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.
At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused. The arrière - ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Philip then met with his Great Council in Paris. On 24 May 1337, it was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into the king 's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal and had sheltered the king 's ' mortal enemy ' Robert d'Artois. Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip 's right to the French throne. When Charles IV died, Edward had made a claim for the succession of the French throne, through the right of his mother Isabella (Charles IV 's sister), daughter of Philip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Edward 's homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title ' King of France and the French Royal Arms '.
On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half - brother of the Count of Flanders. The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward 's purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the "true '' King of France and were not rebels against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try to raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.
Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade, since Flanders ' principal cities relied heavily on textile production and England supplied much of the raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade. At the time there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone. The great medieval English monasteries produced large surpluses of wool that were sold to mainland Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money by taxing it. France 's sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony.
On 22 June 1340, Edward and his fleet sailed from England and arrived off the Zwin estuary the next day. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluis. The English fleet deceived the French into believing they were withdrawing. When the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions. At this point, Edward 's funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the duke 's half brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI.
In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the War of the Breton Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around a back and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes in Brittany changed hands several times, while further campaigns in Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing in Normandy 's Cotentin, at St. Vaast. The English army captured the completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip mustered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went. He reached the river Seine to find most of the crossings destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the crossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued on his way to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, leaving Philip 's army stranded. Edward, assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more, until, finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle and Philip 's army attacked.
The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready. Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his army was defeated and he was captured at the Battle of Neville 's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland. In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowing them to safely keep troops in northern France. Calais would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years ' War, until the successful French siege in 1558.
In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris, began to ravage Europe. In 1355, after the plague had passed and England was able to recover financially, King Edward 's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later known as the Black Prince, led a Chevauchée from Gascony into France, during which he pillaged Avignonet and Castelnaudary, sacked Carcassonne, and plundered Narbonne. The next year during another Chevauchée he ravaged Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry but failed to take Bourges. He offered terms of peace to King John II of France (known as John the Good), who had outflanked him near Poitiers, but refused to surrender himself as the price of their acceptance. This led to the Battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356) where his army routed the French. During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led a flanking movement with his horsemen cutting off the French retreat and succeeding in capturing King John and many of his nobles. With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V) assumed the powers of the king as regent.
After the Battle of Poitiers, many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged, and chaos ruled. A contemporary report recounted:
... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from its enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants ' goods... From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette
Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin 's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However, Edward wanted the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city). However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city 's defences before Edward and his army arrived. Edward besieged the city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation. Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. Next was the town of Chartres. Disaster struck in a freak hailstorm on the encamped army, causing over 1,000 English deaths -- the so - called Black Monday on Easter 1360. This devastated Edward 's army and forced him to negotiate when approached by the French. A conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny (8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reduce King John 's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown of France.
The French king, John II, had been held captive in England. The Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362 John 's son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English - held Calais, escaped captivity. So, with his stand - in hostage gone, John felt honor - bound to return to captivity in England.
The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354, and in 1363 the Navarrese used the captivity of John II in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power. Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves, particularly as there was a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind, Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations. In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable captivity. Charles V succeeded him as king of France. On 7 May 1364, one month after the dauphin 's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.
In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The forces of the ruler Peter of Castile were pitched against those of his half - brother Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter and the French, Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France 's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.
Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine 's Black Prince for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed to support Peter 's claims but concerns over the terms of the treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led an Anglo - Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power after Trastámara 's army was defeated at the Battle of Nájera.
Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suffering from ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine. To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign, the prince instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud - Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince 's side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and the Black Prince to hear the case in his High Court in Paris. The Black Prince answered that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of France. Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all of Aquitaine was in full revolt.
With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de Trastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter 's death at the Battle of Montiel in March 1369. The new Castilian regime provided naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.
In August 1373, John of Gaunt, accompanied by John de Montfort, Duke of Brittany led a force of 9,000 men out from Calais on a major chevauchée. While initially successful as French forces were insufficiently concentrated to oppose them, the English began to meet further resistance as they moved south. French forces began to concentrate around the English force but, under specific orders from King Charles V, the French avoided a set battle. Instead, they fell on forces detached from the main body to raid or forage. The French shadowed the English and in October, the English found themselves being trapped against the River Allier by four separate French forces. With some difficulty, the English crossed at the bridge at Moulins but lost all their baggage and loot. The English carried on south across the Limousin plateau but the weather was turning severe. Men and horses died in great numbers and many soldiers, forced to march on foot, discarded their armour. At the beginning of December, the army finally entered friendly territory in Gascony. By the end of December they were in Bordeaux, starving, ill - equipped and having lost over half of the 30,000 horses with which they had left Calais. Although the march across France had been a remarkable feat, it was a military failure.
With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black Prince returned to England in January 1371, where by now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince 's illness was debilitating, and he died on 8 June 1376. Edward III died the following year on 21 June 1377; he was succeeded by the Black Prince 's second son Richard II (the first son had died some time earlier), who was still a child. The treaty at Brétigny left Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France; however, a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by the time of Charles V 's death in 1380, the English only held Calais and a few other coastal cities.
It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, who nominally exercised the power of kingship from the date of his accession in 1377. However, between 1377 and 1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency led by the king 's uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt remained highly influential.
Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants ' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381 and an Anglo - Scottish war in 1384 -- 1385. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.
In July 1380, the Earl of Buckingham commanded an expedition to France to aid England 's ally, the Duke of Brittany. The French refused battle before the walls of Troyes on 25 August, so Buckingham 's forces continued their chevauchée and in November laid siege to Nantes. However, expected support from the Duke of Brittany did not appear and, in the face of heavy losses in both men and horses, was forced to abandon the siege in January 1381. In February 1381, now reconciled to the regime of the new French king Charles VI, Brittany paid 50,000 francs to Buckingham for him to abandon the siege and the campaign.
After the deaths of Charles V and du Guesclin in 1380, France lost its main leadership and overall momentum in the war. Charles VI succeeded his father as king of France at the age of 11, and he was thus put under a regency led by his uncles, who managed to maintain an effective grip on government affairs until about 1388, well after Charles had achieved royal majority.
With France facing widespread destruction, plague, and economic recession, high taxation put a heavy burden on the French peasantry and urban communities. The war effort against England largely depended on royal taxation, but the population was increasingly unwilling to pay for it, as would be demonstrated at the Harelle and Maillotin revolts in 1382. Charles V had abolished many of these taxes on his deathbed, but subsequent attempts to reinstate them stirred up hostility between the French government and populace.
Difficulties in raising taxes and revenue hampered the ability of the French to fight the English. At this point, the war 's pace had largely slowed down, and both nations found themselves fighting mainly through proxy wars, such as during the 1383 -- 1385 Portuguese interregnum. The independence party in the Kingdom of Portugal, which was supported by the English, won against the supporters of the King of Castile 's claim to the Portuguese throne, who in turn was backed by the French.
The war became increasingly unpopular with the English public largely due to the high taxes needed to sustain it. These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peasants ' revolt. Richard 's increasing disinterest in the war together with his preferential treatment of a select few close friends and advisors angered an alliance of lords that included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords Appellant, managed to successfully press charges of treason against five of Richard 's advisors and friends in the Merciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to gain control of the council in 1388 and tried, unsuccessfully, to reignite the war in France. Although the will was there, the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumn of 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with the French crown, beginning on 18 June 1389 with the signing of a three - year truce at Leulinghen.
In 1389, Richard 's uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt, returned from Spain and Richard was able to rebuild his power gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his authority and destroyed the principal three among the Lords Appellant. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt 's son, the exiled Henry of Bolingbroke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his supporters and deposed Richard and had himself crowned Henry IV.
In Scotland, the problems brought in by the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill. A dispute over the spoils between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the Percy family by 1408.
In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 1282 -- 1283. The rebellion was finally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.
In 1392, Charles VI suddenly descended into madness, forcing France into a regency dominated by his uncles and his brother. An open conflict for control over the regency began between his uncle Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and his brother, Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans. After Philip 's death, his son and heir John the Fearless continued the struggle against Louis, but with the disadvantage of having no close personal relation to the king. Finding himself outmaneuvered politically, John ordered the assassination of Louis in retaliation. His involvement in the murder was quickly revealed, and the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war. In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who were unable to stop the massacre of Count of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers by a Parisian mob.
Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state - legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He used such privateering campaigns to pressure enemies without risking open war. The French responded in kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.
The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.
Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. The mental illness of Charles VI of France allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgundy. Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI 's youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry to prepare for war.
In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather than march on Paris directly, Henry elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English - occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near - total; the French defeat was catastrophic, costing the lives of many of the Armagnac leaders. About 40 % of the French nobility was killed. Henry was apparently concerned that the large number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were more French prisoners than there were soldiers in the entire English army) and he ordered their deaths.
Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which had taken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI. They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally married Charles ' daughter Catherine of Valois and Henry 's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates - General.
On 22 March 1421 Henry V 's progress in his French campaign experienced an unexpected reverse. Henry had left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. Clarence engaged a Franco - Scottish force of 5000 men, led by Gilbert Motier de La Fayette and John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle of Baugé. Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants, before his army had been fully assembled, attacked with a force of no more than 1500 men - at - arms. He then, during the course of the battle, led a charge of a few hundred men into the main body of the Franco - Scottish army, who quickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing melée, the Scot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lance unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground, the duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan. The body of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from the field by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who conducted the English retreat.
Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris. From there, he decided to attack the Dauphin - held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally falling on 11 May 1422.
At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there, it became apparent that he was ill (possibly dysentery), and when he set out to the Upper Loire, he diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where he died on 31 August 1422. The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died two months later on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine - month - old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.
On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). The war in France continued under Bedford 's generalship and several battles were won. The English won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of his archers. At Verneuil, the archers fought to devastating effect against the Franco - Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin 's field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.
The appearance of Joan of Arc at the siege of Orléans sparked a revival of French spirit, and the tide began to turn against the English. The English laid siege to Orléans in 1428, but their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the troops, and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on the Loire.
The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the village of Patay, French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that had been sent to block the road, then swept through the retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII, on 16 July 1429.
After the coronation, Charles VII 's army fared less well. An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8 September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew to the Loire Valley.
Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at Notre - Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.
Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiègne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians transferred her to the English, who organised a trial headed by Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais and member of the English Council at Rouen. Joan was convicted and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431. (She was rehabilitated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III.)
After the death of Joan of Arc, the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English. Most of Henry 's royal advisers were against making peace. Among the factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais, whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of Burgundy, deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty in France. The Duke of Bedford died on 14 September 1435 and was later replaced by Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York.
The allegiance of Burgundy remained fickle, but the English focus on expanding their domains in the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in the rest of France. The long truces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise the French state and reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillery developed a reputation as the best in the world.
By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen. In 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany), caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen and defeated it at the Battle of Formigny. Richemont 's force attacked the English army from the flank and rear just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont 's army.
After Charles VII 's successful Normandy campaign in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony, the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony 's capital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30 June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people, this was reversed when John Talbot and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were decisively defeated at the Battle of Castillon on 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. During the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII 's ordnance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his son.
Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years ' War, England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years ' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the Roses, that started in 1455.
The Hundred Years ' War almost resumed in 1474, when the duke Charles of Burgundy, counting on English support, took up arms against Louis XI. Louis managed to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV of England off with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years ' War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne of France. However, future Kings of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to claim the title until 1803, when they were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence, titular King Louis XVIII, who was living in England after the French Revolution.
Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, leaving a daughter, Mary, who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy and Burgundy to Louis XI 's armies.
The French victory marked the end of a long period of instability that had started with the Norman Conquest (1066), when William the Conqueror added "King of England '' to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France.
When the war ended, England was bereft of its Continental possessions, leaving it with only Calais on the continent. The war destroyed the English dream of a joint monarchy and led to the rejection in England of all things French, but the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest, left many vestiges in English vocabulary. English became the official language in 1362 and French was no longer used for teaching from 1385.
National feeling that emerged from the war unified both France and England further. Despite the devastation on its soil, the Hundred Years ' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state. In England the political and financial troubles which emerged from the defeat was one major cause of the War of the Roses (1455 -- 1487).
Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to shape England 's early modern political culture. Although anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long - term impact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conflict deemed not in the national interest, yielding only losses in return for high economic burdens. In comparing this English cost - benefit analysis with French attitudes, given that both countries suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French understood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their homeland. Furthermore, French kings found alternative ways to finance the war -- sales taxes, debasing the coinage -- and were less dependent than the English on tax levies passed by national legislatures. English anti-war critics thus had more to work with than the French.
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half its population during the Hundred Years ' War. Normandy lost three - quarters of its population, and Paris two - thirds. The population of England was reduced by 20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.
In 1445 the first regular standing army in Western Europe since Roman times was organised in France partly as a solution to marauding free companies. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the Royal army as compagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors.
The Hundred Years ' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war 's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught. The feudal system was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.
By the war 's end, although the heavy cavalry was still considered the most powerful unit in an army, the heavily armored horse had to deal with several tactics developed to deny or mitigate its effective use on a battlefield. The English began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been developed against the Scots, in the Anglo - Scottish wars of the 14th century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, enabling them to move through difficult or boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage the enemy.
|
after 750 the abbasid caliphate had its capital in | Abbasid Caliphate - wikipedia
The Abbasid Caliphate (/ əˈbæsɪd / or / ˈæbəsɪd / Arabic: ٱلْخِلافَةُ ٱلْعَبَّاسِيَّة al - Khilāfatu al - ' Abbāsiyyah) was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad 's uncle, Al - Abbas ibn Abd al - Muttalib (566 -- 653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern - day Iraq, after having overthrown over the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH).
The Abbasid Caliphate first centred its government in Kufa, modern - day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al - Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the Sasanian capital city of Ctesiphon. The Abbasid period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats (notably the Barmakid family) for governing the territories conquered by Arab Muslims as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (national community). Persianate customs were broadly adopted by the ruling elite, and they started supporting artists and scholars. Baghdad became a centre of science, culture, philosophy and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam.
Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients) and Iranian bureaucrats. They were forced to cede authority over Al - Andalus and the Maghreb to the Umayyads in 756, Morocco to the Idrisid dynasty in 788, Ifriqiya to the Aghlabids in 800 and Egypt to the Shi'ite Caliphate of the Fatimids in 969. The political power of the caliphs largely ended with the rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, which each captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055 respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function, the dynasty retained control over its Mesopotamian domain.
The Abbasids ' period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid line of rulers, and Muslim culture in general, re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, the dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al - Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Prophet Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad.
The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ''. The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship - based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn ' Ali, a great - grandson of Abbas, began to campaign for the return of power to the family of Prophet Muhammad, the Hashimites, in Persia during the reign of Umar II.
During the reign of Marwan II, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khorasan, Persia, even though the governor opposed them, and the Shi'i Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in the year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison.
On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim, rising from Khorasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim 's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahāvand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748.
The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim 's brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al - ' Abbas as - Saffah, who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the battle near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph. After this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he was subsequently assassinated. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated.
Immediately after their victory, As - Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia, where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas. The noble Iranian family Barmakids, who were instrumental in building Baghdad, introduced the world 's first recorded paper mill in the city, thus beginning a new era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. As - Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia. The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions.
The first change the Abbasids, under Al - Mansur, made was to move the empire 's capital from Damascus, in Syria, to Baghdad in Iraq. This was to both appease as well to be closer to the Persian mawali support base that existed in this region more influenced by Persian history and culture, and part of the Persian mawali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. Baghdad was established on the Tigris River in 762. A new position, that of the vizier, was also established to delegate central authority, and even greater authority was delegated to local emirs.
This eventually meant that many Abbasid caliphs were relegated to a more ceremonial role than under the Umayyads, as the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy. During Al - Mansur 's time control of Al - Andalus was lost, and the Shiites revolted and were defeated a year later at the Battle of Bakhamra.
The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Abu al - ' Abbas ' successor, Al - Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads.
These fissures in their support led to immediate problems. The Umayyads, while out of power, were not destroyed. The only surviving member of the Umayyad royal family, which had been all but annihilated, ultimately made his way to Spain where he established himself as an independent Emir (Abd ar - Rahman I, 756). In 929, Abd ar - Rahman III assumed the title of Caliph, establishing Al Andalus from Córdoba as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.
In 756, the Abbasid Caliph Al - Mansur sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tang dynasty in the An Shi Rebellion against An Lushan. The Abbasides or "Black Flags, '' as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí, "The Black - robed Tazi '', (黑 衣 大 食) ("Tazi '' being a borrowing from Persian Tāzī, the word for "Arab ''). Al - Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al - Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from the Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the T'ang Annals, the most important of these being those of Abul Abbas al - Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, Abu Jafar and Harun al - Rashid.
The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750 -- 800), under several competent caliphs and their viziers to overcome the political challenges created by the far flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it and usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order. It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of al - Mansur, Harun al - Rashid, and al - Ma'mun, that the reputation and power of the dynasty was created.
Al - Mahdi restarted the fighting with the Byzantines and his sons continued the conflict until Empress Irene pushed for peace. After several years of peace, Nikephoros I broke the treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the Taurus Mountains culminating with a victory at the Battle of Krasos and the massive invasion of 806, led by Rashid himself.
Rashid 's navy also proved successful as he took Cyprus. Eventually, the momentum turned and much of the land gained was lost. Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of Rafi ibn al - Layth in Khorasan and died while there. While the Byzantine Empire was fighting Abbasid rule in Syria and Anatolia, military operations during this period were minimal, as the caliphate focused on internal matters, its governors exerting greater autonomy and using their increasing power to make their positions hereditary.
At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenges closer to home. Harun al - Rashid turned on the Barmakids, a Persian family that had grown significantly in power within the administration of the state and killed most of the family. During the same period, several factions began either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire away from the Abbasids. The reign of al - Rashid and his sons were considered to be the apex of the Abbasids.
After Rashid 's death, the empire was split by a civil war between the caliph al - Amin and his brother al - Ma'mun who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two - year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of al - Amin in 813. Al - Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion supported by the Byzantines in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites. Al - Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and the continued repulsing of Byzantine forays.
Al - Mu'tasim gained power in 833 and his rule marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with Turkish mercenaries and promptly restarted the war with the Byzantines. His military excursions were generally successful culminating with a resounding victory in the Sack of Amorium. His attempt at seizing Constantinople failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm. The Byzantines restarted the fighting by sacking Damietta in Egypt. Al - Mutawakkil responded by sending his troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated in 863.
Even by 820, the Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in Transoxiana and Greater Khorasan, as had the Shia Hamdanids in Northern Syria, and the succeeding Tahirid and Saffarid dynasties of Iran. The Saffarids, from Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, and the Tulunids took control of most of Syria. The trend of weakening of the central power and strengthening of the minor caliphates on the periphery continued.
An exception was the 10 - year period of Al - Mu'tadid 's rule. He brought parts of Egypt, Syria, and Khorasan back into the Abbasid 's control. Especially after the "Anarchy at Samarra '', the Abbasid central government was weakened and centrifugal tendencies became more prominent in the Caliphate 's provinces. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of Iraq to various amirs, and the caliph al - Radi was forced to acknowledge their power by creating the position of "Prince of Princes '' (amir al - umara).
Al - Mustakfi had a short reign from 944 -- 946, and it was during this period that the Persian faction known as the Buyids from Daylam swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of Miskawayh, they began distributing iqtas (fiefs in the form of tax farms) to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years. The loss of Abbasid power to the Buyids would shift as the Seljuks would take over from the Persians.
At the end of the eighth century the Abbasids found they could no longer keep a huge polity larger than that of Rome together from Baghdad. In 793 the Shi'ite dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al - Mu'tasim started the downward slide by utilizing non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs.
By the 870s Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun. In the East as well, governors decreased their ties to the center. The Saffarids of Herat and the Samanids of Bukhara had broken away from the 870s, cultivating a much more Persianate culture and statecraft. By this time only the central lands of Mesopotamia were under direct Abbasid control, with Palestine and the Hijaz often managed by the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, had begun to push Arab Muslims farther east in Anatolia.
By the 920s, the situation had changed further, as North Africa was lost to the Abbasids. A Shi'ite sect only recognizing the first five Imams and tracing its roots to Muhammad 's daughter Fatima took control of Idrisi and then Aghlabid domains. Called the Fatimid dynasty, they had advanced to Egypt in 969, establishing their capital near Fustat in Cairo, which they built as a bastion of Shi'ite learning and politics. By 1000 they had become the chief political and ideological challenge to Sunni Islam in the form of the Abbasids. By this time the latter state had fragmented into several governorships that, while recognizing caliphal authority from Baghdad, did mostly as they wanted, fighting with each other. The Caliph himself was under ' protection ' of the Buyid Emirs who possessed all of Iraq and western Iran, and were quietly Shi'ite in their sympathies.
Outside Iraq, all the autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the Soomro Emirs that had gained control of Sindh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Mansura. Mahmud of Ghazni took the title of sultan, as opposed to the "amir '' that had been in more common usage, signifying the Ghaznavid Empire 's independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud 's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph 's name in the Friday khutba, or struck it off their coinage.
The Ismaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested the Abbasids for even the titular authority of the Islamic ummah. They commanded some support in the Shia sections of Baghdad (such as Karkh), although Baghdad was the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the Buyid and Seljuq eras. The Fatimids ' green banners contrasted with Abbasids ' black, and the challenge of the Fatimids only ended with their downfall in the 12th century.
Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by the Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al - Sabi ', and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned after the death of Baha ' al - Daula, the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al - Qadir, for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent the outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun '
With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs. By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took any remaining temporal power. When the amir and former slave Basasiri took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in, the caliph al - Qa'im was unable to defeat him without outside help. Toghril Beg, the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty.
Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans Alp Arslan and Malikshah, as well as their vizier Nizam al - Mulk, took up residence in Persia, but held power over the Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again.
While the Caliph al - Mustarshid was the first caliph to build an army capable of meeting a Seljuk army in battle, he was nonetheless defeated in 1135 and assassinated. The Caliph al - Muqtafi was the first Abbasid Caliph to regain the full military independence of the Caliphate, with the help of his vizier Ibn Hubayra. After nearly 250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, he successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the siege of Baghdad (1157), thus securing Iraq for the Abbasids. The reign of al - Nasir (d. 1225) brought the caliphate back into power throughout Iraq, based in large part on the Sufi futuwwa organizations that the caliph headed. Al - Mustansir built the Mustansiriya School, in an attempt to eclipse the Seljuq - era Nizamiyya built by Nizam al - Mulk.
In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia. During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus ') in the west. Hulagu Khan 's destruction of Baghdad in 1258 is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age. Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if the blood of Al - Musta'sim, a direct descendant of Muhammad 's uncle Al - ' Abbas ibn ' Abd al - Muttalib, and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shiites of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the deaths of Husayn ibn Ali; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al - Musta'sim wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The Caliph 's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the harem of Hulagu.
In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab origin people, known as Mamluks. This force, created in the reign of al - Ma'mun (813 -- 33) and his brother and successor al - Mu'tasim (833 -- 42), prevented the further disintegration of the empire. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al - Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until al - Radi (934 -- 41) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq.
The Mamluks eventually came to power in Egypt. In 1261, following the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al - Mustansir. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al - Mutawakkil III, who was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.
The Abbasid historical period lasting to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr '' stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world 's knowledge into Arabic. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations. "In virtually every field of endeavor -- in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth -- the Caliphate 's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance. ''
The reigns of Harun al - Rashid (786 -- 809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement. In large part, this was the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the Umayyad regime, which relied on the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to legitimacy, and the Abbasids ' welcoming of support from non-Arab Muslims. It is well established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on that of the Sassanids. Harun al - Rashid 's son, Al - Ma'mun (whose mother was Persian), is even quoted as saying:
The Persians ruled for a thousand years and did not need us Arabs even for a day. We have been ruling them for one or two centuries and can not do without them for an hour.
A number of medieval thinkers and scientists living under Islamic rule played a role in transmitting Islamic science to the Christian West. In addition, the period saw the recovery of much of the Alexandrian mathematical, geometric and astronomical knowledge, such as that of Euclid and Claudius Ptolemy. These recovered mathematical methods were later enhanced and developed by other Islamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists Al - Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur.
Christians (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture, with the Jundishapur school being prominent in the late Sassanid, Umayyad and early Abbasid periods. Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian Bukhtishu family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the eighth and eleventh centuries. Algebra was significantly developed by Persian scientist Muhammad ibn Mūsā al - Khwārizmī during this time in his landmark text, Kitab al - Jabr wa - l - Muqabala, from which the term algebra is derived. He is thus considered to be the father of algebra by some, although the Greek mathematician Diophantus has also been given this title. The terms algorism and algorithm are derived from the name of al - Khwarizmi, who was also responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals and Hindu - Arabic numeral system beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Arab scientist Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) developed an early scientific method in his Book of Optics (1021). The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al - Haytham 's empirical proof of the intromission theory of light (that is, that light rays entered the eyes rather than being emitted by them) was particularly important. Alhazen was significant in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to experimentation, and has been referred to as the "world 's first true scientist ''.
Medicine in medieval Islam was an area of science that advanced particularly during the Abbasids ' reign. During the 9th century, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors, and great discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox was described during this time. Famous Persian scientist Ibn Sina (known to the West as Avicenna) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated, and was very influential through his encyclopedias, The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing. The work of him and many others directly influenced the research of European scientists during the Renaissance.
Astronomy in medieval Islam was advanced by Al - Battani, who improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth 's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al - Battani, Averroes, Nasir al - Din al - Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al - Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was developed further by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and subsequently brought to medieval Europe.
Muslim alchemists influenced medieval European alchemists, particularly the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber). A number of chemical processes such as distillation techniques were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe.
The best known fiction from the Islamic world is The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, a collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbassid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from Arabic, Persian, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights '' when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights. This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.
A famous example of Islamic poetry on romance was Layla and Majnun, an originaly Arabic story which was further developed by Iranian, Azerbaijani and other poets in Persian, Azerbaijani, Turkish languages. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet.
Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to the caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as al - Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts.
One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy '' is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. '' Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. Their works on Aristotle was a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas.
Three speculative thinkers, al - Kindi, al - Farabi, and Avicenna, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as a result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include al - Jahiz, and Ibn al - Haytham (Alhacen).
As the power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architecture styles changed also. The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the Sasanian Empire utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco. Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire. First, starting with the creation of Baghdad, starting in 762, which was planned as a walled city with a mosque and palace in the center. The walls were to have four gates to exit the city. Al - Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned the city of Raqqa, along the Euphrates. Finally, in 836, al - Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race - courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere. Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. Al - Ukhaidir Fortress is a fine example of this type of building which has stables, living quarters, and a mosque, all surrounding inner courtyards. Other mosques of this era, such as the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, in Cairo, and the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia while ultimately built during the Umayyad dynasty, it was substantially renovated in the 9th century. This renovation was so extensive as to ostensibly be a rebuild, was in the furthest reaches of the Muslim world, in an area that the Aghlabids controlled; however the styles utilized were mainly of the Abbasids. Mesopotamia only has one surviving mausoleum from this era, in Samarra. This octagonal dome is the final resting place of al - Muntasir. Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the four - centered arch, and a dome erected on squinches. Unfortunately, much was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles.
The Near East has, since Roman times, been recognized as a center of quality glassware and crystal. 9th century finds from Samarra show styles similar to Sassanian forms. The types of objects made were bottles, flasks, vases, and cups utilized for domestic use. Decorations on these domestic items include molded flutes, honeycomb patterns, and inscriptions. Other styles seen that may not have come from the Sassanians were stamped items. These were typically round stamps, such as medallions or disks with animals, birds, or Kufic inscriptions. Colored lead glass, typically blue or green, have been found in Nishapur, along with prismatic perfume bottles. Finally, cut glass may have been the high point of Abbasid glass - working, decorated with floral and animal designs.
Early Abbasid painting has not survived in great quantities, and sometimes harder to differentiate; however Samarra is a good example as it was built by the Abbasids and abandoned 56 years later. The walls of the principal rooms of the palace that has been excavated show wall paintings and lively carved stucco dadoes. The style is obviously adopted with little variation from Sassanian art, as not only the styles is similar with harems, animals, and dancing people, all enclosed in scrollwork, but also the garments are Persian. Nishapur had its own school of painting. Excavations at Nishapur show artwork both monochrome and polychrome from the 8th and 9th centuries. One famous piece of art consists of hunting nobles with falcons and on horseback, in full regalia; the clothing identifies him as Tahirid, which was again, a sub-dynasty of the Abbasids. Other styles are of vegetation, and fruit in nice colors on a four foot high dedo.
Whereas painting and architecture were not areas of strength for the Abbasid dynasty, pottery was a different story. The Islamic culture as a whole and the Abbasid 's, in particular, were at the forefront of new ideas and techniques. Some examples of their work were pieces engraved with decorations and then colored with yellow - brown, green, and purple glazes. Designs were diverse with geometric patterns, Kufic lettering, arabesque scrollwork, along with rosettes, animals, birds, and humans. Abbasid pottery from the 8th and 9th centuries have been found throughout the region, as far as Cairo. These were generally made with a yellow clay and fired multiple times with separate glazes to produce metallic luster in shades of gold, brown, or red. By the 9th century, the potters had mastered their techniques and their decorative designs could be divided into two styles. The Persian style would show animals, birds, humans, along with Kufic lettering in gold. Pieces excavated from Samarra exceed in vibrancy and beauty any from later periods. These predominantly being made for the Caliphs use. Tiles were also made utilizing this same technique to create both monochromic and polychromic luster tiles.
Egypt being a center of the textile industry was part of the Abbasid cultural advancement. Copts were employed in the textile industry and produced linens and silks. Tinnis was famous for its factories and had over 5,000 looms. Kasab, a fine linen for turbans and badana for garments of the upper class to name a couple. In a town named Tuna near Tinnis, was made the kiswah for the kaaba in Mecca. Fine silk was also made in Dabik and Damietta. Of particular interest is the stamped and inscribed fabrics. Not only did they utilize inks but also liquid gold. Some of the finer pieces were colored in such a manner as to require six separate stamps to achieve the proper design and color. This technology spread to Europe eventually.
In technology, the Abbasids adopted papermaking from China. The use of paper spread from China into the caliphate in the 8th century CE, arriving in al - Andalus (Islamic Spain) and then the rest of Europe in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it ideal for making records and making copies of the Koran. "Islamic paper makers devised assembly - line methods of hand - copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries. '' It was from the Abbasids that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen. The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via the caliphate, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.
Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al - Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Apart from the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant (known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. Abbasid sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large three masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab ship known as the qārib. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Abbasid caliphate between China and Europe.
Engineers in the Abbasid caliphate made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and petroleum (notably by distillation into kerosene). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal - wheeled and vertical - wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. By the time of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic world had mills in operation, from al - Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. These mills performed a variety of agricultural and industrial tasks. Abbasid engineers also developed machines (such as pumps) incorporating crankshafts, employed gears in mills and water - raising machines, and used dams to provide additional power to watermills and water - raising machines. Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread from Islamic to Christian Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills, and forge mills were recorded for the first time in Catalonia.
A number of industries were generated during the Arab Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for textiles, sugar, rope - making, matting, silk, and paper. Latin translations of the 12th century passed on knowledge of chemistry and instrument making in particular. The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.
In contrast to the earlier era, women in Abbasid society were absent from all arenas of the community 's central affairs. While their Muslim forbearers led men into battle, started rebellions, and played an active role in community life, as demonstrated in the Hadith literature, Abbasid women were ideally kept in seclusion. Conquests had brought enormous wealth and large numbers of slaves to the Muslim elite. The majority of the slaves were women and children, many of whom had been dependents or harem - members of the defeated Sassanian upper classes. In the wake of the conquests an elite man could potentially own a thousand slaves, and ordinary soldiers could have ten people serving them.
Nabia Abbott, preeminent historian of elite women of the Abbasid Caliphate, describes the lives of harem women as follows.
The choicest women were imprisoned behind heavy curtains and locked doors, the strings and keys of which were entrusted into the hands of that pitiable creature -- the eunuch. As the size of the harem grew, men indulged to satiety. Satiety within the individual harem meant boredom for the one man and neglect for the many women. Under these conditions... satisfaction by perverse and unnatural means crept into society, particularly in its upper classes.
The marketing of human beings, particularly women, as objects for sexual use meant that elite men owned the vast majority of women they interacted with, and related to them as would masters to slaves. Being a slave meant relative lack of autonomy during this time period, and belonging to a harem caused a wife and her children to have little insurance of stability and continued support due to the volatile politics of harem life.
Elite men expressed in literature the horror they felt for the humiliation and degradation of their daughters and female relatives. For example, the verses addressed to Hasan ibn al - Firat on the death of his daughter read:
Even so, courtesans and princesses produced prestigious and important poetry. Enough survives to give us access to women 's historical experiences, and reveals some vivacious and powerful figures, such as the Sufi mystic Raabi'a al - Adwiyya (714 -- 801 CE), the princess and poet ' Ulayya bint al - Mahdi (777 -- 825 CE), and the singing - girls Shāriyah (c. 815 -- 70 CE), Fadl Ashsha'ira (d. 871 CE) and Arib al - Ma'muniyya (797 -- 890 CE).
In Baghdad there were many Abbasid military leaders who were or said they were of Arab descent. However, the bulk of the army were of Persian origin, the vast majority being from Khorasan and Transoxania, not from western Iran or Azerbaijan.
The unit organization of the Abbasids was designed with the goal of ethnic and racial equality among supporters. When Abu Muslim recruited mixed Arab and Iranian officers along the Silk Road, he registered them based not on their tribal or ethno - national affiliations but on their current places of residence.
While the Abbasids originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, ironically during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabized. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe.
Abbasids found themselves at odds with the Shia Muslims, most of whom had supported their war against the Umayyads, since the Abbasids and the Shias claimed legitimacy by their familial connection to Prophet Muhammad. Once in power, the Abbasids embraced Sunni Islam and disavowed any support for Shi'a beliefs. Shortly thereafter, Berber Kharijites set up an independent state in North Africa in 801. Within 50 years the Idrisids in the Maghreb and Aghlabids of Ifriqiya and a little later the Tulunids and Ikshidids of Misr were effectively independent in Africa. The Abbasid authority began to deteriorate during the reign of al - Radi when their Turkic Army generals, who already had de facto independence, stopped paying the Caliphate. Even provinces close to Baghdad began to seek local dynastic rule. Also, the Abbasids found themselves to often be at conflict with the Umayyads in Spain. The Abbasid financial position weakened as well, with tax revenues from the Sawād decreasing in the 9th and 10th centuries.
The Abbasid Caliphate differed from others in that it did not have the same borders and extent as Islam. Particularly, in the west of the Caliphate, there were multiple smaller caliphates that existed in relative peace with them. This list represents the succession of Islamic dynasties that emerged from the fractured Abbasid empire by their general geographic location. Dynasties often overlap, where a vassal emir revolted from and later conquered his lord. Gaps appear during periods of contest where the dominating power was unclear. Except for the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, recognizing a Shi'ite succession through Ali, and the Andalusian Caliphates of the Umayyads and Almohads, every Muslim dynasty at least acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of the Abbasids as Caliph and Commander of the Faithful.
In 656 AH / 1258 CE, the year of the fall of Baghdad, and following the sack of the city, a few surviving members of the Abbasid dynastic family led by the eldest amongst them, Ismail II son of Hamza son of Ahmed son of Mohamed, made their way into the region of Fars in Southern Persia. They settled in the city of Khonj, then a great centre for learning and scholarship. Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji (b. 661 AH -- d. 746 AH) son of Abbas son of Ismail II was born in Khonj only five years after the fall of Baghdad and the arrival of his grandfather in the city. He became a great religious scholar and Sufi saint, held in high esteem by the local populace. His tomb still stands in Khonj and is a site visited by people from near and far.
The descendants of Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji were religious scholars and figures of great respect and repute for generation after generation. One such scholar and direct descendant of Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji in the male line, Shaikh Mohamed (d. around 905 AH) son of Shaikh Jaber son of Shaikh Ismail IV, moved to Bastak. His grandson, Shaikh Mohamed the Elder (d. 950 or 975 AH) son of Shaikh Nasser al - Din Ahmed son of Shaikh Mohamed, settled in Khonj for a time. But in 938 AH, in response to growing Safavid power, Shaikh Mohamed the Elder moved permanently to Bastak as his grandfather had done. His own grandson, Shaikh Hassan (d. 1084 AH) (also called Mulla Hassan) son of Shaikh Mohamed the Younger son of Shaikh Mohamed the Elder, is the common ancestor of all the Abbasids of Bastak and its neighbouring areas.
Shaikh Hassan 's grandsons, Shaikh Mohamed Saeed (b. 1096 AH -- d. 1152 AH) and Shaikh Mohamed Khan (b. 1113 AH -- d. 1197 AH) son of Shaikh Abdulqader son of Shaikh Hassan, became the first two Abbasid rulers of the region. In 1137 AH, Shaikh Mohamed Saeed began gathering support for an armed force. Following the capture of Lar, he ruled the city and its dependencies for 12 or 14 years before dying in 1152 AH.
Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki, his brother, was meanwhile the ruler of Bastak and the region of Jahangiriyeh. In 1161 AH, Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki departed for Didehban Fortress, leaving Bastak and its dependencies in the hands of his eldest son Shaikh Mohamed Sadeq and his cousin Agha Hassan Khan son of Mulla Ismail. Shaikh Mohamed Khan ruled Jahangiriyeh from Didehban Fortress for a period of roughly 20 to 24 years, for which reason he has been referred to as Shaikh Mohamed "Didehban ''. He eventually returned to Bastak and continued to reign from there up to the time of his death. At the height of his rule, the Khanate of Bastak included not only the region of Jahangiriyeh, but its power also extended to Lar and Bandar Abbas as well as their dependencies, not to mention several islands in the Persian Gulf.
Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki was the first Abbasid ruler of Bastak to hold the title of "Khan '' (Persian: خان, Arabic: الحاكم), meaning "ruler '' or "king '', which was bestowed upon him by Karim Khan Zand. The title then became that of all the subsequent Abbasid rulers of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh, and also collectively refers in plural form -- i.e., "Khans '' (Persian: خوانين) - to the descendants of Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki.
The last Abbasid ruler of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh was Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian son of Mohamed Reza Khan "Satvat al - Mamalek '' Baniabbasi. He authored the book Tarikh - e Jahangiriyeh va Baniabbassian - e Bastak (1960), in which is recounted the history of the region and the Abbasid family that ruled it. Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian died in 1967, a year regarded as marking the end of the Abbasid reign in Bastak.
|
when did ireland win the grand slam last | Grand Slam (rugby union) - wikipedia
In rugby union, a Grand Slam (Irish: Caithréim Mhór. Welsh: Y Gamp Lawn. French: Grand Chelem) occurs when one team in the Six Nations Championship (or its Five Nations predecessor) manages to beat all the others during one year 's competition. This has been achieved 39 times in total, for the first time by Wales in 1908, and most recently by Ireland in 2018. The team to have won the most Grand Slams is England with 13.
In another context, a Grand Slam tour refers to a touring side -- South Africa, Australia or New Zealand -- which plays fixtures against all four home nations (England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales) during their tour. If the tourists then win all of those matches, they are said to have achieved a Grand Slam. This has been done nine times, first by South Africa in 1912 -- 13, and most recently by New Zealand in 2010.
In the annual Six Nations Championship (among England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, France and Italy), and its predecessor the Five Nations Championship (before Italy joined in 2000), a Grand Slam occurs when one team beats all of the others during one year 's competition. The Grand Slam winners are awarded the Six Nations trophy (as tournament winners), but there is no special grand slam trophy -- the Grand Slam is an informal honour recognizing a Championship - winning team which has won all their games.
Although the term grand slam had long been in use in the game of contract bridge, the first time that the expression is known to have been applied to rugby union was in 1957, in a preview of a match between England and Scotland:
There is much more than usual at stake for England to - day in the match against Scotland at Twickenham... The last time when England achieved the Grand Slam under present conditions was as long ago as the 1927 -- 28 season, but it is difficult to try to build up a case against her repeating the performance to - day.
The Grand Slam honour is applied retroactively to teams which won all of their matches in Five Nations tournaments before the term came into use. It is also applied to the 1908 and 1909 seasons, when matches with France took place during, but outside of, the then Home Nations Championships. However the Grand Slam honour is not applied to seasons in which only the four home nations were involved (1883 -- 1907 and 1932 -- 1939) -- in that case a team that won all its matches is said to have achieved the Triple Crown. This honour is still competed for between the four home nations within the Six Nations Championship, and any Grand Slam - winning home nation will necessarily also win the Triple Crown.
A Grand Slam was therefore available in the years 1908 -- 1931 and 1947 -- 1999 (Five Nations) and 2000 -- 2016 (Six Nations), a total of 94 seasons to date. Grand Slams were in fact achieved on 39 of these occasions -- 13 by England, 11 by Wales, 9 by France, 3 by Scotland and 3 by Ireland. (Italy, involved in the tournament since 2000, have yet to win a Grand Slam.)
Consecutive Grand Slams have been won by Wales in 1908 -- 1909, by England in 1913 -- 1914, 1923 -- 1924 and 1991 -- 1992, and by France in 1997 -- 1998. No team has yet achieved three consecutive Grand Slams.
Prior to 2000, each team played four matches, two at home and two away from home. Following the inclusion of Italy in 2000, each team plays five matches, two at home and three away in one year, and the opposite in the following season. When Wales won the Grand Slam in 2005, it was the first time that the feat had been achieved by a team that had played more matches away than at home. This was repeated by Ireland in 2009 and by England in 2016.
The 2017 Six Nations Championship will use bonus points on a trial basis. A team that wins the Grand Slam will get three bonus points. This will eliminate the possibility of a Grand Slam winner losing the championship on bonus points.
* In 1908 and 1909 matches with France were played, although they were not part of the Championship.
A Grand Slam tour is one in which a touring national team from New Zealand, South Africa or Australia plays Test matches against all four home nations (England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland). If the tourists win all four of these games, they are said to have achieved a Grand Slam.
Grand Slams by touring teams have been achieved nine times: four times each by South Africa and New Zealand, and once by Australia.
Australia is the only country to have lost against all four home nations, on their 1957 -- 58 tour.
After 1984, Southern Hemisphere sides started to tour the British Isles more frequently, but to play fewer Tests on each tour, and thus there were no Grand Slam tours between 1984 and 1998. However, since 1998 Grand Slam tours have become quite common again, as the number of Tests on each tour has again increased. The All Blacks ' tours of 2005 and 2008 were originally planned to include only three Test matches; the late inclusion of matches against Wales and England respectively turned these into Grand Slam tours.
|
who proposed an influential model of working memory | Baddeley 's model of working memory - wikipedia
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed a model of working memory in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory (often referred to as short - term memory). Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.
Baddeley & Hitch proposed their three part working memory model as an alternative to the short - term store in Atkinson & Shiffrin 's ' multi-store ' memory model (1968). This model is later expanded upon by Baddeley and other co-workers to add a fourth component, and has become the dominant view in the field of working memory. However, alternative models are developing (see working memory) providing a different perspective on the working memory system.
The original model of Baddeley & Hitch was composed of three main components; the central executive which acts as supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo - spatial sketchpad. The phonological loop stores verbal content, whereas the visuo - spatial sketchpad caters to visuo - spatial data. Both the slave systems only function as short - term storage centers. In 2000 Baddeley added a third slave system to his model, the episodic buffer.
Baddeley & Hitch 's argument for the distinction of two domain - specific slave systems in the older model was derived from experimental findings with dual - task paradigms. Performance of two simultaneous tasks requiring the use of two separate perceptual domains (i.e. a visual and a verbal task) is nearly as efficient as performance of the tasks individually. In contrast, when a person tries to carry out two tasks simultaneously that use the same perceptual domain, performance is less efficient than when performing the tasks individually.
The central executive is a flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It directs focus and targets information, making working memory and long term memory work together. It can be thought of as a supervisory system that controls cognitive processes making sure short term store is activity working and intervenes when they go astray and prevents distractions.
It has the following functions:
The central executive has two main systems: the visuo - spatial sketchpad, for visual information, and the phonological loop, for verbal information.
Using the dual - task paradigm, Baddeley and Erses have found, for instance, that patients with Alzheimer 's dementia are impaired when performing multiple tasks simultaneously, even when the difficulty of the individual tasks is adapted to their abilities. Two tasks include a memory tasks and a tracking task. Individual actions are completed well, but as the Alzheimer becomes more prominent in a patient, performing two or more actions becomes more and more difficult. This research has shown the deteriorating of the central executive in individuals with Alzheimers.
Recent research on executive functions suggests that the ' central ' executive is not as central as conceived in the Baddeley & Hitch model. Rather, there seem to be separate executive functions that can vary largely independently between individuals and can be selectively impaired or spared by brain damage.
The phonological loop (or "articulatory loop '') as a whole deals with sound or phonological information. It consists of two parts: a short - term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory traces.
Any auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into the phonological store. Visually presented language can be transformed into phonological code by silent articulation and thereby be encoded into the phonological store. This transformation is facilitated by the articulatory control process. The phonological store acts as an "inner ear '', remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whilst the articulatory process acts as an "inner voice '' and repeats the series of words (or other speech elements) on a loop to prevent them from decaying. The phonological loop may play a key role in the acquisition of vocabulary, particularly in the early childhood years. It may also be vital for learning a second language.
Five main findings provide evidence for the phonological loop:
An accumulation of literature across decades has lent strong support to the theory of phonological STS. In a 1971 study, Stephen Madigan demonstrated that a larger recency effect is seen during forward serial recall when people are presented a list auditorally as opposed to visually. (A smaller effect is seen in backwards serial recall.) In his study, auditory presentation led to greater recall of the most recently studied items. Catherine Penney expanded on this discovery to observe that modality effects can also be found in the case of free recall tasks. In 1965, Dallett had discovered that this observed modality effect is greatly reduced by the addition of a "suffix '' item to the presented list; this suffix is a distractor item that is not to be recalled. Robert Greene utilized this observation in 1987 to discover that this suffix effect has a larger impact on lists learned auditorally as opposed to visually. The culmination of all of these findings results in strong support of the theory that there is a short - term store that phonologically stores recently learned items. In addition, Bloom and Watkins found that the suffix effect is greatly diminished when the suffix is not interpreted as linguistic sound, which agrees with the phonological short term store theory as it would be largely unaffected by non-linguistic distractors.
Alan Baddeley 's theory of working memory has yet another aspect to which memory can be stored short term. The visuo - spatial sketchpad is this store that holds visual information for manipulation. The visuo - spatial sketchpad is thought to be its own storage of working memory in that it does not interfere with the short term processes of the phonological loop. In research, it has been found that the visuo - spatial sketchpad can work simultaneously with the phonological loop to process both auditory and visual stimuli without either of the processes affecting the efficacy of the other. Baddeley re-defined the theory of short - term memory as a working memory to explain this phenomenon. In the original theory of short - term memory, it is understood that a person only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit - span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short - term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long - term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.
However, visuo - spatial short - term memory can retain visual and / or spatial information over brief periods of time. When this memory is in use, individuals are able to momentarily create and revisit a mental image that can be manipulated in complex or difficult tasks of spatial orientation. There are some who have disparities in the areas of the brain that allow for this to happen from different types of brain damage. There can also be a misunderstanding here in the differences between transient memories such as the visual sensory memory. A transient memory is merely a fleeting type of sensory memory. Therefore, as the visual sensory memory is a type or sensory memory, there is a store for the information, but the store last for only a second or so. A common effect of the visual sensory memory is that individuals may remember seeing things that were n't really there or not remembering particular things that were in their line of sight. The memory is only momentary, and if it is n't attended to within a matter of seconds, it is gone.
There are two different pathways in the brain that control different functions of what is known inclusively as the visuo - spatial sketchpad. The sketchpad consists of the spatial short - term memory and the object memory. The spatial short - term memory is how one is able to learn and thus remember "where '' they are in comparative representation to other objects. The object memory of the visuo - spatial sketchpad is essential in learning and remembering "what '' an object is. It should be noted that the differences between these two differing visual abilities is due in large part because of different pathways of each of the abilities in the brain. The visual pathway in the brain that detects spatial representation of a person to and within their environment is the dorsal stream. The visual pathway that determines objects shapes, sizes, colors and other definitive characteristics is called the ventral stream. Each of these two streams runs independent of one another so that the visual system may process one without the other (like in brain damage for instance) or both simultaneously. The two streams do not depend on one another, so if one is functioning manipulatively, the other can still send its information through.
Logie has proposed that the visuo - spatial sketchpad can be further subdivided into two components:
Three main findings provide evidence for the distinction between visual and spatial parts of the visuospatial sketchpad:
In 2000 Baddeley added a fourth component to the model, the episodic buffer. This component is a limited capacity passive system, dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or episodic chronological ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene. The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long - term memory and semantic meaning.
"It acts as a buffer store, not only between the components of Working Memory, but also linking Working Memory to perception and Long - Term Memory ''. Baddeley assumes that "retrieval from the buffer occurred through conscious awareness ''. The episodic buffer allows individuals to use integrated units of information they already have to imagine new concepts. Since this is likely "an attention - demanding process... the buffer would depend heavily on the Central Executive ''.
The main motivation for introducing this component was the observation that some (in particular, highly intelligent) patients with amnesia, who presumably have no ability to encode new information in long - term memory, nevertheless have good short - term recall of stories, recalling much more information than could be held in the phonological loop. "The episodic buffer appears... capable of storing bound features and making them available to conscious awareness but not itself responsible for the process of binding ''.
It is assumed that "conscious access to the phonological loop or sketchpad may operate via the buffer ''. This is based on the assumption that both the visuo - spatial sketchpad and phonological loop act as minor buffers, combining information within their sensory area. The episodic buffer may also interact with smell and taste.
There is much evidence for a brief memory buffer, as distinct from the long term store. The phonological loop seems to be connected to activation in the left hemisphere, more specifically the temporal lobe. The visuo - spatial sketchpad activates different areas depending on task difficulty; less intense tasks seem to activate in the occipital lobe, whereas more complex tasks appear in the parietal lobe. The central executive is still a mystery, although it would seem to be more or less located in the frontal lobes of the brain. The episodic buffer seems to be in both hemispheres (bilateral) with activations in both the frontal and temporal lobes, and even the left portion of the hippocampus. In terms of genetics, the gene ROBO1 has been associated with phonological buffer integrity or length.
The strength of Baddeley 's model is its ability to integrate a large number of findings from work on short - term and working memory. Additionally, the mechanisms of the slave systems, especially the phonological loop, has inspired a wealth of research in experimental psychology, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.
However, criticisms have been raised, for instance of the phonological - loop component, because some details of the findings are not easily explained by the original Baddeley & Hitch model.
The episodic buffer is seen as a helpful addition to the model of working memory, but it has not been investigated extensively and its functions remain unclear.
|
when do the different seasons start and end | Season - wikipedia
A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and amount of daylight. On Earth, seasons result from Earth 's orbit around the Sun and Earth 's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant.
During May, June, and July, the Northern Hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the Sun. The same is true of the Southern Hemisphere in November, December, and January. It is Earth 's axial tilt that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months, which increases the solar flux. However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.
In temperate and subpolar regions, four calendar - based seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter. Ecologists often use a six - season model for temperate climate regions: prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, autumnal, and hibernal. Many tropical regions have two seasons: the rainy, wet, or monsoon season and the dry season. Some have a third cool, mild, or harmattan season. Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies, whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times, and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual.
In some parts of the world, some other "seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season, tornado season, and wildfire season. The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood, growth, and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt.
The seasons result from the Earth 's axis of rotation being tilted with respect to its orbital plane by an angle of approximately 23.4 degrees. (This tilt is also known as "obliquity of the ecliptic ''.)
(2)
Regardless of the time of year, the northern and southern hemispheres always experience opposite seasons. This is because during summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see Fig. 1) than the other, and this exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. For approximately half of the year (from around March 20 to around September 22), the Northern Hemisphere tips toward the Sun, with the maximum amount occurring on about June 21. For the other half of the year, the same happens, but in the Southern Hemisphere instead of the Northern, with the maximum around December 21. The two instants when the Sun is directly overhead at the Equator are the equinoxes. Also at that moment, both the North Pole and the South Pole of the Earth are just on the terminator, and hence day and night are equally divided between the two hemispheres. Around the March equinox, the Northern Hemisphere will be experiencing spring as the hours of daylight increase, and the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing autumn as daylight hours shorten.
The effect of axial tilt is observable as the change in day length and altitude of the Sun at solar noon (the Sun 's culmination) during the year. The low angle of Sun during the winter months means that incoming rays of solar radiation are spread over a larger area of the Earth 's surface, so the light received is more indirect and of lower intensity. Between this effect and the shorter daylight hours, the axial tilt of the Earth accounts for most of the seasonal variation in climate in both hemispheres.
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the northern solstice.
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the southern solstice.
Diagram of the Earth 's seasons as seen from the north. Far right: southern solstice
Diagram of the Earth 's seasons as seen from the south. Far left: northern solstice
Animation of Earth as seen daily from the Sun looking at UTC + 02: 00, showing the solstice and changing seasons.
Two images showing the amount of reflected sunlight at southern and northern summer solstices respectively (watts / m2).
Compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth 's distance to the Sun because of its elliptical orbit. In fact, Earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun) in January, and it reaches aphelion (the point farthest from the Sun) in July, so the slight contribution of orbital eccentricity opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. In general, the effect of orbital eccentricity on Earth 's seasons is a 7 % variation in sunlight received.
Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from the sun. This is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern, and land warms more readily than sea. Any noticeable intensification of southern winters and summers due to Earth 's elliptical orbit is mitigated by the abundance of water in the Southern Hemisphere.
Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity to oceans or other large bodies of water, currents in those oceans, El Niño / ENSO and other oceanic cycles, and prevailing winds.
In the temperate and polar regions, seasons are marked by changes in the amount of sunlight, which in turn often causes cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in animals. These effects vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, the South Pole is in the middle of the continent of Antarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the moderating influence of the southern oceans. The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean, and thus its temperature extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder during the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.
The seasonal cycle in the polar and temperate zones of one hemisphere is opposite to that of the other. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern, and vice versa.
The tropical and subtropical regions see little annual fluctuation of sunlight. However, seasonal shifts occur along a rainy, low - pressure belt called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ICZ). As a result, the amount of precipitation tends to vary more dramatically than the average temperature. When the Zone is north of the Equator, the northern tropics experience their wet season while the southern tropics have their dry season. This pattern reverses when the Zone migrates to a position south of the Equator.
In meteorological terms, the solstices (the maximum and minimum insolation) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to 7 weeks later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms.
In astronomical reckoning by hours of daylight alone, the solstices and equinoxes are in the middle of the respective seasons. Because of seasonal lag due to thermal absorption and release by the oceans, regions with a continental climate, which predominate in the Northern Hemisphere, often consider these four dates to be the start of the seasons as in the diagram, with the cross-quarter days considered seasonal midpoints. The length of these seasons is not uniform because of Earth 's elliptical orbit and its different speeds along that orbit.
Calendar - based reckoning defines the seasons in absolute rather than relative terms. Accordingly, if floral activity is regularly observed during the coolest quarter of the year in a particular area, it is still considered winter despite the traditional association of flowers with spring and summer. Additionally, the seasons are considered to change on the same dates everywhere that uses a particular calendar method regardless of variations in climate from one area to another. Most calendar - based methods use a four - season model to identify the warmest and coldest seasons, which are separated by two intermediate seasons.
Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter of the year and winter the coldest quarter of the year. In 1780 the Societas Meteorologica Palatina (which became defunct in 1795), an early international organization for meteorology, defined seasons as groupings of three whole months as identified by the Gregorian calendar. Ever since, professional meteorologists all over the world have used this definition. Therefore, for temperate areas in the northern hemisphere, spring begins on 1 March, summer on 1 June, autumn on 1 September, and winter on 1 December. For the southern hemisphere temperate zone, spring begins on 1 September, summer on 1 December, autumn on 1 March, and winter on 1 June. In Australasia the meteorological terms for seasons apply to the temperate zone that occupies all of New Zealand, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, the south - eastern corner of South Australia and the south - west of Western Australia, and the south east Queensland areas south of Brisbane.
In Sweden and Finland, meteorologists use a non-calendar based definition for the seasons based on the temperature. Spring begins when the daily averaged temperature permanently rises above 0 ° C, summer begins when the temperature permanently rises above + 10 ° C, summer ends when the temperature permanently falls below + 10 ° C and winter begins when the temperature permanently falls below 0 ° C. "Permanently '' here means that the daily averaged temperature has remained above or below the limit for seven consecutive days. This implies two things: first, the seasons do not begin at fixed dates but must be determined by observation and are known only after the fact; and second, a new season begins at different dates in different parts of the country. In Great Britain, the onset of spring used to be defined as when the maximum daily temperature reached 50 ° F (10 ° C) in a defined sequence of days. This almost always occurred in March. However, with global warming this temperature is now not uncommon in the winter.
Astronomical timing as the basis for designating the temperate seasons dates back at least to the Julian calendar used by the ancient Romans. It continues to be used on many modern Gregorian calendars worldwide, although some countries like Australia, New Zealand, and Russia prefer to use meteorological reckoning. The precise timing of the seasons is determined by the exact times of transit of the sun over the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn for the solstices and the times of the sun 's transit over the equator for the equinoxes, or a traditional date close to these times.
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth 's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse (with eccentricity exaggerated for effect) goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis -- nearest point to the sun) on anywhere from 2 January to 5 January, the point of March equinox on 19, 20 or 21 March, the point of June solstice on 20 or 21 June, the aphelion (apoapsis -- farthest point from the sun) on anywhere from 4 July to 7 July, the September equinox on 22 or 23 September, and the December solstice on 21 or 22 December.
These "astronomical '' seasons are not of equal length, because of the elliptical nature of the orbit of the Earth, as discovered by Johannes Kepler. From the March equinox it currently takes 92.75 days until the June solstice, then 93.65 days until the September equinox, 89.85 days until the December solstice and finally 88.99 days until the March equinox.
The times of the equinoxes and solstices are not fixed with respect to the modern Gregorian calendar, but fall about six hours later every year, amounting to one full day in four years. They are reset by the occurrence of a leap year. The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the March equinox no later than 21 March as accurately as is practical. Also see: Gregorian calendar seasonal error.
The calendar equinox (used in the calculation of Easter) is 21 March, the same date as in the Easter tables current at the time of the Council of Nicaea in AD 325. The calendar is therefore framed to prevent the astronomical equinox wandering onto 22 March. From Nicaea to the date of the reform, the years 500, 600, 700, 900, 1000, 1100, 1300, 1400 and 1500, which would not have been leap years in the Gregorian calendar, amount to nine days, but astronomers directed that ten days be removed.
Currently, the most common equinox and solstice dates are March 20, June 21, September 22 or 23 and December 21; the four - year average slowly shifts to earlier times as the century progresses. This shift is a full day in about 128 years (compensated mainly by the century "leap year '' rules of the Gregorian calendar) and as 2000 was a leap year the current shift has been progressing since the beginning of the last century, when equinoxes and solstices were relatively late. This also means that in many years of the twentieth century, the dates of March 21, June 22, September 23 and December 22 were much more common, so older books teach (and older people may still remember) these dates.
Note that all the times are given in UTC (roughly speaking, the time at Greenwich, ignoring British Summer Time). People living farther to the east (Asia and Australia), whose local times are in advance, will see the astronomical seasons apparently start later; for example, in Tonga (UTC + 13), an equinox occurred on September 24, 1999, a date which will not crop up again until 2103. On the other hand, people living far to the west (America) whose clocks run behind UTC may experience an equinox as early as March 19.
Over thousands of years, the Earth 's axial tilt and orbital eccentricity vary (see Milankovitch cycles). The equinoxes and solstices move westward relative to the stars while the perihelion and aphelion move eastward. Thus, ten thousand years from now Earth 's northern winter will occur at aphelion and northern summer at perihelion. The severity of seasonal change -- the average temperature difference between summer and winter in location -- will also change over time because the Earth 's axial tilt fluctuates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees.
Smaller irregularities in the times are caused by perturbations of the Moon and the other planets.
Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by the Celts, and is still ceremonially observed in Ireland and some east Asian countries. Summer is defined as the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter as the quarter with the least.
The solar seasons change at the cross-quarter days, which are about 3 -- 4 weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 6 -- 7 weeks earlier than seasons starting at equinoxes and solstices. Thus, the day of greatest insolation is designated "midsummer '' as noted in William Shakespeare 's play A Midsummer Night 's Dream, which is set on the summer solstice. On the Celtic calendar, the start of the seasons corresponds to four Pagan agricultural festivals - the traditional first day of winter is 1 November (Samhain, the Celtic origin of Halloween); spring starts 1 February (Imbolc, the Celtic origin of Groundhog Day); summer begins 1 May (Beltane, the Celtic origin of May Day); the first day of autumn is 1 August (Celtic Lughnasadh).
The traditional calendar in China forms the basis of other such systems in East Asia. Its seasons are traditionally based on 24 periods known as solar terms. The four seasons chūn (春), xià (夏), qiū (秋), and dōng (冬) are universally translated as "spring '', "summer '', "autumn '', and "winter '' but actually begin much earlier, with the solstices and equinoxes forming the midpoint of each season rather than their start. Astronomically, the seasons are said to begin on Lichun (立春, lit. "standing spring '') on about 4 February, Lixia (立夏) on about 6 May, Liqiu (立秋) on about 8 August, and Lidong (立冬) on about 7 November. These dates were not part of the traditional lunar calendar, however, and moveable holidays such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival are more closely associated with the seasons.
Some calendars in south Asia use a six - season method where the number of seasons between summer and winter can number from one to three. The dates are fixed at even intervals of months.
In the Hindu calendar of tropical and subtropical India, there are six seasons or Ritu that are calendar - based in the sense of having fixed dates: Vasanta (spring), Greeshma (summer), Varsha (monsoon), Sharad (autumn), Hemanta (early winter), and Shishira (prevernal or late winter). The six seasons are ascribed to two months each of the twelve months in the Hindu calendar. The rough correspondences are:
The Bengali Calendar is similar but differs in start and end times. It has the following seasons or ritu:
The Tamil calendar follows a similar pattern of six seasons
The Noongar people of South - West Western Australia also recognise maar - keyen bonar, or six seasons. Each season 's arrival is heralded not by a calendar date, but by environmental factors such as changing winds, flowering plants, temperature and migration patterns and lasts approximately two standard calendar months. The seasons also correlate to aspects of the human condition, intrinsically linking the lives of the people to the world that surrounds them and also dictating their movements, as with each season, various parts of country would be visited which were particularly abundant or safe from the elements.
The timing and feel of the seasons has been noted as having changed due to the current trends in climate change.
Any point north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle will have one period in the summer when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter when the sun does not rise. At progressively higher latitudes, the maximum periods of "midnight sun '' and "polar night '' are progressively longer.
For example, at the military and weather station Alert located at 82 ° 30 ′ 05 '' N and 62 ° 20 ′ 20 '' W, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island, Canada (about 450 nautical miles or 830 km from the North Pole), the sun begins to peek above the horizon for minutes per day at the end of February and each day it climbs higher and stays up longer; by 21 March, the sun is up for over 12 hours. On 6 April the sun rises at 0522 UTC and remains above the horizon until it sets below the horizon again on 6 September at 0335 UTC. By October 13 the sun is above the horizon for only 1 hour 30 minutes and on October 14 it does not rise above the horizon at all and remains below the horizon until it rises again on 27 February.
First light comes in late January because the sky has twilight, being a glow on the horizon, for increasing hours each day, for more than a month before the sun first appears with its disc above the horizon. From mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight.
In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern polar region, the sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last time until the following February. For a few more weeks, "day '' is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, from mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight and it is continuously dark. In mid January the first faint wash of twilight briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then twilight increases in duration with increasing brightness each day until sunrise at end of February, then on 6 April the sun remains above the horizon until mid October.
Ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom -- spring; hedgehogs hibernate -- winter). So, if we can observe a change in daily floral / animal events, the season is changing. In this sense, ecological seasons are defined in absolute terms, unlike calendar - based methods in which the seasons are relative. If specific conditions associated with a particular ecological season do n't normally occur in a particular region, then that area can not be said to experience that season on a regular basis.
Six seasons can be distinguished which do not have fixed calendar - based dates like the meteorological and astronomical seasons. Oceanic regions tend to experience the beginning of the hibernal season up to a month later than continental climates. Conversely, prevernal and vernal seasons begin up to a month earlier near oceanic and coastal areas. For example, prevernal crocus blooms typically appear as early as February in coastal areas of British Columbia, the British Isles, but generally do n't appear until March or April in locations like the Midwest USA or parts of eastern Europe. The actual dates for each season vary by climate region and can shift from one year to the next. Average dates listed here are for mild and cool temperate climate zones in the Northern Hemisphere:
In the tropics, where seasonal dates also vary, it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or monsoon) season versus the dry season. For example, in Nicaragua the dry season (November to April) is called ' summer ' and the rainy season (May to October) is called ' winter ', even though it is located in the northern hemisphere. In some tropical areas a three - way division into hot, rainy, and cool season is used. There is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight at different times of the year. However, many regions (such as the northern Indian ocean) are subject to monsoon rain and wind cycles.
Floral and animal activity variation near the equator depends more on wet / dry cycles than seasonal temperature variations, with different species flowering (or emerging from cocoons) at specific times before, during, or after the monsoon season. Thus, the tropics are characterized by numerous "mini-seasons '' within the larger seasonal blocks of time.
In the tropical parts of Australia in the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory, wet and dry seasons are observed in addition to or in place of temperate season names.
Indigenous people in polar, temperate and tropical climates of northern Eurasia, the Americas, Africa, Oceania, and Australia have traditionally defined the seasons ecologically by observing the activity of the plants, animals and weather around them. Each separate tribal group traditionally observes different seasons determined according to local criteria that can vary from the hibernation of polar bears on the arctic tundras to the growing seasons of plants in the tropical rainforests. In Australia, some tribes have up to eight seasons in a year, as do the Sami people in Scandinavia. Many indigenous people who no longer live directly off the land in traditional often nomadic styles, now observe modern methods of seasonal reckoning according to what is customary in their particular country or region.
As noted, a variety of dates are used in different countries to mark the changes of seasons, especially those that are calendar based. These observances are often declared "official '' within their respective jurisdictions by the local or national media, even when the weather or climate is contradictory. However they are mainly a matter of custom only, and have not generally been proclaimed by governments north or south of the equator for civil purposes.
|
based on the size of the population consider the following urban settlements | List of urban areas by population - wikipedia
This is a list of contiguous urban areas of the world ranked according to population. Figures have been taken from two sources: Demographia 's "World Urban Areas '' study, and from citypopulation.de, created by Thomas Brinkhoff of the Institut für Angewandte Photogrammetrie und Geoinformatik.
Demographia defines an urban area (urbanized area agglomeration or urban centre) as a continuously built up land mass of urban development that is within a labor market (i.e. metropolitan area or metropolitan region), without regard for administrative boundaries (i.e. municipality, city or commune). Except in Australia, the authorities use a minimum urban density definition of 400 persons per square kilometer (or the nearly identical 1,000 per square mile in the United States). Demographia uses maps and satellite photographs to estimate continuous urbanization. Demographia also uses small area population data, where available, to match population estimates to urbanized land area. National census authority data are presented in Australia, Canada, France, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. Census of India urban agglomerations are not used in some cases because the geographical size of constituent units (municipalities) often includes large rural (non-urban) areas.
Sources for population estimates and land area definitions are coded by letter in the Table below, respectively.
The estimates are quite different from the list of World 's largest urban agglomerations produced by the United Nations that reports inconsistently on urban geographic, despite its reference to agglomerations. This is evident, for example, in Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta, Seoul and Moscow, where the UN data are for political jurisdictions, rather than urban areas. In other cases, the UN data is for metropolitan area, which are larger than urban areas (such as in Brazil). Finally, the United Nations data is incomplete, excluding some significant urban areas (such as Essen -- Düsseldorf in Germany).
Urban areas are confined to a single nation, unless there is freedom of movement (including labor) between the adjacent nations. Currently, this condition is met only between some continental nations of the European Union and Switzerland (e.g. Lille -- Kortrijk in both France and Belgium, Aachen -- Vaals in both Germany and Netherlands, Saarbrücken -- Forbach in both Germany and France, Geneva -- Annemasse in both Switzerland and France, and Basel -- Lörrach -- Saint - Louis in Switzerland, Germany and France). Thus, Detroit -- Windsor in both the United States and Canada, and San Diego -- Tijuana in both the United States and Mexico are not treated as single urban areas. Moreover, Shenzhen -- Hong Kong is treated as separate urban areas, principally because labor movement between the two is limited, with the former within China and the latter a special administrative region of China.
According to the report, there are 875 identified urban areas in the world with 500,000 or more population as of 2013. Demographia released along with the report include a disclaimer that this list of data is compiled on best available information, the vary nature of which is changing rapidly and quality is improving as it becomes available, yet still remains highly variable between nations, and hefty revisions are not unforeseen for the future. Appropriate caution is therefore advised.
|
which muscle is not a part of the rotator cuff | Rotator cuff - wikipedia
In anatomy, the rotator cuff is a group of muscles and their tendons that act to stabilize the shoulder. Of the seven scapulohumeral muscles, four make up the rotator cuff. The four muscles are the supraspinatus muscle, the infraspinatus muscle, teres minor muscle, and the subscapularis muscle.
The supraspinatus muscle spreads out in a horizontal band to insert on the superior and middle facets of the greater tubercle. The greater tubercle projects as the most lateral structure of the humeral head. Medial to this, in turn, is the lesser tuberosity of the humeral head. The subscapularis muscle origin is divided from the remainder of the rotator cuff origins as it is deep to the scapula.
The four tendons of these muscles converge to form the rotator cuff tendon. These tendinous insertions along with the articular capsule, the coracohumeral ligament, and the glenohumeral ligament complex, blend into a confluent sheet before insertion into the humeral tuberosities. The insertion site of the rotator cuff tendon at the greater tuberosity is often referred to as the footprint. The infraspinatus and teres minor fuse near their musculotendinous junctions, while the supraspinatus and subscapularis tendons join as a sheath that surrounds the biceps tendon at the entrance of the bicipital groove. The supraspinatus is most commonly involved in a rotator cuff tear.
The rotator cuff muscles are important in shoulder movements and in maintaining glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) stability. These muscles arise from the scapula and connect to the head of the humerus, forming a cuff at the shoulder joint. They hold the head of the humerus in the small and shallow glenoid fossa of the scapula. The glenohumeral joint has been analogously described as a golf ball (head of the humerus) sitting on a golf tee (glenoid fossa).
During abduction of the arm, moving it outward and away from the trunk, the rotator cuff compresses the glenohumeral joint, an action known as concavity compression, in order to allow the large deltoid muscle to further elevate the arm. In other words, without the rotator cuff, the humeral head would ride up partially out of the glenoid fossa, lessening the efficiency of the deltoid muscle. The anterior and posterior directions of the glenoid fossa are more susceptible to shear force perturbations as the glenoid fossa is not as deep relative to the superior and inferior directions. The rotator cuff 's contributions to concavity compression and stability vary according to their stiffness and the direction of the force they apply upon the joint.
In addition to stabilizing the glenohumeral joint and controlling humeral head translation, the rotator cuff muscles also perform multiple functions, including abduction, internal rotation, and external rotation of the shoulder. The infraspinatus and subscapularis have significant roles in scapular plane shoulder abduction (scaption), generating forces that are two to three times greater than the force produced by the supraspinatus muscle. However, the supraspinatus is more effective for general shoulder abduction because of its moment arm. The anterior portion of the supraspinatus tendon is submitted to significantly greater load and stress, and performs its mainfunctional role.
The tendons at the ends of the rotator cuff muscles can become torn, leading to pain and restricted movement of the arm. A torn rotator cuff can occur following a trauma to the shoulder or it can occur through the "wear and tear '' on tendons, most commonly the supraspinatus tendon found under the acromion.
Rotator cuff injuries are commonly associated with motions that require repeated overhead motions or forceful pulling motions. Such injuries are frequently sustained by athletes whose actions include making repetitive throws, athletes such as baseball pitchers, softball pitchers, American football players (especially quarterbacks), firefighters, cheerleaders, weightlifters (especially powerlifters due to extreme weights used in the bench press), rugby players, volleyball players (due to their swinging motions), water polo players, rodeo team ropers, shot put throwers (due to using poor technique), swimmers, boxers, kayakers, western martial artists, fast bowlers in cricket, tennis players (due to their service motion) and tenpin bowlers due to the repetitive swinging motion of the arm with the weight of a bowling ball. This type of injury also commonly affects orchestra conductors, choral conductors, and drummers (due, again, to swinging motions).
Treatment for a rotator cuff tear can include rest, ice, physical therapy, and / or surgery. A published review of 14 trials involving 829 patients found that there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate whether surgery is any better than non-surgical options. A review of manual therapy and exercise treatments found inconclusive evidence as to whether these treatments were any better than placebo, however "High quality evidence from one trial suggested that manual therapy and exercise improved function only slightly more than placebo at 22 weeks, was little or no different to placebo in terms of other patient - important outcomes (e.g. overall pain), and was associated with relatively more frequent but mild adverse events. ''
Surgery is often recommended for patients with an acute, traumatic rotator cuff tear resulting in substantial weakness. Surgery can be performed open or arthroscopically, although the arthroscopic approach has become much more popular. If a surgical option is selected, the rehabilitation of the rotator cuff is necessary in order to regain maximum strength and range of motion within the shoulder joint. Physical therapy progresses through four stages, increasing movement throughout each phase. The tempo and intensity of the stages are solely reliant on the extent of the injury and the patient 's activity necessities. The first stage requires immobilization of the shoulder joint. The shoulder that is injured is placed in a sling and shoulder flexion or abduction of the arm is avoided for 4 to 6 weeks after surgery (Brewster, 1993). Avoiding movement of the shoulder joint allows the torn tendon to fully heal. Once the tendon is entirely recovered, passive exercises can be implemented. Passive exercises of the shoulder are movements in which a physical therapist maintains the arm in a particular position, manipulating the rotator cuff without any effort by the patient. These exercises are used to increase stability, strength and range of motion of the Subscapularis, Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, and Teres minor muscles within the rotator cuff. Passive exercises include internal and external rotation of the shoulder joint, as well as flexion and extension of the shoulder.
As progression increases after 4 -- 6 weeks, active exercises are now implemented into the rehabilitation process. Active exercises allow an increase in strength and further range of motion by permitting the movement of the shoulder joint without the support of a physical therapist. Active exercises include the Pendulum exercise (as shown in Image 2), which is used to strengthen the Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, and Subscapularis. External rotation of the shoulder with the arm at a 90 - degree angle is an additional exercise done to increase control and range of motion of the Infraspinatus and Teres minor muscles. Various active exercises are done for an additional 3 -- 6 weeks as progress is based on an individual case by case basis. At 8 -- 12 weeks, strength training intensity will increase as free - weights and resistance bands will be implemented within the exercise prescription.
A systematic review of relevant research found that the accuracy of the physical examination is low. The Hawkins - Kennedy test has a sensitivity of approximately 80 % to 90 % for detecting impingement. The infraspinatus and supraspinatus tests have a specificity of 80 % to 90 %.
A common cause of shoulder pain in rotator cuff impingement syndrome is Tendinosis, which is an age related and most often self limited condition.
The rotator interval is a triangular space in the shoulder that is functionally reinforced externally by the coracohumeral ligament and internally by the superior glenohumeral ligament, and traversed by the intra-articular biceps tendon. On imaging, it is defined by the coracoid process at its base, the supraspinatus tendon superiorly and the subscapularis tendon inferiorly. Changes of adhesive capsulitis can be seen at this interval as edema and fibrosis. Pathology at the interval is also associated with glenohumeral and biceps instability.
The rotator cuff includes muscles such as the supraspinatus muscle, the infraspinatus muscle, the teres minor muscle and the subscapularis muscle. The upper arm consists of the deltoids, biceps, as well as the triceps. Steps must be taken and precautions need to be made in order for the rotator cuffs to heal properly following surgery while still maintaining function to prevent any deteriorating effects on the muscles. In the immediate postoperative period (within one week following surgery), pain can be treated with a standard ice wrap. There are also commercial devices available which not only cool the shoulder but also exert pressure on the shoulder ("compressive cryotherapy ''). However, one study has shown no significant difference in postoperative pain when comparing these devices to a standard ice wrap.
Physiotherapy can help manage the pain, but utilizing a program that involves continuous passive motion will reduce the pain even further. Assisted passive motion at a low intensity allows the tissues to be stretched slightly without damaging them Continuous passive motion improves the shoulder range and enables the subject to expand their range of motion without experiencing additional pain. Easing into the motions will allow the person to continue working those muscles to keep them from undergoing atrophy, while also still maintaining that minimum level of function where daily function is allowed. Doing these exercises will also prevent tears in the muscles that will impair daily function further. Since injuries of the rotator cuff often tend to inhibit motion without first experience discomfort and pain, other methods can be done to help accommodate that.
A surgery procedure exists where the joint of the injured area will be freed in order to achieve a full range of motion without too much pain and discomfort, speeding up recovery time and allowing the person to better perform optimally. A study conducted by Jin - Young Park investigated the benefits of using capsular release to help relieve the stiffness of the shoulders that usually come whenever there is an injury in the rotator cuff. Some of the subjects had diabetes mellitus, which can also cause shoulder stiffness, impeding external rotation of the shoulders. Of the 49 subjects recruited for this trial, 21 went through only manipulation to relieve stiffness, while the other 28 underwent a capsular release surgery along with the manipulation to treat shoulder stiffness. Although, overall, no improvement in outcome was seen with regards to external rotation between the control and treatment group, the subjects that had diabetes mellitus benefited from the treatment that included the capsular release surgery. Their rotator cuff function improved significantly in both forward flexion and external rotation compared to the subjects that were not diagnosed with diabetes mellitus.
Patients that suffer from pain in the rotator cuff may consider utilizing orthotherapy into their daily lives. Orthotherapy is an exercise program that aims to restore the motion and strength of the shoulder muscles. Patients can go through the three phases of orthotherapy to help manage pain and also recover their full range of motion in the rotator cuff. The first phase involves gentle stretches and passive all around movements, and people are advised not to go above 70 degrees of elevation to prevent any kind of further pain. The second phase of this regimen requires patients to implement exercises to strengthen the muscles that are surrounding the rotator cuff muscles, combined with the passive exercises done in the first phase to keep on stretching the tissues without overexerting them. Exercises include pushups and shoulder shrugs, and after a couple of weeks of this, daily activities are gradually added to the patient 's routine. This program does not require any sort of medication or surgery and can serve as a good alternative. The rotator cuff and the upper muscles are responsible for many daily tasks that people do in their lives. A proper recovery needs to be maintained and achieved to prevent limiting movement, and can be done through simple movements.
Human shoulder joint, front view
Human shoulder joint, back view
Muscles on the dorsum of the scapula, and the triceps brachii.
The scapular and circumflex arteries (posterior view).
Suprascapular and axillary nerves of right side, seen from behind.
The suprascapular, axillary, and radial nerves.
|
where was pee wee herman big holiday filmed | Pee - wee 's Big Holiday - wikipedia
Pee - wee 's Big Holiday is a 2016 American adventure comedy film directed by John Lee and written by Paul Reubens and Paul Rust. The film stars Reubens as Pee - wee Herman. The film was released on March 18, 2016, on Netflix.
Pee - wee Herman is a resident of the small town of Fairville and works as a cook at Dan 's Diner, where he is well liked by the locals and revered for his cooking. He meets and befriends actor Joe Manganiello, who convinces Pee - wee to leave Fairville for the first time in his life to travel to New York City and be a guest at Joe 's birthday party.
Shortly after leaving Fairville, Pee - wee encounters three women being chased and, assuming they are innocent women in peril, offers them an escape in his Fiat 600. It turns out that the three women, Pepper, Freckles, and Bella (who coincidentally goes by the nickname "Pee - Wee ''), are outlaws who have just robbed a bank, and that is the reason they were being chased. The women steal his Fiat. Pee - wee then gets a car ride from a travelling salesman named Gordon, who visits a creepy snake farm with Pee - Wee in tow, and gives him a disguise kit.
Pee - wee attempts to hitch - hike, but after having no luck, seeks refuge at a farmhouse owned by Farmer Brown, who offers to let Pee - wee spend the night. Farmer Brown introduces Pee - wee to his nine daughters, each of whom have a romantic interest in Pee - wee and spend the night flirting with him. The next morning, having heard his daughters talk endlessly about Pee - Wee, Farmer Brown insists that Pee - wee get married to one of his daughters. During the wedding ceremony, Pee - wee uses the disguise kit to flee the church.
Pee - wee then meets Penny King (possibly a reference to the character in the television show Sky King), an aviator with a flying car resembling Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, who offers to fly him to New York. The flying car crashes in the wilderness where Pee - wee meets Grizzly Bear Daniels who promises to show Pee - wee the way out of the woods, but instead, takes him to his cave.
Pee - wee runs away from Grizzly 's cave out of fear and after wandering lost for a time, comes upon an Amish community, where he entertains the locals by slowly letting the air out of a balloon, causing it to squeak loudly and shrilly.
Pee - wee discovers that the bank robbers are hiding among the Amish. That night when the women attempt to steal a horse buggy, Pee - wee convinces them to leave some of their money behind for the Amish citizens to purchase a replacement.
Pee - wee and the women arrive in New York where the three women are arrested for the robbery. Pee - wee falls down a well in Central Park just before Joe 's birthday party. Joe believes that Pee - wee decided not to come to his party and can not enjoy himself. Joe, in a state of melancholy turns on the TV to the local news. There is a story about a rescue attempt in progress to get Pee - wee out of the well. Joe rushes to the well and assists in rescuing Pee - wee. During the rescue, we see that the entire town of Fairville, travelling salesman Gordon, the staff of the snake farm, Penny King, and others he had met on his journey are watching the news broadcast, that went national when Joe got involved. When Pee - wee asks Joe, "What about the party? '', Joe responds, "Pee - wee, we are the party ''.
After Pee - wee returns to Fairville and his job at Dan 's diner, he is visited by Joe, now his lifelong friend.
Ever since Reubens started giving interviews again after his 1991 arrest, he has talked about the two scripts he has written for future Pee - wee Herman films. Reubens once called his first script The Pee - wee Herman Story, describing it as a black comedy. He has also referred to the script as "dark Pee - wee '' or "adult Pee - wee '', with the plot involving Pee - wee becoming famous as a singer after making a hit single and moving to Hollywood, where "he does everything wrong and becomes a big jerk ''. Reubens further explained the film has many "Valley of the Dolls moments ''. Reubens thought this script would be the first one to start production, but in 2006 Reubens announced he was to start filming his second script in 2007.
The second film, a family friendly adventure, is called Pee - wee 's Playhouse: The Movie by Reubens, and follows Pee - wee and his Playhouse friends on a road - trip adventure, meaning that they would leave the house for the first time and go out into "Puppetland ''. All of the original characters of the show, live - action and puppets, are included in Reubens ' script. The story happens in a fantasy land that would be reminiscent of H.R. Pufnstuf and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. In January 2009, Reubens told Gary Panter that the rejected first script of Pee - wee 's Big Adventure (which they co-wrote) could have a movie deal very soon, and that it would be "90 minutes of incredible beauty ''. In December 2009, while in character, Reubens said this film is "already done, the script is already fully written; it 's ready to shoot. '' Most of the film will take place in Puppetland and claymation might be used.
He has said that one of the two films opens in prison. He has also said that using CGI for "updating '' the puppets ' looks could be an option, but it all depended on the budget the films would have. Reubens once mentioned the possibility of doing one of the two as an animated film along the lines of The Polar Express, which uses performance capture technology, incorporating the movements of live actors into animated characters. Reubens approached Pee - wee 's Big Adventure director Tim Burton with one of the scripts and talked to Johnny Depp about the possibility of having him portray Pee - wee, but they both declined.
In June 2010, it was announced that Paul Reubens was working with Judd Apatow on a new Pee - wee Herman feature film set up at Universal Studios, with Reubens and Paul Rust set to write the script. In an October 2014 interview with Rolling Stone, Reubens gave an update on the status of the film, saying: "It 's been months and months of being right on the verge of being announced... I thought something was going to go public yesterday, actually, and that you 'd be the first person I 'd be talking about this with. But I 'm thinking there will be something made public very soon. It 's going to get made shortly after the new year. I wish I could tell you about it right now, because... I mean, it 's amazing. It 's going to be amazing. It think it first got leaked four years ago or so that the movie was going to be made, and ever since then it 's just been stalling and stalling. So I 'm really ready for this to happen. But I 'm not kidding: It 's very imminent. ''
In a November 2014 interview with The A.V. Club, Reubens explained why the film took so long to be made, saying: "I think part of what happened with this project is it got leaked probably a year and a half or two years before we really wanted anyone to know about it. I was doing a Q&A somewhere, and I said I was writing a movie with a guy named Paul Rust, and the next day a journalist called my manager and said, "Paul Rust is someone very associated with Judd Apatow, can you confirm Judd Apatow is involved in the project? '' The whole thing got leaked and we had just started. We did n't have a script yet or anything, so the script took a year and -- I do n't really know the answer. I think two years of it was like premature information out there, and then the last two years it 's just been very, very slow to get the right people involved, and we now have such an amazing company involved, and that 's the really big announcement that has n't been made yet. ''
On February 24, 2015, Netflix announced the film would be titled Pee - wee 's Big Holiday with Apatow and Reubens producing the film, John Lee directing, and Reubens and Paul Rust writing the screenplay. On March 11, 2015, Tara Buck joined the cast of the film. Principal photography began on March 16, 2015. On April 8, 2015, Joe Manganiello joined the cast. On April 19, 2015, Jessica Pohly was cast in the film.
On December 22, 2014, it was announced that the film would premiere exclusively on Netflix. In July 2015, Netflix announced the film would be released in March 2016. The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 17, 2016. The film was released on March 18, 2016, on Netflix.
Pee - wee 's Big Holiday received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an 82 % approval rating, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The simple story is a little short on laughs, but there 's plenty of sweet wackiness for Pee - wee Herman fans to enjoy. '' On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 63 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
|
who plays henry mills on once upon a time | Henry Mills (Once Upon a Time) - wikipedia
Henry Daniel Mills is a fictional character in ABC 's television series Once Upon a Time. Henry is the boy Emma Swan gave up to adoption; Regina Mills adopted him. Henry was first portrayed as a child by Jared S. Gilmore, who won the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series -- Leading Young Actor in 2012. Starting with the seventh season, Andrew J. West will take over the role of Henry as an adult and father to a ten - year - old girl named Lucy.
Henry Mills is Emma Swan and Neal Cassidy 's son, whom she gave up for adoption after giving birth following her release from a federal correctional facility in Phoenix, Arizona in 2001. He is also Snow White, Prince Charming and Rumplestiltskin 's grandson, and the great - grandson of the latter 's father 's alias Peter Pan and latter 's mother 's alias the Black Fairy. He is adopted by Regina Mills (the Evil Queen), after Mr. Gold (Rumplestiltskin) procures him, naming him after her late father. At first Regina had a little difficulty raising Henry but grew to love him, thus preventing Henry from being taken by the Darling Brothers, who wanted to take Henry to Neverland on orders from Peter Pan.
As Henry gets older, his relationship with Regina became strained, and she sends him to regular therapy sessions. When he is ten, he receives his cherished book of fairy tales from his teacher Mary Margaret Blanchard (Snow White), discovering that the residents of Storybrooke are characters from it after noticing he is the only one in town who ages. Henry finds his biological mother Emma Swan in Boston and brings her to Storybrooke. He eventually convinces her of the truth by consuming a sleeping curse intended for her by Regina, nearly resulting in him dying. However, he is awoken with true love 's kiss by Emma, which also breaks the curse. Emma and Mary Margaret are then dragged into a portal, leaving David (Prince Charming) to look after him. Following the death of Regina 's mother Cora, and her vowing to avenge Mary Margaret, Henry seeks to remove magic from Storybrooke. When Emma and Regina stop the trigger enacted by Greg Mendell and Tamara from destroying the town, he is kidnapped by the pair and taken to Neverland, where it is revealed that Peter Pan (Henry 's great - grandfather) wants possession of him as he owns "the heart of the truest believer ''.
Pan eventually persuades Henry to give him his heart, telling him it will save magic. Regina reclaims the heart and resurrects Henry. However, Pan inhabits Henry 's body in Storybrooke, enacting Regina 's original curse once more. Mr. Gold returns Henry to his body, and Emma and Henry escape to New York City whilst the remaining residents return to the Enchanted Forest. A year later, Hook restores Emma 's memories, leading her to return to Storybrooke with Henry to save their family from another curse. Henry is confused about Emma 's decision to relocate, until his past memories are restored with his book. Once his memories are restored, Regina gives him true love 's kiss breaking the curse. Henry then moves back to Storybrooke where he splits his time living with Regina and the Charmings. Henry later helps Regina to search for his storybook 's author, Isaac. Upon discovering the writer 's manipulative actions, Henry being the only one born in the Land Without Magic is left behind in Storybrooke and goes to find Isaac and enters his new storybook "Heroes and Viilains '' to fix reality and after saving Emma who remembers everything they both try to help Regina get her happy ending to fix reality but fail. Then Henry takes the pen and becomes the next author and using Regina 's blood to write a new ending to fix reality. With Henry being the new author and he breaks the pen deeming it too powerful for anyone to use. Henry then watches Emma sacrificing herself to save Regina and Storybrooke by becoming the new Dark One.
With his family and a few of the other residents, Henry transports to the Enchanted Forest to find Emma and to take her to Camelot in order to find Merlin and remove her darkness. However, six weeks later, they return to Storybrooke with missing memories as to how they all failed to get the darkness out of Emma except Henry. Revealed in a flashback, Henry has fallen in love with a girl named Violet; due to needing a tear from the pain of losing a first love to help free Merlin, Emma tearfully manipulates Violet into breaking Henry 's heart. Due to Emma 's curse, Henry gets another chance with Violet, as neither remembered each other from before.
After Emma restored his memory, Henry helps Emma rescue Hook after he is sent to the Underworld for sacrificing himself to save everyone. When he arrived with his family, he comes up with a new plan called "Operation Firebird, '' this after learning that they have a chance to save the souls and help them move forward. However, when he comes across Cruella De Vil, he is offered a chance to help her return to the living as he is the Author, this after telling him that despite having broken the quill in two he still has the ability to use the quill and magically write her a new life while he was in the underworld and at the same time restore Emma 's soul as forgiveness, but this would put Henry in a situation that would force him to break his vow not to tamper with his family history. He then learns that he has the ability to bring others back from the dead when he came across the Apprentice, whose soul ca n't move on until Henry makes the right choice, which is to record the events in the book. Henry plans to re-write Hades ' story that was missing in the Underworld version of the "Once Upon a Time '' book. He also starts experiencing visions that allows him to illustrate stories but can not explain why they 're coming to him. Before he returned to Storybrooke, he finished the unfinished businesses in the book, only to have Cruella hide it in Hades ' lair.
Upon returning to Storybrooke, Henry began to experience a roguish streak as he believed magic is destroying his family in the wake of Robin Hood 's death. This prompts him and Violet to obtain the Olympian Crystal and flee to New York City where magic can be destroyed. However, his actions also resulted in leaving Snow, David, Zelena, and Hook in the Land of Untold Stories when he used a holy grail to destroy it. Having regret what he did, Henry turned to a fountain and made a wish that he would reunite his family, and with the help of Emma, Regina, Violet, and Gold, along the New Yorkers who see him make this plea, the fountain succeeds in bringing Snow, David, Zelena, and Hook to New York and with that restored magic. Upon returning to Storybrooke, Henry learned that Violet, although born in Camelot, was actually from Connecticut, due to her father having slipped into an unknown portal. They then shared a kiss, implying that they are now a couple, as he has found his happy ending.
After Henry and Regina meet with Mr. Hyde who has arrived in Storybrooke with his friends from the Land of Untold Stories, he and his family devised a plan to imprison Hyde which succeeds and later welcomes the new residents with food and shelter at Granny 's. The next day Henry and Regina arrive at Granny 's with a new plan called "Operation Cobra Part 2 '', and as Henry begins to write the names of the people of the Land of Untold Stories, a mysterious man leaves a note beside him for Snow and David revealing his name as Edmond Dantès also known as the "Count of Monte Cristo ''. Regina then reveals she hired him to kill them back in the Enchanted Forest and after he refuses to back down from trying to kill them Regina and Henry discover a girl named Charlotte who was Snow and David 's handmaiden and who also resembled Edmond 's dead fiance. The Evil Queen then reveals herself to both Henry and Regina and reveals that she has been controlling Edmond the whole time. As soon as he is about to kill Snow and David, Regina steps in to save them and after Henry 's phone is frozen with magic Regina is forced to kill Edmond. Henry then realizes that this new operation will be harder as Part 1 was about giving people back their happy endings and now in Part 2 these people ran away from their stories,
Afterwards, Henry has written down all the names of the new residents and he, Emma, and Hook find out Ashley 's (Cinderella) step - sister Clorinda is now in town and they believe she wants to hurt but really wants to help her. After Emma 's magic fails because of her hand trembling, the Evil Queen shows up and after Henry tells her to leave his mom alone she points out that she is his mother too and poofs the three of them onto a road somewhere in town to stop them from helping Ashley but they save her and her step - sister as well. After Henry and Violet start school together with Snow returning as a teacher.
When Henry and his family learn about Emma 's secret they are shocked and hurt by it and for Emma not telling them and Henry then starts to blame himself for bringing her to Storybrooke for her to become the savior but she tells him that what he did gave her a better life despite that she might die. After they find Aladdin who reveals he use the "Shears of Destiny '' to cut off his destiny as a savior, Emma wants to throw them away because she being the savior is what makes her special and she will not use them but Hook secretly keeps them and this causes the Evil Queen to try and cause a shift between Hook 's and Henry 's relationship but it fails when they both agree all they wanted to do is to protect and save Emma.
When the Evil Queen teams up with Mr. Gold and threatens the town with water from the River of Lost Souls, Henry along with everyone is forced to watch the Queen rip out Snow White and David 's shared heart and put a twisted sleeping curse on it. After revealing that when one of them is awake and the other will be asleep, Henry agrees to lure the Evil Queen out for Emma and Regina to try to trap her and as a distraction from being nervous about taking Violet to the school dance believing she does n't like him anymore but really is having a hard time adjusting to school and after the Evil Queen fails to darken Henry 's heart by smashing the mirror instead of the Dragon 's heart to save Emma and Regina.
Season 6 ends with Henry as an adult living in Seattle, Washington and approached by a girl claiming to be his daughter.
Jared, who had previously starred in Mad Men as the third Bobby Draper from 2009 to 2011, was cast in Once Upon a Time as Henry Mills, the "biological son of Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison 's character) and Neal / Baelfire. He is the only resident of Storybrooke who is not under the spell of the Evil Queen (Lana Parrilla). '' Series creators Adam Horowitz and Eddy Kitsis stated of the role, "One of our emotional centers was an 11 - year - old boy who had to be precocious and vulnerable at the same time. '' Kitsis believed that Gilmore "naturally brought (these characteristics) out... We just knew he had to be our Henry! '' Gilmore commented, "I relate to Henry because I 'm 11 and also have a very good imagination. I enjoy making up and playing games in worlds with alternate realities myself. ''
|
language of paradox is the language of poetry elucidate | Paradox (literature) - wikipedia
In literature, the paradox is an anomalous juxtaposition of incongruous ideas for the sake of striking exposition or unexpected insight. It functions as a method of literary composition -- and analysis -- which involves examining apparently contradictory statements and drawing conclusions either to reconcile them or to explain their presence.
Literary or rhetorical paradoxes abound in the works of Oscar Wilde and G.K. Chesterton. Most literature deals with paradox of situation; Rabelais, Cervantes, Sterne, Borges, and Chesterton are recognized as masters of situation as well as verbal paradox. Statements such as Wilde 's "I can resist anything except temptation '' and Chesterton 's "spies do not look like spies '' are examples of rhetorical paradox. Further back, Polonius ' observation that "though this be madness, yet there is method i n't '' is a memorable third. Also, statements that are illogical and metaphoric may be called "paradoxes '', for example "the pike flew to the tree to sing ''. The literal meaning is illogical, but there are many interpretations for this metaphor.
Cleanth Brooks, an active member of the New Critical movement, outlines the use of reading poems through paradox as a method of critical interpretation. Paradox in poetry means that tension at the surface of a verse can lead to apparent contradictions and hypocrisies. Brooks ' seminal essay, "The Language of Paradox '', lays out his argument for the centrality of paradox by demonstrating that paradox is "the language appropriate and inevitable to poetry ''. The argument is based on the contention that referential language is too vague for the specific message a poet expresses; he must "make up his language as he goes ''. This, Brooks argues, is because words are mutable and meaning shifts when words are placed in relation to one another.
In the writing of poems, paradox is used as a method by which unlikely comparisons can be drawn and meaning can be extracted from poems both straightforward and enigmatic.
Brooks points to William Wordsworth 's poem "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free ''. He begins by outlining the initial and surface conflict, which is that the speaker is filled with worship, while his female companion does not seem to be. The paradox, discovered by the poem 's end, is that the girl is more full of worship than the speaker precisely because she is always consumed with sympathy for nature and not -- as is the speaker -- in tune with nature while immersed in it.
In his reading of Wordsworth 's poem, "Composed upon Westminster Bridge '', Brooks contends that the poem offers paradox not in its details, but in the situation which the speaker creates. Though London is a man - made marvel, and in many respects in opposition to nature, the speaker does not view London as a mechanical and artificial landscape but as a landscape composed entirely of nature. Since London was created by man, and man is a part of nature, London is thus too a part of nature. It is this reason that gives the speaker the opportunity to remark upon the beauty of London as he would a natural phenomenon, and, as Brooks points out, can call the houses "sleeping '' rather than "dead '', because they too are vivified with the natural spark of life, granted to them by the men that built them.
Brooks ends his essay with a reading of John Donne 's poem "The Canonization '', which uses a paradox as its underlying metaphor. Using a charged religious term to describe the speaker 's physical love as saintly, Donne effectively argues that in rejecting the material world and withdrawing to a world of each other, the two lovers are appropriate candidates for canonization. This seems to parody both love and religion, but in fact it combines them, pairing unlikely circumstances and demonstrating their resulting complex meaning. Brooks points also to secondary paradoxes in the poem: the simultaneous duality and singleness of love, and the double and contradictory meanings of "die '' in Metaphysical poetry (used here as both sexual union and literal death). He contends that these several meanings are impossible to convey at the right depth and emotion in any language but that of paradox. A similar paradox is used in Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, when Juliet says "For saints have hands that pilgrims ' hands do touch and palm to palm is holy palmer 's kiss. ''
Brooks ' contemporaries in the sciences were, in the 1940s and 50 's, reorganizing university science curricula into codified disciplines. The study of English, however, remained less defined and it became a goal of the New Critical movement to justify literature in an age of science by separating the work from its author and critic (see Wimsatt and Beardsley 's Intentional fallacy and Affective fallacy) and by examining it as a self - sufficient artifact. In Brooks 's use of the paradox as a tool for analysis, however, he develops a logical case as a literary technique with strong emotional effect. His reading of "The Canonization '' in "The Language of Paradox '', where paradox becomes central to expressing complicated ideas of sacred and secular love, provides an example of this development.
Although paradox and irony as New Critical tools for reading poetry are often conflated, they are independent poetical devices. Irony for Brooks is "the obvious warping of a statement by the context '' whereas paradox is later glossed as "a special kind of qualification which involves the resolution of opposites ''.
Irony functions as a presence in the text -- the overriding context of the surrounding words that make up the poem. Only sentences such as 2 + 2 = 4 are free from irony; most other statements are prey to their immediate context and are altered by it (take, as an example, the following joke. "A woman walks into a bar and asks for a double entendre. The bartender gives it to her. '' This last statement, perfectly acceptable elsewhere, is transformed by its context in the joke to an innuendo). Irony is the key to validating the poem because a test of any statement grows from the context -- validating a statement demands examining the statement in the context of the poem and determining whether it is appropriate to that context.
Paradox, however, is essential to the structure and being of the poem. In The Well Wrought Urn Brooks shows that paradox was so essential to poetic meaning that paradox was almost identical to poetry. According to literary theorist Leroy Searle, Brooks ' use of paradox emphasized the indeterminate lines between form and content. "The form of the poem uniquely embodies its meaning '' and the language of the poem "affects the reconciliation of opposites or contraries ''. While irony functions within the poem, paradox often refers to the meaning and structure of the poem and is thus inclusive of irony. This existence of opposites or contraries and the reconciliation thereof is poetry and the meaning of the poem.
R.S. Crane, in his essay "The Critical Monism of Cleanth Brooks '', argues strongly against Brooks ' centrality of paradox. For one, Brooks believes that the very structure of poetry is paradox, and ignores the other subtleties of imagination and power that poets bring to their poems. Brooks simply believed that "' imagination ' reveals itself in the balance or reconciliation of opposite or discordant qualities ''. Brooks, in leaning on the crutch of paradox, only discusses the truth which poetry can reveal, and speaks nothing about the pleasure it can give. (231) Also, by defining poetry as uniquely having a structure of paradox, Brooks ignores the power of paradox in everyday conversation and discourse, including scientific discourse, which Brooks claimed was opposed to poetry. Crane claims that, using Brooks ' definition of poetry, the most powerful paradoxical poem in modern history is Einstein 's formula E = mc, which is a profound paradox in that matter and energy are the same thing. The argument for the centrality of paradox (and irony) becomes a reductio ad absurdum and is therefore void (or at least ineffective) for literary analysis.
|
where did the name domino's come from | Domino 's Pizza - wikipedia
Domino 's Pizza, Inc., now branded simply as Domino 's, is an American pizza restaurant chain founded in 1960. The corporation is headquartered at the Domino 's Farms Office Park in Ann Arbor, Michigan. In February 2018, the chain became the largest pizza seller worldwide in terms of sales.
On December 9, 1960, Tom Monaghan and his brother, James, took over the operation of DomiNick 's, an existing location of a small pizza restaurant chain that had been owned by Dominick DiVarti, at 507 Cross Street (now 301 West Cross Street) in Ypsilanti, Michigan, near Eastern Michigan University. The deal was secured by a $500 down payment, and the brothers borrowed $900 to pay for the store. The brothers planned to split the work hours evenly, but James did not want to quit his job as a full - time postman to keep up with the demands of the new business. Within eight months, James traded his half of the business to Tom for the Volkswagen Beetle they used for pizza deliveries.
By 1965, Tom Monaghan had purchased two additional pizzerias; he now had a total of three locations in the same county. Monaghan wanted the stores to share the same branding, but the original owner forbade him from using the DomiNick 's name. One day, an employee, Jim Kennedy, returned from a pizza delivery and suggested the name "Domino 's '' Monaghan immediately loved the idea and officially renamed the business Domino 's Pizza, Inc. in 1965.
The company logo originally had three dots, representing the three stores in 1965. Monaghan planned to add a new dot with the addition of every new store, but this idea quickly faded, as Domino 's experienced rapid growth. Domino 's Pizza opened its first franchise location in 1967 and by 1978, the company expanded to 200 stores. In 1975, Domino 's faced a lawsuit by Amstar Corporation, the maker of Domino Sugar, alleging trademark infringement and unfair competition. On May 2, 1980, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans found in favor of Domino 's Pizza.
On May 12, 1983, Domino 's opened its first international store, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. That same year, Domino 's opened its 100th store, its first in Vancouver, Washington. In 1985, the chain opened their first store in the United Kingdom in Luton. Also, in 1985, Domino 's opened their first store in Tokyo, Japan. In 1993, they became the second American franchise to open in the Dominican Republic and the first one to open in Haiti, under the direction of entrepreneur Luis de Jesús Rodríguez. By 1995, Domino 's had expanded to 1,000 international locations. In 1997, Domino 's opened its 1,500 th international location, opening seven stores in one day across five continents. By 2014, the company had grown to 6,000 international locations and was planning to expand to pizza 's birthplace, Italy; this was achieved on October 5, 2015, in Milan, with their first Italian location. CEO Patrick Doyle, in May 2014, said the company would concentrate on its delivery model there.
In February 2016, Domino 's opened its 1,000 th store in India.
Domino 's Pizza chose to use its traditional delivery - based business model in China, neither altering its flavors nor reducing the sizes of pizzas, and promising a 30 - minute delivery time. The delivery time promise failed due to Chinese automobile traffic patterns stymieing the delivery operations. The large pizza sizes prevented Chinese people from using knives and forks to eat them, and takeout services were unpopular with Chinese people due to cultural reasons. Savio S. Chan (Chinese: 陳少宏; pinyin: Chén Shàohóng) and Michael Zakkour, authors of China 's Super Consumers: What 1 Billion Customers Want and How to Sell it to Them, wrote that Domino 's "failed miserably '' in its strategy, resulting in the company being "basically '' irrelevant in China, with 40 restaurants as of 2014. By January 2014, the company introduced small restaurants in the China market. Jamie Fullerton of Vice stated that these restaurants served "solid, mildly overpriced pizzas '' and did not have unique - to - China menu items.
In 1998, after 38 years of ownership, Domino 's founder Tom Monaghan announced his retirement, sold 93 percent of the company to Bain Capital, Inc. for about $1 billion, and ceased being involved in day - to - day operations of the company. A year later, the company named Dave Brandon as its CEO.
In 2004, after 44 years as a privately held company, Domino 's began trading common stock on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "DPZ ''. Industry trade publication Pizza Today magazine named Domino 's Pizza "Chain of the Year '' in 2003, 2010, and 2011. In a simultaneous celebration in January 2006, Domino 's opened its 5,000 th U.S. store in Huntley, Illinois, and its 3,000 th international store in Panama City, Panama, making 8,000 total stores for the system. In August 2006, the Domino 's location in Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland, became the first store in Domino 's history to hit a turnover of $3 million (€ 2.35 million) per year. As of September 2006, Domino 's has 8,200 + stores worldwide, which totaled $1.4 billion in gross income.
In 2007, Domino 's introduced its Veterans Delivering the Dream franchising program and also rolled out its online and mobile ordering sites. In 2008, Domino 's introduced the Pizza Tracker, an online application that allows customers to view the status of their order in a real time progress bar. The first Domino 's with a dining room opened in Stephenville, Texas, giving the customers the option to either eat in or take their pizza home. Since 2005, the voice of Domino 's Pizza 's US phone ordering service has been Kevin Railsback.
In a 2009 survey of consumer taste preferences among national chains by Brand Keys, Domino 's was last -- tied with Chuck E. Cheese 's. In December that year, Domino 's announced plans to entirely reinvent its pizza. It began a self - critical ad campaign in which consumers were filmed criticizing the then - current pizza 's quality and chefs were shown developing a new pizza. The new pizza was unveiled that same month. The following year, 2010 and Domino 's 50th anniversary, the company hired J. Patrick Doyle as its new CEO and experienced a 14.3 % quarterly gain. While admitted not to endure, the success was described by Doyle as one of the largest quarterly same - store sales jumps ever recorded by a major fast - food chain.
In 2011, Domino 's launched a billboard advertising in New York 's Times Square which displayed real time comments from customers, including good, neutral and bad comments.
In 2015, Domino 's unveiled a "pizza car '' that can carry 80 pizzas, sides, 2 - liter bottles of soda, and dipping sauces. It also has a 140 - degree oven on board and is more fuel efficient than a standard delivery car. Officially named the Domino 's DXP, the car is a Chevrolet Spark customized by Roush Performance. Once each car reaches 100,000 miles, it will be retired and returned to Roush, where it will be returned to stock form.
In 2016, Domino 's cooperated with Starship Technologies and applied self - driving robots to deliver pizzas in specific German and Dutch cities. In 2016, Domino 's in New Zealand delivered the world 's first pizza delivery by unmanned aerial vehicle using the DRU Drone by Flirety.
In February 2017, Domino 's launched a wedding registry with gifts delivered in the form of Domino 's eGift cards. Customers have the option of signing up for Domino 's pizza package to be served for the event.
In June 2018, Domino 's began repairing roads such as potholes in America as part of its ' Paving for Pizza ' initiative to prevent its pizzas from being damaged in transit. So far, Domino 's has fixed 5 potholes in Burbank, California; 8 potholes in Bartonville, Texas; 40 potholes in Milford, Delaware; and 150 square yards of failing roadway repaved in Athens, Georgia. Domino 's is also asking customers to nominate their town for road repairs via their dedicated website at pavingforpizza.com. If their town is selected, the customer will be notified and the city will receive funds to help repair roads. Any potholes repaired are emblazoned with the Domino 's logo and slogan.
In August 2012, Domino 's Pizza changed their name to simply Domino 's to emphasize their variety of non-pizza products such as chicken wings, apple pies, lasagna, and pasta. At the same time, Domino 's introduced a new logo that removed the blue rectangle and text under the domino in the logo, and changed the formerly all - red domino to be blue on the side with two dots and red on the side with one dot.
The Domino 's menu varies by region. The current Domino 's menu in the United States features a variety of Italian - American main and side dishes. Pizza is the primary focus, with traditional, specialty, and custom pizzas available in a variety of crust styles and toppings. In 2011, Domino 's launched artisan - style pizzas. Additional entrees include pasta, bread bowls, and oven - baked sandwiches. The menu offers chicken and bread sides, as well as beverages and desserts.
From its founding until the early 1990s, the menu at Domino 's Pizza was kept simple relative to other fast food restaurants, to ensure efficiency of delivery. Historically, Domino 's menu consisted solely of one style of pizza crust in two sizes (12 - inch and 16 - inch), 11 toppings, and Coca - Cola as the only soft drink option.
The first menu expansion occurred in 1989, with the debut of Domino 's deep dish or pan pizza. Its introduction followed market research showing that 40 % of pizza customers preferred thick crusts. The new product launch cost approximately $25 million, of which $15 million was spent on new sheet metal pans with perforated bottoms. Domino 's started testing extra-large size pizzas in early 1993, starting with the 30 - slice, yard - long "The Dominator ''.
Domino 's tapped into a market trend toward bite - size foods with spicy Buffalo Chicken Kickers, as an alternative to Buffalo Wings, in August 2002. The breaded, baked, white - meat fillets, similar to chicken fingers, are packaged in a custom - designed box with two types of sauce to "heat up '' and "cool down '' the chicken.
In August 2003, Domino 's announced its first new pizza since January 2000, the Philly Cheese Steak Pizza. The product launch also marked the beginning of a partnership with the National Cattlemen 's Beef Association, whose beef Check - Off logo appeared in related advertising. Domino 's continued its move toward specialty pizzas in 2006, with the introduction of its Brooklyn Style Pizza, featuring a thinner crust, cornmeal baked in to add crispness, and larger slices that could be folded in the style of traditional New York - style pizza.
In 2008, Domino 's once again branched out into non-pizza fare, offering oven - baked sandwiches in four styles, intended to compete with Subway 's toasted submarine sandwiches. Early marketing for the sandwiches made varied references to its competition, such as offering free sandwiches to customers named "Jared, '' a reference to Subway 's spokesman of the same name.
The company introduced its American Legends line of specialty pizzas in 2009, featuring 40 % more cheese than the company 's regular pizzas, along with a greater variety of toppings. That same year, Domino 's began selling its BreadBowl Pasta entree, a lightly seasoned bread bowl baked with pasta inside, and the Lava Crunch Cake dessert, composed of a crunchy chocolate shell filled with warm fudge. Domino 's promoted the dessert by flying in 1,000 cakes to deliver at Hoffstadt Bluffs Visitor Center near Mount St. Helens in Washington state.
In 2010, shortly after the company 's 50th anniversary, Domino 's changed its pizza recipe "from the crust up '', making significant changes in the dough, sauce, and cheese used in their pizzas. Their advertising campaign admitted to earlier problems with the public perception of Domino 's product due to taste issues.
In September 2012, Domino 's announced it was going to roll out a pan pizza on September 24, 2012. Following this move, the Deep Dish pizza was discontinued after 23 years of being on the menu.
In December 2013, Domino 's Pizza, in Israel, unveiled its first vegan pizza, which uses a soy - based cheese substitute.
After a stock low point in late 2009, the company 's stock had risen 700 percent in the five years preceding February 2016. Even as the American economy has suffered and unemployment has risen, Domino 's has seen its sales rise dramatically through its efforts to rebrand and retool its pizza.
Domino 's management is led by J. Patrick Doyle, CEO from March 2010, formerly president of Domino 's USA. Previous chief executive Dave Brandon remains Chairman. Among 11 executive vice presidents are Jeffrey Lawrence, CFO; Stan Gage, Team USA; Scott Hinshaw, Franchise Operations and Development; and Kenneth Rollin, General Counsel. Domino 's operations are overseen by a board of directors led by Brandon. Other members of the board are J. Patrick Doyle, Andy Ballard, Andrew Balson, Diana Cantor, Richard Federico, James Goldman, Bud Hamilton, and Gregory Trojan.
In 2001, Domino 's launched a two - year national partnership with the Make - A-Wish Foundation of America. That same year, company stores in New York City and Washington, D.C. provided more than 12,000 pizzas to relief workers following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon. Through a matching funds program, the corporation donated $350,000 to the American Red Cross ' disaster relief effort. In 2004, Domino 's began a partnership with St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital, participating in the hospital 's "Thanks and Giving '' campaign since the campaign began in 2004, and raising $5.2 million in 2014.
In the 1980s, Domino 's was well known for its advertisements featuring the Noid. That concept was created by Group 243 Inc. who then hired Will Vinton Studios to produce the television commercials that they created. The catchphrase associated with the commercials was "Avoid the Noid. '' The Noid was discontinued after Kenneth Lamar Noid, believing the mascot to be an imitation of him, held two Domino 's employees hostage in Chamblee, Georgia. The employees escaped while Noid ate a pizza he had ordered. Noid was eventually diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and acquitted due to insanity, and later committed suicide. The Noid was briefly brought back for a week in 2011 in an arcade - style game on the Domino 's Facebook page. The person with the top score received a coupon for a free pizza.
Due to a glitch on the Domino 's website, the company gave away nearly 11,000 free medium pizzas in March 2009. The company had planned the campaign for December 2008 but dropped the idea and never promoted it. The code was never deactivated, however, and resulted in the free giveaway of the pizzas across the United States after someone discovered the promotion on the website by typing in the word "bailout '' as the promotion code and then shared it with others on the Internet. Domino 's deactivated the code on the morning of March 31, 2009, and promised to reimburse store owners for the pizzas.
Domino 's sponsored CART 's Doug Shierson Racing, which was driven by Arie Luyendyk and won the 1990 Indianapolis 500. In 2003, Domino 's teamed up with NASCAR for a multi-year partnership to become the "Official Pizza of NASCAR. '' Domino 's also sponsored Michael Waltrip Racing and driver David Reutimann during the 2007 season in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series.
Starting in 1973, Domino 's Pizza had a guarantee that customers would receive their pizzas within 30 minutes of placing an order or they would receive the pizzas free. The guarantee was reduced to $3 off in the mid-1980s. In 1992, the company settled a lawsuit brought by the family of an Indiana woman who had been killed by a Domino 's delivery driver, paying the family $2.8 million. In another 1993 lawsuit, brought by a woman who was injured when a Domino 's delivery driver ran a red light and collided with her vehicle, the woman was awarded nearly $80 million but accepted a payout of $15 million. The guarantee was dropped that same year because of the "public perception of reckless driving and irresponsibility '', according to then - CEO Tom Monaghan.
In December 2007, Domino 's introduced a new slogan, "You Got 30 Minutes, '' alluding to the earlier pledge but stopping short of promising delivery in half an hour.
The company continues to honor the 30 - minute guarantee for orders placed in its stores situated in Colombia, Vietnam, Mexico, China, and India. The 30 - minute guarantee is subject to the terms and conditions applied in the respective country.
Domino 's Pizza currently has locations in 85 countries. It has its stores in 5,701 cities worldwide (2,900 international and 2,800 in the US). In 2016, Domino 's opened its 1,000 th store in India. As of the first quarter of 2018, Domino 's had approximately 15,000 stores, with 5,649 in the US, 1,127 in India, and 1,094 in the UK.
In most cases, Domino 's has master franchise agreements with one company per country, but three companies have acquired multiple master franchise agreements, covering multiple countries:
|
what part of the brain is the fight or flight response | Fight - or - flight response - wikipedia
The fight - or - flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.
This response is recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight - or - flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight - or - flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest '' response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.
Perceived control relates to an individual 's thoughts about control over situations and events. Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual 's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body 's systems. The sympathetic nervous system 's activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self - protection methods. Some species of cold - blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity -- the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
|
what is the purpose of the gina law | Genetic information Nondiscrimination Act - wikipedia
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (Pub. L. 110 -- 233, 122 Stat. 881, enacted May 21, 2008, GINA, pronounced Jee - na), is an Act of Congress in the United States designed to prohibit some types of genetic discrimination. The act bars the use of genetic information in health insurance and employment: it prohibits group health plans and health insurers from denying coverage to a healthy individual or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a genetic predisposition to developing a disease in the future, and it bars employers from using individuals ' genetic information when making hiring, firing, job placement, or promotion decisions. Senator Ted Kennedy called it the "first major new civil rights bill of the new century. '' The Act contains amendments to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 and the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.
In 2008, on April 24 H.R. 493 passed the Senate 95 - 0. The bill was then sent back to the House of Representatives and passed 414 - 1 on May 1; the lone dissenter was Congressman Ron Paul. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on May 21, 2008.
In 2017, HR 1313 was introduced which would let employers demand workers ' genetic test results.
In the 104th Congress (1995 -- 1996) several related bills were introduced.
In 1997, the Coalition for Genetic Fairness (CGF) was formed by several patient and civil rights groups to spearhead genetic nondiscrimination legislation on Capitol Hill. The CGF became the primary non-governmental driver of Federal genetic non-discrimination legislation.
In 2003, GINA was introduced as H.R. 1910, by Louise Slaughter, D - NY, and as S. 1053 by Senator Snowe, R - ME.
In 2005, it was proposed as H.R. 1227 by Representative Biggert, R - IL, and as S. 306 by Senator Snowe, R - ME.
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2007 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives as H.R. 493 by Representatives Slaughter, Biggert, Eshoo, and Walden. It passed the House by a 420 - 9 - 3 vote on April 25, 2007.
The same bill was introduced into the United States Senate as S. 358 by Senators Olympia Snowe, Ted Kennedy, Mike Enzi, and Christopher Dodd. On 2008 - 04 - 24, the Senate approved the bill 95 - 0, with five Senators not voting (including presidential candidates McCain, Clinton, and Obama). It had been subject of a "hold '' placed by Tom Coburn, M.D., Republican U.S. Senator from Oklahoma.
The bill was then sent back to the House of Representatives and passed 414 - 16 - 1 on May 1, 2008 (the lone dissenter was Congressman Ron Paul). President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on May 21, 2008. The text of the final approved version of GINA is here.
On May 17, 2016, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) amended various GINA regulations providing further clarification on acceptable workplace wellness programs. The new guidelines are effective on July 16, 2016. The new amendments require that (1) employee wellness programs are voluntary; (2) employers can not deny health care coverage for non participation, or (3) take adverse employment actions against or coerce employees who do not participate in wellness programs. Additionally, the new GINA regulations cover spousal participation in wellness programs and employers may not ask employees or covered dependents to agree to permit the sale of their genetic information in exchange for participation in wellness plans.
Along with an overview of the topic, the NIH National Human Genome Research Institute states that "NHGRI believes that legislation that gives comprehensive protection against all forms of genetic discrimination is necessary to ensure that biomedical research continues to advance. Similarly, it believes that such legislation is necessary so that patients are comfortable availing themselves to genetic diagnostic tests. '' This point of view thus regards GINA as important for the advancement of personalized medicine.
The Coalition for Genetic Fairness presents some arguments for genetic nondiscrimination. As of 2007, their argument makes the claim that because all humans have genetic anomalies, this would prevent them from accessing medication and health insurance. The Coalition also cites the potential for misuse of genetic information.
The GINA legislation has historically received support from the majority of both Democrats and Republicans, as evidenced by the 420 - 3 vote in 2007 by the House.
The National Association of Manufacturers, the National Retail Federation, the Society for Human Resource Management, the United States Chamber of Commerce, and other members of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination in Employment Coalition (GINE) say the proposed legislation is overly broad and are concerned the bills would do little to rectify inconsistent state laws and hence might increase frivolous litigation and / or punitive damages as a result of ambiguous record - keeping and other technical requirements. In addition, they are concerned that it would force employers to offer health plan coverage of all treatments for genetically - related conditions.
Insurance industry representatives argued that they may need genetic information. Without it, more high - risk people would buy insurance, causing rate unfairness.
While GINA has been cited as a strong step forward, some say that the legislation does not go far enough in enabling personal control over genetic testing results. The law does not cover life, disability, or long - term care insurance, which may cause some reluctance to get tested.
Some legal scholars have called for the addition of a "disparate impact '' theory of action to strengthen GINA as a law.
|
composition of the inner core of the earth | Inner core - wikipedia
The Earth 's inner core is the Earth 's innermost part. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 kilometres (760 miles), which is about 70 % of the Moon 's radius. It is composed of an iron -- nickel alloy and some light elements. The temperature at the inner core boundary is approximately 5700 K (5400 ° C).
The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its liquid outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth 's surface. This boundary is known as the Bullen discontinuity, or sometimes as the Lehmann discontinuity. A few years later, in 1940, it was hypothesized that this inner core was made of solid iron; its rigidity was confirmed in 1971.
The outer core was determined to be liquid from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it, but elastic shear waves do not -- or do so only very weakly. The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic shear waves that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth 's surface to detect, since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core. Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core. It has recently been claimed that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core; these claims were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.
Based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System, the theory of planetary formation, and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth 's volume, the inner core is believed to consist primarily of a nickel - iron alloy. Pure iron was found to be denser than the core by approximately 3 %, implying the presence of light elements in the core (e.g. silicon, oxygen, sulfur) in addition to the probable presence of nickel.
Further, if the primordial and mostly fluid (still forming) earth contained any significant mass (es) of elements denser than iron and nickel, namely the white (appearance) precious metals (and a few others) except silver, specifically the siderophile elements then these would necessarily have differentiated to the very center of the core into concentric nested spheres by Planetary differentiation. The most dense (and stable, i.e. platinum, iridium, and osmium, (etc.) in order of density) of these forming the innermost spheroid (s). While unstable elements of such trans - iron / nickel density would have mostly decayed to iron / nickel / lead by the time the earth formed a discrete core.
It then necessarily follows that all, or almost all, of these denser elements we have mined (or are even able to) at the surface (or near surface, or even at all "above '' the core) have been delivered later as part of impact objects / masses.
The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330 GPa). These considerations suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K (5,400 ° C; 9,800 ° F). The pressure in the Earth 's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: it ranges from about 330 to 360 gigapascals (3,300,000 to 3,600,000 atm). Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation).
A report published in the journal Science concludes that the melting temperature of iron at the inner core boundary is 6230 ± 500 K, roughly 1000 K higher than previous estimates.
The Earth 's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth 's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years). Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous, because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material, and continues to grow as a result of that same process. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid, due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high. It was even suggested that Earth 's inner core might be a single crystal of iron. However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core. Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform, but instead contains large - scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others. In addition, the properties of the inner core 's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner - core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations). Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers, separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick. If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface, then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior.
Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earth 's solid mantle, the possibility that it rotates slightly faster or slower than the rest of Earth has long been entertained. In the 1990s, seismologists made various claims about detecting this kind of super-rotation by observing changes in the characteristics of seismic waves passing through the inner core over several decades, using the aforementioned property that it transmits waves faster in some directions. Estimates of this super-rotation are around one degree of extra rotation per year.
Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earth 's magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core. This occurs mostly because it can not dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid. This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core. The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid (which is expected to be turbulent).
Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns. This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others. Because thermal convection alone appears to be improbable, any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior. S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes, and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.
There is an East -- West asymmetry in the inner core seismological data. There is a model which explains this by differences at the surface of the inner core -- melting in one hemisphere and crystallization in the other. The western hemisphere of the inner core may be crystallizing, whereas the eastern hemisphere may be melting. This may lead to enhanced magnetic field generation in the crystallizing hemisphere, creating the asymmetry in the Earth 's magnetic field.
Based on rates of cooling of the core, it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago out of a fully molten core (which formed just after planetary formation). If true, this would mean that the Earth 's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet 's formation, but a feature younger than the Earth (the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).
|
my grandparents were canadian can i get citizenship | Canadian nationality law - wikipedia
Canadian nationality law is promulgated by the Citizenship Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. C - 29) since 1977. The Act determines who is, or is eligible to be, a citizen of Canada. The Act replaced the previous Canadian Citizenship Act (S.C. 1946, c. 15; cited after 1970 as R.S.C. 1970, c. C - 19) in 1977 and has gone through four significant amendments, in 2007, 2009, 2015 and 2017.
Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada on the principle of jus soli, or birth abroad when at least one parent is a Canadian citizen or by adoption by at least one Canadian citizen under the rules of jus sanguinis. It can also be granted to a permanent resident who has lived in Canada for a period of time through naturalization. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC, formerly known as Citizenship and Immigration Canada, or CIC) is the department of the Federal government responsible for citizenship - related matters, including confirmation, grant, renunciation and revocation of citizenship.
On 19 June 2017, the Act has been amended for a fourth time by the 42nd Canadian Parliament. A set of changes has already taken effect on that date, while the remaining provisions regarding naturalization came into force on 11 October 2017, and provisions regarding revocation of citizenship is expected to be in force in early 2018.
After Canadian Confederation was achieved in 1867, the new Dominion 's "nationality law '' initially closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom and all Canadians were classified as British subjects. Section 91 (25) of the British North America Act, 1867, passed by the British Parliament in London (now referred to as the Constitution Act, 1867), however, gave the Parliament of Canada authority over "Naturalization and Aliens ''. The Immigration Act, 1910, for example, created the status of "Canadian citizen ''. This distinguished those British subjects who were born, naturalized, or domiciled in Canada from those who were not, but was only applied for the purpose of determining whether someone was free of immigration controls. The Naturalization Act, 1914, increased the period of residence required to qualify for naturalization in Canada as a British subject from three years to five years. A separate additional status of "Canadian national '' was created under the Canadian Nationals Act, 1921, in order that Canada could participate in international forces or military expeditions separately from Britain.
Canadian independence from Britain was obtained incrementally between 1867 (confederation and Dominion status within the Empire) and 1982 (patriation of the Canadian constitution). In 1931, the Statute of Westminster provided that the United Kingdom would have no legislative authority over Dominions without the request and consent of that Dominion 's government to have a British law become part of the law of the Dominion. The law also left the British North America Acts within the purview of the British parliament, because the federal government and the provinces could not agree on an amending formula for the Canadian constitution. (Similarly, the neighbouring Dominion of Newfoundland did not become independent because it never ratified the Statute.) When, in 1982, the British and Canadian parliaments produced the mutual Canada Act 1982 (UK) and Constitution Act 1982 (Canada), which included a constitutional amendment process, the UK ceased to have any legislative authority whatsoever over Canada.
By the 1930s and the outbreak of World War II, Canada 's naturalization laws consisted of a hodgepodge of confusing acts, which still retained the term "British subject '' as the nationality and citizenship of "Canadian nationals ''. This eventually conflicted with the nationalism that arose following the First and Second World Wars, and the accompanying desire to have the Dominion of Canada 's sovereign status reflected in distinct national symbols (such as flags, anthem, seal, etc.). This, plus the muddled nature of existing nationality law, prompted the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946, which took effect on 1 January 1947. On that date, Canadian citizenship was conferred on British subjects who were born, naturalized or domiciled in Canada. Subsequently, on 1 April 1949, the Act was extended to Newfoundland, upon the former British Dominion joining the Canadian confederation as the province of Newfoundland.
The 1947 Act was substantially revised again on 15 February 1977, when the new Citizenship Act came into force. From that date, multiple citizenship became legal. However, those who had lost Canadian citizenship before that date did not automatically have it restored until 17 April 2009, when Bill C - 37 became law. The 2009 act also limited the issuance of citizenship to children born outside Canada to Canadian ancestors (jus sanguinis) to one generation abroad. Bill C - 24 in 2015 further granted Canadian citizenship to British subjects with ties to Canada but who did not qualify for Canadian citizenship in 1947 (either because they had lost British subject status prior to 1947, or did not qualify for Canadian citizenship in 1947 and had not yet applied for naturalization).
There are four ways an individual can acquire Canadian citizenship: by birth on Canadian soil; by descent (being born to a Canadian parent); by grant (naturalization); and by adoption. Among them, only citizenship by birth is granted automatically with limited exceptions, while citizenship by descent or adoption is acquired automatically if the specified conditions have been met. Citizenship by grant, on the other hand, must be approved by the Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship.
In general, persons born in Canada on or after 1 January 1947 (or 1 April 1949 if born in Newfoundland and Labrador) automatically acquire Canadian citizenship at birth unless they fall into one of the exceptions listed below. Those born in Canada before 1947 automatically acquired Canadian citizenship either on 1 January 1947 (or 1 April 1949 for Newfoundland and Labrador residents) if they were British subjects on that day, or on 11 June 2015 if they had involuntarily lost their British subject status before that day.
Despite being indigenous peoples in Canada, many First Nations peoples (legally known as Status Indians) and Inuit born before 1947 did not acquire Canadian citizenship until 1956, when only those who met the conditions were retroactively granted Canadian citizenship.
Under paragraph 3 (1) (a) of the 1977 Act, any person who was born in Canada on or after 15 February 1977 acquires Canadian citizenship at birth. The Interpretation Act states that the term "Canada '' not only includes Canadian soil, but also "the internal waters '' and "the territorial sea '' of Canada, with the term "internal waters '' being defined as including "the airspace above ''. Hence, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada considers all children who were born over Canadian airspace as Canadian citizens. In one 2008 case, a girl born to a Ugandan mother aboard a Northwest Airlines flight from Amsterdam to Boston was deemed a Canadian citizen because she was born over Canadian airspace.
In addition, the interpretation section of the Citizenship Act states that any person who was born on an aircraft registered in Canada, or a vessel registered in Canada, is considered to be born in Canada.
There are only three exceptions to this rule, which are listed below.
Subsection 3 (2) of the Act states that Canadian citizenship by birth in Canada is not granted to a child born in Canada if neither parent is a Canadian citizen or permanent resident, and either parent was recognized by Global Affairs Canada as employed by the following at the time of the child 's birth:
In the Vavilov decision, the Federal Court of Appeal clarified that to qualify for one of the exceptions, the parent 's status as an employee of a foreign government must be recognized first by Global Affairs Canada. The exceptions do not apply if the said parent is employed by a foreign state but never had that status recognized by the Federal government.
In a high - profile 2015 case, Deepan Budlakoti, a stateless man born in Ottawa, Ontario, was declared not to be a Canadian citizen because his parents were employed as domestic staffs by the High Commissioner of India in Canada and their contracts, which came with recognized diplomatic statuses, legally ended two months after his birth, despite the fact that they started to work for a non-diplomat well before their contracts ended and before Budlakoti was born.
Under section 4 and 5 the 1947 Act, all persons who were born on Canadian soil or a ship registered in Canada on or after 1 January 1947 acquired Canadian citizenship at birth, while those who were born before 1 January 1947 on Canadian soil or Canadian ships acquired Canadian citizenship on 1 January 1947 if they had not yet lost their British subject status on that day. This Act was amended to include Newfoundland in 1949.
Before 1950, a loophole existed in a way that section 5 of the 1947 Act did not mention any exceptions to this rule for persons born after 1947, making persons born to diplomats between this period also Canadian citizens by birth. This loophole was closed in 1950 when the first amendments to the 1947 Act went into effect, which specified that the jus soli rule does not apply to children with a "responsible parent '' (father if born in wedlock; mother if born out of wedlock or has custody of the child) who was not a permanent resident and who also was:
Hence, between 1950 and 1977, it was possible for children born to foreign diplomat fathers and Canadian mothers not to be Canadian citizens.
Although the 1947 Act declared that British subjects who were born in Canada prior to 1947 acquired Canadian citizenship on 1 January 1947, First Nations and Inuit were left out of the 1947 Act because those who were born before 1 January 1947 were not British subjects. It was not until 1956 when the legal loophole was closed by amending the 1947 Act to include Status Indians under the Indian Act and Inuit who were born prior to 1947. To be eligible for Canadian citizenship, they must had Canadian domicile on 1 January 1947 and had resided in Canada for over ten years on 1 January 1956. Those qualified were deemed to be Canadian citizens since 1 January 1947. In comparison, those born on or after 1 January 1947 acquired Canadian citizenship at birth on the same basis as any other person born in Canada.
In 2012, Citizenship and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney proposed to modify the jus soli birthright citizenship recognized in Canadian law as a means of discouraging birth tourism. The move had drawn criticism from experts who said that the proposal was based on overhyped popular beliefs and nonexistent data. As of 2016, however, Minister John McCallum said during an interview that there is no plan to end birthright citizenship.
The 2015 amendment (Bill C - 24) of the 1977 Act, which went into effect on 11 June 2015, granted Canadian citizenship for the first time to people who were born in Canada before 1 January 1947 (or 1 April 1949 if born in Newfoundland and Labrador), ceased to be British subjects before that day, and never became Canadian citizens after 1947 (or 1949). Under the 1947 Act, these people were never considered to be Canadian citizens because they had lost their British subject status before the creation of Canadian citizenship. Persons who had voluntarily renounced British subject status or had their British subject status revoked are not included in the grant.
Whether a person is a Canadian citizen by descent depends on the legislation at the time of birth. Generally speaking, any person who was born to a parent born or naturalized in Canada who has not actively renounced their Canadian citizenship is a Canadian citizen by descent (known as first generations born abroad), regardless of the time of birth. These persons either automatically acquired Canadian citizenship at birth, or on 17 April 2009 or 11 June 2015.
Cases for children of first generations born abroad (known as second and subsequent generations born abroad) are more complicated. For such persons, only those who were born on or before 16 April 2009 may be Canadian citizens.
Under Bill C - 37 which went into force on 17 April 2009, every person born outside of Canada as the first generation born abroad (i.e. born to a Canadian parent who derives their citizenship from birth or naturalization in Canada) on or after 17 April 2009 is automatically a Canadian citizen by descent at birth. The Bill also granted Canadian citizenship, for the first time, to children of former Canadian citizens whose citizenship was restored on that day (which was every person who involuntarily lost Canadian citizenship under the 1947 Act). On 11 June 2015, Bill C - 24 further granted Canadian citizenship by descent to children of British subjects who were born or naturalized in Canada but never had Canadian citizenship. The acquisition of citizenship under both bills is not retroactive to birth.
Children born abroad on or after 17 April 2009 to Canadian citizens by descent, and children born abroad to Canadian citizens by descent who acquired their citizenship en masse on 17 April 2009 or 11 June 2015 are subject to the first generation rule and hence are not Canadian citizens. They must go through the naturalization or adoption process to become Canadian citizens.
The exceptions to the first - generation rule are:
An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (S.C. 2008, c. 14) (previously Bill C - 37) came into effect on 17 April 2009 and changed the rules for Canadian citizenship. Individuals born outside of Canada are Canadian citizens by descent only if one of their parents is a citizen of Canada either by having been born in Canada or by naturalization. The new law limits citizenship by descent to one generation born outside Canada.
In a scenario, the new rules would apply like this: A child is born in Brazil in 2005 (before the new rules came in effect) to a Canadian citizen father, who himself is a born abroad citizen by descent, and a Brazilian mother who is only a Permanent Resident of Canada. Child automatically becomes a Canadian citizen at birth. Another child born after 17 April 2009 in the same scenario would not be considered a Canadian citizen. The child is considered born past "first generation limitation '' and the parents would have to sponsor the child to Canada to become a Permanent Resident. Once permanent residency is granted, a parent can apply for Canadian citizenship on behalf of the child under subsection 5 (2) without the residency requirement.
Children born on or after 17 April 2009 as second and subsequent generations born abroad have no claim to Canadian citizenship other than naturalization or adoption. Prior to Bill C - 6 's passage on 19 June 2017, such children might be stateless if without claim to any other citizenship. In one case, a toddler who was born out of wedlock to a Chinese mother and a Canadian father who acquired his citizenship by descent was left de facto stateless for 14 months until she was registered for Irish citizenship because of her Irish - born grandfather. Since 19 June 2017, parents of such children can apply for naturalization on the sole ground of being stateless without fulfilling any of the requirements for citizenship.
Between 15 February 1977 and 16 April 2009, a child of a Canadian citizen who was born abroad acquires Canadian citizenship automatically at birth, regardless of whether the parent was a Canadian citizen by descent. During this period, the parent must be a Canadian citizen at the time of their birth for them to be eligible for Canadian citizenship, hence those with a parent who involuntarily lost their citizenship under the 1947 Act were not considered as Canadian citizens.
However, a Canadian citizen who was born outside Canada after the first generation between 15 February 1977 and 16 April 1981 is required to apply for a retention of Canadian citizenship before their 28th birthday, otherwise their Canadian citizenship would be automatically lost.
Between 1947 and 1977, a person born to a Canadian citizen parent would only acquire Canadian citizenship if his or her birth was registered at a Canadian embassy, consulate or high commission. Canadian citizenship between this period could only be passed down by Canadian fathers when born in wedlock, or Canadian mothers when born out of wedlock. Although the 1947 Act had mandated that a child must be registered within two years from the date of the child 's birth, the 1977 Act abolished the mandatory registration period so that eligible persons and their children born before 1977 could be registered at any age after 15 February 1977 up until 14 August 2004. This provision, known as delayed registration, was retroactive to birth, so children born to these citizens would automatically acquire Canadian citizenship by descent if born between the period of 15 February 1977 to 16 April 2009 and would have to apply for retention if falling under the retention rules (i.e., born between 1977 and 1981).
Although married women were unable to pass down citizenship to their offspring under the 1947 Act, a provision in the 1977 Act (paragraph 5 (2) (b)), before it was repealed on 17 April 2009, also allowed children born to Canadian mothers in wedlock before 1977 to apply for Canadian citizenship through a special grant before 14 August 2004. Unlike the delayed registration, the grant of citizenship under this provision was not retroactive to birth, and hence children born to such parents would not be Canadian citizens by descent if they were born before their parents ' citizenship was granted, because the parents were not yet Canadian citizens at the time of their birth. The special grant was also available for children who were born to Canadian fathers out of wedlock between the period of 17 May and 14 August 2004. Those who were born after the parent 's citizenship was granted also had to apply for retention if falling under the retention rules.
Those who failed to register or apply for a grant before 14 August 2004 would see their citizenship granted on 17 April 2009 if they were the first generation born abroad. Unlike those registered for or granted citizenship before the 2004 deadline, however, their children will not be able to acquire Canadian citizenship by descent, regardless of the time of birth.
A person may apply for Canadian citizenship by naturalization under section 5 of the Act if the outlined conditions are met. In certain cases, some or all of the requirements may be waived by the Minister.
Under subsection 5 (1), a person of any age may apply for Canadian citizenship if he or she:
In addition, any applicant between the age of 18 and 54 must:
Subsection 5 (1) does not apply to minors with a Canadian citizen parent or guardian, who must follow subsection 5 (2) which has fewer requirements and lesser fees.
Prior to 2015 's Bill C - 24, the Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act, the requirement for time spent in Canada was 1095 days over four years including at least two as a permanent resident (time spent in Canada as a temporary resident could count as one year of residence at most). The language and knowledge requirement applied only to persons aged 18 to 54. Between 17 June 2015 and 11 October 2017, the physical residence period was prolonged to four out of six years, and applicants must spend more than 183 days in Canada each year for at least four years before the day they submit their application. Their time spent in Canada as a temporary resident or a protected person also did not count toward the residence period.
Applications submitted prior to 11 October 2017 were subject to the longer physical residence requirement. However, knowledge and language requirements no longer apply to persons who were under 18 or over 54 at the time they signed their application, even when their applications were submitted prior to that date.
The age requirement and the requirement to declare the applicant 's intention to reside in Canada or continue the service with the CAF has been repealed when Bill C - 6 became law on 19 June 2017. Prior to this date, only those over 18 can apply for naturalization under subsection 5 (1). Furthermore, the residence period was changed to three out of five years on 11 October 2017, and applicants are no longer required to reside in Canada for 183 days per year. Once again, time spent as a temporary resident or a protected person are allowed to count toward the period of permanent residence, and the language and knowledge tests no longer apply to persons under 18 or over 54.
All applicants are required to maintain the requirements for citizenship from the day they submit the applications to the day they take the oath.
Since 19 June 2017, a minor under 18 can apply for citizenship individually under subsection 5 (1) if they meet all requirements. In other circumstances, however, the minor child 's parent or guardian can apply for Canadian citizenship on their behalf under subsection 5 (2). Citizenship will be granted under subsection 5 (2) if:
The parent who submits the application on the child 's behalf does not have to be the one with Canadian citizenship. For example, a permanent resident child 's non-citizen father can apply for citizenship on their behalf if the mother of the child is a Canadian citizen.
The period of residence requirement does not apply to those applying under subsection 5 (2). Minors under 14 years old also do not need to take the oath of citizenship or attend a citizenship ceremony.
Applicants who submitted their applications prior to 11 October 2017 are no longer required to meet language and knowledge requirements as they no longer apply to any person under 18 years of age.
When Bill C - 37 became law in 2009, a new provision, subsection 5 (5), was also added to provide a path to citizenship for stateless children born to Canadian parents who acquired citizenship by descent. To qualify, the applicants must:
Unlike subsections 5 (1) and 5 (2), subsection 5 (5) does not require the applicant to hold permanent resident status to apply (as long as the residence requirement has been met). Additionally, they do not need to attend a ceremony or take the Oath of Citizenship. Other requirements, such as the income tax filing, also do not apply to them.
After 19 June 2017, it is possible for such children to apply for a discretionary grant under subsection 5 (4) on the sole ground of being stateless and bypass all requirements, although subsection 5 (5) is left intact as a part of the Act.
Under subsection 5 (3), the Minister may waive the following requirements on compassionate or humanitarian grounds:
The Minister may further waive the oath requirement for persons with disabilities.
Moreover, under subsection 5 (4), the Minister may grant citizenship to individuals who:
Such persons do not need to fulfill any of the requirements.
All applicants for naturalization aged 14 or over (except for those naturalizing under subsection 5 (5) or those with the requirement waived by the minister) must attend a citizenship ceremony as the final stage of their application. After taken the Oath of Citizenship, they will be given a paper citizenship certificate as the legal proof of Canadian citizenship. Prior to February 2012, applicants would receive a wallet - sized citizenship card and a paper commemorative certificate, but only the citizenship card served as the conclusive proof of Canadian citizenship.
Prior to 2007, there was no provision in the Act for adopted persons to become Canadian citizens without going through the process of immigration and naturalization. In May 2006 the Federal government introduced draft legislation, Bill C - 14: An Act to Amend the Citizenship Act (Adoption), which was designed to allow adopted children the right to apply for citizenship immediately after the adoption without having to become a permanent resident. This bill received Royal Assent on 22 June 2007.
After the passage of the bill, a person who is adopted by a Canadian citizen is entitled to become a Canadian citizen under section 5.1 of the Citizenship Act if
In addition, for adoptees over 18 years old, evidence must be submitted to show that the adoptive parents and the adoptee have a "genuine relationship between parent and child '' before the adoptee turned 18.
For Quebec adopters, the adoption must also be approved by the Government of Quebec.
Unlike the execution of citizenship by descent provisions which automatically grants citizenship to first - generation born abroad, the exercise of adoption provisions is voluntary, and adoptees may become Canadian citizens either by immediately applying for Canadian citizenship under section 5.1, or through naturalization under section 5 after the adoptees become permanent residents.
However, those adopted by one or both parents who derived their citizenship by descent or under the adoption provisions are not eligible for citizenship under section 5.1 and must apply for naturalization under section 5, unless the parent concerned, at the time of adoption,
Furthermore, those who acquired citizenship under section 5.1 can not pass down citizenship to their future offspring born outside Canada through jus sanguinis, while an adoptee who acquired citizenship through naturalization may pass down citizenship to future children born abroad.
Although not included in section 5.1, persons who were adopted before 1 January 1947 were also granted Canadian citizenship on 11 June 2015 if their adoptive parents can pass down citizenship by descent and they had never received Canadian citizenship.
In a 2013 case, the Federal Court ruled that a person applying under section 5.1 has an entitlement to Canadian citizenship if all criteria have been met, even when they are otherwise ineligible for citizenship under naturalization rules (e.g., criminal offences or outstanding deportation orders).
There is no longer a requirement to file for retention of Canadian citizenship before a person 's 28th birthday after the repeal of section 8 of the Act on 17 April 2009.
Prior to Bill C - 37 entered into force, all Canadians who acquired their Canadian citizenship by descent through a Canadian parent who also acquired Canadian citizenship by descent (known as the second and subsequent generations born abroad) would automatically lose their Canadian citizenship on their 28th birthday under section 8 of the 1977 Act, unless they applied for retention of citizenship.
Retention of citizenship would only be approved for applicants who had satisfied one of the following conditions:
Applications would be considered by a citizenship judge and, if rejected, could be filed again after the applicant had met the requirements. Successful applicants would be issued a citizenship card and a certificate of retention, and both serve as the legal proof of citizenship.
This provision was formally repealed on 17 April 2009 when Bill C - 37 came into effect, and those who attained 28 years of age on or after the date no longer has a requirement to retain citizenship. Thus, only those who were born between the period of 15 February 1977 (the day that the 1977 Act went into effect) and 16 April 1981 were required to retain citizenship and, if had not taken the steps to do so, would lose their Canadian citizenship between 15 February 2005 and 16 April 2009. However, a child born to such parent would still be a Canadian citizen and no longer had to apply for retention, if he or she was born after 16 April 1981 but before 17 April 2009 and the parent had not formally lost Canadian citizenship at the time of the child 's birth. The parent, nevertheless, would face the loss of citizenship if he or she had not successfully filed for retention.
The retention clause of the Act had negatively affected a number of people, many of whom were residing in Canada at the time when their citizenship was stripped. On 4 December 2016, the Vancouver Sun reported that some individuals who were subject to the automatic loss of citizenship had only discovered that they were no longer Canadian citizens while dealing with the Federal government. These people would become de jure stateless if also holding no other nationalities or citizenship, and would also have no legal immigration status in Canada after the loss of citizenship. Accordingly, they must take steps to restore their Canadian citizenship under section 11 of the Act. It is worth noting that neither Bill C - 37 nor Bill C - 24 restored these persons ' citizenship, and those affected must take voluntary action or may possibly face legal consequences as illegal immigrants with respect to the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.
Under section 6 the original 1947 Act in force until 1970, Canadian citizens by descent were required to renounce all foreign citizenship and make a declaration of retention after they attained 21 years of age. Failing to do so before their 22nd birthday would cause the loss of Canadian citizenship on that day.
This requirement was relaxed in 1970. Subsection 5 (2) of the 1947 Act, as amended in 1970, specified that Canadian citizens by descent would not lose their Canadian citizenship until their 24th birthday, as opposed to their 22nd birthday under the original clause. Retention of citizenship would be granted to any person who had Canadian domicile on their 21st birthday, or those who had submitted a declaration of retention of Canadian citizenship before their 24th birthday. The requirement for them to renounce their foreign citizenship under the original 1947 Act was also repealed.
Unlike that of the 1977 Act which required the affected persons to make an application with the possibility of being refused, the 1947 Act 's retention clauses merely required those affected to make a declaration. The clauses also did not make a distinction between the first - generation born abroad to Canada - born or naturalized parents, and second and subsequent generations born abroad. However, under Bill C - 37, only those who were the first - generation born abroad were able to have their Canadian citizenship restored, while second and subsequent generations born abroad remain foreign if they had failed to retain their Canadian citizenship under the 1947 Act.
The complete repealment of the 1947 Act in 1977 meant that only those who were born on or before 14 February 1953 were subject to the 1947 Act 's retention rules. Those born between 15 February 1953 and 14 February 1977 were able to retain their Canadian citizenship without taking any actions.
After Bill C - 37 came into force in 2009, there is no provision for involuntary loss of Canadian citizenship, except when in certain circumstances the Minister may revoke a person 's citizenship. Between 1977 and 2009, only persons who failed to file for retention faced the involuntary loss of citizenship.
Between 1947 and 1977, a number of Canadian citizens had involuntarily lost their citizenship under the 1947 Act, mostly by acquiring the nationality or citizenship of another country. These persons ' citizenship have been restored en masse on 17 April 2009.
While there are no grounds for involuntary loss of citizenship, voluntary loss of citizenship, or renunciation, is permitted.
As a result of decisions of the Federal Court, since 10 July 2017 all revocation clauses in the Act are deemed inoperable until the amendments of the Act take effect in 2018.
Prior to its suspension in July 2017, the Minister might revoke a person 's citizenship under subsection 10 (1) if the person 's citizenship or permanent resident status is:
Revocations under subsection 10 (1) normally applied to naturalized Canadians. Persons whose citizenship was revoked under the subsection may become stateless.
After revocation, a person 's status in Canada may be a permanent resident (for those who acquired citizenship with fraud) or a foreign national with no status in Canada (for other revocations). Those who become foreign nationals will be subject to deportation, while those with permanent resident status may be issued deportation orders by a Federal court on the grounds of security, human rights violations, or organized crime.
Since 28 May 2015, the revocation of citizenship became streamlined. More powers were vested in the Department and the Minister, who could revoke a person 's citizenship without involving the Governor in Council. After the change of procedure, the number of revocation nearly tenfolded when comparing to 2014.
In May 2017, the Federal Court ruled in Hassouna v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) that subsections 10 (1), 10 (3) and 10 (4) violated the Canadian Bill of Rights in a way that they deprived a person 's right to a fair hearing. After the suspension of the ruling has lapsed on 10 July 2017, no subsection under section 10 is enforceable until the 2017 amendments to the Act are in effect. On the same day, a Federal judge had nullified the citizenship revocation of 312 people.
Before 2015, revocation only applied to naturalized citizens, and the Governor in Council must be notified about the revocation without exception.
Prior to 19 June 2017, subsection 10 (2), as amended in 2014 by Bill C - 24, added provisions when the Minister can revoke a person 's citizenship, including but not limited to:
Revocations under subsection 10 (2) only applied to those with citizenship or nationality in another country.
The subsection has been formally repealed on that day when Bill C - 6 received Royal Assent. Zakaria Amara, a dual Jordanian - Canadian citizen whose Canadian citizenship was revoked in 2015 because of his involvement in the 2006 Ontario terrorism plot, has had his citizenship reinstated when Bill C - 6 became law. Amara is the only person whose citizenship was revoked under subsection 10 (2).
Part of Bill C - 6, which is scheduled to take effect in early 2018, further amended the revocation process. The changes include:
As these changes will not take effect until 2018, all revocation cases are suspended or cancelled until then.
Under the 1977 Act, there were no automatic losses of Canadian citizenship until the period between 2005 and 2009 when a number of Canadians lost their citizenship due to their failure of retaining citizenship.
After 2009, it is no longer possible to lose Canadian citizenship involuntarily unless it has been revoked.
The term "Lost Canadians '' are used to refer to persons who believed themselves to be Canadian citizens but have lost or never acquired Canadian citizenship due to the legal hurdles in the 1947 Act.
Under the 1947 Act, a person must be a British subject on 1 January 1947 for them to acquire Canadian citizenship. Hence certain persons who were born, naturalized or domiciled in Canada before the enactment of the 1947 Act were ineligible for Canadian citizenship, which included the following groups:
After the enactment of the 1947 Act, Canadian citizenship could be automatically lost between 1 January 1947 and 14 February 1977, by the following acts:
The loss of British subject status or Canadian citizenship could occur even when the person was physically in Canada.
Certain Canadian residents born before 1977, including but not limiting to war brides and persons who were born outside Canada to Canadian citizens (primarily those who were born to Canadian servicemen or in U.S. hospitals along the U.S. - Canadian border who automatically acquired U.S. citizenship at birth), also do not possess Canadian citizenship, because it was not possible to automatically acquire Canadian citizenship between 1947 and 1977 without voluntarily applying for naturalization (for war brides) or registering at a Canadian mission (for children of Canadians). Some of those people have been living in Canada for their entire lives with little knowledge of their lack of Canadian citizenship. To solve this problem, the Federal government had undertook several legislative processes to reduce and eliminate these cases.
The problem first arose in February 2007, when the House of Commons Standing Committee on Citizenship and Immigration held hearings on so - called Lost Canadians, who found out on applying for passports that, for various reasons, they may not be Canadian citizens as they thought. Don Chapman, a witness before the committee, estimated that 700,000 Canadians had either lost their citizenship or were at risk of having it stripped. However, Citizenship and Immigration Minister Diane Finley said her office had just 881 calls on the subject. On 19 February 2007, she granted citizenship to 33 such individuals. Some of the people affected reside in towns near the border, and hence were born in American hospitals. Others, particularly Mennonites, were born to Canadian parents outside Canada. An investigation by the CBC, based on Canadian census data, concluded that the problem could affect an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 individuals residing in Canada at the time.
On 29 May 2007, Canadian Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Diane Finley announced her proposal to amend the 1977 Act for the first time. Under the proposal, which eventually became Bill C - 37, anyone naturalized in Canada since 1947 would have citizenship even if they lost it under the 1947 Act. Also, anyone born since 1947 outside the country to a Canadian mother or father, in or out of wedlock, would have citizenship if they are the first generation born abroad. Appearing before the Standing Committee on Citizenship and Immigration, Finley asserted that as of 24 May 2007, there were only 285 cases of individuals in Canada whose citizenship status needs to be resolved. As persons born prior to 1947 were not covered by Bill C - 37, they would have to apply for special naturalization before Bill C - 24 's passage in 2015.
Under Bill C - 37 and Bill C - 24 which went into effect on 17 April 2009 and 11 June 2015, respectively, Canadian citizenship was restored or granted for those who have involuntarily lost their Canadian citizenship under the 1947 Act or British subject status prior to 1947, as well as their children.
The aftermath of the 1947 Act continues to affect people today. In July 2017, Larissa Waters, an Australian Senator born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, was disqualified on the ground that she has dual Canadian and Australian citizenship. Section 44 of the Australian Constitution was frequently interpreted by Australian courts as a ban on the ability to run for political office by persons with multiple citizenship. Waters, who was born to Australian parents a week before the 1977 Act went into effect, claimed that she was unaware of the changes in Canadian legislation and was also misinformed by her parents, who told her that she would cease to be a Canadian when she turns 21. However, her claim runs afoul with nationality laws of both countries.
A Canadian citizen who wishes to voluntarily renounce his or her citizenship must make an application directly to the Federal government, and he or she ceases to be a Canadian citizen only after the Federal government has approved such request. Renouncing Canadian citizenship to a foreign government (such as by taking the Oath of Allegiance to the United States) is not sufficient in itself to be considered as a voluntary renunciation of Canadian citizenship.
In general, there are two forms of renunciations: subsection 9 (1) of the Act, for all renunciations, and section 7.1 of the Citizenship Regulations, for persons who acquired citizenship in 2009 and 2015 due to the changes of law.
All renunciations are subject to approval by the Governor in Council, who has the power to refuse an application on national security grounds.
Under subsection 9 (1), a person renouncing citizenship must:
The person may be required to attend an interview.
In some cases, the Minister may waive the residence and implication understanding requirements. However, a person may not renounce his or her citizenship when the revocation of citizenship is in action.
Section 7.1 of the Regulations provides a simpler way for those whose citizenship was restored in 2009 and 2015 to renounce their citizenship. To qualify, the applicant must have acquired or reacquired his or her citizenship under the 2009 and 2015 amendments, and:
The implication understanding requirement can also be waived by the Minister.
Persons renouncing under section 7.1 do not need to attend an interview, and there is no fee for renunciation.
Under subsection 11 (1) of the Act, a former Canadian citizen who voluntarily renounced his or her citizenship in accordance with Canadian law is generally required to satisfy a number of conditions before he or she can resume Canadian citizenship. The conditions are:
The income taxes and residence intention requirements were added on 11 June 2015 when Bill C - 24 became law. The residence intention requirement, however, was repealed on 19 June 2017 when Bill C - 6 received Royal Assent.
Former citizens who lost their citizenship by revocation are not eligible to resume their citizenship. They must follow naturalization procedures if not permanently prohibited from doing so.
On 17 April 2009, Bill C - 37 resumed Canadian citizenship to all of those who have obtained Canadian citizenship on or after 1 January 1947 by birth or naturalization in Canada but have involuntarily lost it under the 1947 Act, and their first generation descendants born abroad were also granted Canadian citizenship on that day.
On 11 June 2015, Bill C - 24 further granted citizenship for the first time to those who were born or naturalized in Canada but had lost British subject status before 1947 and their first generation descendants born abroad.
On 22 September 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney agreed to a redress package for Japanese - Canadians deported from Canada between 1941 and 1946 (about 4,000 in total) and their descendants. The package authorized a special grant of Canadian citizenship for any such person. All descendants of deported persons were also eligible for the grant of citizenship provided that they were living on 22 September 1988, regardless of whether the person actually deported from Canada was still alive.
Although Bill C - 24 covered the majority of ex-British subjects who would have acquired citizenship in 1947, certain number of female ex-British subjects were excluded from the Bill, mainly those born in another part of the British Empire other than Canada, had been residing in Canada long enough to qualify for citizenship under the 1947 Act, but had lost their British subject status either by marrying a foreign man before 1947, or losing British subject status when her spouse naturalized in another country. These people can acquire Canadian citizenship under subsection 11 (2) of the 1977 Act by a simple declaration made to the IRCC. There are no additional requirements other than the declaration.
The attitude toward multiple citizenship in Canada has changed significantly throughout the time. Between 1 January 1947 and 14 February 1977, multiple citizenship was only allowed under limited circumstances. On 15 February 1977, the restrictions on multiple citizenship disappeared overnight.
The number of Canadians with multiple citizenship is difficult to determine because of the changes in Canadian and foreign laws. In 2006, around 863,000 Canadian citizens residing in Canada reported in census to hold at least one more citizenship or nationality of another country. The actual figure, however, is substantially higher, as the Federal government does not maintain statistics on persons with multiple citizenship who reside abroad. The en masse citizenship grant and restoration in 2009 and 2015 further increased the number of Canadians with multiple citizenship, as Canadian citizenship was restored or granted to most of the people who lost their Canadian citizenship or British subject status by acquiring citizenship of another country. These people, as well as their descendents, are de jure Canadians with multiple citizenship even when they do not exercise citizenship rights (e.g., travelling on a Canadian passport).
Although not a legal requirement, Canadian citizens with multiple citizenship are required to carry a Canadian passport when boarding their flights to Canada since November 2016 unless they are dual Canadian - American citizens carrying a valid United States passport. This is caused by the amended visa policy, which imposed a pre-screening requirement on visa - exempt nationalities. Those entering Canada by land or sea are not subject to this restriction.
The 1977 Act removed all restrictions on multiple citizenship and Canadian citizens acquiring another citizenship on or after 15 February 1977 do not lose their Canadian citizenship.
Those who lost their Canadian citizenship or British subject status under the 1947 Act or the British 1914 Act regained or gained Canadian citizenship in 2009 and 2015, respectively. The grant and resumption under Bill C - 37 and Bill C - 24 included these people 's children.
Although multiple citizenship was severely restricted under the 1947 Act, it was still possible to be a citizen of Canada and another country so long as the acquisition of the other citizenship or nationality is involuntary. A person may involuntarily acquire citizenship of another country when:
Like peoples of all other British colonies and Dominions at the time, those born in Canada before 1947 were British subjects by nationality under the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914. The term "Canadian citizen '', however, was first created under the Immigration Act 1910 to identify a British subject who was born in Canada or who possessed Canadian domicile, which could be acquired by any British subject who had lawfully resided in Canada for at least three years. At that time, "Canadian citizenship '' was solely an immigration term and not a nationality term, hence "Canadian citizens '' under the Immigration Act would be subject to the same rules on acquisition and loss of British subject status under the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914. Under the Immigration Act 1910, "Canadian citizenship '' would be lost for any person who had ceased to be a British subject, as well as non-Canadian born or naturalized British subjects who "voluntarily (reside) outside Canada ''. While the former would lose "Canadian citizenship '' and British subject status simultaneously, the latter would only stop being a "Canadian citizen ''. Canadian - born or naturalized British subjects would not lose their Canadian domicile by residing outside Canada.
The only circumstance in which a British subject could acquire de jure dual citizenship was by birth to a British subject father in a country which offered birthright citizenship (e.g., the United States). However, "Canadian citizens '' may acquire de facto dual citizenship by residing in another British Dominion, protectorate, or colony, as they would simultaneously have "Canadian citizenship '' and, if residing long enough to meet the requirements, the domicile of that Dominion, protectorate, or colony.
To further separate British subjects domiciled in Canada from other British subjects, the term "Canadian National '' was created by the Canadian Nationals Act 1921 on 3 May of that year. The status was bestowed on all holders of "Canadian citizenship '' and their wives, but also included all children born outside Canada to Canadian National fathers, regardless of whether possessing British subject status at the time of birth. This 1921 Act also provided a path for certain Canadian Nationals who were born outside Canada, or who were born in Canada but had the domicile of the United Kingdom or another Dominion at birth or as a minor, to relinquish their Canadian Nationality and domicile. Prior to the passage of the 1921 Act, "Canadian citizens '' who were born in Canada had no course to abandon their Canadian domicile without having to relinquish their British subject status altogether. As Canadian Nationality was also independent of their British subject status, the renunciation under the 1921 Act would have no effect on their British subject status, although they would also not become Canadian citizens on 1 January 1947 when it was first created.
Though she resides predominantly in the United Kingdom and it is uncertain whether a monarch is subject to his or her own citizenship laws, the Queen of Canada is considered Canadian. She and those others in the Royal Family who do not meet the requirements of Canadian citizenship (there are five Canadian citizens within the Royal Family) are not classified by either the government or some constitutional experts as foreigners to Canada; in the Canadian context, members of the Royal Family are subjects specifically of the monarch of Canada. Members of the Royal Family have also, on occasion, declared themselves to be Canadian and called Canada "home ''.
There have been a number of court decisions dealing with the subject of Canadian citizenship. In particular, the interpretation of the 3 - year (1,095 - day) residence requirement enacted by the 1977 Citizenship Act, which does not define the term "residence '' and, further, prohibits an appeal of a Federal Court decision in a citizenship matter to the Federal Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court, has "led to a great deal of mischief and agony '' and generated considerable judicial controversy.
Over the years two principal schools of thought with respect to residence have emerged from the Federal Court.
Early on, in 1978, Associate Chief Justice Arthur L. Thurlow in Papadogiorgakis (Re), (1978) 2 F.C. 208, opined that residency entails more than a mere counting of days. He held that residency is a matter of the degree to which a person, in mind or fact, settles into or maintains or centralizes his or her ordinary mode of living, including social relations, interests and conveniences. The question becomes whether an applicant 's linkages suggest that Canada is his or her home, regardless of any absences from the country.
In Re Koo, Justice Barbara Reed further elaborated that in residency cases the question before the Court is whether Canada is the country in which an applicant has centralized his or her mode of existence. Resolving such a question involves consideration of several factors:
The general principle is that the quality of residence in Canada must be more substantial than elsewhere.
In contrast, a line of jurisprudence flowing from the decision in Re Pourghasemi (1993), 62 F.T.R. 122, 19 Imm. L.R. (2d) 259, emphasized how important it is for a potential new citizen to be immersed in Canadian society and that a person can not reside in a place where the person is not physically present. Thus, it is necessary for a potential citizen to establish that he or she has been physically present in Canada for the requisite period of time.
In the words of Justice Francis Muldoon:
It is clear that the purpose of paragraph 5 (1) (c) is to ensure that everyone who is granted precious Canadian citizenship has become, or at least has been compulsorily presented with the everyday opportunity to become "Canadianized. '' This happens by "rubbing elbows '' with Canadians in shopping malls, corner stores, libraries, concert halls, auto repair shops, pubs, cabarets, elevators, churches, synagogues, mosques and temples -- in a word wherever one can meet and converse with Canadians -- during the prescribed three years. One can observe Canadian society for all its virtues, decadence, values, dangers and freedoms, just as it is. That is little enough time in which to become Canadianized. If a citizenship candidate misses that qualifying experience, then Canadian citizenship can be conferred, in effect, on a person who is still a foreigner in experience, social adaptation, and often in thought and outlook... So those who would throw in their lot with Canadians by becoming citizens must first throw in their lot with Canadians by residing among Canadians, in Canada, during three of the preceding four years, in order to Canadianize themselves. It is not something one can do while abroad, for Canadian life and society exist only in Canada and nowhere else.
The co-existence of such disparate, yet equally valid approaches has led some judges to comment that the citizenship "law is in a sorry state '', that "there can not be two correct interpretations of a statute '', that "it does not engender confidence in the system for conferring citizenship if an applicant is, in the course of a single application, subjected to different legal tests because of the differing legal views of the Citizenship Court '', that there 's a "scandalous incertitude in the law '', and that "there is no doubt that a review of the citizenship decisions of this Court, on that issue, demonstrates that the process of gaining citizenship in such circumstances is akin to a lottery ''.
In 2010 it seemed that a relative judicial consensus with respect to decision - making in residence cases might emerge. In several Federal Court decisions it was held that the citizenship judge must apply a hybrid two - test approach by firstly ascertaining whether, on the balance of probabilities, the applicant has accumulated 1,095 days of physical presence. If so, the residency requirement is considered to have been met. If not, then the judge must additionally assess the application under the "centralized mode of existence '' approach, guided by the non-exhaustive factors set out in Koo (Re).
However, most recently, this compromise formula was rejected by Federal Court judges, who continued to plead for legislative intervention as the means to settle the residency requirement debacle.
A few of the other major decisions are:
Comparing to permanent residents, Canadian citizens have additional rights, including but not limited to:
In addition, only Canadian citizens may petition to receive a grant of armorial bearings.
Canadian citizens, however, have the responsibility to complete jury duty when called to do so, and failure to respond or appear may come with legal consequences. Permanent residents, on the other hand, are legally ineligible to serve as jurors and hence are not required to do so.
Under current rules, the Federal government has designated a number of documents as proof of citizenship:
Among these documents, only the certificate of citizenship is still being issued by the Federal government. The certificate is automatically issued to an individual who has become a Canadian citizen through naturalization, but can also be issued to any Canadian upon request. If requested, a certificate is only issued after a complete investigation on whether the individual possess Canadian citizenship under current or historical legislation. The certificate replaced the wallet - sized citizenship card on 1 February 2012 and can be verified electronically, but unlike the citizenship card, it can no longer be used as an identification document as it does not contain a photo. The citizenship card was originally issued between 1954 and 1977 as a supplement of the larger certificate before the 1977 Act. Between 1977 and 2012, it was the only valid proof of Canadian citizenship for those who acquired citizenship through naturalization or by descent.
As those who were born in Canada normally acquired citizenship at birth under both 1947 and 1977 Acts, birth certificates issued by the provincial or territorial government are usually considered by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada as adequate proof of citizenship. There are, however, complications when the person failed to acquire Canadian citizenship because of the exceptions listed under subsection 3 (2) of the Act. As the Federal government does not keep records of the immigration statuses of parents at birth, a person may be recognized as a Canadian - based solely on his or her birth within Canada when, in fact, he or she does not possess Canadian citizenship in accordance with subsection 3 (2). Deepan Budlakoti, a stateless man born in Ontario, was twice issued a valid Canadian passport based on his Ontario birth certificate before the Federal government realized that he is not a Canadian citizen under subsection 3 (2) and revoked his Canadian passport.
Documents other than those listed above, including Canadian passports, are not considered as proof of citizenship, but a passport is issued only after review of other documentary proof, as noted above. Church - issued baptismal certificates and birth certificates issued by an authority other than a provincial or territorial government are also not proof of Canadian citizenship. Such certificates were common in Quebec, as the provincial government did not start to issue birth certificates until 1994.
A special birth certificate issued by the Department of National Defence to children of CAF members born abroad, known as DND 419, is not a proof of citizenship due to the lack of legal status of the certificate. This has caused difficulties for some individuals as they were forced to apply for a certificate of citizenship to confirm their status and to apply for a passport.
Visa requirements for Canadian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Canada. According to the 2016 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a Canadian passport can visit 172 countries and territories visa - free or with visa on arrival, and the score of Canada is currently ranked 6th in terms of travel freedom.
Because Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canadian citizens also have the status of "Commonwealth citizen '', the functional meaning of which varies from one member state to another. Under British law, Canadians may be entitled to certain rights in the United Kingdom or certain services provided by the United Kingdom, including:
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
|
who won the super bowl last 10 years | List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia
The Super Bowl is the annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs.
Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', but were also casually referred to as "the Super Bowl game '' during the television broadcast. Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the "Super Bowl '' moniker in official marketing, the names "Super Bowl I '' and "Super Bowl II '' were retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 27, while the AFC / AFL has won 25. Nineteen franchises, including teams that relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (6 -- 2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5 -- 5), the Dallas Cowboys (5 -- 3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5 -- 1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten, while the Buffalo Bills (0 -- 4) have the most consecutive appearances with four (all losses) from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972 -- 1974. The Denver Broncos (3 -- 5) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls. The Minnesota Vikings (0 -- 4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the Green Bay Packers (1966 -- 1967), the Miami Dolphins (1972 -- 1973), the Pittsburgh Steelers (1974 -- 1975 and 1978 -- 1979, the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the San Francisco 49ers (1988 -- 1989), the Dallas Cowboys (1992 -- 1993), the Denver Broncos (1997 -- 1998), and the New England Patriots (2003 -- 2004). Among those, Dallas (1992 -- 1993; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003 -- 2004) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:
Seven franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice:
No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:
Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by number of years since last appearing in a Super Bowl. In the "Seasons '' column, bold years indicate winning seasons, and italic years indicate games not yet completed.
Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:
In addition, Detroit, Houston, and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls, making Cleveland the only current NFL city that has neither hosted nor had its team play in a Super Bowl.
Although Jacksonville and Houston have never appeared in a Super Bowl, there are teams whose most recent Super Bowl appearance is older than when Jacksonville and Houston joined the NFL (1995 and 2002, respectively), resulting in longer Super Bowl droughts than these teams for the following eight teams.
Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970:
However, the Jets and the Chiefs are the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl, both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time.
The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:
Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:
The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:
|
what is the newest season of the big bang theory | The Big Bang Theory (season 11) - wikipedia
The eleventh season of the American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory premiered on CBS on Monday, September 25, 2017. It returned to its regular Thursday time slot on November 2, 2017, after Thursday Night Football on CBS ended. The season concluded on May 10, 2018.
In March 2017, CBS renewed the series for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season.
Like the previous three seasons, the first five episodes aired on Mondays due to CBS ' contractual rights to air the Thursday Night Football games. After Thursday Night Football ended, the series returned to a Thursday schedule starting on November 2, 2017. Filming for the eleventh season began on August 15, 2017; it was also announced with the taping report that the premiere for the eleventh season would be titled "The Proposal Proposal ''. Before the season premiered, five episodes were filmed from August 15 to September 19, 2017.
According to TV Guide, Steve Holland announced on September 22, 2017 that both Bob Newhart and Wil Wheaton would return this season after their absences during Season 10.
Amy enthusiastically accepts Sheldon 's marriage proposal. However, when dining with Amy 's colleagues later that night, Sheldon is offended that they are more impressed with Amy 's work than his own. With help from Stephen Hawking, Sheldon later comes to grips with the fact that he will not always be the center of attention in the marriage. Bernadette is shocked to realize that she is pregnant again. She and Howard are not thrilled at the idea of having another baby so soon after their first. They attempt to convince Leonard and Penny to have a child as well, but are rebuffed.
Leonard gives an interview on public radio where he admits physics research might be at a dead end. The university is furious and, while trying to think of reasons to put in a retraction, he depresses Sheldon into thinking he might be right. Howard and Raj come over and end up just as depressed. Getting drunk with Penny, the men go to the grave of Richard Feynman and realize there is hope for physics as long as they believe in it. Leonard accidentally sends a drunken email to Human Resources. Meanwhile, Amy and Bernadette agree with each other to keep quiet about the success in their careers so as not to upset Sheldon and Howard. While bragging to each other, they end up arguing which of their fields is better.
Sheldon can not find the perfect wedding date and begins talking in his sleep, adopting the persona of a laid - back person who goes with the flow. Amy and Penny believe that his subconscious mind is trying to tell him to be more relaxed; his attempt to be so while wearing flip - flops ends in disaster. He decides to leave all the wedding planning to Amy while he wears a Star Trek uniform underneath his tuxedo. Meanwhile, Raj and Stuart both become interested in Bernadette 's new coworker Ruchi. While she likes them both as friends, she does not want a relationship with anyone.
Howard and Bernadette learn their second child will be a boy, leading Howard to doubt whether he can be a good father to a son. He and Sheldon go out in the desert to test launch a model rocket, but it explodes, causing him further doubt. On the way home, Howard does a good job coaching Sheldon to drive them home, for which Sheldon tells him he will be a good teacher to his son. Leonard 's mother Beverly begins talking to Penny as a friend and confidant, troubling Leonard, especially when he learns that Beverly told Penny that she was proud of her, a level of praise she never bestowed upon Leonard himself. When Leonard confronts Beverly, he is touched when she says that of all of her children 's spouses, Penny is the one by whom she is most impressed and that, for this, she is indeed proud of him. Meanwhile, Raj helps Bernadette turn baby girl clothes into boy ones.
Amy and Howard begin collaborating on a neuroprosthetics project, upsetting Sheldon and Raj, who feel they are not spending as much time with them. When they seek solace with an annoyed Bernadette, she exploits the situation to trick Sheldon into doing Howard 's chores. Penny successfully employs the approaches recommended in one of Bernadette 's parenting books to deal with Sheldon, but Leonard believes she is coddling Sheldon too much. Sheldon and Raj resolve the issue of missing their significant others by spending time together.
Professor Proton, Sheldon 's favorite childhood show, is being rebooted. After unsuccessfully auditioning for the part, he goes to Wil Wheaton for acting tips for his second audition. However, Sheldon is later dismayed when Wil is offered the role instead. Talking it over with Arthur in his dreams, he is still upset to see his idol replaced and considers Wil an enemy again. Meanwhile, Howard gets a vasectomy while Bernadette is on bed rest. Penny offers to take care of Halley for them, but they insult her by expecting her to be irresponsible. Halley ends up saying her first word by calling Penny "Mama. ''
Bert asks for Sheldon 's help in a geology research project relating to dark matter. Sheldon secretly agrees, but is too embarrassed to admit he is working with rocks. Bert finds out about this and ends their partnership. After talking with Amy, Sheldon goes to apologize, only to find Leonard has taken his place. Meanwhile, Raj runs into Ruchi again and goes out with her, but she does not believe in romantic love. After Howard and Bernadette tell Raj that he can just have sex with Ruchi, he agrees to keep it casual.
After learning Sheldon went behind their backs to work with the military again, Leonard and Howard say Sheldon is like Thomas Edison, taking credit for other 's ideas, while they are more like Nikola Tesla. Leonard and Howard bring in Barry Kripke to help create a better idea than Sheldon 's, but Kripke goes to the military himself, cutting all three of them out. Meanwhile, Bernadette fears Ruchi is trying to steal her projects at work while she is on maternity leave, and hires Raj to spy on her. Though he finds proof that Ruchi may be stealing from Bernadette, Raj tries to defend Ruchi like a boyfriend would, pointing out Bernadette 's hypocrisy as she would 've most likely stolen from other people 's projects as well. Ruchi is not happy about this and promptly dumps Raj.
In 2010, Leonard, Howard and Raj mined a lot of Bitcoin, worth thousands of dollars seven years later, but leave Sheldon out due to his fear of tax implications. Flashbacks are shown of how the Bitcoin ended up on an old laptop of Leonard 's, which Penny gave to her old boyfriend Zack after she and Leonard broke up. In 2017, Leonard and Penny retrieve the computer from Zack, who first shows them a video of a drunken Penny apologizing for breaking up with Leonard. The Bitcoin is not found on the laptop. Sheldon had moved it to a flash drive on Leonard 's keychain to teach them a lesson, but Leonard lost the keychain years ago. A final flashback to 2013 shows Stuart discovering the flash drive, which he decides to erase and sell for $10.
When Raj loses a job interview at a planetarium, his father says he has no confidence because Howard always makes fun of him. Raj distances himself from Howard and later gets the job. Howard is hurt by this (even after apologizing to him) and tries to make amends with Raj after his first talk at the planetarium, but when he sees him get a date, he leaves without speaking to him, thinking that the latter 's life is better without him. Meanwhile, Sheldon and Amy try randomly dividing up wedding tasks, but they keep arguing. The only thing they can agree on is to get married so they decide to just get married at City Hall. However, Sheldon decides that he wants a first dance with his new wife, and they go home to plan their wedding.
Howard and Raj are still fighting so Howard dis - invites Raj to Halley 's birthday party. However, when Howard 's designated party planner Stuart pulls out at the last minute, Raj agrees to plan the party, which does n't turn out too well due to Halley being asleep, Bernadette on bed rest and no people turning up. When Howard and Raj get into a shoving match in the party 's bounce house, they end up letting out their frustrations with each other, but also having fun and reconciling. Leonard is depressed upon receiving his successful brother 's Christmas card and attempts to make a list of what he and Penny accomplished this year, but does n't come up with much. This prompts them to think about their plans for the future, so they decide to go on trips and achieve more out of life together before starting a family. Sheldon cooks Amy a Little House on the Prairie - themed birthday dinner, which gives them both food poisoning. They eventually recover enough to attend Halley 's birthday party with the others, where they decide to have fun in the bouncy castle and then have sex in Howard and Bernadette 's house.
Sheldon and Amy struggle to choose a best man and maid of honor from their friends. They secretly decide to test and score them, allowing everyone to have an equal shot at either role. Once the gang finds out, none of them apart from Bernadette and Stuart want to be in the wedding. Sheldon settles for Stuart as best man, but once Leonard tells Sheldon that as the groom, the decision is his alone, he picks Leonard. Amy is set to call Bernadette but once Penny realizes Amy is her best friend, she immediately pitches herself for the position and Amy enthusiastically chooses her. Amy later makes Penny tell Bernadette the bad news.
With Leonard, Howard, Raj and Amy accomplishing so much on their respective projects, Sheldon is forced to admit he has nothing important to work on. He makes Amy leave the apartment for a few days so he can focus, but can not come up with any ideas and calls his mother as a distraction. Leonard and Amy have fun recreating experiments from when they were growing up, boring Penny, so she eats with Sheldon as he mulls over his scientific studies. Penny helps him realize that his study of dark matter is his rebound science from string theory, which Sheldon admits he never forgot about, but explaining string theory to her inspires Sheldon, helping him discover a potential breakthrough in the field. Meanwhile Howard is too busy with his family to be in the band with Raj, so Raj brings in Bert. But when Howard annoys Bernadette by writing an astronaut - themed musical while she is on bed - rest, she makes him rejoin the band. The three are poorly received, after singing Bert 's original song about the boulder from Indiana Jones at a Bar mitsvah.
Raj hooks up with a recently separated woman, Nell, after one of his lectures at the planetarium. Her husband Oliver confronts Raj at the planetarium and then breaks down over the end of his marriage. After comforting Oliver, Raj talks to Nell and convinces her to give her husband another chance. Meanwhile, after diving once again into string theory and sprawling his work across his and Amy 's apartment, Sheldon approaches a reluctant Leonard and Penny and convinces them to let him use his old room to study for a three - day trial period with an agreement to be quiet and stay out of their way. Sheldon surprisingly sticks to this agreement, being a reasonably good guest, which shockingly frustrates Leonard to no end. After Leonard lets out his frustrations, Sheldon then renegotiates the guest tenancy agreement for an extra few days and resumes being his normal demanding self, much to Leonard 's relief.
Sheldon and Amy are surprised to find that Wil Wheaton 's new Professor Proton show is actually very entertaining and that Wil had Howard on as a guest. On Howard 's suggestion, Sheldon apologizes to Wil, mending their friendship, and tells him he wants to be on the show; but Wil asks for Amy. Sheldon tells her to do it, but she says she often does n't do things to avoid upsetting him. Sheldon is horrified when he realises how selfish he has been, especially when he finds out that the men do the same for him. Sheldon encourages Amy to go on the show to inspire girls to pursue science while trying to control his obvious jealousy for her. Meanwhile, Leonard writes a book about a physicist that solves a murder, the protagonist Logan Dean is based on himself. Bernadette points out Logan 's mean boss Illsa is similar to Penny, who thinks it is based on Bernadette, though Leonard does not correct her. However, Bernadette tells Penny the truth, upsetting her and making her mad at Leonard. After calling his mother for advice, Leonard learns that Illsa is actually like her; but abandons the book when he realizes he wrote romantic tension into the relationship between the characters.
Bernadette 's due date arrives but she still has n't given birth. As Amy and Howard work together at the college, the rest of the friends try various ways to initiate her labor, though Sheldon wants to play a complicated board game instead. Amy shocks Howard by saying Bernadette has already decided to name the baby after her father, Michael. He does n't agree and everyone makes suggestions as to what to name the baby. Bernadette goes into labor and gives birth to a son named Neil, after Neil Armstrong, Neil Gaiman, and Neil Diamond, with Michael as the middle name. At the last minute, Howard relents to name him Michael as Bernadette got six stitches.
Sheldon and Amy decide on a wedding date of May 12th. They want to have their reception at the Athenaeum at Caltech. While scouting the location, they are shocked to see Leonard and Penny eating there, as Leonard had told Sheldon their application had been denied. In reality, Leonard just wanted a place to avoid Sheldon. Kripke has booked the venue for his birthday party on the same day as the wedding. Leonard cleans radioactive sludge for Kripke to get the date for Sheldon as an apology for lying. Kripke eventually agrees to change the day but when Amy hears he wants to sing at the wedding, she suggests they get married at the Griffith Observatory instead. Meanwhile, Bernadette and Howard are unsure if one of them should quit their job to stay home with the children. Howard volunteers, but when left alone with the children he passes out exhausted, leaving Raj in charge. When Bernadette meets Penny for lunch, she realizes that she loves being at the office again, but does n't want to leave the children. She and Howard promise to figure it out later after they take a nap.
The men are excited that Bill Gates is visiting Penny 's pharmaceutical company, although she says that she can not bring them along. Sheldon believes that it 's an April Fools ' Day prank. Leonard sees what hotel Gates is staying at on Penny 's schedule, so he, Raj and Howard meet him in the lobby the day before. Once Sheldon sees proof, the men twice send him to the wrong hotel as real pranks. Penny says Leonard can meet Gates for real, so he fakes being sick to avoid him. When Penny puts Gates on a video call, he recognizes Leonard from the previous night. Meanwhile, Amy is tired of Bernadette only talking about her children, so Bernadette uses her expanded parental brain to learn random science facts.
After Sheldon has a food truck moved away from the building, Leonard and Penny are shocked to find he is the leader and sole member of the Tenants ' Association for the building. Amy does n't want to be caught in the middle but secretly suggests they rally support from the other tenants to vote Sheldon out. Nobody else supports Leonard so Amy tells them Sheldon was never added to the lease when he moved across the hall with her. Sheldon fires back with his own legal technicality so Amy is forced to support Leonard. She makes Sheldon happy by saying he can be Leonard 's official opposition, making Leonard believe he made a mistake. Meanwhile, Howard and Raj find a drone. Raj returns it to the cute owner Cynthia and gets her number. Unfortunately, Cynthia watches footage of Raj on the drone and is immediately turned off.
Sheldon has been writing to the reclusive scientist Dr. Wolcott (Peter MacNicol) who invites Sheldon to visit him in his completely isolated mountain cabin. The women quickly ask Leonard, Raj and Howard to tag along with him, making this his bachelor party, despite Sheldon 's assertions that it should n't be called such. Wolcott has a brilliant mind but his behavior is very strange to the guys. He tells Sheldon he cut off all contact with others to focus on science. Though Sheldon enjoys the science, he decides that he does n't want to live like Wolcott because of his friends and Amy. The guys leave to avoid Wolcott, whose theories about time make him doubt whether the guys were ever there. Meanwhile, Penny and Bernadette throw Amy a quilting bee for her bachelorette party, which she quickly finds boring. When Amy tells them she wants a night full of bad decisions as she earlier implied, they go to a bar where Amy drinks a few shots and passes out in twelve minutes. When she wakes up back at the apartment hungover and disappointed, the women lie and reassure her she had a wild time, involving her drunkenly riverdancing.
After Neil Gaiman tweets about Stuart 's comic book store, it becomes very popular, and the crowds upset Sheldon. Stuart hires an assistant manager named Denise and she impresses Sheldon with her comic recommendations. Amy goes to her for information on comics to connect to Sheldon but when she tries to tell him, he says he 's talked enough about comics with Denise. The store 's popularity causes Stuart to be unable to babysit for Howard and Bernadette 's date night. They try to have another at home, but Stuart shows up so they hurriedly go out. Meanwhile, as Raj sets up a telescope, Penny sees a new comet. Raj takes sole credit for the discovery, angering Penny. Leonard tries to defend her but feels sorry for hurting Raj 's career. Penny confronts Raj herself and he agrees to share credit after Penny does n't give in like Leonard.
Sheldon needs half a billion dollars to prove his latest concept of string theory, which the University refuses to fund. Crowdfunding and selling some of his most valuable comic books to Stuart give him a small start. When Raj mentions gambling in Las Vegas, Sheldon goes there but is caught calculating odds by security before he can make any bets. Meanwhile, Amy takes Penny and Bernadette shopping for her wedding dress. She loves an old - fashioned one that the other girls admit that they find ugly. Sheldon, however, comes home and sees Amy in the dress and loves how she looks.
Sheldon 's mother refuses to attend his wedding unless he invites his older brother George, with whom he is no longer speaking. Sheldon and Leonard fly to Texas to talk to George, who now owns a chain of tire stores. George refuses to attend. He later explains to Leonard that the family sacrificed a lot to fund Sheldon 's education, and George was stuck caring for their mother and sister after their father died while Sheldon was in college. Sheldon never thanked him for this. Leonard takes George back to the hotel room where Sheldon apologizes and the brothers reconcile. George agrees to attend the wedding. Meanwhile, Howard and Bernadette 's children contract pinkeye, infecting everyone except Penny, much to Amy 's fury.
Sheldon and Amy 's wedding day arrives, with many friends and family attending, including Amy 's domineering mother and quiet father; Sheldon 's mother Mary, brother George, and sister Missy, who is pregnant with her second child and separated from her husband; and Mark Hamill, who replaces Wil Wheaton as officiant as a favor to Howard who returned his lost dog. Sheldon can not get his bow - tie to be symmetrical and conversations with Amy and his mother make him realize the world 's imperfections could cause a scientific breakthrough. Sheldon and Amy, along with Leonard, get caught up figuring out the math of the theory during the wedding ceremony, making Hamill take Star Wars questions to stall for time. Penny retrieves the couple, who then decide that they have the rest of their lives to make science together. Amy and Sheldon then express their vows. Amy gives a heartfelt vow, and Sheldon is at a loss for words but promises to show Amy that he loves her every day. They are then pronounced as husband and wife, and sung off by Kripke.
General references
|
what is the sentence for armed bank robbery | Bank robbery - wikipedia
Bank robbery is the crime of stealing money from a bank, while bank employees and customers are subjected to force, violence, or a threat of violence. This refers to robbery of a bank branch, as opposed to other bank - owned property, such as a train, armored car, or (historically) stagecoach. It is a federal crime in the United States.
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's Uniform Crime Reporting Program, robbery is "the taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence or by putting the victim in fear. '' By contrast, burglary is defined as, "unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. '' Bank robbery is defined as entering a bank when it is open and obtaining money from the teller either by using force or a threat of force. Breaking into a bank when it is closed is burglary.
Bank robbery occurs in cities and towns. This concentration is often attributed to there being more branches in urban areas, but the number of bank robberies is higher than the number of branches.
This has advantages both for bank robbers and for law enforcement. In urban areas the transportation infrastructure is more highly developed, especially where banks tend to cluster near retail shopping areas and commercial districts. Such banks are highly profitable targets for robbers, who are then afforded a number of potential escape routes. Law enforcement benefit by being able to respond more quickly, and the odds of catching a bank robber on or near the scene is higher than other types of crime. This is because most bank robberies are reported very quickly while the crime is in progress; most bank robberies occur during daylight hours, have multiple witnesses and with modern technology often produce photographic images that can be distributed and used immediately to canvass the local area. Consequently, many bank robbers are caught the same day. The clearance rate for bank robbery is among the highest of all crimes, at nearly 60 %.
The urban location of the crime also contributes to its repeat victimization profile, a measure of how quickly a crime victim will suffer a repeat of the original crime. One study carried out by the Home Office found that in England, one third of banks at which a robbery has occurred will be robbed again within three months, while the same study found that in Tallahassee, Florida, one quarter of robbed banks will suffer repeat robbery within a week, and over half of robbed banks will be robbed again within a month.
The Australian Institute of Criminology analyzed trends in bank robbery over a four - year period. Of the 808 bank robbery incidents between January 1998 and May 2002 in which the number of offenders involved in the hold - up was recorded, 55 % were committed by lone offenders, 25 % by pairs, and 20 % by three or more robbers. Unarmed offenders accounted for 28 % of robberies, caused the fewest number of injuries to victims (one percent of all victims ' injuries), were the type of robber who most often used a note to threaten bank staff (46 % of all their robberies), and failed most often in their robbery attempts (33 % failure). Unarmed gangs inflicted the most injuries to victims (51 %) and failed the least in their robbery attempts (6 % failure). Armed robbers used a disguise more often compared to unarmed robbers, with armed pairs employing disguises most often (59 %).
According to the Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics injuries occur in about two percent and a death occurs in less than one percent of all U.S. bank robberies. Violent takeover bank robberies that are often portrayed in the media are rare. The majority of bank robberies taking place today are so - called "note jobs. '' These are usually accomplished by simply passing a written note to the teller demanding money. The idea is to attract as little attention as possible. In most cases, other customers present in the bank during a robbery are unaware of what is occurring. Standard bank policy is to avoid violence as much as possible, so they will normally hand over the money and try to obey to the robber 's demands. The robber usually makes away with cash, but in small amounts. According to British Bankers ' Association data, in 2007 there were 106 attempted or successful robberies in Britain in which an average of 1.6 persons were involved. One third of attempts came up empty while the average haul for a successful attempt was equivalent to 46,600 USD. 20 % of the successes would later prove less than successful by virtue of the robbers being arrested.
According to the New York Times and the Saturday Evening Post, the first bank robbery in the United States occurred in March 1831 (the 19th according to the Times, the 20th according to the Post). Two men, James Honeyman and William J. Murray, entered the City Bank of New York using forged keys. This allowed them to empty the vault of more than $245,000 in bank money. According to the Times, it can not be confirmed if this was a robbery or a burglary. The Post later corrected this claim upon learning of a previous 1798 robbery of $162,821 from the Bank of Pennsylvania at Carpenters ' Hall. The Carpenters ' Hall theft also may not have technically been a robbery as there were no signs of force and the thief may have had a key.
On 14 September 1828, five men tunneled through a sewage drain in George Street, Sydney and stole approximately £ 14,000 in promissory notes and coins from the vault of the Bank of Australia. It has been described as the first bank robbery in Australia and also the largest in Australian history at the equivalent of $20 million in today 's currency.
On December 15, 1863, a man walked into a bank in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, shot the 17 - year - old bookkeeper, and stole $3,000 in large bills and $2,000 in small bills. The directors of the bank offered a $6,000 reward for the arrest of the murderer. This has been described as the first armed bank robbery in US history.
The first bank robbery in Denmark occurred August 18, 1913 in the bank Sparekassen for København og Omegn at Østerbro in Copenhagen. It was carried out by two men, Danish salesman Lindorff Larsen and a German machinist Güttig, armed with revolvers; the two got away with 9000 Danish kroner. Güttig was arrested August 30 and Lindorff Larsen committed suicide after having fled the police.
Bank robbery is commonly associated with the American Old West due to a few infamous examples and portrayal in fiction. In reality, bank robberies were relatively rare.
On February 13, 1866, several men believed to be members of the James - Younger Gang robbed the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri, shooting a 19 - year - old student and escaping with $60,000. This is claimed to be the first successful peacetime bank robbery in US history. Previous robberies such as from the banks in St. Albans, Vermont more than a year earlier were perpetrated by Confederate soldiers, which some historians consider to be not robberies proper but acts of war.
The August 29, 1909 edition of The Rich Hill Tribune contained a front - page news story entitled "Bank Robbers in Motor Car '' where two robbers used a gun to rob the Valley bank of Santa Clara of $7,000. They then used a hired automobile to escape and were chased by police and a posse of citizens also in automobiles, eventually leading to their capture.
On December 21, 1911, two armed men of the Bonnot Gang intercepted a bank messenger outside a branch of Société Générale in Paris. They stole a satchel of money he was about to deliver to the bank containing roughly five thousand pounds and escaped in a stolen vehicle. This is described as the first successful use of a getaway car in a bank robbery.
During the 1920s and 1930s, there was a significant increase in bank robberies in the United States. This led to the creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the designation "Public Enemy '' for significant wanted criminals. This era saw the rise of famous gangs such as The Dillinger Gang, the Barrow Gang, and the Barker -- Karpis gang. Other famous public enemies include Pretty Boy Floyd and Machine Gun Kelly.
In 1957, security cameras installed at St. Clair Savings and Loan in Cleveland became the first recorded use of film to apprehend and identify bank robbers. The robbery occurred on April 12, when a 24 - year - old male pointed a gun at a teller while his accomplice, an 18 - year - old female, stuffed over $2,000 into a bag. A third accomplice drove the getaway car. The three were captured shortly after video footage of the robbery aired on national news.
In 1973, four hostages were taken during the Norrmalmstorg robbery in Stockholm, Sweden. After their release, the hostages defended their captors and refused to testify against them. This led to an academic interest in a phenomenon soon after referred to as Stockholm Syndrome wherein hostages, during captivity, paradoxically form a sympathetic bond with their captors as a survival strategy.
Jesse James, (September 5, 1847 -- April 3, 1882) was one of the most notorious bank robbers in American history.
Ned Kelly (December 1854 -- 11 November 1880), Australian bushranger and folk hero who pulled off a series of bank robberies in Victoria and New South Wales.
Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, better known as ' Bonny and Clyde ' (active February 1932 -- May 1934), were an American couple who went on a crime spree during the Great Depression with their gang, the Barrow Gang. They were best known for capturing the public 's imagination with their image as a wild young couple. Along with their gang, they were credited with only ten bank robberies, often making away with as little as $80. They were eventually ambushed and killed on the roadside outside Bienville Parish, Louisiana by a posse of Texas and Louisiana lawmen.
John Dillinger, (June 22, 1903 -- July 22, 1934) robbed banks in Midwestern United States. Some considered him a dangerous criminal, while others idolized him as a present - day Robin Hood. He gained this latter reputation (and the nickname "Jackrabbit '') for his graceful movements during bank heists, such as leaping over the counter (a movement he supposedly copied from the movies) and many narrow getaways from police. On July 22, 1934 in Chicago, Illinois, Dillinger was cornered by FBI agents in an alley outside a movie theater, where he was shot and killed by multiple agents.
George "Baby Face '' Nelson, (December 6, 1908 -- November 27, 1934) was a bank robber and former associate of John Dillinger. He is notable for having killed more FBI agents in the line of duty than any other person. He was killed in a shootout known as The Battle of Barrington, outside Chicago.
Edwin Alonzo Boyd, (April 2, 1914 -- May 17, 2002) was a Canadian bank robber and leader of the Boyd Gang, which pulled off a string of heists including the largest in Toronto history.
Clarence Anglin, and brother John Anglin, the infamous Alcatraz escapees, robbed a bank in Alabama.
In the early 20th century, Willie Sutton (June 30, 1901 -- November 2, 1980) was asked why he robbed banks, and he was famously reported as answering: "Because that 's where the money is. '' This is, in fact, a quote invented by the interviewer to make the story more interesting. However, when asked, Sutton did write this statement and autograph it for his physician, so in a sense it is accurate.
In the 1920s, American banks added the security of alarm systems and concrete - reinforced, blast - proof vaults.
Modern banks have implemented modern security measures, like motion - sensing and high resolution color security cameras, time - locked heavy vault doors, silent alarms, exploding dye packs, bait money, and GPS tracking devices. Some banks supplement this protection with armed or unarmed security guards.
Today 's biometric technology makes non-violent methods of gaining access, even by the most experienced safe hackers and code crackers, nearly impossible. Modern vaults and safes are also reinforced to the point that the amount of explosives needed to blow them open would likely create unwanted attention and run the risk of harming the building to the point of collapse. By their very nature, even the most impregnable vault or safe eventually needs to be able to be opened and closed by someone. To circumvent vault and safe security features, robbers often kidnap the bank manager, but that is not always a successful ideal as banks have often removed the manager 's ability to open the vault.
The police have new measures at their disposal to catch bank robbers, such as well - armed SWAT teams. Forensic identification techniques have also improved greatly; should a bank robber fire a gun, the police can trace the bullet to the exact firearm using ballistic fingerprinting. Martin Kemp, in a BBC documentary, once inquired on the effectiveness of an Uzi in a bank robbery, to which the firearms training instructor joked "that would be sixty - four pieces of evidence to convict you. '' The sawed - off shotgun, a common robbery weapon in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand where handguns are difficult to obtain, is easily concealable but not particularly effective.
While it is not certain that the first time someone robs a bank they will be caught, if they continue to rob banks, they will most likely be caught. Few criminals are able to make a successful living out of bank robbery over the long run. Bank robberies are still fairly common and are indeed successful, although eventually many bank robbers are found and arrested. A report by the Federal Bureau of Investigation states that, among Category I serious crimes, the arrest rate for bank robbery in 2001 was second only to that of murder. Today most organized crime groups tend to make their money by other means, such as extortion, drug trafficking, gambling, prostitution, loan sharking, identity theft, or online scamming and phishing.
A further factor making bank robbery unattractive for criminals in the United States is the severity with which it is prosecuted. Accounts at all U.S. banks are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, a corporation of the federal government, bringing bank robbery under federal jurisdiction and involving the FBI. United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines for bank robbery gives long prison terms, which are usually further enhanced by the use or carrying of loaded firearms, prior criminal convictions, and the absence of parole from the federal prison system. As with any type of robbery, the fact that bank robbery is also inherently a violent crime typically causes corrections administrators to place imprisoned bank robbers in harsher high - security institutions.
Bank robberies are often a main plot in many heist films. Some of these films are based on the lives of historic bank robbers, such as Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), and Public Enemies (2009) (based on the life of John Dillinger).
Dog Day Afternoon (1975), Set It Off (1996), and The Bank Job (2008) are based on actual bank robberies. Other notable but fictional examples include Point Break (1991), Heat (1995), and The Town (2010). In The Town, bank robbery is described as an element of life for residents of Charlestown, a neighborhood in Boston. However, this is exaggerated and is disputed by residents of Charlestown, who describe it as an outdated stereotype.
|
episode of family guy where stewie takes adhd pills | Pilling Them Softly - wikipedia
"Pilling Them Softly '' is the first episode of the fourteenth season of the animated sitcom Family Guy, and the 250th episode overall. It aired on Fox in the United States on September 27, 2015, and is written by Hayes Davenport and directed by Jerry Langford. The title is a play on the 2012 film Killing Them Softly.
Lois is informed by Stewie 's teacher Miss Tammy that he has an attention problem. She takes him to Dr. Hartman, who promptly gives him a prescription to treat ADHD. When he takes the pills, he becomes totally calm. Brian is initially upset about this, but when Meg mentions the creative benefits of it, he decides to try it himself. They both begin to act out of the ordinary. Brian was hyper while Stewie was calm.
Meanwhile, at the Drunken Clam, Jerome shows samples of some Korean food to Peter, Quagmire, Cleveland, and Joe. Quagmire claims that he can cook better, and prepares a meal for all of his neighbors; Lois decides that he should have his own cooking show. Channel 5 's producer Carson agrees to hire him, but only if Peter joins him due to his silliness; Quagmire agrees to the terms. During the production of "Quagmire 's Kitchen '', Peter 's antics (including repeat cinnamon challenges) irk Quagmire until he finally fires him. Carson decides to give Peter his own show, which proves more popular due to his bizarre behavior. When Quagmire calls it an insult to cooking, Carson decides to have them compete in an Iron Chef America - style cook - off.
Brian and Stewie travel to Hartford, Connecticut and see George R.R. Martin to impress him with an elaborate system Brian made for a book, but Martin declines it stating that the whole thing is cliché - ridden and likely the result of drugs. Ultimately, they both decide that they no longer need the pills and return home. When they leave, another Martin shows up on a motor scooter and claims that the other George R.R. Martin, who is passionately kissing a fan, is an impostor.
On the day of the cook - off, Joe helps Quagmire with the competition as Cleveland assists Peter with it. The assigned secret ingredient for their dishes is butter. During a montage, Joe and Quagmire focus on cooking while Cleveland and Peter play around. Joe eventually destroys Quagmire 's cooking supplies, sealing his defeat. Peter, seeing this, has a sudden change of heart and devours his meal for Quagmire to achieve victory. Quagmire is touched by Peter 's sacrifice, but decides to forgo the show to preserve their good will to each other. Peter and Quagmire decide to end the production of their cooking shows in the same way that Food Network had ended the production of Paula Deen 's cooking show. Before the word in question can be said, it cuts to the Drunken Clam as an angry Cleveland says to Peter and Quagmire "You could 've just quit the show. ''
The episode received an audience of 2.87 million, making it the fourth-most watched show on Fox that night behind Brooklyn Nine - Nine, The Last Man on Earth and The Simpsons episode "Every Man 's Dream ''. Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave the episode a 7.9 out of 10, saying "While it may not rank among the show 's best, "Pilling Them Softly '' was n't a bad way to kick off Family Guy 's 14th season. Both halves of the episode provided a steady (if not heavy) level of humor, with solid spoofs of George R.R Martin and Iron Chef and even offering up a little social commentary to boot. As much as this show has struggled creatively in the last couple years, this is a promising start to the new season. ''
Series creator Seth MacFarlane won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice - Over Performance for his work on this episode.
|
name of the new fast and furious movie | The Fate of the Furious - wikipedia
The Fate of the Furious (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 8 and Fast 8, and often stylized as F8) is a 2017 American action film directed by F. Gary Gray and written by Chris Morgan. It is the eighth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. The film stars Vin Diesel, Dwayne Johnson, Jason Statham, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Scott Eastwood, Nathalie Emmanuel, Elsa Pataky, Kurt Russell and Charlize Theron. The Fate of the Furious follows Dominic Toretto (Diesel), who has settled down with his wife Letty (Rodriguez), until cyberterrorist Cipher (Theron) coerces him into working for her and turns him against his team, forcing them to find Dom and take down Cipher.
The Fate of the Furious marks the first installment in the franchise since The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) not to star both Paul Walker, who died in a single - vehicle crash on November 30, 2013 while filming Furious 7 (2015), and Jordana Brewster. Script rewrites to the seventh installment after Walker 's death completed the story arcs for both of their characters (Brian O'Conner and Mia Toretto, respectively).
Plans for an eighth installment were first announced in March 2015 when Diesel appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and announced that the film would be set in New York City. Preparations for the film began immediately after the release of Furious 7, with Diesel, Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz re-signing. After setting an initial release date in the same month, casting took place between April and June 2015. In October 2015, Gray was announced to direct the film in the place of James Wan, who had directed the previous installment. Principal photography began in March 2016 in locations such as Mývatn, Havana, Atlanta, Cleveland and New York City, continuing the franchise 's tradition of filming in exotic locations around the world.
The Fate of the Furious premiered on April 4, 2017 in Berlin, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX internationally. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the action sequences and performances, while criticizing the storyline. The film has grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, making it the thirtieth film (and the second in the franchise, after Furious 7) to gross over $1 billion, the second highest - grossing film of 2017 and the eleventh highest - grossing film of all time. The film grossed $532 million worldwide during its opening weekend, setting the record for the highest - grossing opening of all time, ahead of Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million). A sequel is scheduled to be released on April 19, 2019.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom is challenged to a street race at an auto show by local racer Raldo. Dom races for Raldo 's car, intending to give it to his cousin Fernando, while wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car. The next day, Dom is approached by elusive cyberterrorist Cipher, who coerces him into working for her.
Shortly after the encounter, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, both are recruited by intelligence operative Frank Petty / Mr. Nobody and his protégé, Eric Reisner / Little Nobody, to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher.
Deckard reveals that Cipher was the mastermind of previous encounters with the team, such as employing his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and orchestrating the attempted theft of God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as they attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom begins to question Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has held Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, whose existence Dom was previously unaware of -- hostage in order to keep Dom loyal to her. Elena tells Dom that the child was born as a result of an unintended pregnancy, and that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
Cipher then sends Dom to New York City to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Dom manages to evade her for a short time through a diversion created by Raldo, allowing him to meet with and persuade Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help. The team intercepts Dom after he steals the nuclear football, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Cipher facilitates Dom 's escape by hacking into all of the autonomous cars in the city and reprogramming them to auto - drive, wreaking havoc throughout the city. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes kill Elena in front of Dom.
Dom is then sent to Russia to use the EMP device to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, provided with modified vehicles by Petty. Meanwhile, Deckard, who had faked his death and been extracted by Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son at Magdalene 's behest, with the help of Owen. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher launches an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Petty and Reisner visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard then arrives to return Dom 's son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs in the process, and is accepted into their family. Dom decides to name his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
Tego Calderón and Don Omar reprise their roles from previous films as Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team from the Dominican Republic and Rio de Janeiro, respectively. Luke Evans reprises his role from Fast & Furious 6 (2013) as Owen Shaw, Deckard 's younger brother and a former Special Air Service (SAS) soldier who formerly opposed Dom 's team in Europe, and who helps his brother in rescuing Dom 's son. Kristofer Hivju appears as Connor Rhodes, Cipher 's enforcer and right - hand man. Helen Mirren makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Magdalene Shaw, the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw.
Following the release of Furious 7 (2015), Vin Diesel said regarding a possible sequel:
I was trying to keep it close to the vest throughout the release. Paul Walker used to say that (an eighth film) was guaranteed. And in some ways, when your brother guarantees something, you sometimes feel like you have to make sure it comes to pass... so if fate has it, then you 'll get this when you hear about it. (Furious 7) was for Paul, (the eighth film) is from Paul.
Diesel further hinted at an eighth film on Jimmy Kimmel Live! when he stated that Kurt Russell 's character would span multiple films. He also stated that the next film would take place in New York City. Chris Morgan wrote his sixth script in the franchise, while Neal H. Moritz returned to produce. Moritz later stated, "(The story) is going to have to be something enticing for all of us. It has to be as good as or better (than Furious 7) ''.
At the 2015 CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Diesel announced the film for an April 14, 2017 release date. On August 16, 2015, at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards (where Furious 7 received the award for Choice Movie -- Action and Walker received the award for Choice Movie Actor -- Action), Diesel gave the film the initial title Fast 8. In September 2015, Diesel stated that the script had almost been completed, and expressed interest in Rob Cohen, who directed the first film, to direct the eighth installment. On October 14, 2015, Diesel announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that Straight Outta Compton director F. Gary Gray would direct the film.
In July 2015, Moritz said that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would not appear in the film, following the use of CGI in the previous film after Walker died in a single - vehicle accident on November 30, 2013, with Moritz stating that his character had "moved on ''. It had previously been reported that Paul 's younger brother, Cody Walker, would either join the cast in a new role, or replace his older brother in the role of O'Conner; however, it was later announced that the character will not return to the franchise. Moritz also said that the film would shift the focus of the franchise from a series of heist films to a spy caper, following a similar change in focus from street racing in Fast Five (2011). In December 2016, the film was retitled The Fate of the Furious.
Diesel, Russell and Michelle Rodriguez were the first to confirm their involvement in the film, and Tyrese Gibson and Chris Bridges both confirmed their return soon after. Lucas Black had signed on to reprise his role from The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift as Sean Boswell for Furious 7, and two more installments in September 2013, though he did not appear in Fate. In May 2015, Dwayne Johnson confirmed his involvement in the film, additionally hinting at a possible spin - off film involving his character, Luke Hobbs. Jason Statham also confirmed his return. In April 2016, Charlize Theron and Kristofer Hivju were confirmed as additions to the cast, in villainous roles, while Scott Eastwood also joined the film as a law enforcement agent. On May 17, 2016, Diesel posted a photo on his Instagram page of himself and Elsa Pataky on set, indicating that she had also returned for the film, and was followed two days later by a video on set with Nathalie Emmanuel, who also starred in the previous film. In June 2016, Helen Mirren announced in an interview with Elle that she would appear in the film. In July 2016, Don Omar tweeted that he and Tego Calderon would return to the franchise for the eighth picture. During an interview with Chris Mannix on July 21, 2016, Lucas Black confirmed he would not appear in the eighth installment, due to scheduling conflicts.
In keeping with the franchise 's penchant for filming in "exotic '' locations, such as Dubai and Rio de Janeiro, in January 2016 it was announced that Universal was seeking approval from the United States and Cuban governments to shoot part of the film in Cuba. Principal photography began on March 14, 2016, in Mývatn, Iceland, where strong winds sent a plastic iceberg prop flying into a paddock. The prop struck two horses: one was wounded and the other mortally injured; it was later euthanized. In late April, filming began in Cuba 's capital city, Havana. In May, filming also took place in Cleveland, Ohio. Franchise cinematographer Stephen F. Windon returned for the eighth installment. Filming also took place in Atlanta and New York City.
Brian Tyler, who scored the third, fourth, fifth, and seventh installments, was tapped to compose the film score for the eighth picture. A soundtrack album by Atlantic Records was released on April 14, 2017, coinciding with the film 's US theatrical release. The film 's score album was released on April 27, by Back Lot Music.
The Fate of the Furious had its world premiere in Berlin on April 4, 2017. The film was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX internationally, and received a day - and - date release across major markets such as Australia, the United Kingdom, China, and India, beginning on April 12, 2017. The film was released day - and - date in 1,074 IMAX screens around the world, making it the widest day - and - date opening in IMAX history.
The Fate of the Furious was released on 4K, Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on July 11, 2017.
The Fate of the Furious grossed $225.8 million in the United States and Canada and $1.013 billion in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.239 billion, against a production budget of $250 million ($350 million including marketing costs). It is Universal Pictures ' most ambitious worldwide distribution release in the studio 's history. The film was released day - and - date in 64 territories worldwide, including almost all major markets (minus Japan), starting from April 12, 2017, and was projected to earn anywhere between $375 -- 440 million in its five - day opening weekend. By the end of the weekend, it ended up earning $539.9 million from nearly 23,000 screens, way above initial projections, to score the biggest global opening in cinematic history. It also marked the third time that a film earned over $500 million in a single weekend, after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million) and Jurassic World ($525.5 million). In IMAX, the film made $31.1 million from 1,079 screens to record the biggest IMAX April debut and the fourth biggest overall.
On April 30, it crossed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the second release of 2017 (following Beauty and the Beast), the fifth film released by Universal Pictures (after Jurassic Park, Furious 7, Jurassic World, and Minions) and the thirtieth film overall in cinematic history to gross over $1 billion. It is currently the second highest - grossing film of the year, behind only Beauty and the Beast, the second - biggest action film that is not a fantasy or superhero movie, behind Furious 7, and is Universal 's highest - grossing live - action release since Jurassic World back in June 2015.
Like many of its predecessors, The Fate of the Furious was released in the United States and Canada in the month of April, and like its immediate predecessor, occupied the lucrative Easter week holiday period slot, where it was expected to open with $100 -- 125 million. It received the widest pre-summer release ever, at an estimated 4,304 venues, besting the 4,242 opening theater count of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice the previous March. The film made $10.4 million from Thursday night previews from 3,310 theaters, the second - highest of the franchise behind Furious 7 's $15.8 million. On its opening day it grossed $45.6 million, with Thursday previews making up 22.8 % of the amount, slightly better than the 23 % for Furious 7. Earning a total of $98.8 million on its opening weekend, the film scored the second biggest opening in the franchise (the third biggest adjusted for inflation) and the third biggest April debut, behind Furious 7 and The Jungle Book. It posted an almost identical weekend multiplier like its immediate predecessor (2.166 x vs 2.18 x). However, this is not surprising considering how both films opened over Good Friday / Easter Sunday stretch. Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine compared the opening to how Spectre (2015) opening fell from Skyfall (2012). One notable record the film set was the best opening for a film with an African American director, with Gray besting his own record set with Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Sticking to the franchise 's famous and lauded habit of including a multi-ethnic cast of characters, the film played to audiences of all ethnicities. Domestically, Caucasians made up 41 percent of the audience, followed by Hispanics (26 percent), African - Americans (21) percent, Asians (11 percent), and Native American / Other (3 percent), according to comScore 's exit polling service PostTrack. The pic skewed male at 58 percent, far more than the last film at 51 percent. 2D ticketbuyers repped 57 % of the film 's opening compared to its predecessor 's 71 %. This means more die - hard moviegoers came out to watch the eighth instalment rather than people who do not typically go to the movies.
While The Fate of the Furious 's debut is 34 % less than its predecessor 's opening, critics have noted that the debut is still considered a massive success and not a big let down given how it is the eighth installment in an action franchise. Universal Pictures was well aware that the robust debut of Furious 7 could not be duplicated due to the wave of good reviews and publicity over the death of star Paul Walker, as well as the notion that the instalment was both a farewell to said actor and a kind of coronation for the franchise as a whole. Nevertheless, the film benefited from Easter holiday business with 74 % of all K - 12 schools off on Good Friday as well as a third of the nation 's colleges. The film comes out in the wake of its parent franchise celebrating 16 years of availability in cinemas. To wit, few film franchises which are close to 20 years old have demonstrated a box office ability to increase their openings with each installment over time or maintain them in close proximity in terms of debut numbers; James Bond film series, Batman film series, Jurassic Park franchise, and Star Wars franchise.
Its hefty opening was followed by the second - biggest April Monday gross ever with $8.5 million, behind the seventh instalment. Its Sunday to Monday drop was 60 % compared to its prequel 's 57 % drop which is far better than the Monday dropped witnessed by other April releases; The Jungle Book (- 76 %) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (- 73 %), albeit without the advantage of a school holiday. Despite the entry of four new wide releases, critics and box office prognosticators kept a close watch on how much the film would drop in its second weekend. The film fell precipitously on its second Friday earning $11.17 million for a 76 % drop which is the biggest in the franchise 's history, besting the 72 % drops for both its two immediate predecessors. The steep decline maybe attributed not because of the onslaught of competitions, but rather due to the polarised reception received by the film and due to just 12 % K - 12 schools beings off compared to 74 % on Good Friday. It kept its hold at No. 1, albeit dropping about 61 % in its sophomore frame for an estimated $38.4 million. That domestic drop is right in line with the 59 - 63 % drops of the six previous instalment in the franchise 's on their second weekend out. It topped the box office for three straight weekends, witnessing similar weekend - to - weekend percentage drops like its prequel, albeit earning lesser in terms of numbers.
Internationally, The Fate of the Furious secured a release in 69 countries. The film was projected to post an opening between $275 -- 330 million from over 20,000 screens, with some analysts believing it could go as high as $350 -- 400 million. It opened Wednesday, April 12, 2017, in 8 countries, earning $17.9 million (including previews from 12 countries). It opened in 33 more countries on Thursday, April 2, for a total of 41 countries, earning $58.4 million, marking Universal Pictures overseas ' highest - grossing Thursday ever, and for a two - day total of $82.2 million. It added 22 more countries on Friday, April 3, earning $112.1 million to score Universal International 's highest grossing Friday of all time, for a three - day total of $194.8 million. The robust Friday take helped Universal push past $1 billion internationally in 2017 which is the second quickest ever and the studio 's eleventh consecutive year overall the pass the mark. Morever, on the same day, the franchise crossed the $4 billion milestone. In total, through Sunday, the film registered an opening of $441.1 million from 64 markets, setting new records for the biggest April international debut, Universal 's biggest, and the biggest of all time overall (ahead of Jurassic World) -- It is the first such film to open past $400 million in a single weekend with a bulk of it coming from China. Around $22.6 million came from (681) IMAX screens which is Universal 's second biggest behind only Jurassic World. It topped the international charts for a second consecutive term, adding another $158.1 million after which it was surpassed by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, another film starring Diesel and Russel, in its third weekend. In IMAX, the film has grossed north of $58 million. On May 28, the film officially passed the $1 billion threshold to become the second film in the franchise, following Furious 7, and the sixth film to pass the said mark.
It set the record for the biggest opening day of 2017 in every territory it has been released at, the biggest opening day of all time in 16 markets, Universal 's biggest opening day ever in 22 territories and the biggest opening in the franchise in 38 markets. Moreover, it recorded the biggest paid previews of all time in Malaysia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Vietnam. In terms of opening weekend, the film debuted at No. 1 in all markets where it set the biggest opening weekend of all time in 20 markets; Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 28 markets; and the biggest opening in the franchise in 40 markets. The top openings were recorded in China ($192 million), Mexico ($17.7 million), the UK and Ireland ($17.5 million), Russia ($14.2 million), Germany ($13.6 million), Brazil ($12.8 million), India ($10.7 million), Korea ($10.6 million), Middle East combined ($9.9 million), Taiwan ($9.3 million), France ($9.2 million), Australia ($9.5 million), Argentina ($9 million), Indonesia ($8.5 million), Italy ($6.7 million), Malaysia ($6.3 million), Spain ($6.1 million), Colombia ($4.9 million), Thailand ($4.9 million), Panama ($4.8 million), and Romania ($1.7 million). Comparing market - to - market performance, Furious 7 had an opening worth $250 million without China and Russia while The Fate of the Furious delivered $228.2 million debut, sans the two aforementioned markets. In Japan, the film debuted with $7.5 million. Although that 's a new record for the franchise, the film debuted at number three behind Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and local film Detective Conan: Crimson Love Letter -- their robust second weekend earnings blocked the former from taking the top spot, making Japan one of the few markets where the film did n't open at No. 1.
Expectations were high for the film 's performance in China, as its predecessor set notable records and went on to become the biggest film release there (now the biggest Hollywood release). The film was rebranded in Chinese as The Fast and the Furious 8 to make clear its connection to Furious 7. After ticket sales began on April 2, the film pre-sold more than RMB 125 million ($18.1 million) worth of tickets before its release, breaking the previous record held by local film Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons three months prior. Moreover, it also set a record for the fastest IMAX advance sales, with RMB 16.5 million ($2.4 million), breaking the previous record held by Captain America: Civil War, according to leading local movie site Mtime. In total, it pre-sold around $43.5 million tickets two hours before previews began, the biggest ever in the country. It earned a record - breaking RMB 59.8 million ($8.7 million) from Thursday paid previews ($8 million excluding online ticketing surcharges which now count as grosses), breaking its predecessor 's former record of RMB 52.5 million ($8.5 million in 2015; $7.6 million in 2017 exchange rates). On Friday, the film was screened in approximately 158,000 screens, a new record for any film, breaking Warcraft 's former 122,000 screen counts, and almost double the estimated 80,700 screen count of its predecessor. By Friday noon, it had already grossed $30 million. Buoyed by positive word - of - mouth -- 9.4 / 10 user rating on mobile ticketing platform Maoyan, and 7.4 / 10 from reviews aggregator Douban -- and effective marketing campaign, it set a new record for the biggest single - day ever at the Chinese box office, including previews. This was achieved at 7 p.m. local time. In total, the film grossed an estimated RMB 452.8 million ($65.8 million) on its opening day, inclusive of previews and online ticketing surcharges, compared to the RMB 398 million ($57.8 million) posted by its predecessor. It is the first film in Chinese history to register above RMB 400 million ($58 million) in a single day. Earning a total of RMB 1.323 billion ($192.2 million), according to Chinese sources and 190 million, according to Universal, in its debut weekend, it set a new milestone for three day opening weekend and overall the second best debut ever behind only local pic The Mermaid, which had the benefit of four days of previews over the New Year period in February 2016. An estimated $14 million came from 395 IMAX screens, the second biggest ever in the country, behind Warcraft. Its three - day debut alone made it the biggest Hollywood release of 2017 and the third biggest overall. Factoring out online ticketing surcharges, the total comes to a slightly less - hefty RMB 1.245 billion ($182.2 million). In just nine days, the film passed the historic RMB 2 billion ($300 million) and thereby became the biggest release of the year. The film fell precipitously by 71.4 % in its second weekend (from its $190 million debut), earning RMB 374 million ($54.3 million) for a massive 10 - day total of RMB 2.19 billion ($318 million). On April 30, it became the biggest Hollywood / foreign release of all - time with RMB 2.44 billion, surpassing its prequels former record of 2.41 billion. However, in terms of US currency, The Fate of the Furious ($381 million) is still behind Furious 7 ($391 million). After three consecutive weeks of topping the charts, it slipped to fourth place after being dethroned by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 from the top spot. It has so far grossed a total of RMB 2.648 billion ($383.9 million) and is the country 's second - biggest grosser ever, behind only The Mermaid.
In India, the film secured a release across approximately 1,600 -- 1,800 screens (1,000 -- 1,200 screens less than its predecessor). Like other Hollywood releases, it was released in both 2K projections and normal projections, and dubbed in local languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. It is the first international film to be dubbed into the Kannada language. Despite clashing with local pic Begum Jaan, analysts believe the two films will not affect each other 's performance, as they appeal to distinct moviegoers. Universal had high hopes in the territory, after Furious 7 grossed an unprecedented $24.9 million in 2015, and became the biggest foreign release ever in the country at the time of its release (now the second biggest). The Central Board of Film Certification gave the film a UA rating (parental guidance suggested for children under 12), rather than an A for adults, after the studio agreed to cut several profanities (CBFC was willing to pass the film with an A certificate with no cuts but Universal wanted a UA certificate leading to the board censoring all profanities with few cuts). It earned around ₹ 8.50 crore (US $1.3 million) net from Wednesday paid previews. The following day it grossed ₹ 22.50 crore (US $3.5 million), including previews. On its official opening day, it grossed ₹ 16.10 crore (US $2.5 million) for a three - day total of ₹ 38.60 crore (US $6.0 million). Earning a total of $10.7 million, it set a new record for the biggest ever foreign opening in the country, toppling its prequel 's former record. As such, it is the first foreign film to open north of $10 million. Following its record breaking opening, it fell about 58 % on its second weekend excluding previews, earning another $4 million for a two weekend total of over $17.4 million, With over $19.2 million it is currently the biggest foreign release of the year. However, in terms of net earnings -- which is the base for box office calculations in India -- the film was unable to break past the ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million) mark, stalling at around ₹ 85.59 crore (US $13 million). Despite a record breaking opening, it lost significant amount of screen counts and audiences thereafter, partly due to the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion.
The biggest earning markets are China ($390.2 million), followed by Brazil ($41.6 million), the UK and Ireland ($37.4 million), Mexico ($36.8 million) and Germany ($32.1 million). In Peru, it has become Universal 's highest - grossing film ever. With over $1 billion in international receipts and representing a boffo 82 % of the film 's total worldwide gross, it is currently the seventh - biggest overseas earner behind Avatar, Titanic, Furious 7, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, and Jurassic World.
The Fate of the Furious received mixed to positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 66 % based on 241 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Fate of the Furious opens a new chapter in the franchise, fueled by the same infectious cast chemistry and over-the - top action fans have come to expect. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 56 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing: "This is n't my favorite of the series -- that 's still Furious 7 (it 's hard to top those jumps from skyscraper to skyscraper, but this is a worthy entry). These movies know what they are. These movies know they are fun. These are fun movies! '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "Most franchises, after eight films, are feeling a twinge of exhaustion, but this one has achieved a level of success -- and perpetual kinetic creative energy -- that 's a testament to its commercial / cultural / demographic resonance. '' He also wrote "If this series, over the last 16 years, has taught us anything, it 's that just when you think it 's about to run out of gas, it gets outfitted with an even more elaborate fuel - injection system. ''
Conversely, David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C − and called it the worst entry of the franchise, saying: "As much a mess of conflicting tones and styles as it is of locations, this setpiece -- like the rest of Gray 's movie -- feels like a heap of random parts that were thrown together in the hopes that fate might somehow weld them into a roadworthy vehicle. It 's exhausting. '' J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters magazine gave a lukewarm review, writing: "It 's unlikely that devotees will consider The Fate of the Furious one of the stronger entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: "Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they 're making jokes. As they 're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they 're crackin ' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it 's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to themselves as ' family, ' acting like idiots who do n't seem to care if they live or die, or if their friends survive. ''
Professor of international political economy Richard E Feinberg has commented on the political significance of the film 's opening setting of Havana in the context of shifting US - Cuban relations, calling the eighth installment, "Hollywood 's love letter to Havana ''. He writes, "In the Cuban sequence 's dramatic climax, Dom wins his hard - fought one - mile race ('' a Cuban mile ") against a tough local competitor, by a nose. The loser is gracious: ' You won my car and you earned my respect, ' he admits to the FF hero. Dom 's response is equally magnanimous: ' Keep your car, your respect is good enough for me. ' In this instance, FF8 captures the essence of the relations between the United States and Cuba: it 's all about mutual respect. ''
On February 3, 2016, Universal Pictures set initial release dates for the two remaining films in the franchise. The first, tentatively titled Fast & Furious 9, is scheduled to be released on April 19, 2019.
|
iss pyaar ko kya naam doon 3 31 july 2017 full episode | Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3 - Wikipedia
Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? 3 (English: What Name Shall I Give To This Love? 3) is an Indian Hindi romance drama finite television series that airs on Star Plus since 2017. The show stars Barun Sobti and Shivani Tomar in the lead roles of Advay and Chandni, and Ritu Shivpuri plays the central antagonist as Chandni 's mother Indrani. The story is set in Allahabad and Mumbai in the same world as another Star Plus show, Ishqbaaaz. The series is the third incarnation of the Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? franchise made by 4 Lions Films.
The show is the story of two childhood friends Dev and Chandni Yash Narayan Vashist, set in Allahabad. Dev 's father is the Mahant (chief priest of a temple) of a fictitious Shiv temple in Allahabad which is known for its hidden treasure. On the day of opening of the temple 's entrance door, an occasion which comes once every 16 years, Dev 's father is charged of changing the idol 's jewelry and Dev 's mother is accused of being a witch. Dev 's parents are killed by a mysterious person after which Chandni 's father the deputy Mahant (Second in command chief priest of a temple) becomes the Mahant. Dev is forced to run away with his younger brother Meeku. While travelling by train, Dev throws his brother out to save him from the mob.
16 years later, Dev has returned to Allahabad disguised as Advay Singh Raizada, a Maths Professor from a London university. Holding Chandni and her family responsible for what his family had to go through and his separation from his brother, he has returned to take revenge and destroy their lives. He buys the house the Vashishts are living in, also his childhood home, but lets them continue to stay while moving in with his staff, Murli and Shilpa. Chandini 's wedding has been fixed to a sleazy boy just because his family was going to pay off her stepmom 's huge debt. Advay saves her from the sleazeball every time, but also insults her and gets angry at her. Chandni is confused about his behaviour and why he hates her so much. He breaks up her wedding and later forcibly marries her by blackmailing her that he will reveal the truth of her child born out of wedlock, currently in an orphanage. Chandni agrees in order to save the respect of her mother and family but does n't tell Advay that the child is actually her sister 's. Advay anyways exposes this one day later in order to spoil the Vashist family 's reputation, throws them out of the house and uses it as a pretext to disown Chandni. But his Nani comes and asks Chandni to come with her to Mumbai where Advay stays with his Maasi, cousin Pooja and nephew Adi. Nani believes Chandni 's innocence and only her to be the one capable of removing the hatred filled in his heart to bring back Dev. She asks Chandni to be a faithful wife and never leave him no matter what happens.
|
who played it in stephen king's movie | It (miniseries) - wikipedia
It is a 1990 American - Canadian supernatural horror drama miniseries directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name. The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey 's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise played by Tim Curry. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor, and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton, and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally conceived as a four - part eight - hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138 - page King novel. Cohen 's script condensed the source work into a two - part, four - hour miniseries that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel 's length and the network 's time - slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, and was a major success for the network, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry 's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the miniseries, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a Miniseries or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Bill Denbrough gives his younger brother Georgie a paper sailboat to take the boat out onto the street to sail in the gutter. But Georgie is unable to stop it from sailing down the storm drain, peering in to see a strange clown who introduces himself as Pennywise. Pennywise then entices Georgie to reach into the drain to retrieve his boat, killing the boy while ripping his arm off. Months later, during the spring semester at their school, Bill befriends the overweight and nerdy new kid Ben Hanscom, asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak who lives with his overbearing mother, Beverly Marsh who lives with her abusive father, comical Richie Tozier, Jewish Boy Scout, and Stanley Uris. Besides been tormented by a gang of local bullies led by Henry Bowers, the group each had disturbing encounters with Pennywise. During one afternoon after school, Bill and his friends encounter African - American outcast Mike Hanlon being pursued by Henry 's gang. They chase the bullies off with rocks and befriend Mike, Henry vowing to kill them all. The group, calling themselves "The Losers Club '', come to realize that they are each being terrorized by the same entity. Noticing that "It '' assumes the appearance of what they fear, they deduce Pennywise is a monster that surfaces every 30 years in Derry to feed on the children of Derry before returning to hibernation again.
The Losers decide to venture into the sewers under Derry to kill It, followed by Henry and his friends, Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, intent of killing them. But It kills Victor, who had separated to set an ambush on the Losers, and Belch, who helps Henry separate Stan from the others, sparing a horrified Henry while chasing Stan as he regroups with the Losers. But Pennywise grabs Stan, only for the Losers to use It 's ability to access their imaginations against him when Eddie uses his aspirator to melt the clown 's face while Beverly smashes a hole in the clown 's head using one of the two silver projectiles. Pennywise evades the second and escapes down a drain, seemingly dying as the Losers assumed. But Bill makes the others promise to return and kill It should the creature resurface 30 years later. Henry, his hair whitened while having lost his mind from seeing It 's Deadlights, later emerged from the sewers and is institutionalized when he takes credit for murdering It 's victims.
In 1990, now the town librarian, Mike is investigating the string of missing children and killings as he arrived to the crime scene of a murdered girl named Laurie Anne Winterbarger. Finding Georgie 's picture convinces Mike that It is back as he proceeds to connect the others to fulfil their vow. Bill became a horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her lover Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night TV comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his mother, and Stan is a real estate broker. Prior to Mike 's phone calls, the other Losers had completely forgotten each other along with their childhood traumas and memories of It. While the other five reluctantly agree to come, a fear - stricken Stan slits his wrists in his bathtub and writes "IT '' on the wall in his own blood.
The remaining six find themselves harassed by Pennywise once reaching Derry as they eventually meet at dinner, learning of Stan 's suicide shortly after while Mike reminds them of what It is. Two other people also converging on the town: an older Henry who Pennywise freed to kill the Losers, and a worried Audra who ends up being abducted by It while exposed to the creature 's Deadlights. Mike is hospitalized by Henry before he is killed by his own knife during a scuffle with the other Losers. After Mike gives Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers, the five remaining Losers decide to destroy It for good. They descend into the sewers once again, Bill learning Audra is being held while overcoming Its attempt to induce further guilt. The Losers eventually reach Its inner sanctum, finding both a catatonic Audra and It 's true form as a giant spider. Bill, Ben, and Richie nearly got lost in Its deadlights when Eddie is killed attempting to save his friends as Beverly mortally wounds It with her slingshot. It limps away, but the surviving Losers pursue and knock the creature down and while ripping its heart out. They remove the comatose Audra and Eddie 's body from the sewers, burying him in Derry 's cemetery.
With It finally dead, the Losers go their separate ways and move on with their lives as their memories of It fade away. A recovered Mike 's memories also begin to fade as considers starting a new life elsewhere. Richie is cast in a film with an actor resembling Eddie while Beverly and Ben got married and are expecting their first child. Bill is the last to leave Derry, using his last hour in town to coax Audra of her catatonia on his childhood bicycle Silver.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television miniseries of It, for what would be the first made - for - television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem 's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper. Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It. According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries. George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight - to - ten - hour series that would run over four two - hour blocks. Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three - part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight - to - ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they were agreed to a two - night, four - hour commitment. '' Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages, a great deal of material was left out of Cohen 's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly. "I ca n't even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them, '' Cohen reflected. "I look at as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve (King) on the page, and I 'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war. ''
Wallace and Cohen, however, retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood 's Stephen King, the miniseries retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It (which) is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster. ''
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid, and Harry Anderson, were hand - chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles. Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think (John) may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer (to play Beverly), '' O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I do n't think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next I think I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time. ''
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise. According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the part; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million. Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together. '' Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver. Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part. '' Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old - time Catskills comic ''. "I just let it happen, '' Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children. ''
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim (Curry) objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I 'm sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department. ''
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise 's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown. '' Three different versions of the clown 's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner, '' and the final one seen in the series. To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make - up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon. ''
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.
The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand - constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full - size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full - size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean. ''
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18 and November 20. Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5 / 29 rating / share, and being watched in 17.5 million households. Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6 / 33 rating / share, and watched in 19.2 million households. According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two - night premiere.
As of September 2017, the film has a 57 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime - time live, It is the miniseries equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn - munching terms, and keep the lights on high. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It 's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown -- unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry 's cackle is chilling, and King 's usual buried theme -- about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?) -- is always worth pondering. '' The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence. ''
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot gave the film a positive review, noting: "There 's some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I 'd say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control. '' Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the miniseries ' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry 's performance as Pennywise. Bloody Disgusting 's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories. '' In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary '' and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise 's powers '', Curry 's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle - schoolers -- and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer. ''
Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, and was appreciative of it: "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It 's a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book. ''
Stephen King 's It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991. The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu - ray on October 4, 2016. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie ''. The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on - screen credits that originally appeared.
A 2 - CD release of the miniseries ' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011. The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet - heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film 's scarier moments. Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a Miniseries or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.
|
where is the mountain west basketball tournament held | 2018 Mountain West Conference men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 Mountain West Conference men 's basketball tournament was the postseason men 's basketball tournament for the Mountain West Conference. It was held from March 7 -- 10, 2018 at the Thomas & Mack Center on the campus of University of Nevada, Las Vegas, in Las Vegas, Nevada. San Diego State defeated New Mexico in the championship game to win the tournament receive the conference 's automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament.
All 11 MW schools were eligible to participate in the tournament. Teams were seeded by conference record, with a ties broken by record between the tied teams followed by record against the regular - season champion, if necessary. As a result, the top five teams receive a bye to the quarterfinals of the tournament. Tiebreaking procedures will remain unchanged from the 2017 tournament:
* denotes overtime period
|
who played jack mcphee on dawson's creek | Kerr Smith - wikipedia
Kerr Van Cleve Smith (born March 9, 1972) is an American actor known for playing Jack McPhee on The WB drama series Dawson 's Creek, Kyle Brody in The WB supernatural drama Charmed and more recently Axel Palmer in My Bloody Valentine 3D. He is also known for portraying Carter Horton in Final Destination (2000).
Smith was born in Exton, Pennsylvania, the son of Barbara (Hess) and a father who works as a financial advisor.
He has a sister named Allison. He attended Peirce Middle School and he graduated from Henderson High School in West Chester, Pennsylvania, then studied at the University of Vermont, where he was a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity.
Smith began acting with roles on As the World Turns as Teddy Hughes from 1996 to 1997, the films Final Destination (2000) and a cameo in The Broken Hearts Club (2000), written and directed by Dawson 's Creek writer Greg Berlanti and as a guest star in The WB 's hit show Charmed as Agent Kyle Brody - a love interest for the fourth sister, Paige.
When he first appeared as Jack McPhee in the second season of the WB 's Dawson 's Creek, Smith portrayed a 16 - year - old high school student; in reality, the actor was 26. Smith was 31 when the series ended its six - year run in 2003. He was the first man to have an on - screen gay kiss on U.S. television, in season three of Dawson 's Creek.
Smith was the last person to ever be pranked on the MTV show, Punk 'd. In 2007, he appeared in several episodes of the popular TV series CSI: NY as Andrew "Drew '' Bedford, the 333 stalker. Kerr Smith also played the radio host Ryan Thomas on The CW 's drama series Life Unexpected.
Smith guest starred on the television show NCIS, where he played Jonas Cobb, a naval officer who was the "Port - to - Port Killer, '' a serial killer who targets Navy personnel. He made his last appearance on the 8th Season finale.
As of 2014, Smith plays Robert Quinn on The Fosters.
Smith married actress Harmoni Everett on June 7, 2003. He filed for divorce as of March 20, 2009. Smith is a certified pilot, and enjoys motorcross. He owns a dog named Patrick and a cat named Frankenstein.
|
what kind of music did al capone listen to | Music of immigrant communities in the United States - wikipedia
The vast majority of the inhabitants of the United States are immigrants or descendents of immigrants. This article will focus on the music of these communities and discuss its roots in countries across Africa, Europe and Asia, excluding only Native American music, indigenous and immigrant Latinos, Puerto Rican music, Hawaiian music and African American music. The music of Irish - and Scottish - Americans will be a special focus, due to their extreme influence on Appalachian folk music and other genres. These sorts of music are often sustained and promoted by a variety of ethnic organizations.
See: Music of Armenia
Following the Armenian Genocide of 1915 perpetrated by the Young Turk government in Turkey, large numbers of Armenians settled in the Central Valley area of California, especially around Fresno. Of the second - and third - generation musicians from this community, Richard Hagopian became a minor star in the Armenian - American community. Alan Hovhaness used traditional Armenian music in his compositions. Daja Yavasharian is a solo violinist who performs classical music.
The ethnically Armenian heavy metal band System of a Down features Armenian melodic elements in many of their songs and has written songs dedicated to the Armenian genocide. The group is very active in promoting genocide awareness and recognition.
See: Music of Cape Verde
There are more Cape Verdeans outside of their homeland than there are in the island chain itself. In the United States, California and Hawaii are home to large Cape Verdean populations, but the largest concentration is in New England, especially Rhode Island and Southeastern Massachusetts. Many of these immigrants came via whaling ships in the 19th century. Cape Verdean music is most famously morna, but other genres exist and the Cape Verdean community has produced string bands like The B - 29s, Notias, Augusto Abrio and the Cape Verdean Serenaders. There were also Cape Verdean big bands, including the Creole Vagabonds and the Don Verdi Orchestra. More modern musicians include Frank de Pina, Mendes Brothers (and their influential record label, MB Records), Saozinha, Creole Sextet and Rui Pina.
See: Music of China
Chinese - American bands include Say Bok Gwai (1). The pop - rapper Jin has lately gained some national renown as well. The electronic group Shanghai Restoration Project has been rising through the charts in online downloadable music stores.
See: Music of the Czech Republic
Though associated with Slovenia, Germany and Poland as well, the Czech Republic includes Bohemia, the ancestral home of polka music. Polka has a long history in the United States, and the city of Chicago, among others, had produced numerous innovations in the genre.
See: Jewish music, Eastern European music, Secular Jewish culture
Early in the 20th century, Eastern European immigrants settled across the United States. Many were Ashkenazi Jews, who brought with them their swift, eminently dance - able klezmer music. Harry Kandel, a clarinetist, stood out in the field, alongside Abe Schwartz, Naftule Brandwein and Dave Tarras.
Later, in the 1980s, a new generation of klezmer roots revivalists made innovative fusions of klezmer with punk rock and other influences. These bands include the Flying Klezmer Bulgar Band and The Klezmatics.
As the homeland of many of the settlers of the original 13 Colonies, and a major source of immigration thereafter, England 's musical traditions are closely tied to those of the United States, especially Appalachian folk music. In the 1850s, there was a thriving brass band tradition in the United States, drawing on British bands formed around factory workers.
See: Music of France
The most well - known kind of French music in the United States is that of the Cajuns of Louisiana. Cajun and Creole music has spawned many popular artists in the zydeco genre, including Clifton Chenier.
See: Music of Germany
German immigrants brought with them a variety of music, waltzes, polkas and oom - pah bands among them. A German musical society of the mid-19th century formed the Seventh Regiment Band, the only exclusively regimental band of the Civil War - era and one of the most popular brass bands of the time. German bandleader Friendrich Wilhelm Wieprecht was also influential, collecting full scores for his compilation of instrumentations of popular works, für die jetzige Stimmenbesetzung. Instruments included the bassoon, contrabassoon, bass tuba, trumpet, trombone, clarinet, piccolo, oboe, French horn, saxhorn, drums and cymbal. Wieprecht was recognized at the time as a key figure in the reorganization of the Prussian military bands.
The music of the Amish, a Midwestern religious community descended from German and Swiss settlers who eschew modern technology in favor of simplicity, is entirely religious, and is sung in a style that has not been widely performed in Europe for centuries.
The songs of the Pennsylvania German culture, a mixture of British, South German and other elements, are primarily German, with many based on British tunes. Pennsylvania spirituals are a well - known kind of folk hymn, most of which date to the early 19th century.
See: Music of Greece and Greek folk music
Greek - American immigrant music includes styles of Greek music such as Ancient, traditional, with emphasis in Greek literature and poetry.
Some of the well - known Greek supporters and remarkable personalities of Greek immigrand music art in America are: Stamatis Spanoudakis, Nana Mouskouri, Maria Farantouri, Marinella, Yanni, Mikis Theodorakis, Vicky Leandros etc. and remarkable composers and pianists such as Manos Loïzos and Stefanos Korkolis. Until the 1930s the Greek discography was separated by two musical genres: the Greek folk music and the Elafró tragoudi (literally: "light song ''). The latter was made by ensembles of singers / musicians or solo artists like Attik and Nikos Gounaris. It was the Greek version of the international popular music of that era. In the 1930s the first rebetiko recordings had a massive impact on Greek music in America. The tradition of eastern liturgical chant, encompassing the Greek - speaking world, developed in the Byzantine Empire from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople.
A big sign of the Greek immigrant music culture has left the Greek soprano Maria Kallas. Immigrant Greek music also includes music from Greek islands the Nisiotika and the famous dance Sirtaki with well - known artists like Yiannis Parios etc.
Greek music history extends far back into ancient Greece, since music was a major part of ancient Greek theater. Music genres and styles like Laïko, Hasapiko and rebetiko are also well - known. Performers include Johnny Otis and Tatiana Troyanos. Classic laïkó as it is known today, was the mainstream popular music of Greece during the 1960s and 1970s. Laïkó was dominated by singers such as Tolis Voskopoulos and Stelios Kazantzidis.
Among the most significant songwriters and lyricists of this period are George Zambetas and the big names of the Rebetiko era that where still in business, like Vassilis Tsitsanis and Manolis Chiotis. Many artists combined the traditions of éntekhno and laïkó with considerable success, such as the composers Stavros Xarchakos and Mimis Plessas.
The Pontic genre of immigrant music which is well - known from the remarkable minority of Pontians in America, retains elements of the musical traditions of ancient Greece, Byzantine music and the tradition of Caucasus. The prime instruments in Pontic music are the Pontic lyra (Kemenche), which has origins in Byzantine period and it is related closely with the Byzantine lyra and Cretan lyra. Other instruments include drums, lute, askomandoura (a type of bagpipe) and aulos.
It is also known The well - known Cretan music of the dominant folk instrument Cretan lyra on the island as the results of immigrant music; a three - stringed bowed instrument similar to the Byzantine Lyra. It is often accompanied by the askomandoura (a type of bagpipe) and the Cretan laouto (λαούτο). The earliest documented music on Crete comes from Ancient Greece. Cretan music like most traditional Greek, began as product of ancient and Byzantine inspirations.
The Indian diaspora (and significant portion of other South Asian diaspora) enjoy Indian music, which includes Indian classical music and non-classical Indian music. The non-classical music has at least two categories: film music (original sound tracks) and non-film music (often called Indi - pop). The Bollywood music represents Hindi language film songs. Indian diaspora speaking non-Hindi languages enjoy music of their own languages, such as Tamil music, Bengali music, Punjabi music and so on. Fusion between popular Indian music (such as Bollywood or Bhangra music) and American music has taken place, and is popular in certain areas with high Indian American population density.
See: Music of Iran or Persian Music
After the 1979 revolution, the new Iranian government banned all pop music and many other genres. Numerous Iranians, including musicians, entered into exile, many settling in the Los Angeles - area. The Iranian - American scene produced several stars in the Iranian - in - exile community, including Dariush, Ebi, Homeira, Hayedeh, Mahasti, Moein and more.
There are also many newcomers in Persian / Iranian Music who have made huge impression. Below are a list of them:
Andy Madadian, Mansour, Leila Forouhar, Shahrzad Sepanlou, Arash, Shadmehr Aghili, Jamshid, Cameron Cartio, Muhammad, Kamran & Hooman, Fereydoun, Hi - 5, Shaghayegh, Shahriar and much more
Joseph Halliday, a Dubliner, is notable for having introduced the keyed bugle in 1810. While not a technical innovation (the keyed trumpet was already known), it did become extremely popular in the burgeoning brass band tradition and inspired a whole family of instruments, the ophicleides. In the middle of the 19th century, Irish bandleader Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore was very influential, having introduced a wide range of reed instruments as well as developing instrumentation that allowed a large wind ensemble to approximate the effects of a full orchestra.
The 1960s saw the Clancy Brothers (with Tommy Makem) become minor celebrities in the United States, especially in the Irish - American community. They appeared at Carnegie Hall and on The Ed Sullivan Show. Mick Moloney 's Irish - American Music and Dance Festival has existed for over twenty years and remains an important part of the Irish - American scene.
In the eighties several high - profile Irish artists emigrated to the USA, including Mary Black, Dolores Keane and Maura O'Connell. At the same time groups sprang up in America to play Irish music at a professional level. Mick Moloney founded Green Fields of America in 1977 to bring together immigrant Irish and native - born players of Irish music. Although they did not record an album until 1989, they created a ripple. The band contained several people who went on achieve international fame -- Seamus Egan, Eileen Ivers and Jerry O'Sullivan. Another early Irish - American band was Cherish the Ladies formed in 1985.
The rules of the All - Ireland championships allow non Irish residents to complete and thanks to Irish cultural centres in New York and Chicago, young US citizens began to win in dancing and fiddling. Chicago - born Liz Carroll came second in 1974 with her fiddling. In 1992 she was a member of Trian, who recorded two highly regarded albums of strictly traditional no - frills Irish instrumentals. Some films gave exposure to Irish music -- "Barry Lyndon '' (1975 -- The Chieftains), "The Brothers McMullen '' (1984 -- Seamus Egan), "Dancing at Lughnasa '' (1998 -- Arty McGlynn) and "Titanic '' (1997). The touring stage show "Riverdance '' (1995) was probably the biggest single publicity blaze in the cause of Irish - American music. The New York "Kips Bay Ceilidh Band '' recorded an admired album of dance tunes (1993).
Celtic new age music from Clannad (Ireland), harpist Loreena McKennitt (Canada) and Nightnoise (Ireland) were popular in a low - key way in the USA. Tríona and Mícheál O Dhomhnaill from Nightnoise had emigrated to the US in the 70s and started recording in 1984. There were pop hits for Enya (originally from Clannad). Among the immigrants from Ireland was Susan McKeown. She had been recording since 1990 but won international praise for "Lowlands '' (2000). In 1996 the Irish - American supergroup Solas was formed. The group contained multi-instrumentalist Seamus Egan and a powerful new singer Karan Casey. The Chieftains had been visiting America since the 70s but by 2003 the audience was big enough to justify a DVD, live from Nashville.
See: Music of Italy
Italian - Americans are concentrated on the Eastern Seaboard, especially in New York City. Their music includes square dances, tarantellas, mazurkas, waltzes and polkas, and music for mandolin, banjo, guitar and accordion.
Italian folk traditions have had a lasting influence of barbershop singing and doo wop. Neapolitan bandleader Francis Scala was bandleader of the U.S. Marine Band after immigrating in 1840; as is common in Naples, he placed the clarinet (which he played himself) in a prominent place in his performances.
See: Music of Jamaica
Undoubtedly the most influential Jamaican - American entertainer is DJ Kool Herc, who is often credited as the inventor of hip hop. He immigrated to New York City and brought with him the roots of hip hop -- a DJ isolating and repeating a percussion break while an MC spoke over the beats.
Second generation Jamaican Busta Rhymes was later an important gangsta rapper during the 1990s; his style is similar to that found in Jamaican dub and dancehall.
For more information about Caribbean cultural influence in the United States, see Holger Henke 's, The West Indian Americans, Westport: Greenwood Press 2001. baton rouge la. kevin gates has also put reggie to use in his music with his rasta background
Large - scale Japanese immigration to the United States began early in the 20th century, and traditional music came with them. California and Hawaii were two of the biggest destinations for these immigrants. The first North American taiko group was Seiichi Tanaka 's San Francisco Taiko Dojo in San Francisco, which was founded in 1968.
Norwegian - American folk music in the United States is mostly found in Minnesota and surrounding states. Reinlenders, polkas and waltzes are played; of these, waltzes are by far the most common (2). Instruments include the psalmodikon, fiddle and accordion. Celebrations like Syttende Mai have become an important outlet for traditional Norwegian music.
Pakistani music in the United States is largely influenced by homegrown Pakistani American musicians and bands. The Kominas are an American - Pakistani taqwacore band from Boston. There have been a number of successful American musicians of Pakistani origin; they include Nadia Ali, rappers Bohemia and Mr. Capone - E, Junoon member Salman Ahmad, the Qaiyum brothers (MCs GQ and JAQ), as well as Explosions in the Sky guitarist Munaf Rayani. Much of the works contributed by Pakistani musicians in the U.S. are often inspired by a fusion of contemporary and traditional American and Pakistani musical genres.
See: Music of the Philippines
There is an organization that gives out Filipino American Music Entertainment Awards.
External links:
See: Music of Poland
While Polish folk music still exists in its "old country '' form, the most prevalent form of music evolved from traditional polkas, obereks, waltzes and Krakowiaks into what is common among the community today. This music form was pioneered by such musicians as Bernie Witkowski, Frank Wojnarowski, AmPol Aires, and Eddie Ziema. Royal Polish music, such as the polonaise (polonez), and folk music, mazur, oberek, krakowiak, kujawiak, and regional music, are celebrated by various Polish folk groups around the country.
The Polish community is strongest in the area around Chicago, Illinois. Chicago 's Orkiestra Makowska, led by George Dzialowy, defined that city 's unique sound for many years.
The city 's Polish - American community spawned a wave of musicians that are usually considered polka players, though their actual output is quite varied. Chicago - style polka music has a distinctive sound from that found in other parts of the country. New England, Buffalo, NY, Detroit, Pittsburgh and Minneapolis also have Polish - American musical traditions and each has its own distinctive sound.
More than 50,000 Polish - Americans live in the area around Houston, Texas. There is a rich tradition of Polish fiddling from Texas that had declined into obscurity until a recent revitalization by performers like Brian Marshall. Polish settlers arrived beginning in the middle of the 19th century, settling in Panna Maria, a village just south of San Antonio. A few decades later, a new wave of Polish migrants settled in Chappell Hill, Stoneham, Brenham, Bremond, Anderson, Carlos and New Waverly. These people 's folk music consisted of bowed bass, fiddle and sometimes a clarinet, with the later additions of drums, accordions and guitars. Within Texas, Polish music was diverse, with a rhythmic style predominant in the Chappell Hill / Brenham area, and a melodic sound in Bremond. The group, Brave Combo is an example of what is commonly called within the industry Tex - Mex polka music. The Czech and Polish settlers in Texas had a major influence on the traditional Mexican folk music forming what we now know as Tejano music.
See: Music of Portugal In the United States there are Portuguese American singers and bands known such as Jorge Ferreira, Arlindo Andrade, Marc Dennis, Jack Sebastião (R.I.P.), Nélia, Sergio Royal, Mauricio Morais, Alcides Machado, Chico Avila, Luis Fontes Sousa José Norberto, Ana Lisa, Nelson, Michelle Romeiro, José Lobo, Jorge Pereira and Eratoxica. also perform world music, rock, dance or pimba music. Fado is also popular in the U.S., and there, Ramana Vieira is one of the representers of this music genre. Portuguese American musicians are usually based in New England, New Jersey and California. Nowadays, about 5,000 000 Portuguese Americans live in the United States. The majority of them comes from Madeira and Azores Islands.
See: Music of Serbia and Montenegro
There is a Serbian rock scene in the Greater Cleveland area.
See: Music of Slovenia
Slovenian - American polka musician Frankie Yankovic is by far the most famous musician of that genre. He began his career in the 1930s, beginning with some regional hits in the Detroit and Cleveland areas, followed by mainstream success in the later 1940s.
See: Music of Ukraine
Ukrainian - Americans in the Cleveland and Detroit area have kept a folk scene alive, also producing a minor crossover star in the 1920s and 30s, Pawlo Humeniuk, the King of the Ukrainian Fiddlers.
Recently, the Ukrainian immigrant band Gogol Bordello have emerged into the mainstream.
See: Music of Vietnam
There is a Vietnamese American Philharmonic orchestra. Popular musicians in the Vietnamese - American community include Thanh Lan.
|
academy of saint martin in the fields wikipedia | Academy of St Martin in the Fields - wikipedia
The Academy of St Martin in the Fields is an English chamber orchestra, based in London.
John Churchill, then Master of Music at the London church of St Martin - in - the - Fields, and Neville Marriner (later Sir Neville) founded the orchestra as "The Academy of St. - Martin - in - the - Fields '', a small, conductorless string group. The original group numbered 11, all male. The orchestra gave its first concert on November 13, 1959, in the church it was named after. In 1988, the orchestra dropped the hyphens from its full name. Marriner held the title of Life President until his death in 2016.
The initial performances as a string orchestra at St Martin - in - the - Fields played a key role in the revival of baroque performances in England. The orchestra has since expanded to include winds. It remains flexible in size, changing its make - up to suit its repertoire, which ranges from the Baroque to contemporary works.
Neville Marriner continued to perform obbligatos and concertino solos with the orchestra until 1969, and led the orchestra on recordings until the autumn of 1970, when he switched to conducting from the podium from directing the orchestra from the leader 's desk. On recordings, besides Marriner, Iona Brown and Kenneth Sillito have led the orchestra, among others. Since 2000, Murray Perahia has held the title of principal guest conductor of the orchestra, and has made commercial recordings with the orchestra as pianist and conductor.
In May 2011, the orchestra announced the appointment of Joshua Bell as its new music director, the second person to hold the title in the orchestra 's history, effective September 2011, with an initial contract of 3 years.
The orchestra 's first recording was for the L'Oiseau - Lyre label at Conway Hall on March 25, 1961. It has since accumulated an extensive discography, and is one of the most recorded chamber orchestras in the world, with over 500 sessions. Other labels the orchestra has recorded for include Argo, Capriccio, Chandos, Decca, EMI, Hänssler, Hyperion, PENTATONE and Philips. The orchestra has also recorded under the names "Argo Chamber Orchestra '', "London String Players '', and "London Strings ''. It has played on the film soundtracks of Amadeus (1984), and The English Patient; its best - selling recording is the Amadeus soundtrack. The Academy also helped record the UEFA Champions League Anthem with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.
Notes
Sources
Coordinates: 51 ° 31 ′ 25 '' N 0 ° 05 ′ 46 '' W / 51.5237 ° N 0.09609 ° W / 51.5237; - 0.09609
|
the standard ranges of the human voice from highest to lowest are | Vocal range - Wikipedia
Vocal range is the measure of the breadth of pitches that a human voice can phonate. Its most common application is within the context of singing, where it is used as a defining characteristic for classifying singing voices into groups known as voice types. It is also a topic of study within linguistics, phonetics, and speech and language pathology, particularly in relation to the study of tonal languages and certain types of vocal disorders, although it has little practical application in terms of speech.
While the broadest definition of "vocal range '' is simply the span from the lowest to the highest note a particular voice can produce, this broad definition is often not what is meant when "vocal range '' is discussed in the context of singing. Vocal pedagogists tend to define the vocal range as the total span of "musically useful '' pitches that a singer can produce. This is because some of the notes a voice can produce may not be considered usable by the singer within performance for various reasons. For example, within opera all singers must project over an orchestra without the aid of a microphone. An opera singer would therefore only be able to include the notes that they are able to adequately project over an orchestra within his or her vocal range. In contrast, a pop artist could include notes that could be heard with the aid of a microphone.
Another factor to consider is the use of different forms of vocal production. The human voice is capable of producing sounds using different physiological processes within the larynx. These different forms of voice production are known as vocal registers. While the exact number and definition of vocal registers is a controversial topic within the field of singing, the sciences identify only four registers: the whistle register, the falsetto register, the modal register, and the vocal fry register. Typically only the usable pitches within the modal register -- the register used in normal speech and most singing -- are included when determining singers ' vocal ranges. There are exceptions, as in opera, where countertenors employ falsetto and coloratura sopranos use the whistle register; notes from these registers would therefore be included in the vocal ranges of these voices.
Vocal range plays such an important role in classifying singing voices into voice types that sometimes the two terms are confused with one another. A voice type is a particular kind of human singing voice perceived as having certain identifying qualities or characteristics; vocal range being only one of those characteristics. Other factors are vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, vocal transition points, physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration. All of these factors combined are used to categorize a singer 's voice into a particular kind of singing voice or voice type.
The discipline of voice classification developed within European classical music and is not generally applicable to other forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are several systems in use including the German Fach system, the Italian opera tradition, and French opera tradition. There are other systems of classification as well, most commonly the choral music system.
No system is universally applied or accepted. Most of the voice types identified by such systems, however, are sub-types that fall under seven different major voice categories that are for the most part acknowledged across all of the major voice classification systems. Women are typically divided into three main groups: soprano, mezzo - soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four main groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering the pre-pubescent voices of children an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.
Vocal range itself does not determine a singer 's voice type. While each voice type does have a general vocal range associated with it, human singing voices may possess vocal ranges that encompass more than one voice type or are in between the typical ranges of two voice types. Therefore, voice teachers use vocal range as only one factor among many in classifying a singer 's voice. More important than range in voice classification is tessitura, or where the voice is most comfortable singing, and vocal timbre, or the characteristic sound of the singing voice. For example, a female singer may have a vocal range that encompasses the high notes of a mezzo - soprano and the low notes of a soprano. A voice teacher would therefore look to see whether the singer were more comfortable singing higher, or lower. If the singer were more comfortable singing higher, then the teacher would probably classify her as a soprano. The teacher would also consider the sound of the voice; sopranos tend to have a lighter and less rich vocal sound than a mezzo - soprano. A voice teacher, however, would never classify a singer in more than one voice type, regardless of the size of the vocal range of the singer.
Within the operatic systems of classification, there are six basic voice types. The ranges given below are approximations and are not meant to be too rigidly applied.
Some men, in falsetto voice or as a result of certain rare physiological conditions, can sing in the same range as women. These do not fall into the female categories, instead called countertenors within classical music. Within contemporary music, however, the use of the term tenor for these male voices would be more appropriate.
Within choral music there are only four categories for adult singers. First, for women: soprano and alto, and for men: tenor and bass.
In the UK, the term "male alto '' refers to a man who uses falsetto vocal production to sing in the alto section of a chorus. This practice is much less common outside the UK where the term countertenor is more often applied. Countertenors are also widely employed within opera as solo vocalists, though the term "male alto '' is never used to refer to a solo vocalist.
Children 's voices, both male and female, are described as trebles, although boy soprano is widely used as well.
|
what type of ownership cannot be created by operation of law | Operation of law - wikipedia
The phrase "by operation of law '' is a legal term that indicates that a right or liability has been created for a party, irrespective of the intent of that party, because it is dictated by existing legal principles. For example, if a person dies without a will, his or her heirs are determined by operation of law. Similarly, if a person marries or has a child after his or her will has been executed, the law writes this pretermitted spouse or pretermitted heir into the will if no provision for this situation was specifically included. Adverse possession, in which title to land passes because non-owners have occupied it for a certain period of time, is another important right that vests by operation of law.
Events that occur by operation of law do so because courts have determined over time that the rights thus created or transferred represent what the intent of the party would have been, had they thought about the situation in advance; or because the results fulfilled the settled expectations of parties with respect to their property; or because legal instruments of title provide for these transfers to occur automatically on certain named contingencies.
Rights that arise by operation of law often arise by design of certain contingencies set forth in a legal instrument. If a life estate is created in a tract of land, and the person by whose life the estate is measured dies, title to the property reverts to the original grantor -- or, possibly, to the grantor 's legal heirs -- by operation of law. Nothing needs to be put in writing to affirm that this will happen. Joint tenants with rights of survivorship create a similar situation. Joint tenants with rights of survivorship deeds are always taken in equal shares, and when one joint tenant dies, the other tenants equally acquire title by virtue of the terms of the conveyance itself, by operation of law.
Rights or liabilities created by operation of law can also be created involuntarily, because a contingency occurs for which a party has failed to plan (e.g. failure to write a will); or because a specific condition exists for a set period of time (e.g. adverse possession of property or creation of an easement; failure of a court to rule on a motion within a certain period automatically defeating the motion; failure of a party to act on a filed complaint within a certain time causing dismissal of the case); or because an existing legal relationship is invalidated, but the parties to that relationship still require a mechanism to distribute their rights (e.g. under the Uniform Commercial Code, where a contract for which both parties have performed partially is voided, the court will create a new contract based on the performance that has actually been rendered and containing reasonable terms to accommodate the expectations of the parties).
Because title to property that arises by operation of law is usually contingent upon proof of certain contingencies, and title records may not contain evidence of those contingencies, legal proceedings are sometimes required to turn title that arises by operation of law into marketable title.
|
one of the first attempts at researching what is meant by the term personality | Personality psychology - Wikipedia
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its variation among individuals. It is a scientific study which aims to show how people are individually different due to psychological forces. Its areas of focus include:
"Personality '' is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences their environment, cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. The word "personality '' originates from the Latin persona, which means mask.
Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one 's expectations, self - perceptions, values, and attitudes. Personality also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self - actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, evolutionary, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology.
Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:
The study of personality is based on the essential insight that all people are similar in some ways, yet different in others. There have been many different definitions of personality proposed. However, many contemporary psychologists agree on the following defias differentiating the HEXACO model from other personality frameworks. Specifically, the H factor is described as sincere, honest, faithful / loyal, modest / unassuming, fair - minded, VERSUS sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful, and pompous. The H factor has been linked to criminal, materialistic, power - seeking, and unethical tendencies.
Trait models have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying causes of personality. Eysenck 's theory, however, proposes biological mechanisms as driving traits, and modern behavior genetics researchers have shown a clear genetic substrate to them. Another potential weakness of trait theories is that they may lead some people to accept oversimplified classifications -- or worse, offer advice -- based on a superficial analysis of personality. Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect of specific situations on people 's behavior.
Traits are considered to be statistical generalizations that do not always correspond to an individual 's behavior.
The importance that genetic influences have on personality characteristics can change across a five - year period. Age differences create more variables even within a family, so the best comparisons are found using twins. Twins typically share a family environment called a shared environment because they may share other aspects like teachers, school, and friends. A non-shared environment means completely different environment for both subjects. "Biologically related children who are separated after birth and raised in different families live in non-shared environments. '' Identical twins separated at birth and raised in different families constitute the best cases for heredity and personality because similarities between the two are due only to genetic influences. Vulnerability was a factor in this study that was taken into consideration regarding the issue of genetic influences on vulnerability. The study concluded that the monozygotic co-twins would be more similar than dizygotic co-twins in change over time. The data concluded that there were no significant differences for either variances between the monozygotic and dizygotic co-twins.
Another current open question is whether genetic influences are important for the likeliness of co-twins to change in the same way over a period of time. A link was found between the personality trait of neuroticism and a polymorphism called 5 - HTTLPR in the serotonin transporter gene, but this association was not replicated in larger studies. Other candidate gene studies have provided weak evidence that some personality traits are related to AVPR1A ("ruthlessness gene '') and MAOA ("Warrior gene ''). Genotypes, or the genetic make up of an organism, influence but do n't fully decide the physical traits of a person. Those are also influenced by the environment and behaviors they are surrounded by. For example, a person 's height is affected by genetics, but if they are malnourished growth will be stunted no matter what their genetic coding says. Environment is also not completely responsible for an outcome in personality. An example from Psychobiology of Personality by Marvin Zuckerman is alcoholism: Studies suggest that alcoholism is an inherited disease, but if a subject with a strong biological background of alcoholism in their family tree is never exposed to alcohol, they will not be so inclined regardless of their genome.
It is also a question open to debate whether there are genetic influences on the tendency of the co-twins to change, without keeping in mind the direction of the change. Another factor that can be addressed is biological versus adoptive relatives and can be clearly seen in what is a real - life experiment: adoption. This creates two groups: genetic relatives (biological parents and siblings) and environmental relatives (adoptive parents and siblings). After studying hundreds of adoptive families, researchers discovered that people who grow up together, whether biologically related or not, do not much resemble one another in personality. In characteristics such as extroversion and agreeableness, adoptees are more like their biological parents than their adoptive parents. However, the minute shared - environment effects do not mean that adoptive parenting is ineffective. Even though genetics may limit the family environment 's influence on personality, parents do influence their children 's attitudes, values, faith, manners, and politics. In adoptive homes, child neglect and abuse and even divorce between the parents is uncommon. This noted it is not surprising, despite a somewhat greater risk of psychological disorder, that most adopted children excel, especially when they are adopted as infants. In fact, seven out of eight have reported feeling a strong connection with one or even both of their adoptive parents.
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different degrees. There are many types of theories regarding personality, but each theory contains several and sometimes many sub theories. A "theory of personality '' constructed by any given psychologist will contain multiple relating theories or sub theories often expanding as more psychologist explore the theory. For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories, introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension with many people in the middle. The idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung, specifically in his 1921 book Psychologische Typen (Psychological Types) and William Marston.
Building on the writings and observations of Jung during World War II, Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine C. Briggs, delineated personality types by constructing the Myers -- Briggs Type Indicator. This model was later used by David Keirsey with a different understanding from Jung, Briggs and Myers. In the former Soviet Union, Lithuanian Aušra Augustinavičiūtė independently derived a model of personality type from Jung 's called socionics.
Theories could also be considered an "approach '' to personality or psychology and is generally referred to as a model. The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting extroversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection with two pairs of psychological functions:
Briggs and Myers also added another personality dimension to their type indicator to measure whether a person prefers to use a judging or perceiving function when interacting with the external world. Therefore, they included questions designed to indicate whether someone wishes to come to conclusions (judgment) or to keep options open (perception).
This personality typology has some aspects of a trait theory: it explains people 's behavior in terms of opposite fixed characteristics. In these more traditional models, the sensing / intuition preference is considered the most basic, dividing people into "N '' (intuitive) or "S '' (sensing) personality types. An "N '' is further assumed to be guided either by thinking or feeling and divided into the "NT '' (scientist, engineer) or "NF '' (author, humanitarian) temperament. An "S '', in contrast, is assumed to be guided more by the judgment / perception axis and thus divided into the "SJ '' (guardian, traditionalist) or "SP '' (performer, artisan) temperament. These four are considered basic, with the other two factors in each case (including always extraversion / introversion) less important. Critics of this traditional view have observed that the types can be quite strongly stereotyped by professions (although neither Myers nor Keirsey engaged in such stereotyping in their type descriptions), and thus may arise more from the need to categorize people for purposes of guiding their career choice. This among other objections led to the emergence of the five - factor view, which is less concerned with behavior under work conditions and more concerned with behavior in personal and emotional circumstances. (It should be noted, however, that the MBTI is not designed to measure the "work self '', but rather what Myers and McCaulley called the "shoes - off self. '')
Type A and Type B personality theory: During the 1950s, Meyer Friedman and his co-workers defined what they called Type A and Type B behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard - driving Type A personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are "stress junkies. '' Type B people, on the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed profile.
John L. Holland 's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, stipulates that six personality types lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model is widely used in vocational counseling.
Eduard Spranger 's personality - model, consisting of six (or, by some revisions, 6 + 1) basic types of value attitudes, described in his book Types of Men (Lebensformen; Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1914; English translation by P.J.W. Pigors - New York: G.E. Stechert Company, 1928).
The Enneagram of Personality, a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology of nine interconnected personality types. It has been criticized as being subject to interpretation, making it difficult to test or validate scientifically.
Perhaps the most ancient attempt at personality psychology is the personality typology outlined by the Indian Buddhist Abhidharma schools. This typology mostly focuses on negative personal traits (greed, hatred, and delusion) and the corresponding positive meditation practices used to counter those traits.
Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of personality. Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school of thought. Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he proposed psychic energy could be converted into behavior. Freud 's theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts.
Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the id, ego and super-ego. The id acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of its needs regardless of external environment; the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world, adhering to the reality principle. Finally, the superego (conscience) inculcates moral judgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus forcing the demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. The superego is the last function of the personality to develop, and is the embodiment of parental / social ideals established during childhood. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of these three components.
The channeling and release of sexual (libidal) and aggressive energies, which ensues from the "Eros '' (sex; instinctual self - preservation) and "Thanatos '' (death; instinctual self - annihilation) drives respectively, are major components of his theory. It is important to note that Freud 's broad understanding of sexuality included all kinds of pleasurable feelings experienced by the human body.
Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult personality is dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five. Fixations that develop during the infantile stage contribute to adult personality and behavior.
One of Sigmund Freud 's earlier associates, Alfred Adler, did agree with Freud that early childhood experiences are important to development and believed birth order may influence personality development. Adler believed that the oldest child was the individual who would set high achievement goals in order to gain attention lost when the younger siblings were born. He believed the middle children were competitive and ambitious. He reasoned that this behavior was motivated by the idea of surpassing the firstborn 's achievements. He added, however, that the middle children were often not as concerned about the glory attributed with their behavior. He also believed the youngest would be more dependent and sociable. Adler finished by surmising that an only child loves being the center of attention and matures quickly but in the end fails to become independent.
Heinz Kohut thought similarly to Freud 's idea of transference. He used narcissism as a model of how people develop their sense of self. Narcissism is the exaggerated sense of one self in which one is believed to exist in order to protect one 's low self - esteem and sense of worthlessness. Kohut had a significant impact on the field by extending Freud 's theory of narcissism and introducing what he called the ' self - object transferences ' of mirroring and idealization. In other words, children need to idealize and emotionally "sink into '' and identify with the idealized competence of admired figures such as parents or older siblings. They also need to have their self - worth mirrored by these people. These experiences allow them to thereby learn the self - soothing and other skills that are necessary for the development of a healthy sense of self.
Another important figure in the world of personality theory is Karen Horney. She is credited with the development of the "real self '' and the "ideal self ''. She believes all people have these two views of their own self. The "real self '' is how humans act with regard to personality, values, and morals; but the "ideal self '' is a construct individuals implement in order to conform to social and personal norms.
Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. The approaches used to analyze the behavioral aspect of personality are known as behavioral theories or learning - conditioning theories. These approaches were a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy. One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation. This school of thought was developed by B.F. Skinner who put forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or "the organism '' with its environment. Skinner believed children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. For example: a child cries because the child 's crying in the past has led to attention. These are the response, and consequences. The response is the child crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence. According to this theory, people 's behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning. Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model '' which helped promote analysis of behavior based on the "Stimulus - Response - Consequence Model '' in which the critical question is: "Under which circumstances or antecedent ' stimuli ' does the organism engage in a particular behavior or ' response ', which in turn produces a particular ' consequence '? ''
Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitude develops as the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presences of a group of stimuli become stable. Rather than describing conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response strength in a given situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as having a large genetic or biological component, as do most modern behaviorists.
Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well known for his classical conditioning experiments involving dogs, which led him to discover the foundation of behaviorism.
In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.
Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for his "Bobo doll experiment ''. During these experiments, Bandura video taped a college student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten children who were getting ready to go out to play. When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers. The people observing these children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He called this study and his findings observational learning, or modeling.
Early examples of approaches to cognitive style are listed by Baron (1982). These include Witkin 's (1965) work on field dependency, Gardner 's (1953) discovering people had consistent preference for the number of categories they used to categorise heterogeneous objects, and Block and Petersen 's (1955) work on confidence in line discrimination judgments. Baron relates early development of cognitive approaches of personality to ego psychology. More central to this field have been:
Various scales have been developed to assess both attributional style and locus of control. Locus of control scales include those used by Rotter and later by Duttweiler, the Nowicki and Strickland (1973) Locus of Control Scale for Children and various locus of control scales specifically in the health domain, most famously that of Kenneth Wallston and his colleagues, The Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale. Attributional style has been assessed by the Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Attributions Questionnaire, the Real Events Attributional Style Questionnaire and the Attributional Style Assessment Test.
Recognition that the tendency to believe that hard work and persistence often results in attainment of life and academic goals has influenced formal educational and counseling efforts with students of various ages and in various settings since the 1970s research about achievement. Counseling aimed toward encouraging individuals to design ambitious goals and work toward them, with recognition that there are external factors that may impact, often results in the incorporation of a more positive achievement style by students and employees, whatever the setting, to include higher education, workplace, or justice programming.
Walter Mischel (1999) has also defended a cognitive approach to personality. His work refers to "Cognitive Affective Units '', and considers factors such as encoding of stimuli, affect, goal - setting, and self - regulatory beliefs. The term "Cognitive Affective Units '' shows how his approach considers affect as well as cognition.
Cognitive - Experiential Self - Theory (CEST) is another cognitive personality theory. Developed by Seymour Epstein, CEST argues that humans operate by way of two independent information processing systems: experiential system and rational system. The experiential system is fast and emotion - driven. The rational system is slow and logic - driven. These two systems interact to determine our goals, thoughts, and behavior.
Personal construct psychology (PCP) is a theory of personality developed by the American psychologist George Kelly in the 1950s. Kelly 's fundamental view of personality was that people are like naive scientists who see the world through a particular lens, based on their uniquely organized systems of construction, which they use to anticipate events. But because people are naive scientists, they sometimes employ systems for construing the world that are distorted by idiosyncratic experiences not applicable to their current social situation. A system of construction that chronically fails to characterize and / or predict events, and is not appropriately revised to comprehend and predict one 's changing social world, is considered to underlie psychopathology (or mental illness.) From the theory, Kelly derived a psychotherapy approach and also a technique called The Repertory Grid Interview that helped his patients to uncover their own "constructs '' with minimal intervention or interpretation by the therapist. The repertory grid was later adapted for various uses within organizations, including decision - making and interpretation of other people 's world - views.
Humanistic psychology emphasizes that people have free will and that this plays an active role in determining how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the "phenomenal field '' theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers and Maslow were among a group of psychologists that worked together for a decade to produce the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. This journal was primarily focused on viewing individuals as a whole, rather than focusing solely on separate traits and processes within the individual.
Robert W. White wrote the book The Abnormal Personality that became a standard text on abnormal psychology. He also investigated the human need to strive for positive goals like competence and influence, to counterbalance the emphasis of Freud on the pathological elements of personality development.
Maslow spent much of his time studying what he called "self - actualizing persons '', those who are "fulfilling themselves and doing the best they are capable of doing ''. Maslow believes all who are interested in growth move towards self - actualizing (growth, happiness, satisfaction) views. Many of these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities. Characteristics of self - actualizers according to Maslow include the four key dimensions:
Maslow and Rogers emphasized a view of the person as an active, creative, experiencing human being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions, relationships, and encounters. They disagree with the dark, pessimistic outlook of those in the Freudian psychoanalysis ranks, but rather view humanistic theories as positive and optimistic proposals which stress the tendency of the human personality toward growth and self - actualization. This progressing self will remain the center of its constantly changing world; a world that will help mold the self but not necessarily confine it. Rather, the self has opportunity for maturation based on its encounters with this world. This understanding attempts to reduce the acceptance of hopeless redundancy. Humanistic therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect on the present, therefore the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This allows for an individualized approach to therapy. Rogers found patients differ in how they respond to other people. Rogers tried to model a particular approach to therapy - he stressed the reflective or empathetic response. This response type takes the client 's viewpoint and reflects back their feeling and the context for it. An example of a reflective response would be, "It seems you are feeling anxious about your upcoming marriage ''. This response type seeks to clarify the therapist 's understanding while also encouraging the client to think more deeply and seek to fully understand the feelings they have expressed.
Biology plays a very important role in the development of personality. The study of the biological level in personality psychology focuses primarily on identifying the role of genetic determinants and how they mold individual personalities. Some of the earliest thinking about possible biological bases of personality grew out of the case of Phineas Gage. In an 1848 accident, a large iron rod was driven through Gage 's head, and his personality apparently changed as a result, although descriptions of these psychological changes are usually exaggerated.
In general, patients with brain damage have been difficult to find and study. In the 1990s, researchers began to use electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), and more recently functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which is now the most widely used imaging technique to help localize personality traits in the brain.
Ever since the Human Genome Project allowed for a much more in depth understanding of genetics, there has been an ongoing controversy involving heritability, personality traits, and environmental vs. genetic influence on personality. The human genome is known to play a role in the development of personality. Previously, genetic personality studies focused on specific genes correlating to specific personality traits. Today 's view of the gene - personality relationship focuses primarily on the activation and expression of genes related to personality and forms part of what is referred to as behavioural genetics. Genes provide numerous options for varying cells to be expressed; however, the environment determines which of these are activated. Many studies have noted this relationship in varying ways in which our bodies can develop, but the interaction between genes and the shaping of our minds and personality is also relevant to this biological relationship. DNA - environment interactions are important in the development of personality because this relationship determines what part of the DNA code is actually made into proteins that will become part of an individual. It has been noted that while different choices are made available by the genome, in the end, the environment is the ultimate determinant of what becomes activated. Small changes in DNA in individuals are what lead to the uniqueness of every person as well as differences in looks, abilities, brain functioning, and all the factors that culminate to develop a cohesive personality.
Cattell and Eysenck have proposed that genetics have a strong influence on personality. A large part of the evidence collected linking genetics and the environment to personality have come from twin studies. This "twin method '' compares levels of similarity in personality using genetically identical twins. One of the first of these twin studies measured 800 pairs of twins, studied numerous personality traits, and determined that identical twins are most similar in their general abilities. Personality similarities were found to be less related for self - concepts, goals, and interests.
Twin studies have also been important in the creation of the five factor personality model: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Neuroticism and extraversion are the two most widely studied traits. A person that may fall into the extravert category can display characteristics such as impulsiveness, sociability, and activeness. A person falling into the neuroticism category may be more likely to be moody, anxious, or irritable. Identical twins, however, have higher correlations in personality traits than fraternal twins. One study measuring genetic influence on twins in five different countries found that the correlations for identical twins were. 50, while for fraternal they were about. 20. It is suggested that heredity and environment interact to determine one 's personality.
Charles Darwin is the founder of the theory of the evolution of the species. The evolutionary approach to personality psychology is based on this theory. This theory examines how individual personality differences are based on natural selection. Through natural selection organisms change over time through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism 's environment and how these traits aid in an organism 's survival and reproduction.
Polymorphisms, such as gender and blood type, are forms of diversity which evolve to benefit a species as a whole. The theory of evolution has wide - ranging implications on personality psychology. Personality viewed through the lens of evolutionary psychology places a great deal of emphasis on specific traits that are most likely to aid in survival and reproduction, such as conscientiousness, sociability, emotional stability, and dominance. The social aspects of personality can be seen through an evolutionary perspective. Specific character traits develop and are selected for because they play an important and complex role in the social hierarchy of organisms. Such characteristics of this social hierarchy include the sharing of important resources, family and mating interactions, and the harm or help organisms can bestow upon one another.
There are two major types of personality tests, projective and objective.
Projective tests assume personality is primarily unconscious and assess individuals by how they respond to an ambiguous stimulus, such as an ink blot. Projective tests have been in use for about 60 years and continue to be used today. Examples of such tests include the Rorschach test and the Thematic Apperception Test.
The Rorschach Test involves showing an individual a series of note cards with ambiguous ink blots on them. The individual being tested is asked to provide interpretations of the blots on the cards by stating everything that the ink blot may resemble based on their personal interpretation. The therapist then analyzes their responses. Rules for scoring the test have been covered in manuals that cover a wide variety of characteristics such as content, originality of response, location of "perceived images '' and several other factors. Using these specific scoring methods, the therapist will then attempt to relate test responses to attributes of the individual 's personality and their unique characteristics. The idea is that unconscious needs will come out in the person 's response, e.g. an aggressive person may see images of destruction. The Thematic Apperception Test (also known as the TAT) involves presenting individuals with vague pictures / scenes and asking them to tell a story based on what they see. Common examples of these "scenes '' include images that may suggest family relationships or specific situations, such as a father and son or a man and a woman in a bedroom. Responses are analyzed for common themes. Responses unique to an individual are theoretically meant to indicate underlying thoughts, processes, and potentially conflicts present within the individual. Responses are believed to be directly linked to unconscious motives. There is very little empirical evidence available to support these methods.
Objective tests assume personality is consciously accessible and that it can be measured by self - report questionnaires. Research on psychological assessment has generally found objective tests to be more valid and reliable than projective tests. Critics have pointed to the Forer effect to suggest some of these appear to be more accurate and discriminating than they really are. Issues with these tests include false reporting because there is no way to tell if an individual is answering a question honestly or accurately.
The Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (also known as the MBTI) is self - reporting questionnaire based on Carl Jung 's Type theory.
Psychology has traditionally defined personality through its behavioral patterns, and more recently with neuroscientific studies of the brain. In recent years, some psychologists have turned to the study of inner experiences for insight into personality as well as individuality. Inner experiences are the thoughts and feelings to an immediate phenomenon. Another term used to define inner experiences is qualia. Being able to understand inner experiences assists in understanding how humans behave, act, and respond. Defining personality using inner experiences has been expanding due to the fact that solely relying on behavioral principles to explain one 's character may seem incomplete. Behavioral methods allow the subject to be observed by an observer, whereas with inner experiences the subject is its own observer.
Descriptive experience sampling (DES), developed by psychologist Russel Hurlburt. This is an idiographic method that is used to help examine inner experiences. This method relies on an introspective technique that allows an individual 's inner experiences and characteristics to be described and measured. A beep notifies the subject to record their experience at that exact moment and 24 hours later an interview is given based on all the experiences recorded. DES has been used in subjects that have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and depression. It has also been crucial to studying the inner experiences of those who have been diagnosed with common psychiatric diseases.
Articulated thoughts in stimulated situations (ATSS): ATSS is a paradigm which was created as an alternative to the TA (think aloud) method. This method assumes that people have continuous internal dialogues that can be naturally attended to. ATSS also assesses a person 's inner thoughts as they verbalize their cognitions. In this procedure, subjects listen to a scenario via a video or audio player and are asked to imagine that they are in that specific situation. Later, they are asked to articulate their thoughts as they occur in reaction to the playing scenario. This method is useful in studying emotional experience given that the scenarios used can influence specific emotions. Most importantly, the method has contributed to the study of personality. In a study conducted by Rayburn and Davison (2002), subjects ' thoughts and empathy toward anti-gay hate crimes were evaluated. The researchers found that participants showed more aggressive intentions towards the offender in scenarios which mimicked hate crimes.
Experimental method: This method is an experimental paradigm used to study human experiences involved in the studies of sensation and perception, learning and memory, motivation, and biological psychology. The experimental psychologist usually deals with intact organisms although studies are often conducted with organisms modified by surgery, radiation, drug treatment, or long - standing deprivations of various kinds or with organisms that naturally present organic abnormalities or emotional disorders. Economists and psychologists have developed a variety of experimental methodologies to elicit and assess individual attitudes where each emotion differs for each individual. The results are then gathered and quantified to conclude if specific experiences have any common factors. This method is used to seek clarity of the experience and remove any biases to help understand the meaning behind the experience to see if it can be generalized.
|
a change in which one or more new substance are formed | Chemical substance - wikipedia
A chemical substance, also known as a pure substance, is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It can not be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys.
Chemical substances are often called ' pure ' to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.
Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions.
Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, and are thus not "substances '' in this regard.
A chemical substance may well be defined as "any material with a definite chemical composition '' in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a pure chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition; a pure substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition. Non-stoichiometric compounds are a special case (in inorganic chemistry) that violates the law of constant composition, and for them, it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for example: "the term ' chemical substance ' means any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including -- (i) any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature ''.
In geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures (aggregates) of several minerals (different substances) are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a single rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are a common example: anorthoclase is an alkali aluminum silicate, where the alkali metal is interchangeably either sodium or potassium.
In law, "chemical substances '' may include both pure substances and mixtures with a defined composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines "monoconstituent substances '', "multiconstituent substances '' and "substances of unknown or variable composition ''. The latter two consist of multiple chemical substances; however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is an extremely complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the exact chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures.
Polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a known precursor or reaction (s) and the molar mass distribution. For example, polyethylene is a mixture of very long chains of - CH - repeating units, and is generally sold in several molar mass distributions, LDPE, MDPE, HDPE and UHMWPE.
The concept of a "chemical substance '' became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as basic copper carbonate. He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound. '' This is now known as the law of constant composition. Later with the advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in the realm of organic chemistry; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern chemistry, the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.
Isomerism caused much consternation to early researchers, since isomers have exactly the same composition, but differ in configuration (arrangement) of the atoms. For example, there was much speculation for the chemical identity of benzene, until the correct structure was described by Friedrich August Kekulé. Likewise, the idea of stereoisomerism - that atoms have rigid three - dimensional structure and can thus form isomers that differ only in their three - dimensional arrangement - was another crucial step in understanding the concept of distinct chemical substances. For example, tartaric acid has three distinct isomers, a pair of diastereomers with one diastereomer forming two enantiomers.
An element is a chemical substance made up of a particular kind of atom and hence can not be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it can be transmuted into another element through a nuclear reaction. This is so, because all of the atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons, though they may be different isotopes, with differing numbers of neutrons.
As of 2012, there are 118 known elements, about 80 of which are stable -- that is, they do not change by radioactive decay into other elements. Some elements can occur as more than a single chemical substance (allotropes). For instance, oxygen exists as both diatomic oxygen (O) and ozone (O). The majority of elements are classified as metals. These are elements with a characteristic lustre such as iron, copper, and gold. Metals typically conduct electricity and heat well, and they are malleable and ductile. Around a dozen elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are classified as non-metals. Non-metals lack the metallic properties described above, they also have a high electronegativity and a tendency to form negative ions. Certain elements such as silicon sometimes resemble metals and sometimes resemble non-metals, and are known as metalloids.
A pure chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular set of molecules or ions. Two or more elements combined into one substance through a chemical reaction form a chemical compound. All compounds are substances, but not all substances are compounds.
A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice. Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds, and all others are called inorganic compounds. Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called organometallic compounds.
Compounds in which components share electrons are known as covalent compounds. Compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions are known as ionic compounds, or salts.
In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually have substantially different chemical properties, may be isolated and do not spontaneously convert to each other. A common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid - base catalysis. However, there are also tautomers, where isomerization occurs spontaneously, such that a pure substance can not be isolated into its tautomers. A common example is glucose, which has open - chain and ring forms. One can not manufacture pure open - chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the hemiacetal form. Materials may also comprise other entities such as polymers. These may be inorganic or organic and sometimes a combination of inorganic and organic.
All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often intimately mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and they do not have a fixed composition. In principle, they can be separated into the component substances by purely mechanical processes. Butter, soil and wood are common examples of mixtures.
Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in any ratio to form a yellow - grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur.
In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for each atom of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol) of iron to 32 grams (1 mol) of sulfur), a chemical reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound iron (II) sulfide, with chemical formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the properties of a chemical substance and is not a mixture. Iron (II) sulfide has its own distinct properties such as melting point and solubility, and the two elements can not be separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be unable to recover the iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound.
While the term chemical substance is a precise technical term that is synonymous with chemical for chemists, the word chemical is used in general usage in the English speaking world to refer to both (pure) chemical substances and mixtures (often called compounds), and especially when produced or purified in a laboratory or an industrial process. In other words, the chemical substances of which fruits and vegetables, for example, are naturally composed even when growing wild are not called "chemicals '' in general usage. In countries that require a list of ingredients in products, the "chemicals '' listed are industrially produced "chemical substances ''. The word "chemical '' is also often used to refer to addictive, narcotic, or mind - altering drugs.
Within the chemical industry, manufactured "chemicals '' are chemical substances, which can be classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and chemicals found in research only:
The cause of the difference in production volume is the complexity of the molecular structure of the chemical. Bulk chemicals are usually much less complex. While fine chemicals may be more complex, many of them are simple enough to be sold as "building blocks '' in the synthesis of more complex molecules targeted for single use, as named above. The production of a chemical includes not only its synthesis but also its purification to eliminate by - products and impurities involved in the synthesis. The last step in production should be the analysis of batch lots of chemicals in order to identify and quantify the percentages of impurities for the buyer of the chemicals. The required purity and analysis depends on the application, but higher tolerance of impurities is usually expected in the production of bulk chemicals. Thus, the user of the chemical in the US might choose between the bulk or "technical grade '' with higher amounts of impurities or a much purer "pharmaceutical grade '' (labeled "USP '', United States Pharmacopeia). "Chemicals '' in the commercial and legal sense may also include mixtures of highly variable composition, as they are products made to a technical specification instead of particular chemical substances. For example, gasoline is not a single chemical compound or even a particular mixture: different gasolines can have very different chemical compositionsl, as "gasoline '' is primarily defined through source, properties and octane rating.
Every chemical substance has one or more systematic names, usually named according to the IUPAC rules for naming. An alternative system is used by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS).
Many compounds are also known by their more common, simpler names, many of which predate the systematic name. For example, the long - known sugar glucose is now systematically named 6 - (hydroxymethyl) oxane - 2, 3, 4, 5 - tetrol. Natural products and pharmaceuticals are also given simpler names, for example the mild pain - killer Naproxen is the more common name for the chemical compound (S) - 6 - methoxy - α - methyl - 2 - naphthaleneacetic acid.
Chemists frequently refer to chemical compounds using chemical formulae or molecular structure of the compound. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of chemical compounds being synthesized (or isolated), and then reported in the scientific literature by professional chemists around the world. An enormous number of chemical compounds are possible through the chemical combination of the known chemical elements. As of May 2011, about sixty million chemical compounds are known. The names of many of these compounds are often nontrivial and hence not very easy to remember or cite accurately. Also it is difficult to keep the track of them in the literature. Several international organizations like IUPAC and CAS have initiated steps to make such tasks easier. CAS provides the abstracting services of the chemical literature, and provides a numerical identifier, known as CAS registry number to each chemical substance that has been reported in the chemical literature (such as chemistry journals and patents). This information is compiled as a database and is popularly known as the Chemical substances index. Other computer - friendly systems that have been developed for substance information, are: SMILES and the International Chemical Identifier or InChI.
Often a pure substance needs to be isolated from a mixture, for example from a natural source (where a sample often contains numerous chemical substances) or after a chemical reaction (which often give mixtures of chemical substances).
|
the galaxy cluster that includes the milky way is called | Local Group - wikipedia
The Local Group is the galaxy group that includes the Milky Way. The Local Group comprises more than 54 galaxies, most of them dwarf galaxies. Between 100 billion and 1 trillion years from now, all these galaxies will collide to create 1 single galaxy. Its gravitational center is located somewhere between the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. The Local Group has a diameter of 10 Mly (3.1 Mpc) (about 10 meters) and has a binary (dumbbell) distribution. The group itself is a part of the larger Virgo Supercluster, which may be a part of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The three largest members of the group (in decreasing order) are the Andromeda Galaxy, the Milky Way and the Triangulum Galaxy. The larger two of these spiral galaxies each have their own system of satellite galaxies.
The term "The Local Group '' was introduced by Edwin Hubble in Chapter VI of his 1936 book The Realm of the Nebulae. There, he described it as "a typical small group of nebulae which is isolated in the general field '' and delineated, by decreasing luminosity, its members to be M31, Milky Way, M33, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, M32, NGC 205, NGC 6822, NGC 185, IC 1613 and NGC 147. He also identified IC 10 as a possible part of Local Group.
By 2003, the number of known Local Group members had increased from his initial 12 to 36.
* It is uncertain whether it is a companion galaxy of the Andromeda Galaxy
|
who sang there ain't no mountain high enough | Ai n't No Mountain High Enough - wikipedia
"Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' is an R&B / soul song written by Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson in 1966 for the Tamla label, a division of Motown. The composition was first successful as a 1967 hit single recorded by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell, becoming a hit again in 1970 when recorded by former Supremes frontwoman Diana Ross. The song became Ross ' first solo number - one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
The song was written by Ashford and Simpson prior to joining Motown. British soul singer Dusty Springfield wanted to record the song but the duo declined, hoping it would give them access to the Detroit - based label. As Valerie Simpson later recalled, "We played that song for her (Springfield) but would n't give it to her, because we wanted to hold that back. We felt like that could be our entry to Motown. Nick called it the ' golden egg '. '' Dusty recorded a similar verse melody in ' I 'm Gonna Leave You ' on Dusty.
The original 1967 version of "Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' was a top twenty hit. According to record producers, Terrell was a little nervous and intimidated during recording because she did not rehearse the lyrics. Terrell recorded her vocals alone with producers Harvey Fuqua and Johnny Bristol, who added Gaye 's vocal at a later date. "Ai n't No Mountain '' peaked at number nineteen on the Billboard pop charts, and went to number three on the R&B charts.
This original version of "Ai n't No Mountain '', produced by Fuqua and Bristol, was a care - free, danceable, and romantic love song that became the signature duet between Gaye and Terrell. Its success led to a string of more Ashford / Simpson penned duets (including "You 're All I Need to Get By '', "Ai n't Nothing Like the Real Thing '', and "Your Precious Love '').
The Gaye / Terrell version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, and is regarded today as one of the most important records ever released by Motown.
Diana Ross & The Supremes recorded a version of "Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' which was more faithful to the Terrell - Gaye original version as a duet with The Temptations. That song was an album cut from a joint LP released by Motown Records in 1968 on the two superstar groups, titled Diana Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations.
In late 1969, after the Top 20 success of her first solo single, "Reach Out and Touch (Somebody 's Hand) '', Ashford and Simpson had Ross re-record "Ai n't No Mountain High Enough ''. Initially, Ross was apprehensive, but was convinced to make the recording. The remake was similar to gospel with elements of classical music strings (provided by the Detroit Symphony Orchestra), spoken word passages from Ross, with The Andantes, Jimmy Beavers, Jo Armstead, Ashford & Simpson and Brenda Evans and Billie Calvin of The Undisputed Truth as backing singers, giving the song a soul and gospel vocal element.
Motown chief Berry Gordy did not like the record upon first hearing it. He hated the spoken - word passages and wanted the song to begin with the climactic chorus / bridge. It was not until radio stations nationwide were editing their own versions and adding it to their playlists that Ashford and Simpson were able to convince Gordy to release an edited three - minute version as a single. Ross ' version of "Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' rose up to number one on both the pop and R&B singles charts. Ross received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. This version is in the key of C minor for most of the song, then towards the end, the key changes to F sharp major.
|
flora and fauna of great nicobar biosphere reserve | Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve - Wikipedia
The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve encompasses a large part (some 85 %) of the island of Great Nicobar, the largest of the Nicobar Islands in the Indian Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Nicobars lie in the Bay of Bengal, eastern Indian Ocean, 190 km to the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The Reserve has a total core area of approximately 885 km, surrounded by a 12 km - wide "forest buffer zone ''. In year 2013 it was included in the list of Man and Biosphere program of UNESCO to promote sustainable development based on local community effort and sound science.
The Reserve was declared in January 1989. It incorporates two National parks of India, which were gazetted in 1992: the larger Campbell Bay National Park on the northern part of the island, and Galathea National Park in the southern interior. The non-Biosphere portions of the island (set aside for agriculture, forestry and settlements) are confined to the southwestern and southeastern coastal reaches.
The environment is classified by the World Wide Fund for Nature as Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, and located in the Indomalaya ecozone.
The reserve is home to many species of plants and animals, often endemic to the Andaman and Nicobars biogeographic region. Species of fauna in the reserve include: Nicobar scrubfowl (Megapodius nicobariensis, a megapode bird), the edible - nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus), the Nicobar long - tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), giant leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Malayan box turtle, Nicobar tree shrew, reticulated python (Python reticulatus) and the giant robber crab (or coconut crab, Birgus latro).
The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve also incorporates territories and traditional lands of the indigenous Nicobarese and Shompen peoples.
Coordinates: 7 ° 03 ′ 00 '' N 93 ° 46 ′ 30 '' E / 7.0500 ° N 93.7750 ° E / 7.0500; 93.7750
|
who found a bomb during the summer olympics in 1996 | Centennial Olympic Park bombing - wikipedia
The Centennial Olympic Park bombing was a domestic terrorist pipe bombing attack on the Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, on July 27 during the 1996 Summer Olympics. The blast directly killed 1 person and injured 111 others; another person later died of a heart attack. It was the first of four bombings committed by Eric Rudolph. Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bomb before detonation and cleared most of the spectators out of the park. Rudolph, a carpenter and handyman, had detonated three pipe bombs inside a U.S. military ALICE Pack. Motivated by what he considered to be the government 's sanctioning of "abortion on demand '', Rudolph wanted to force the cancellation of the Olympics.
After the bombings, Jewell was temporarily investigated as a suspect by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the news media falsely focused on him aggressively as the presumed culprit. However, in October 1996, Jewell was exonerated when the FBI declared that he was no longer a person of interest. Following three more bombings in 1997, Rudolph was identified by the FBI as the suspect. In 2003, Rudolph was arrested and tried before being convicted two years later. Rudolph was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole for his crimes.
Centennial Olympic Park was designed as the "town square '' of the Olympics, and thousands of spectators had gathered for a late concert by the band Jack Mack and the Heart Attack. Sometime after midnight, Rudolph planted a green U.S. military ALICE pack (field pack) containing three pipe bombs surrounded by three - inch - long (7.6 cm) masonry nails, which caused most of the human injuries, underneath a bench near the base of a concert sound tower. He then left the area.
The pack had a directed charge and could have done more damage but it was slightly moved at some point. It used a steel plate as a directional device. Investigators would later tie the Sandy Springs and Otherside bombs together with this first device because all were propelled by nitroglycerin dynamite, used an alarm clock and Rubbermaid containers, and contained steel plates.
FBI Agent David (Woody) Johnson received notice that a call to 911 was placed about 18 minutes before the bomb detonated warning that a bomb would go off at the park within 30 minutes by "a white male with an indistinguishable American accent ''.
Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bag underneath a bench and alerted Georgia Bureau of Investigation officers. Tom Davis of the Georgia Bureau of Investigation, called in a bomb ordnance squad which included members of the ATF and FBI to investigate the suspicious bag, that was leaning against the 40 - ft NBC sound tower. Jewell and other security guards began clearing the immediate area so that a bomb squad could investigate the suspicious package. The bomb detonated two to three minutes into the evacuation, before all spectators could leave the area.
The sound of the explosion was recorded by a news crew from the German public television network ARD, who were interviewing American swimmer Janet Evans at a nearby hotel.
Alice Hawthorne, 44, of Albany, Georgia, was killed in the explosion when a nail from the bomb penetrated her skull. A Turkish cameraman of Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, Melih Uzunyol, 40, had a fatal heart attack while running to the scene. The bomb wounded 111 others.
President Bill Clinton denounced the explosion as an "evil act of terror '' and vowed to do everything possible to track down and punish those responsible.
Despite the event, officials and athletes agreed that the games should continue as planned.
Though Richard Jewell was hailed as a hero for his role in discovering the bomb and moving spectators to safety, news organizations later reported that Jewell was considered a potential suspect in the bombing, four days afterward, and shortly after a brief, mistaken detainment of two juvenile persons of interest at the Kensington MARTA station. Jewell, at the time, was unknown to authorities, and a lone wolf profile made sense to FBI investigators after being contacted by his former employer at Piedmont College.
Jewell was named as a person of interest, although he was never arrested. Jewell 's home was searched and his background exhaustively investigated and he became the subject of intense media interest and surveillance, including a media siege of his home.
After Jewell was exonerated, he initiated defamation lawsuits against NBC News, The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, and other media entities, and insisted on a formal apology from them. Jewell 's lawsuit accused Piedmont College President Raymond Cleere of falsely describing Jewell as a "badge - wearing zealot '' who "would write epic police reports for minor infractions ''. The cases were later settled after 15 years of litigation with the Georgia Court of Appeals decision in July 2012, that the newspapers accurately reported that Jewell was the key suspect in the bombing, and emphasized he was only a suspect and the potential issues in the law enforcement case against him.
After Jewell was cleared, the FBI admitted it had no other suspects, and the investigation made little progress until early 1997, when two more bombings took place at an abortion clinic and a lesbian nightclub, both in the Atlanta area. Similarities in the bomb design allowed investigators to conclude that this was the work of the same perpetrator. One more bombing of an abortion clinic, this time in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed a policeman working as a security guard and seriously injured nurse Emily Lyons, gave the FBI crucial clues including a partial license plate.
The plate and other clues led the FBI to identify Eric Robert Rudolph as a suspect. Rudolph eluded capture and became a fugitive; officials believed he had disappeared into the rugged southern Appalachian Mountains, familiar from his youth. On May 5, 1998, the FBI named him as one of its ten most wanted fugitives and offered a $ 1,000,000 reward for information leading directly to his arrest. On October 14, 1998, the Department of Justice formally named Rudolph as its suspect in all four bombings.
After more than five years on the run, Rudolph was arrested on May 31, 2003, in Murphy, North Carolina, by a rookie police officer, Jeffrey Scott Postell of the Murphy Police Department behind a Save - A-Lot store at about 4 a.m.; Postell, on routine patrol, had originally suspected a burglary in progress.
On April 8, 2005, the government announced Rudolph would plead guilty to all four bombings, including the Centennial Olympic Park attack.
Rudolph is serving four life terms without the possibility of parole at ADX Florence supermax prison in Florence, Colorado.
Rudolph 's justification for the bombings according to his April 13, 2005 statement, was political:
On August 22, 2005, Rudolph, who had previously received a life sentence for the Alabama bombing, was sentenced to three concurrent terms of life imprisonment without parole for the Georgia incidents. Rudolph read a statement at his sentencing in which he apologized to the victims and families only of the Centennial Park bombing, reiterating that he was angry at the government and hoped the Olympics would be canceled. At his sentencing, fourteen other victims or relatives gave statements, including the widower of Alice Hawthorne.
As reported in an April 8, 2013, Alabama blog, in February 2013, LuLu.com published Rudolph 's book, Between the Lines of Drift: The Memoirs of a Militant, and in April 2013 the U.S. Attorney General seized his $200 royalty to help pay off the $1 million that Rudolph owes in restitution to the state of Alabama.
|
when was when i fall in love written | When I Fall in Love - wikipedia
"When I Fall in Love '' is a popular song, written by Victor Young (music) and Edward Heyman (lyrics). It was introduced in the film One Minute to Zero. Jeri Southern sang on the first recording released in April 1952 with the song 's composer, Victor Young, handling the arranging and conducting duties. The song has become a standard, with many artists recording it, though the first hit version was sung by Doris Day released in July 1952.
Day 's recording was made on June 5, 1952. It was released by Columbia Records as catalog number 39786 and issued with the flip side "Take Me in Your Arms ''. The song reached number 20 on the Billboard chart.
A 1996 cover by Natalie Cole, a "duet '' with her father Nat King Cole by way of vocals from his 1956 cover, won 1996 Grammys for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Instrumental Arrangement with Accompanying Vocal (s).
The version by Rick Astley was released on November 30, 1987, coinciding with the 30th anniversary of the release of Nat King Cole 's version of the song. This single is mainly remembered for a closely fought contest for UK Christmas number one. Rivals EMI hoping to see their act, Pet Shop Boys, reach number one, re-released the version by Nat King Cole. This led to a slow down of purchases of Astley 's version, allowing Pet Shop Boys to reach the coveted top spot. Despite selling over 250,000 copies and gaining a Silver certification from the BPI, it peaked in the UK at number 2 for two weeks. The re-release by Nat King Cole reached number 4. Since the single was released as a double A-side, the other half of the single was "My Arms Keep Missing You '', which was successful in its own right in Europe.
The cover version of "When I Fall in Love '' by Celine Dion and Clive Griffin was featured in the romantic comedy Sleepless in Seattle and released as a single in July 1993. The song was recorded expressly for the soundtrack and was originally intended as a duet between Dion and Stevie Wonder, but according to Dion when she heard the demo performed by Warren Wiebe she preferred that would be her duet with Wiebe. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1994, and won a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist (s). The award went to David Foster and Jeremy Lubbock. The song appears on both, the Sleepless in Seattle soundtrack (number one on the Billboard 200 and 4x Platinum RIAA certification for selling over 4 million copies in the US), and later on Dion 's album The Colour of My Love, released in November 1993. The music video was directed by Dominic Orlando in Hollywood, Los Angeles.
AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted that Dion 's album, The Colour of My Love, which featured the song, had "careful production, professional songwriting (highlighted by "When I Fall in Love, '' "The Power of Love, '' and "Think Twice '').
"When I Fall in Love '' reached top 40 in a few countries, including number 22 in New Zealand, number 23 in the United States, and number 37 in the Netherlands. It was popular on the US Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, peaking at number 6.
In 1998, Anne Murray performed "When I Fall in Love '' with Dion live and included it on her DVD called An Intimate Evening with Anne Murray... Live. Later, this version appeared on Murray 's 2007 album Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends.
|
what is the fine tissue surrounding the abdominal cavity known as | Abdominal cavity - wikipedia
The abdominal cavity is a large body cavity in humans and many other animals that contains many organs. It is a part of the abdominopelvic cavity. It is located below the thoracic cavity, and above the pelvic cavity. Its dome - shaped roof is the thoracic diaphragm, a thin sheet of muscle under the lungs, and its floor is the pelvic inlet, opening into the pelvis.
Organs of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys, large intestine, and adrenal glands.
The abdominal cavity is lined with a protective membrane termed the peritoneum. The inside wall is covered by the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys are located in the abdominal cavity behind the peritoneum, in the retroperitoneum. The viscera are also covered by visceral peritoneum.
Between the visceral and parietal peritoneum is the peritoneal cavity, which is a potential space. It contains serous fluid that allows motion. This motion is apparent of the gastrointestinal tract. The peritoneum, by virtue of its connection to the two (parietal and visceral) portions, gives support to the abdominal organs.
The peritoneum divides the cavity into numerous compartments. One of these the lesser sac is located behind the stomach and joins into the greater sac via the foramen of Winslow. Some of the organs are attached to the walls of the abdomen via folds of peritoneum and ligaments, such as the liver and others use broad areas of the peritoneum, such as the pancreas. The peritoneal ligaments are actually dense folds of the peritoneum that are used to connect viscera to viscera or viscera to the walls of the abdomen. They are named in such a way as to show what they connect typically. For example, the gastrocolic ligament connects the stomach and colon and the splenocolic ligament connects the spleen and the colon, or sometimes by their shape as the round ligament or triangular ligament.
Mesenteries are folds of peritoneum that are attached to the walls of the abdomen and enclose viscera completely. They are supplied with plentiful amounts of blood. The three most important mesenteries are mesentery for the small intestine, the transverse mesocolon, which attaches the back portion of the colon to the abdominal wall, and the sigmoid mesocolon which enfolds the sigmoid colon.
The omentum are specialized folds of peritoneum that enclose nerves, blood vessels, lymph channels, fatty tissue, and connective tissue. There are two omenta. First, is the greater omentum that hangs off of the transverse colon and greater curvature of the stomach. The other is the lesser omentum that extends between the stomach and the liver.
When fluid collects in the abdominal cavity, this condition is called ascites. This is usually not noticeable until enough fluid has collected to distend the abdomen. The collection of fluid will cause pressure on the viscera, veins, and thoracic cavity. Treatment is directed at the cause of the fluid accumulation. One method is to decrease the portal vein pressure, especially useful in treating cirrhosis. Chylous ascites heals best if the lymphatic vessel involved is closed. Heart failure can cause recurring ascites.
Another disorder is called peritonitis which usually accompanies inflammatory processes elsewhere. It can be caused by damage to an organ, or from a contusion to the abdominal wall from the outside or by surgery. It may be brought in by the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. The most common origin is the gastrointestinal tract. Peritonitis can be acute or chronic, generalized or localized, and may have one origin or multiple origins. The omenta can help control the spread of infection; however without treatment, the infection will spread throughout the cavity. An abscess may also form as a secondary reaction to an infection. Antibiotics have become an important tool in fighting abscesses; however, external drainage is usually required also.
|
the united kingdom of england wales and northern ireland | United Kingdom - wikipedia
-- in Europe (green & dark grey) -- in the European Union (green)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north - western coast of the European mainland, the UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north - eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state -- the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to its east, the English Channel to its south and the Celtic Sea to its south - south - west, giving it the 12th - longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland. With an area of 242,500 square kilometres (93,600 sq mi), the UK is the 78th - largest sovereign state in the world. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.5 million inhabitants in 2016.
The UK is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 1952, making her the longest - serving current head of state. The UK 's capital and largest city is London, a global city and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million. Other major urban areas in the UK include the conurbations centred on Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow and Liverpool. The UK consists of four countries -- England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. All but England have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The nearby Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey are not part of the UK, being Crown dependencies with the British Government responsible for defence and international representation.
The creation of the UK resulted from the medieval conquest and subsequent annexation of Wales by the Kingdom of England, followed by the union between England and Scotland in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the union in 1801 of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five - sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. There are fourteen British Overseas Territories, the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world 's land mass and was the largest empire in history. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies.
The UK is a developed country and has the world 's fifth - largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth - largest economy by purchasing power parity. It has a high - income economy and has a "very high '' Human Development Index, ranking 16th in the world. It was the first industrialised country and the world 's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and is sixth in military expenditure in the world. It has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946. It has been a leading member state of the European Union (EU) and its predecessor, the European Economic Community (EEC), since 1973; however, a referendum in 2016 resulted in 51.9 % of UK voters favouring leaving the EU, and the country 's exit is being negotiated. The UK is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the G20, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Interpol and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The 1707 Acts of Union declared that the kingdoms of England and Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain '', though the new state is also described in the Acts as the "Kingdom of Great Britain '', "United Kingdom of Great Britain '' and "One Kingdom ''. The term "United Kingdom '' is found in use as a description, but not a name, during the 18th century, and the country has occasionally been referred to in later centuries as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain '' although its full official name, from 1707 to 1800, was simply "Great Britain '', without a "long form ''. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' was adopted.
Although the United Kingdom, as a sovereign state, is a country, England, Scotland, Wales and, to a lesser degree, Northern Ireland are also regarded as countries, though they are not sovereign states. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self - government. The British Prime Minister 's website has used the phrase "countries within a country '' to describe the United Kingdom. Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions of the United Kingdom, also refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions ''. Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province ''. With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one 's political preferences ''.
The term "Britain '' is often used as a synonym for the United Kingdom. The term "Great Britain '', by contrast, refers conventionally to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. However, it is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole. GB and GBR are the standard country codes for the United Kingdom (see ISO 3166 - 2 and ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 3) and are consequently used by international organisations to refer to the United Kingdom. Additionally, the United Kingdom 's Olympic team competes under the name "Great Britain '' or "Team GB ''.
The adjective "British '' is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and matters to do with nationality. People of the United Kingdom use a number of different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British; or as being English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish, or Irish; or as being both.
In Welsh, the long form name of the state is "Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon '', with "Teyrnas Unedig '' being used as a short form name on government websites. However, it is usually abbreviated to "DU '' for the mutated form "Y Deyrnas Unedig ''. In Scottish Gaelic, the long form is "Rìoghachd Aonaichte Bhreatainn is Èireann a Tuath '' and the short form "Rìoghachd Aonaichte ''.
Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. By the end of the region 's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland. The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400 - year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo - Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales, Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo - Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). Most of the region settled by the Anglo - Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. Meanwhile, Gaelic - speakers in north - west Britain (with connections to the north - east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century) united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.
In 1066, the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France and after its conquest, seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman - French culture. The Anglo - Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures. Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland. Following the Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence, albeit in near - constant conflict with England. The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.
The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England, and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.
In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.
In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the short - lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of piracy (privateering), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.
Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum ensured (along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689, and the Claim of Right Act 1689) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power (and the interest in voyages of discovery) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America.
Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments
On 1 May 1707, the united Kingdom of Great Britain came into being, the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms.
In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole, in practice the first prime minister (1721 -- 1742). A series of Jacobite Uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the British throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were brutally suppressed. The British colonies in North America that broke away from Britain in the American War of Independence became the United States of America, recognised by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.
During the 18th century, Britain was involved in the Atlantic slave trade. British ships transported an estimated two million slaves from Africa to the West Indies. Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. The world 's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London in 1839.
The term "United Kingdom '' became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In the early 19th century, the British - led Industrial Revolution began to transform the country. Gradually political power shifted away from the old Tory and Whig landowning classes towards the new industrialists. An alliance of merchants and industrialists with the Whigs would lead to a new party, the Liberals, with an ideology of free trade and laissez - faire. In 1832 Parliament passed the Great Reform Act, which began the transfer of political power from the aristocracy to the middle classes. In the countryside, enclosure of the land was driving small farmers out. Towns and cities began to swell with a new urban working class. Few ordinary workers had the vote, and they created their own organisations in the form of trade unions.
After the defeat of France at the end of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792 -- 1815), Great Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830). Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace ''), a period of relative peace among the Great Powers (1815 -- 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world ''. The British Empire was expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez - faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self - governing dominions. After the turn of the century, Britain 's industrial dominance was challenged by Germany and the United States.
Social reform and home rule for Ireland were important domestic issues after 1900. The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women 's right to vote before 1914.
Britain fought alongside France, Russia and (after 1917) the United States, against Germany and its allies in the First World War (1914 -- 1918). British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western front. The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.
After the war, Britain received the League of Nations mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world 's land surface and a quarter of its population. However, Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.
The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. A wave of strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the war when the Great Depression (1929 -- 1932) occurred. This led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest in the 1930s, with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.
Britain entered the Second World War by declaring war on Nazi Germany in 1939, after Germany had invaded Poland. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, Britain and its Empire continued the fight alone against Germany. In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in a struggle for control of the skies in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. There were also eventual hard - fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Burma campaign. British forces played an important role in the Normandy landings of 1944, achieved with its United States ally.
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, the UK was one of the Big Four powers (along with the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China) who met to plan the post-war world; it was an original signatory to the Declaration of the United Nations. The UK became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and worked closely with the United States to establish the IMF, World Bank and NATO. However, the war left the UK severely weakened and depending financially on the Marshall Plan. In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government initiated a radical programme of reforms, which had a significant effect on British society in the following decades. Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created. The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain 's now much - diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence. Many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test in 1952), but the new post-war limits of Britain 's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society than before. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK 's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan.
In the decade - long process of European integration, the UK was a founding member of the alliance called the Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding members. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2007, which forms the constitutional basis of the European Union since then.
From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the Belfast "Good Friday '' Agreement of 1998.
Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s under Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state - owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. This resulted in high unemployment and social unrest, but ultimately also economic growth, particularly in the services sector. From 1984, the economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.
Around the end of the 20th century there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK is still a key global player diplomatically and militarily. It plays leading roles in the EU, UN and NATO. However, controversy surrounds some of Britain 's overseas military deployments, particularly in Afghanistan and Iraq.
The 2008 global financial crisis severely affected the UK economy. The coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits which resulted. In 2014 the Scottish Government held a referendum on Scottish independence, with 55.3 % of voters rejecting the independence proposal and opting to remain within the United Kingdom. In 2016, 51.9 % of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. The legal process of leaving the EU began on 29 March 2017, with the UK 's invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty of Lisbon, formally notifying the EU of the UK 's intention to leave. The article stipulates that the negotiations to leave will last at least two years. The UK remains a full member of the EU during this time.
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 243,610 square kilometres (94,060 sq mi). The country occupies the major part of the British Isles archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north - eastern one - sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the south - east coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel. In 1993 10 % of the UK was forested, 46 % used for pastures and 25 % cultivated for agriculture. The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London is the defining point of the Prime Meridian.
The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49 ° to 61 ° N, and longitudes 9 ° W to 2 ° E. Northern Ireland shares a 224 - mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long. It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.
England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometres (50,350 sq mi). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with mountainous terrain north - west of the Tees - Exe line; including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England 's highest mountain is Scafell Pike (978 metres (3,209 ft)) in the Lake District.
Scotland accounts for just under a third of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres (30,410 sq mi) and including nearly eight hundred islands, predominantly west and north of the mainland; notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous country in the UK and its topography is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault -- a geological rock fracture -- which traverses Scotland from Arran in the west to Stonehaven in the east. The fault separates two distinctively different regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland 's mountainous land, including Ben Nevis which at 1,343 metres (4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Lowland areas -- especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt -- are flatter and home to most of the population including Glasgow, Scotland 's largest city, and Edinburgh, its capital and political centre, although upland and mountainous terrain lies within the Southern Uplands.
Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometres (8,020 sq mi). Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and the South Wales Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over 2,704 kilometres (1,680 miles) of coastline. Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the north - west.
Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at 852 metres (2,795 ft).
The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below − 11 ° C (12 ° F) or rising above 35 ° C (95 ° F). The prevailing wind is from the south - west and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions the eastern parts are therefore the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters; especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south - east of England, being closest to the European mainland, and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.
Each country of the United Kingdom has its own arrangements, whose origins often pre-date the UK 's formation, meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the United Kingdom. Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.
The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper - tier subdivisions of England are the nine regions, now used primarily for statistical purposes. One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum. It was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies, but a proposed assembly in the North East region was rejected by a referendum in 2004. Below the regional tier, some parts of England have county councils and district councils and others have unitary authorities; while London consists of 32 London boroughs and the City of London. Councillors are elected by the first - past - the - post system in single - member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.
For local government purposes, Scotland is divided into 32 council areas, with wide variation in both size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas, as is the Highland Council, which includes a third of Scotland 's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223; they are paid a part - time salary. Elections are conducted by single transferable vote in multi-member wards that elect either three or four councillors. Each council elects a Provost, or Convenor, to chair meetings of the council and to act as a figurehead for the area.
Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right. Elections are held every four years under the first - past - the - post system.
Local government in Northern Ireland has since 1973 been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as collecting waste, controlling dogs and maintaining parks and cemeteries. In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.
The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: fourteen British Overseas Territories and three Crown dependencies.
The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus. British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised. Collectively Britain 's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 1,727,570 square kilometres (667,018 sq mi) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.
They are the last remaining remnants of the British Empire and a 1999 UK government white paper stated that: "(The) Overseas Territories are British for as long as they wish to remain British. Britain has willingly granted independence where it has been requested; and we will continue to do so where this is an option. '' Self - determination is also enshrined into the constitutions of several overseas territories and three have specifically voted to remain under British sovereignty (Bermuda in 1995, Gibraltar in 2002 and the Falkland Islands in 2013).
The Crown dependencies are possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the UK. They comprise three independently administered jurisdictions: the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. By mutual agreement, the British Government manages the islands ' foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. However, internationally, they are regarded as "territories for which the United Kingdom is responsible ''. The power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown (Privy Council or, in the case of the Isle of Man, in certain circumstances the Lieutenant - Governor). Since 2005 each Crown dependency has had a Chief Minister as its head of government.
The British dependencies use a varied assortment of currencies. These include the British pound, US dollar, New Zealand dollar, euro or their own currencies, which may be pegged to either.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II is the monarch and head of state of the UK, as well as Queen of fifteen other independent Commonwealth countries. The monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn ''. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified and consists mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge - made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law '', the UK Parliament can perform "constitutional reform '' simply by passing Acts of Parliament, and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments can not change.
The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world: a legacy of the British Empire. The parliament of the United Kingdom meets in the Palace of Westminster and has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords. All bills passed are given Royal Assent before becoming law.
The position of prime minister, the UK 's head of government, belongs to the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The prime minister chooses a cabinet and its members are formally appointed by the monarch to form Her Majesty 's Government. By convention, the monarch respects the prime minister 's decisions of government.
The cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister 's party or coalition and mostly from the House of Commons but always from both legislative houses, the cabinet being responsible to both. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, and become Ministers of the Crown. The current Prime Minister is Theresa May, who has been in office since 13 July 2016. May is also the leader of the Conservative Party. For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, each electing a single member of parliament (MP) by simple plurality. General elections are called by the monarch when the prime minister so advises. Prior to the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 required that a new election must be called no later than five years after the previous general election.
The Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats (formerly as the Liberal Party) have, in modern times, been considered the UK 's three major political parties, representing the British traditions of conservatism, socialism and liberalism, respectively. However, in both the 2015 and 2017 general elections, the Scottish National Party was the third - largest party by number of seats won, ahead of the Liberal Democrats. Most of the remaining seats were won by parties that contest elections only in one part of the UK: Plaid Cymru (Wales only); and the Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland only). In accordance with party policy, no elected Sinn Féin members of parliament have ever attended the House of Commons to speak on behalf of their constituents because of the requirement to take an oath of allegiance to the monarch.
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each have their own government or executive, led by a First Minister (or, in the case of Northern Ireland, a diarchal First Minister and deputy First Minister), and a devolved unicameral legislature. England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, has no such devolved executive or legislature and is administered and legislated for directly by the UK 's government and parliament on all issues. This situation has given rise to the so - called West Lothian question, which concerns the fact that members of parliament from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can vote, sometimes decisively, on matters that affect only England. The 2013 McKay Commission on this recommended that laws affecting only England should need support from a majority of English members of parliament.
The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide - ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local government. In 2012, the UK and Scottish governments signed the Edinburgh Agreement setting out the terms for a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014, which was defeated 55.3 % to 44.7 %.
The Welsh Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland. The Assembly is able to legislate on devolved matters through Acts of the Assembly, which require no prior consent from Westminster.
The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland. The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly. Devolution to Northern Ireland is contingent on participation by the Northern Ireland administration in the North - South Ministerial Council, where the Northern Ireland Executive cooperates and develops joint and shared policies with the Government of Ireland. The British and Irish governments co-operate on non-devolved matters affecting Northern Ireland through the British -- Irish Intergovernmental Conference, which assumes the responsibilities of the Northern Ireland administration in the event of its non-operation.
The UK does not have a codified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly or Northern Ireland Assembly. Indeed, in 1972, the UK Parliament unilaterally prorogued the Parliament of Northern Ireland, setting a precedent relevant to contemporary devolved institutions. In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly, given the political entrenchment created by referendum decisions. The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament 's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are even greater than in relation to Scotland and Wales, given that devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland 's separate legal system. Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies.
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common - law principles. The essence of common law is that, subject to statute, the law is developed by judges in courts, applying statute, precedent and common sense to the facts before them to give explanatory judgements of the relevant legal principles, which are reported and binding in future similar cases (stare decisis). The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the same jurisdiction, often having a persuasive effect in other jurisdictions.
Scots law is a hybrid system based on both common - law and civil - law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law. Sheriff courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminal trials with a jury, known as sheriff solemn court, or with a sheriff and no jury, known as sheriff summary Court. The Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty '', "not guilty '' and "not proven ''. Both "not guilty '' and "not proven '' result in an acquittal.
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66 % in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015, according to crime statistics. The prison population of England and Wales has increased to 86,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 148 per 100,000. Her Majesty 's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. The murder rate in England and Wales has stabilised in the first half of the 2010s with a murder rate around 1 per 100,000 which is half the peak in 2002 and similar to the rate in the 1980s Crime in Scotland fell slightly in 2014 / 2015 to its lowest level in 39 years in with 59 killings for a murder rate of 1.1 per 100,000. Scotland 's prisons are overcrowded but the prison population is shrinking.
The UK is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of NATO, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7 finance ministers, the G7 forum (previously the G8 forum), the G20, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the OSCE. It is also a member state of the European Union in the process of withdrawal. The UK is said to have a "Special Relationship '' with the United States and a close partnership with France -- the "Entente cordiale '' -- and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries --; the Anglo - Portuguese Alliance is considered to be the oldest currently binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and co-operate through the British - Irish Intergovernmental Conference and the British - Irish Council. Britain 's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and military engagements.
The armed forces of the United Kingdom -- officially, Her Majesty 's Armed Forces -- consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service), the British Army and the Royal Air Force. The forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The Commander - in - Chief is the British monarch, to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance. The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK 's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, as well as the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Qatar and Singapore.
The British armed forces played a key role in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. By emerging victorious from conflicts, Britain has often been able to decisively influence world events. Since the end of the British Empire, the UK has remained a major military power. Following the end of the Cold War, defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations '' will be undertaken as part of a coalition. UK military operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya, have followed this approach. Setting aside the intervention in Sierra Leone in 2000, the last occasion on which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War of 1982.
According to various sources, including the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the United Kingdom has the fourth - or fifth - highest military expenditure in the world. Total defence spending amounts to 2.0 % of national GDP.
The UK has a partially regulated market economy. Based on market exchange rates, the UK is today the fifth - largest economy in the world and the second - largest in Europe after Germany. HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government 's public finance policy and economic policy. The Bank of England is the UK 's central bank and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the nation 's currency, the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. The pound sterling is the world 's third - largest reserve currency (after the US dollar and the euro). Since 1997 the Bank of England 's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.
The UK service sector makes up around 79 % of GDP. London is one of the three "command centres '' of the global economy (alongside New York City and Tokyo), it is the world 's largest financial centre alongside New York, and it has the largest city GDP in Europe. Tourism is very important to the British economy; with over 27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world and London has the most international visitors of any city in the world. The creative industries accounted for 7 % GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 % per annum between 1997 and 2005.
The Industrial Revolution started in the UK with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining and steelmaking. British merchants, shippers and bankers developed overwhelming advantage over those of other nations allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. As other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7 % of national output in 2003.
The automotive industry is a significant part of the UK manufacturing sector and employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2015 of £ 70 billion, generating £ 34.6 billion of exports (11.8 % of the UK 's total export goods). In 2015, the UK produced around 1.6 million passenger vehicles and 94,500 commercial vehicles. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2015 around 2.4 million engines were produced. The UK motorsport industry employs around 41,000 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £ 6 billion.
The aerospace industry of the UK is the second - or third - largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £ 30 billion. The wings for the Airbus A380 and the A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK 's world - leading Broughton facility, whilst over a quarter of the value of the Boeing 787 comes from UK manufacturers including Eaton, Messier - Bugatti - Dowty and Rolls - Royce.
BAE Systems plays a critical role in some of the world 's biggest defence aerospace projects. In the UK, the company makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter and assembles the aircraft for the Royal Air Force. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter -- the world 's largest single defence project -- for which it designs and manufactures a range of components. It also manufactures the Hawk, the world 's most successful jet training aircraft. Airbus UK also manufactures the wings for the A400 m military transporter. Rolls - Royce is the world 's second - largest aero - engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft and it has more than 30,000 engines in service in the civil and defence sectors.
The UK space industry was worth £ 9.1 bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people. It is growing at a rate of 7.5 % annually, according to its umbrella organisation, the UK Space Agency. In 2013, the British Government pledged £ 60 m to the Skylon project: this investment will provide support at a "crucial stage '' to allow a full - scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built.
The pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the UK economy and the country has the third - highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures.
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 % of food needs with less than 1.6 % of the labour force (535,000 workers). Around two - thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one - third to arable crops. Farmers are subsidised by the EU 's Common Agricultural Policy. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a number of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.
In the final quarter of 2008, the UK economy officially entered recession for the first time since 1991. Following the likes of the United States, France and many major economies, in 2013, the UK lost its top AAA credit rating for the first time since 1978 with Moodys and Fitch credit agency, but, unlike the other major economies, retained its triple A rating with Standard & Poor 's. By the end of 2014, UK growth was the fastest in both the G7 and in Europe, and by September 2015, the unemployment rate was down to a seven - year low of 5.3 %.
Since the 1980s, UK economic inequality, like Canada, Australia and the United States, has grown faster than in other developed countries. The poverty line in the UK is commonly defined as being 60 % of the median household income. The Office for National Statistics has estimated that in 2011, 14 million people were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and that one person in 20 (5.1 %) was experiencing "severe material depression '', up from 3 million people in 1977.
The UK has an external debt of $9.6 trillion dollars, which is the second highest in the world after the US. As a percentage of GDP, external debt is 408 %, which is the third highest in the world after Luxembourg and Iceland.
The combination of the UK 's relatively lax regulatory regime and London 's financial institutions providing sophisticated methods to launder proceeds from criminal activity around the world, including those from drug trade, makes the City of London a global hub for illicit finance and the UK a safe haven for the world 's major - league tax dodgers, according to research papers and reports published in the mid-2010s. The reports on the Panama papers published in April 2016 singled out the UK as being "at the heart of super-rich tax - avoidance network. ''
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century. The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances. Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science; from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory; and more recently Stephen Hawking, who has advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.
Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish; from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others. Famous British engineers and inventors of the Industrial Revolution include James Watt, George Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Other major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian; from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan, and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell; and in the 20th century the world 's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others, the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners - Lee.
Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry. Between 2004 and 2008 the UK produced 7 % of the world 's scientific research papers and had an 8 % share of scientific citations, the third and second highest in the world (after the United States and China, respectively). Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. The M25, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.
The UK has a railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km) in Great Britain and 189 miles (304 km) in Northern Ireland. Railways in Northern Ireland are operated by NI Railways, a subsidiary of state - owned Translink. In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, which was followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers following years of decline, although the factors behind this are disputed. Network Rail owns and manages most of the fixed assets (tracks, signals etc.). About 20 privately owned Train Operating Companies operate passenger trains, which carried 1.68 billion passengers in 2015. There are also some 1,000 freight trains in daily operation. The British Government is to spend £ 30 billion on a new high - speed railway line, HS2, to be operational by 2026. Crossrail, under construction in London, is Europe 's largest construction project with a £ 15 billion projected cost.
In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers. In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport (18.9 million passengers). London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as Virgin Atlantic.
In 2006, the UK was the world 's ninth - largest consumer of energy and the 15th - largest producer. The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors '' -- BP and Royal Dutch Shell. In 2011, 40 % of the UK 's electricity was produced by gas, 30 % by coal, 19 % by nuclear power and 4.2 % by wind, hydro, biofuels and wastes.
In 2013, the UK produced 914 thousand barrels per day (bbl / d) of oil and consumed 1,507 thousand bbl / d. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005. In 2010 the UK had around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.
In 2009, the UK was the 13th - largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.
Coal production played a key role in the UK economy in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the mid-1970s, 130 million tonnes of coal were produced annually, not falling below 100 million tonnes until the early 1980s. During the 1980s and 1990s the industry was scaled back considerably. In 2011, the UK produced 18.3 million tonnes of coal. In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons. The UK Coal Authority has stated there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification (UCG) or ' fracking ', and that, based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years. However, environmental and social concerns have been raised over chemicals getting into the water table and minor earthquakes damaging homes.
In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25 % of total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down and ageing - related problems affect plant availability. In 2012, the UK had 16 reactors normally generating about 19 % of its electricity. All but one of the reactors will be retired by 2023. Unlike Germany and Japan, the UK intends to build a new generation of nuclear plants from about 2018.
The total of all renewable electricity sources provided for 14.9 % of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2013, reaching 53.7 TWh of electricity generated. The UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply, in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity.
Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96.7 % of households are connected to the sewer network. According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007. Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the European Union, are determined by the EU (see Water supply and sanitation in the European Union).
In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only '' companies. In Scotland water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water. In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, Northern Ireland Water.
A census is taken simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years. In the 2011 census the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775. It is the third - largest in the European Union, the fifth - largest in the Commonwealth and the 22nd - largest in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long - term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth. Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7 %. This compares to 0.3 % per year in the period 1991 to 2001 and 0.2 % in the decade 1981 to 1991. The 2011 census also confirmed that the proportion of the population aged 0 -- 14 has nearly halved (31 % in 1911 compared to 18 in 2011) and the proportion of older people aged 65 and over has more than tripled (from 5 to 16 %).
England 's population in 2011 was 53 million. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2015. with a particular concentration in London and the south - east. The 2011 census put Scotland 's population at 5.3 million, Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.
In 2012 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.92 children per woman. While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the ' baby boom ' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964, below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63. In 2011, 47.3 % of births in the UK were to unmarried women. The Office for National Statistics published a bulletin in 2015 showing that, out of the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 % identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (2.0 % of males and 1.5 % of females). 4.5 % of respondents responded with "other '', "I do n't know '', or did not respond.
Greater Manchester Urban Area
West Yorkshire Urban Area
Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 12th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo - Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK. A 2006 genetic study shows that more than 50 % of England 's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes. Another 2005 genetic analysis indicates that "about 75 % of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago, at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age '', and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people.
The UK has a history of small - scale non-white immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade. During this period it is estimated the Afro - Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000 which later declined due to the abolition of slavery. The UK also has the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century. In 1950 there were probably fewer than 20,000 non-white residents in Britain, almost all born overseas. In 1951 there were an estimated 94,500 people living in Britain who had been born in South Asia, China, Africa and the Caribbean, just under 0.2 % of the UK population. By 1961 this number had more than quadrupled to 384,000, just over 0.7 % of the United Kingdom population.
Since 1948 substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire. Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups, although some of this migration has been temporary. Since the 1990s, there has been substantial diversification of the immigrant population, with migrants to the UK coming from a much wider range of countries than previous waves, which tended to involve larger numbers of migrants coming from a relatively small number of countries.
Academics have argued that the ethnicity categories employed in British national statistics, which were first introduced in the 1991 census, involve confusion between the concepts of ethnicity and race. In 2011, 87.2 % of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8 % of the UK population identify themselves as of one of number of ethnic minority groups. In the 2001 census, this figure was 7.9 % of the UK population.
Because of differences in the wording of the census forms used in England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, data on the Other White group is not available for the UK as a whole, but in England and Wales this was the fastest growing group between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, increasing by 1.1 million (1.8 percentage points). Amongst groups for which comparable data is available for all parts of the UK level, the Other Asian category increased from 0.4 to 1.4 % of the population between 2001 and 2011, while the Mixed category rose from 1.2 % to 2 %.
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4 % of London 's population and 37.4 % of Leicester 's was estimated to be non-white in 2005, whereas less than 5 % of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census. In 2016, 31.4 % of primary and 27.9 % of secondary pupils at state schools in England were members of an ethnic minority.
The UK 's de facto official language is English. It is estimated that 95 % of the UK 's population are monolingual English speakers. 5.5 % of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent immigration. South Asian languages, including Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali and Gujarati, are the largest grouping and are spoken by 2.7 % of the UK population. According to the 2011 census, Polish has become the second - largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.
Four Celtic languages are spoken in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish. All are recognised as regional or minority languages, subject to specific measures of protection and promotion under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21 %) of the population of Wales said they could speak Welsh, an increase from the 1991 Census (18 %). In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England. In the same census in Northern Ireland 167,487 people (10.4 %) stated that they had "some knowledge of Irish '' (see Irish language in Northern Ireland), almost exclusively in the nationalist (mainly Catholic) population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2 % of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 % of those living in the Outer Hebrides. The number of schoolchildren being taught through Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish is increasing. Among emigrant - descended populations some Scottish Gaelic is still spoken in Canada (principally Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island), and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.
Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, has limited recognition alongside its regional variant, Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.
It is compulsory for pupils to study a second language up to the age of 14 in England. French and German are the two most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. All pupils in Wales are taught Welsh as a second language up to age 16, or are taught in Welsh.
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for over 1400 years. Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century, while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam. This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith, secularised, or post-Christian society.
In the 2001 census 71.6 % of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being Islam (2.8 %), Hinduism (1.0 %), Sikhism (0.6 %), Judaism (0.5 %), Buddhism (0.3 %) and all other religions (0.3 %). 15 % of respondents stated that they had no religion, with a further 7 % not stating a religious preference. A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly. Between the 2001 and 2011 census there was a decrease in the number of people who identified as Christian by 12 %, whilst the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5 %. The Muslim population has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011, making it the second - largest religious group in the United Kingdom.
In a 2016 survey conducted by BSA (British Social Attitudes) on religious affiliation; 53 % of respondents indicated ' no religion ', while 41 % indicated they were Christians, followed by 6 % who affiliated with other religions (e.g. Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, etc.). Among Christians, adherents to the Church of England constituted 15 %, Roman Catholic Church -- 9 %, other Christians (including Presbyterians, Methodists, other Protestants, as well as Eastern Orthodox) -- 17 %. 71 % of young people aged 18 -- 24 said they had no religion.
The Church of England is the established church in England. It retains a representation in the UK Parliament and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor. In Scotland, the Church of Scotland is recognised as the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government '' upon his or her accession. The Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, as the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland. Although there are no UK - wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 % of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 % Catholic, 6 % Presbyterian, 3.4 % Methodist with small numbers of other Protestant denominations such as Plymouth Brethren, and Orthodox churches.
The United Kingdom has experienced successive waves of migration. The Great Famine in Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, resulted in perhaps a million people migrating to Great Britain. Throughout the 19th century a small population of German immigrants built up, numbering 28,644 in England and Wales in 1861. London held around half of this population, and other small communities existed in Manchester, Bradford and elsewhere. The German immigrant community was the largest group until 1891, when it became second only to Russian Jews. England has had small Jewish communities for many centuries, subject to occasional expulsions, but British Jews numbered fewer than 10,000 at the start of the 19th century. After 1881 Russian Jews suffered bitter persecutions, and, out of some 2,000,000 who left Russia by 1914, around 120,000 settled permanently in Britain, overtaking the Germans to be the largest ethnic minority from outside the British Isles. The population increasing to 370,000 in 1938. Unable to return to Poland at the end of the Second World War, over 120,000 Polish veterans remained in the UK permanently. After the Second World War, there was significant immigration from the colonies and newly independent former colonies, partly as a legacy of empire and partly driven by labour shortages. Many of these migrants came from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent. In 1841, 0.25 % of the population of England and Wales was born in a foreign country. In 1901, 1.5 % of the population was foreign born. By 1931, this figure had risen to 2.6 %, and by 1951 it was 4.4 %.
In 2014 the net increase was 318,000: immigration was 641,000, up from 526,000 in 2013, while the number of people emigrating (for more than 12 months) was 323,000. One of the more recent trends in migration has been the arrival of workers from the new EU member states in Eastern Europe, known as the A8 countries. In 2010, there were 7.0 million foreign - born residents in the UK, corresponding to 11.3 % of the total population. Of these, 4.76 million (7.7 %) were born outside the EU and 2.24 million (3.6 %) were born in another EU Member State. The proportion of foreign - born people in the UK remains slightly below that of many other European countries. However, immigration is now contributing to a rising population with arrivals and UK - born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Analysis of Office for National Statistics (ONS) data shows that a net total of 2.3 million migrants moved to the UK in the 15 years from 1991 to 2006. In 2008 it was predicted that migration would add 7 million to the UK population by 2031, though these figures are disputed. The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 % to 239,000.
In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign citizens were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since records began in 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of people granted British citizenship per year was 195,800. The main countries of previous nationality of those naturalised in 2014 were India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, South Africa, Poland and Somalia. The total number of grants of settlement, which confers permanent residence in the UK without granting British citizenship, was approximately 154,700 in 2013, compared to 241,200 in 2010 and 129,800 in 2012.
Over a quarter (27.0 %) of live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK, according to official statistics released in 2015.
Citizens of the European Union, including those of the UK, have the right to live and work in any EU member state. The UK applied temporary restrictions to citizens of Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU in January 2007. Research conducted by the Migration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, two - thirds of them Polish, but that many subsequently returned home, resulting in a net increase in the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK of some 700,000 over that period. The late - 2000s recession in the UK reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK, the migration becoming temporary and circular. In 2009, for the first time since enlargement, more nationals of the eight central and eastern European states that had joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived. In 2011, citizens of the new EU member states made up 13 % of the immigrants entering the country.
The British Government has introduced a points - based immigration system for immigration from outside the European Economic Area to replace former schemes, including the Scottish Government 's Fresh Talent Initiative. In June 2010 the government introduced a temporary limit of 24,000 on immigration from outside the EU, aiming to discourage applications before a permanent cap was imposed in April 2011.
Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930 around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe. Today, at least 5.5 million UK - born people live abroad, mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system.
Considering the four systems together, about 38 percent of the United Kingdom population has a university or college degree, which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world. The United Kingdom trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 100 universities.
A government commission 's report in 2014 found that privately educated people comprise 7 % of the general population of the UK but much larger percentages of the top professions, the most extreme case quoted being 71 % of senior judges.
England
Whilst education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education, the day - to - day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local authorities. Universally free of charge state education was introduced piecemeal between 1870 and 1944. Education is now mandatory from ages five to sixteen, and in England youngsters must stay in education or training until they are 18. In 2011, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13 -- 14 - year - old pupils in England and Wales 10th in the world for maths and 9th for science. The majority of children are educated in state - sector schools, a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. Two of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 were state - run grammar schools. In 2010, over half of places at the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge were taken by students from state schools, while the proportion of children in England attending private schools is around 7 % which rises to 18 % of those over 16. England has the two oldest universities in English - speaking world, Universities of Oxford and Cambridge (jointly known as "Oxbridge '') with history of over eight centuries.
Scotland
Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, with day - to - day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education. The Scottish Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of further education and other centres. Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources and staff development to education professionals. Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in 1496. The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4 % in 2016, but it has been falling slowly in recent years. Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges, as fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.
Wales
The Welsh Government has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh - medium schools as part of the policy of creating a fully bilingual Wales.
Northern Ireland
Education in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Minister of Education, although responsibility at a local level is administered by the Education Authority which is further sub-divided into five geographical areas. The Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA) is the body responsible for advising the government on what should be taught in Northern Ireland 's schools, monitoring standards and awarding qualifications.
Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and each country has its own system of private and publicly funded health care, together with alternative, holistic and complementary treatments. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world. Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly to bring it closer to the European Union average. The UK spends around 8.4 % of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.
Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK - wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and non-governmental - based, such as the Royal Colleges. However, political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national executives; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Government. Each National Health Service has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.
The culture of the United Kingdom has been influenced by many factors including: the nation 's island status; its history as a western liberal democracy and a major power; as well as being a political union of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the British Empire, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies including Australia, Canada, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa and the United States. The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led it to be described as a "cultural superpower ''. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the United Kingdom ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.
' British literature ' refers to literature associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Most British literature is in the English language. In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was the largest publisher of books in the world.
The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time, and his contemporaries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson have also been held in continuous high esteem. More recently the playwrights Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Michael Frayn, Tom Stoppard and David Edgar have combined elements of surrealism, realism and radicalism.
Notable pre-modern and early - modern English writers include Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century), Thomas Malory (15th century), Sir Thomas More (16th century), John Bunyan (17th century) and John Milton (17th century). In the 18th century Daniel Defoe (author of Robinson Crusoe) and Samuel Richardson were pioneers of the modern novel. In the 19th century there followed further innovation by Jane Austen, the gothic novelist Mary Shelley, the children 's writer Lewis Carroll, the Brontë sisters, the social campaigner Charles Dickens, the naturalist Thomas Hardy, the realist George Eliot, the visionary poet William Blake and romantic poet William Wordsworth. 20th century English writers include the science - fiction novelist H.G. Wells; the writers of children 's classics Rudyard Kipling, A.A. Milne (the creator of Winnie - the - Pooh), Roald Dahl and Enid Blyton; the controversial D.H. Lawrence; the modernist Virginia Woolf; the satirist Evelyn Waugh; the prophetic novelist George Orwell; the popular novelists W. Somerset Maugham and Graham Greene; the crime writer Agatha Christie (the best - selling novelist of all time); Ian Fleming (the creator of James Bond); the poets T.S. Eliot, Philip Larkin and Ted Hughes; the fantasy writers J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis and J.K. Rowling; the graphic novelists Alan Moore and Neil Gaiman.
Scotland 's contributions include the detective writer Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes), romantic literature by Sir Walter Scott, the children 's writer J.M. Barrie, the epic adventures of Robert Louis Stevenson and the celebrated poet Robert Burns. More recently the modernist and nationalist Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance. A more grim outlook is found in Ian Rankin 's stories and the psychological horror - comedy of Iain Banks. Scotland 's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO 's first worldwide City of Literature.
Britain 's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, was composed in Yr Hen Ogledd (The Old North), most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur. From around the seventh century, the connection between Wales and the Old North was lost, and the focus of Welsh - language culture shifted to Wales, where Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Wales 's most celebrated medieval poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl. 1320 -- 1370), composed poetry on themes including nature, religion and especially love. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age. Until the late 19th century the majority of Welsh literature was in Welsh and much of the prose was religious in character. Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh - language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best - known of the Anglo - Welsh poets are both Thomases. Dylan Thomas became famous on both sides of the Atlantic in the mid-20th century. He is remembered for his poetry -- his "Do not go gentle into that good night; Rage, rage against the dying of the light '' is one of the most quoted couplets of English language verse -- and for his "play for voices '', Under Milk Wood. The influential Church in Wales "poet - priest '' and Welsh nationalist R.S. Thomas was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.
Authors of other nationalities, particularly from Commonwealth countries, the Republic of Ireland and the United States, have lived and worked in the UK. Significant examples through the centuries include Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde, Bram Stoker, George Bernard Shaw, Joseph Conrad, T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and more recently British authors born abroad such as Kazuo Ishiguro and Sir Salman Rushdie.
Various styles of music are popular in the UK from the indigenous folk music of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland to heavy metal. Notable composers of classical music from the United Kingdom and the countries that preceded it include William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Sir Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with the librettist Sir W.S. Gilbert), Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten, pioneer of modern British opera. Sir Harrison Birtwistle is one of the foremost living composers. The UK is also home to world - renowned symphonic orchestras and choruses such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus. Notable conductors include Sir Simon Rattle, Sir John Barbirolli and Sir Malcolm Sargent. Some of the notable film score composers include John Barry, Clint Mansell, Mike Oldfield, John Powell, Craig Armstrong, David Arnold, John Murphy, Monty Norman and Harry Gregson - Williams. George Frideric Handel became a naturalised British citizen and wrote the British coronation anthem, while some of his best works, such as Messiah, were written in the English language. Andrew Lloyd Webber is a prolific composer of musical theatre. His works have dominated London 's West End since the late 20th century and have also been a commercial success worldwide.
The Beatles have international sales of over one billion units and are the biggest - selling and most influential band in the history of popular music. Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees, and Elton John, all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more. The Brit Awards are the BPI 's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include; The Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart and The Police. More recent UK music acts that have had international success include Coldplay, Radiohead, Oasis, Arctic Monkeys, Spice Girls, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse and Adele.
A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number one hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide. Glasgow 's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO City of Music, one of only three cities in the world to have this honour.
As of 2016, pop remains the most popular music genre in the UK with 33.4 % of unit sales, followed by hip - hop and R&B at 24.5 % of unit sales. Rock is not far behind at 22.6 % of unit sales. The modern UK is known to produce some of the most prominent world rappers along with the United States, including Stormzy, Kano and Skepta. The sharp increase of hip - hop and R&B listeners in the UK in the last three years is often explained by an easier access to the genre due to the higher usage of streaming platforms such as Spotify and SoundCloud where hip - hop and R&B is the most popular genre, and also by the rising of new hip - hop and R&B sub-genres popular among the Millennials and the Generation Z (post-Millennials), mainly developed in the US with artists popular in the UK, such as phonk rap (eg. A $ AP Rocky, Lil Uzi Vert, Chance the Rapper, Lil Skies) and alternative R&B (eg. The Weeknd, Beyoncé, Janelle Monáe, SZA).
The history of British visual art forms part of western art history. Major British artists include: the Romantics William Blake, John Constable, Samuel Palmer and J.M.W. Turner; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L.S. Lowry; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement William Morris; the figurative painter Francis Bacon; the Pop artists Peter Blake, Richard Hamilton and David Hockney; the collaborative duo Gilbert and George; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin; and the sculptors Antony Gormley, Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore. During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "Young British Artists '': Damien Hirst, Chris Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor - Wood and the Chapman Brothers are among the better - known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six - school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Glasgow School of Art; the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern (the most - visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).
The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock, whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time, and David Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all - time. Other important directors including Charlie Chaplin, Michael Powell, Carol Reed, Edgar Wright, Christopher Nolan, and Ridley Scott. Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, Michael Caine, Colin Firth, Gary Oldman, Ben Kingsley, Ian McKellen, Liam Neeson, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Vivien Leigh, David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Peter Sellers, Kate Winslet, Anthony Hopkins, and Daniel Day - Lewis. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest - grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.
Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of American and European influence. British producers are active in international co-productions and British actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on British people, stories or events, including Titanic, The Lord of the Rings, Pirates of the Caribbean.
In 2009, British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7 % globally and 17 % in the United Kingdom. UK box - office takings totalled £ 944 million in 2009, with around 173 million admissions. The British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking of what it considers to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films. The annual British Academy Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK 's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence. Other major players in the UK media include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network, and News Corporation, which owns a number of national newspapers through News International such as the most popular tabloid The Sun and the longest - established daily "broadsheet '' The Times, as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting. London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales respectively. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £ 20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.
In 2009, it was estimated that individuals viewed a mean of 3.75 hours of television per day and 2.81 hours of radio. In that year the main BBC public service broadcasting channels accounted for an estimated 28.4 % of all television viewing; the three main independent channels accounted for 29.5 % and the increasingly important other satellite and digital channels for the remaining 42.1 %. Sales of newspapers have fallen since the 1970s and in 2010 41 % of people reported reading a daily national newspaper. In 2010, 82.5 % of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of ' British Empiricism ', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and ' Scottish Philosophy ', sometimes referred to as the ' Scottish School of Common Sense '. The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume; while Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense '' school. Two Britons are also notable for a theory of moral philosophy utilitarianism, first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism. Other eminent philosophers from the UK and the states and countries that preceded it include Duns Scotus, John Lilburne, Mary Wollstonecraft, Sir Francis Bacon, Adam Smith, Thomas Hobbes, William of Ockham, Bertrand Russell and A.J. "Freddie '' Ayer. Foreign - born philosophers who settled in the UK include Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx, Karl Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Major sports, including association football, tennis, rugby union, rugby league, golf, boxing, netball, rowing and cricket, originated or were substantially developed in the UK and the states that preceded it. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th century Victorian Britain, in 2012, the President of the IOC, Jacques Rogge, stated; "This great, sports - loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum ''.
In most international competitions, separate teams represent England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland usually field a single team representing all of Ireland, with notable exceptions being association football and the Commonwealth Games. In sporting contexts, the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish / Northern Irish teams are often referred to collectively as the Home Nations. There are some sports in which a single team represents the whole of United Kingdom, including the Olympics, where the UK is represented by the Great Britain team. The 1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics were held in London, making it the first city to host the games three times. Britain has participated in every modern Olympic Games to date and is third in the medal count.
A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom. England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and The Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley. Each of the Home Nations has its own football association, national team and league system. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world. The first international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.
In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK. The sport was created in Rugby School, Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland. England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship; the premier international tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sport governing bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately.
Cricket was invented in England, and its laws were established by Marylebone Cricket Club in 1788. The England cricket team, controlled by the England and Wales Cricket Board, and the Irish cricket team, controlled by Cricket Ireland are the only national teams in the UK with Test status. Team members are drawn from the main county sides, and include both English and Welsh players. Cricket is distinct from football and rugby where Wales and England field separate national teams, although Wales had fielded its own team in the past. Irish and Scottish players have played for England because neither Scotland nor Ireland have Test status and have only recently started to play in One Day Internationals and Ireland is yet to play their first test match. Scotland, England (and Wales), and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) have competed at the Cricket World Cup, with England reaching the finals on three occasions. There is a professional league championship in which clubs representing 17 English counties and 1 Welsh county compete.
The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the 1860s, before spreading around the world. The world 's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.
Thoroughbred racing, which originated under Charles II of England as the "sport of kings '', is popular throughout the UK with world - famous races including the Grand National, the Epsom Derby, Royal Ascot and the Cheltenham National Hunt Festival (including the Cheltenham Gold Cup). The UK has proved successful in the international sporting arena in rowing.
The UK is closely associated with motorsport. Many teams and drivers in Formula One (F1) are based in the UK, and the country has won more drivers ' and constructors ' titles than any other. The UK hosted the first F1 Grand Prix in 1950 at Silverstone, the current location of the British Grand Prix held each year in July. The UK hosts legs of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing, World Rally Championship and FIA World Endurance Championship. The premier national auto racing event is the British Touring Car Championship. Motorcycle road racing has a long tradition with races such as the Isle of Man TT and the North West 200.
Golf is the sixth most popular sport, by participation, in the UK. Although The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland is the sport 's home course, the world 's oldest golf course is actually Musselburgh Links ' Old Golf Course. In 1764, the standard 18 - hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, is played annually on the weekend of the third Friday in July.
Rugby league originated in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire in 1895 and is generally played in Northern England. A single ' Great Britain Lions ' team had competed in the Rugby League World Cup and Test match games, but this changed in 2008 when England, Scotland and Ireland competed as separate nations. Great Britain is still retained as the full national team. Super League is the highest level of professional rugby league in the UK and Europe. It consists of 11 teams from Northern England, 1 from London, 1 from Wales and 1 from France.
The ' Queensberry rules ', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, and formed the basis of modern boxing. Snooker is another of the UK 's popular sporting exports, with the world championships held annually in Sheffield. In Northern Ireland Gaelic football and hurling are popular team sports, both in terms of participation and spectating, and Irish expatriates in the UK and the US also play them. Shinty (or camanachd) is popular in the Scottish Highlands. Highland games are held in spring and summer in Scotland, celebrating Scottish and celtic culture and heritage, especially that of the Scottish Highlands.
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (also referred to as the Union Jack). It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the Flag of England on the Flag of Scotland and updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick 's Flag. Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out. The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the Queen '', with "Queen '' replaced with "King '' in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a man.
Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain. Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon 's three - pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding on the back of a lion. Since the height of the British Empire in the late 19th century, Britannia has often been associated with British maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia! ''. Up until 2008, the lion symbol was depicted behind Britannia on the British fifty pence coin and on the back of the British ten pence coin. It is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army.
A second, less used, personification of the nation is the character John Bull. The bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom and has been associated with Winston Churchill 's defiance of Nazi Germany.
The following are international rankings of the United Kingdom, including those measuring life quality, health care quality, stability, press freedom and income.
United Kingdom -- Wikipedia book
The full title of this country is ' the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. ' Britain ' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom. The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
Coordinates: 55 ° N 3 ° W / 55 ° N 3 ° W / 55; - 3
|
where do the majority of apples come from | List of countries by apple production - Wikipedia
489, 46
This is a list of countries by apple production in 2012 mostly based on FAOSTAT FAO accessed in December 2014. The total world apple production for 2012 was 76,378,700 tonnes.
List of Apple producing countries by Area
|
which type of title requires articles of association | Articles of association - wikipedia
In corporate governance, a company 's articles of association (AoA, called articles of incorporation in some jurisdictions) is a document which, along with the memorandum of association (in cases where the memorandum exists) form the company 's constitution, defines the responsibilities of the directors, the kind of business to be undertaken, and the means by which the shareholders exert control over the board of directors.
A company is an incorporated body so there should be some rules and regulations formed for the management of its internal affairs and conduct of its business as well as the relation between the members and the company. Moreover, the rights and duties of its members and the company are to be recorded. This is why Articles of Association are necessary. The Articles of Association is a document that contains the purpose of the company as well as the duties and responsibilities of its members defined and recorded clearly. It is an important document which needs to be filed with the Registrar of Companies.
The term articles of association of a company, or articles of incorporation, of an American or Canadian Company, are often simply referred to as articles (and are often capitalized as an abbreviation for the full term). The Articles are a requirement for the establishment of a company under the law of India, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Pakistan and many other countries. Together with the memorandum of association, they are the constitution of a company. The equivalent term for LLC is Articles of Organization. Roughly equivalent terms operate in other countries, such as Gesellschaftsvertrag in Germany, statuts in France, statut in Poland, статут (Latin: statut) in Ukraine, Jeong - gwan in South Korea.
In South Africa, from the new Companies Act 2008 which commenced in 2011, articles and memoranda of association have been replaced by a "memorandum of incorporation '' or "MOI ''. The MOI gives considerably more scope to vary how to the company is governed than the previous arrangement.
The following is largely based on British Company Law, references which are made at the end of this Article.
The Articles can cover a medley of topics, not all of which is required in a country 's law. Although all terms are not discussed, they may cover:
A Company is essentially run by the shareholders, but for convenience, and day - to - day working, by the elected Directors. Usually, the shareholders elect a Board of Directors (BOD) at the Annual General Meeting (AGM), which may be statutory (e.g. India).
The number of Directors depends on the size of the Company and statutory requirements. The Chairperson is generally a well - known outsider but he / she may be a working Executive of the company, typically of an American Company. The Directors may, or may not, be employees of the Company.
In the emerging countries there are usually some major shareholders who come together to form the company. Each usually has the right to nominate, without objection of the other, a certain number of Directors who become nominees for the election by the shareholder body at the AGM. The Treasurer and Chairperson is usually the privilege of one of the JV partners (which nomination can be shared). Shareholders may also elect Independent Directors (from the public). The Chair would be a person not associated with the promoters of the company, a person is generally a well - known outsider. Once elected, the BOD manages the Company. The shareholders play no part till the next AGM / EGM.
The Objectives and the purpose of the Company are determined in advance by the shareholders and the Memorandum of Association (MOA), if separate, which denotes the name of the Company, its Head - Office, street address, and (founding) Directors and the main purposes of the Company - for public access. It can not be changed except at an AGM or Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) and statutory allowance. The MOA is generally filed with a Registrar of Companies who is an appointee of the Government of the country. For their assurance, the shareholders are permitt of the Memorandum of Association. Any matter in the Articles of Association not within the scope of the Memorandum of Association of the company is void.
The Board meets several times each year. At each meeting there is an ' agenda ' before it. A minimum number of Directors (a quorum) is required to meet. This is either determined by the ' by - laws ' or is a statutory requirement. It is presided over by the Chairperson, or in his absence, by the Vice-Chair. The Directors survey their area of responsibility. They may determine to make a ' Resolution ' at the next AGM or if it is an urgent matter, at an EGM. The Directors who are the electives of one major shareholder, may present his / her view but this is not necessarily so - they may have to view the Objectives of the Company and competitive position. The Chair may have to break the vote if there is a tie. At the AGM, the various Resolutions are put to vote.
The AGM is called with a notice sent to all shareholders with a clear interval. A certain quorum of shareholders is required to meet. If the quorum requirement is not met, it is canceled and another Meeting called. If it at that too a quorum is not met, a Third Meeting may be called and the members present, unlimited by the quorum, take all decisions. There are variations to this among companies and countries.
Decisions are taken by a show of hands; the Chair is always present. Where decisions are made by a show of hands is challenged, it is met by a count of votes. Voting can be taken in person or by marking the paper sent by the Company. A person who is not a shareholder of the Company can vote if he / she has the ' proxy ', an authorization from the shareholder. Each share carries the number of votes attached to it. Some votes maybe for the decision, others not.
There are two types of resolutions, known as an Ordinary Resolution and a Special Resolution.
A Special Resolution can be tabled at a Director 's Meeting. The Ordinary Resolution requires the endorsement by a majority vote, sometimes easily met by partners ' vote. The Special Resolution requires a 60, 70 or 80 % of the vote as stipulated by the constitution of the Company. Shareholders other than partners may vote. The matters which require the Ordinary and Special Resolution to be passed are enumerated in Company or Corporate Law. Special Resolutions covering some topics may be a statutory requirement.
In the United Kingdom, model articles of association, known as Table A have been published since 1865. The articles of association of most companies incorporated prior to 1 October 2009 -- particularly small companies -- are Table A, or closely derived from it. However, a company is free to incorporate under different articles of association, or to amend its articles of association at any time by a special resolution of its shareholders, provided that they meet the requirements and restrictions of the Companies Acts. Such requirements tend to be more onerous for public companies than for private ones. In Hong Kong, the Companies Registry provides four samples of model Articles of Association, and they are known as Sample A, B, C, and D respectively. Sample A and B are both designed for a private company (the most common company type). Sample C for a public company. Sample D for a company limited by guarantee. Apparently, the Hong Kong Companies Registry decided to give more than one sample of model Articles of Association rather than one size fits all.
The Companies Act 2006 received Royal Assent on 8 November 2006 and was fully implemented on 1 October 2009. It provides a new form of Model Articles for companies incorporated in the United Kingdom. Under the new legislation, the articles of association will become the single constitutional document for a UK company, and will subsume the majority of the role previously filled by the separate memorandum of association.
|
which of the following is not a function of the federal communications commission | Federal Communications Commission - wikipedia
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States government created by statute (47 U.S.C. § 151 and 47 U.S.C. § 154) to regulate interstate communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing itself.
The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission. The FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCC 's mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the Territories of the United States. The FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees. It has an estimated fiscal - 2016 budget of US $ 388 million. It has 1,688 federal employees, made up of 50 % males and 50 % females as of December, 2017.
The FCC 's mission, specified in Section One of the Communications Act of 1934 and amended by the Telecommunications Act of 1996 (amendment to 47 U.S.C. § 151) is to "make available so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, rapid, efficient, Nationwide, and world - wide wire and radio communication services with adequate facilities at reasonable charges. ''
The Act furthermore provides that the FCC was created "for the purpose of the national defense '' and "for the purpose of promoting safety of life and property through the use of wire and radio communications. ''
Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), the FCC has identified six goals in its 2006 -- 2011 Strategic Plan. These are:
The FCC is directed by five commissioners appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five - year terms, except when filling an unexpired term. The U.S. President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman. Only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCC - related business.
† Commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements. However, they may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In practice, this means that commissioners may serve up to 1 1 / 2 years beyond the official term expiration dates listed above if no replacement is appointed. This would end on the date that Congress adjourns its annual session, generally no later than noon on January 3.
The FCC is organized into seven Bureaus, which process applications for licenses and other filings, analyze complaints, conduct investigations, develop and implement regulations, and participate in hearings.
The FCC has eleven Staff Offices. The FCC 's Offices provide support services to the Bureaus.
The FCC leases space in the Portals building in southwest Washington, D.C. Construction of the Portals building was scheduled to begin on March 1, 1996. In January 1996 the General Services Administration signed a lease with the building 's owners, agreeing to let the FCC lease 450,000 square feet (42,000 m) of space in Portals for 20 years, at a cost of $17.3 million per year in 1996 dollars. Prior to its current arrangement, the FCC had space in six buildings by 19th Street NW and M Street NW. The FCC first solicited bids for a new headquarters complex in 1989. In 1991 the GSA selected the Portals site. The FCC had wanted to move into a more expensive area along Pennsylvania Avenue.
In 1934, Congress passed the Communications Act, which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission, including in it also the telecommunications jurisdiction previously handled by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Title II of the Communications Act focused on telecommunications using many concepts borrowed from railroad legislation and Title III contained provisions very similar to the Radio Act of 1927.
In 1940, the Federal Communications Commission issued the "Report on Chain Broadcasting '' which was led by new FCC Chairman James Lawrence Fly (and Telford Taylor as general counsel). The major point in the report was the breakup of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), which ultimately led to the creation of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), but there were two other important points. One was network option time, the culprit here being the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). The report limited the amount of time during the day and at what times the networks may broadcast. Previously a network could demand any time it wanted from an affiliate. The second concerned artist bureaus. The networks served as both agents and employers of artists, which was a conflict of interest the report rectified.
In assigning television stations to various cities after World War II, the FCC found that it placed many stations too close to each other, resulting in interference. At the same time, it became clear that the designated VHF channels, 2 through 13, were inadequate for nationwide television service. As a result, the FCC stopped giving out construction permits for new licenses in October 1948, under the direction of chairman Rosel H. Hyde. Most expected this "Freeze '' to last six months, but as the allocation of channels to the emerging UHF technology and the eagerly awaited possibilities of color television were debated, the FCC 's re-allocation map of stations did not come until April 1952, with July 1, 1952, as the official beginning of licensing new stations.
Other FCC actions hurt the fledgling DuMont and ABC networks. American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) forced television coaxial cable users to rent additional radio long lines, discriminating against DuMont, which had no radio network operation. DuMont and ABC protested AT&T 's television policies to the FCC, which regulated AT&T 's long - line charges, but the commission took no action. The result was that financially marginal DuMont was spending as much in long - line charge as CBS or NBC while using only about 10 to 15 percent of the time and mileage of either larger network.
The FCC 's "Sixth Report & Order '' ended the Freeze. It would take five years for the U.S. to grow from 108 stations to more than 550. New stations came on line slowly, only five by the end of November 1952. The Sixth Report and Order required some existing TV stations to change channels, but only a few existing VHF stations were required to move to UHF, and a handful of VHF channels were deleted altogether in smaller media markets like Peoria, Fresno, Bakersfield and Fort Wayne, Indiana to create markets which were UHF "islands. '' The report also set aside a number of channels for the newly emerging field of educational television, which hindered struggling ABC and DuMont 's quest for affiliates in the more desirable markets where VHF channels were reserved for non-commercial use.
The Sixth Report and Order also provided for the "intermixture '' of VHF and UHF channels in most markets; UHF transmitters in the 1950s were not yet powerful enough, nor receivers sensitive enough (if they included UHF tuners at all - they were not formally required until the 1960s All - Channel Receiver Act), to make UHF viable against entrenched VHF stations. In markets where there were no VHF stations and UHF was the only TV service available, UHF survived. In other markets, which were too small to financially support a television station, too close to VHF outlets in nearby cities, or where UHF was forced to compete with more than one well - established VHF station, UHF had little chance for success.
Denver had been the largest U.S. city without a TV station by 1952. Senator Edwin Johnson (D - Colorado), chair of the Senate 's Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, had made it his personal mission to make Denver the first post-Freeze station. The Senator had pressured the FCC, and proved ultimately successful as the first new station (a VHF station) came on - line a remarkable ten days after the Commission formally announced the first post-Freeze construction permits. KFEL (now KWGN - TV) 's first regular telecast was on July 21, 1952.
In 1996, Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act of 1996, in the wake of the break - up of AT&T resulting from the U.S. Department of Justice 's antitrust suit against AT&T. The legislation attempted to create more competition in local telephone service by requiring Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers to provide access to their facilities for Competitive Local Exchange Carriers. This policy has thus far had limited success and much criticism.
The development of the Internet, cable services and wireless services has raised questions whether new legislative initiates are needed as to competition in what has come to be called ' broadband ' services. Congress has monitored developments but as of 2009 has not undertaken a major revision of applicable regulation. The Local Community Radio Act in the 111th Congress has gotten out of committee and will go before the house floor with bi-partisan support, and unanimous support of the FCC.
By passing the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Congress also eliminated the cap on the number of radio stations any one entity could own nationwide and also substantially loosened local radio station ownership restrictions. Substantial radio consolidation followed. Restrictions on ownership of television stations were also loosened. Public comments to the FCC indicated that the public largely believed that the severe consolidation of media ownership had resulted in harm to diversity, localism, and competition in media, and was harmful to the public interest.
David A. Bray joined the Commission in 2013 as Chief Information Officer and quickly announced goals of modernizing the FCC 's legacy information technology (IT) systems, citing 200 different systems for only 1750 people a situation he found "perplexing ''. These efforts later were documented in a 2015 Harvard Case Study. In 2017, Christine Calvosa replaced Bray as the CIO of FCC.
A complete list of commissioners is available on the FCC website. In addition, Frieda B. Hennock (D - NY) was the first female commissioner of the FCC.
The FCC regulates broadcast stations, repeater stations as well as commercial broadcasting operators who operate and repair certain radiotelephone, television and radio stations. Broadcast licenses are to be renewed if the station meets the "public interest, convenience, or necessity ''. The FCC 's enforcement powers include fines and broadcast license revocation (see FCC MB Docket 04 - 232). Burden of proof would be on the complainant in a petition to deny. Fewer than 1 % of station renewals are not immediately granted, and only a small fraction of those are ultimately denied.
The FCC first promulgated rules for cable television in 1965, with cable and satellite television now regulated by the FCC under Title VI of the Communications Act. Congress added Title VI in the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984, and made substantial modifications to Title VI in the Cable Television and Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. Further modifications to promote cross-modal competition (telephone, video, etc.) were made in the Telecommunications Act of 1996, leading to the current regulatory structure.
Broadcast television and radio stations are subject to FCC regulations including restrictions against indecency or obscenity. The Supreme Court has repeatedly held, beginning soon after the passage of the Communications Act of 1934, that the inherent scarcity of radio spectrum allows the government to impose some types of content restrictions on broadcast license holders notwithstanding the First Amendment. Cable and satellite providers are also subject to some content regulations under Title VI of the Communications Act such as the prohibition on obscenity, although the limitations are not as restrictive compared to broadcast stations.
The 1981 inauguration of Ronald Reagan as President of the United States accelerated an already ongoing shift in the FCC towards a decidedly more market - oriented stance. A number of regulations felt to be outdated were removed, most controversially the Fairness Doctrine in 1987.
In terms of indecency fines, there was no action taken by the FCC on the case FCC v. Pacifica until 1987, about ten years after the landmark United States Supreme Court decision that defined the power of the FCC over indecent material as applied to broadcasting.
After the 1990s had passed, the FCC began to increase its censorship and enforcement of indecency regulations in the early 2000s to include a response to the Janet Jackson "wardrobe malfunction '' that occurred during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII.
Then on June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush signed into law the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005 sponsored by then - Senator Sam Brownback (now Governor of Kansas), a former broadcaster himself, and endorsed by Congressman Fred Upton of Michigan who authored a similar bill in the United States House of Representatives. The new law stiffens the penalties for each violation of the Act. The Federal Communications Commission will be able to impose fines in the amount of $325,000 for each violation by each station that violates decency standards. The legislation raised the fine ten times over the previous maximum of $32,500 per violation.
The FCC has established rules limiting the national share of media ownership of broadcast television or radio stations. It has also established cross-ownership rules limiting ownership of a newspaper and broadcast station in the same market, in order to ensure a diversity of viewpoints in each market and serve the needs of each local market.
With the major demographic shifts occurring in the country in terms of the racial - ethnic composition of the population, the FCC has been criticized for ignoring the issue of decreasing racial - ethnic diversity of the media. This includes charges that the FCC has been watering down the limited affirmative action regulations it had on the books, including no longer requiring stations to make public their data on their minority staffing and hiring. In the second half of 2006, groups such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition, the National Latino Media Council, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the National Institute for Latino Policy, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and others held town hall meetings in California, New York and Texas on media diversity as its effects Latinos and minority communities. They documented widespread and deeply felt community concerns about the negative effects of media concentration and consolidation on racial - ethnic diversity in staffing and programming. At these Latino town hall meetings, the issue of the FCC 's lax monitoring of obscene and pornographic material in Spanish - language radio and the lack of racial and national - origin diversity among Latino staff in Spanish - language television were other major themes.
President Barack Obama appointed Mark Lloyd to the FCC in the newly created post of Associate General Counsel / Chief Diversity Officer.
After being successful in opening the FM band as a superior alternative to the AM band by allowing colleges and other schools to start ten - watt LPFM stations, the FCC banned new ones around 1980.
Numerous controversies have surrounded the city of license concept as the internet has made it possible to broadcast a single signal to every owned station in the nation at once, particularly when Clear Channel, now IHeartMedia, became the largest FM broadcasting corporation in the US after the Telecommunications Act of 1996 became law - owning over 1200 stations at its peak. As part of its license to buy more radio stations, Clear Channel was forced to divest all TV stations.
To facilitate the adoption of digital television, the FCC issued a second digital TV (DTV) channel to each holder of an analog TV station license. All stations were required to buy and install all new equipment (transmitters, TV antennas, and even entirely new broadcast towers), and operate for years on both channels. Each licensee was required to return one of their two channels following the end of the digital television transition.
After delaying the original deadlines of 2006, 2008, and eventually February 17, 2009, on concerns about elderly and rural folk, on June 12, 2009 all full - power analog terrestrial TV licenses in the U.S. were terminated as part of the DTV transition, leaving terrestrial television available only from digital channels and a few low - power LPTV stations. To help U.S. consumers through the conversion, Congress established a federally sponsored DTV Converter Box Coupon Program for two free converters per household.
The FCC regulates telecommunications services under Title II of the Communications Act of 1934. Title II imposes common carrier regulation under which carriers offering their services to the general public must provide services to all customers and may not discriminate based on the identity of the customer or the content of the communication. This is similar to and adapted from regulation of transportation providers (railroad, airline, shipping, etc.) and some public utilities. Wireless carriers providing telecommunications services are also generally subject to Title II regulation except as exempted by the FCC.
The FCC regulates interstate telephone services under Title II. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was the first major legislative reform since the 1934 Act and took several steps to de-regulate the telephone market and promote competition in both the local and long - distance marketplace.
The important relationship of the FCC and the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company evolved over the decades. For many years, the FCC and state officials agreed to regulate the telephone system as a natural monopoly. The FCC controlled telephone rates and imposed other restrictions under Title II to limit the profits of AT&T and ensure nondiscriminatory pricing.
In the 1960s, the FCC began allowing other long - distance companies, namely MCI, to offer specialized services. In the 1970s, the FCC allowed other companies to expand offerings to the public. A lawsuit in 1982 led by the Justice Department after AT&T underpriced other companies, resulted in the Breakup of the Bell System from AT&T. Beginning in 1984, the FCC implemented a new goal that all long - distance companies had equal access to the local phone companies ' customers. Effective January 1, 1984, the Bell System 's many member - companies were variously merged into seven independent "Regional Holding Companies '', also known as Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs), or "Baby Bells ''. This divestiture reduced the book value of AT&T by approximately 70 %.
The FCC initially exempted "information services '' such as broadband Internet access from regulation under Title II. The FCC held that information services were distinct from telecommunications services that are subject to common carrier regulation.
However, Section 706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 required the FCC to help accelerate deployment of "advanced telecommunications capability '' which included high - quality voice, data, graphics, and video, and to regularly assess its availability. In August 2015, the FCC said that nearly 55 million Americans did not have access to broadband capable of delivering high - quality voice, data, graphics and video offerings.
On February 26, 2015, the FCC reclassified broadband Internet access as a telecommunications service, thus subjecting it to Title II regulation, although several exemptions were also created. The reclassification was done in order to give the FCC a legal basis for imposing net neutrality rules (see below), after earlier attempts to impose such rules on an "information service '' had been overturned in court.
In 2005, the FCC formally established the following principles: To encourage broadband deployment and preserve and promote the open and interconnected nature of the public Internet, Consumers are entitled to access the lawful Internet content of their choice; Consumers are entitled to run applications and use services of their choice, subject to the needs of law enforcement; Consumers are entitled to connect their choice of legal devices that do not harm the network; Consumers are entitled to competition among network providers, application and service providers, and content providers. However, broadband providers were permitted to engage in "reasonable network management. ''
On August 1, 2008 the FCC formally voted 3 - to - 2 to uphold a complaint against Comcast, the largest cable company in the US, ruling that it had illegally inhibited users of its high - speed Internet service from using file - sharing software. The FCC imposed no fine, but required Comcast to end such blocking in 2008. FCC chairman Kevin J. Martin said the order was meant to set a precedent that Internet providers, and indeed all communications companies, could not prevent customers from using their networks the way they see fit unless there is a good reason. In an interview Martin stated that "We are preserving the open character of the Internet '' and "We are saying that network operators ca n't block people from getting access to any content and any applications. '' Martin 's successor, Julius Genachowski has maintained that the FCC has no plans to regulate the internet, saying: "I 've been clear repeatedly that we 're not going to regulate the Internet. '' The Comcast case highlighted broader issues of whether new legislation is needed to force Internet providers to maintain net neutrality, i.e. treat all uses of their networks equally. The legal complaint against Comcast related to BitTorrent, software that is commonly used for downloading larger files.
In December 2010, the FCC revised the principles from the original Internet policy statement and adopted the Open Internet Order consisting of three rules regarding the Internet: Transparency. Fixed and mobile broadband providers must disclose the network management practices, performance characteristics, and terms and conditions of their broadband services; No blocking. Fixed broadband providers may not block lawful content, applications, services, or non-harmful devices; mobile broadband providers may not block lawful websites, or block applications that compete with their voice or video telephony services; and No unreasonable discrimination.
On January 14, 2014 Verizon won their lawsuit over the FCC in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Court. Verizon was suing over increased regulation on internet service providers on the grounds that "even though the Commission has general authority to regulate in this arena, it may not impose requirements that contravene express statutory mandates. Given that the Commission has chosen to classify broadband providers in a manner that exempts them from treatment as common carriers, the Communications Act expressly prohibits the Commission from nonetheless regulating them as such. ''
After these setbacks in court, in April 2014 the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking regarding a path forward for The Open Internet Order. On November 10, 2014, President Obama recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality.
On February 26, 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by applying Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 of the Telecommunications act of 1996 to the Internet.
The rules prompted debate about the applicability of First Amendment protections to Internet service providers and edge providers. Republican Commissioner Ajit Pai said the Open Internet Order "posed a special danger '' to "First Amendment speech, freedom of expression, (and) even freedom of association. '' Democratic member and then - Chairman Tom Wheeler said in response that the rules were "no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech. They both stand for the same concept. '' According to a Washington Post poll, 81 % of Americans supported net neutrality in 2014. According to the poll, 81 % of Democrats and 85 % of Republicans said they opposed fast lanes.
On March 12, 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On April 13, 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new "Net Neutrality '' regulations.
On April 27, 2017, FCC Chairman Ajit Pai released a draft Notice of Proposed Rulemaking that would revise the legal foundation for the agency 's Open Internet regulations. The NPRM was voted on at the May 18th Open Meeting. On December 14, the Commission voted 3 - 2 in favor of passing the repeal of the 2015 rules.
When it emerged in 2006 that AT&T, BellSouth and Verizon may have broken U.S. laws by aiding the National Security Agency in possible illegal wiretapping of its customers, Congressional representatives called for an FCC investigation into whether or not those companies broke the law. The FCC declined to investigate, however, claiming that it could not investigate due to the classified nature of the program -- a move that provoked the criticism of members of Congress.
"Today the watchdog agency that oversees the country 's telecommunications industry refused to investigate the nation 's largest phone companies ' reported disclosure of phone records to the NSA, '' said Rep. Edward Markey (D - Mass.) in response to the decision. "The FCC, which oversees the protection of consumer privacy under the Communications Act of 1934, has taken a pass at investigating what is estimated to be the nation 's largest violation of consumer privacy ever to occur. If the oversight body that monitors our nation 's communications is stepping aside then Congress must step in. ''
The FCC regulates all non-Federal uses of radio frequency spectrum in the United States under Title III of the Communications Act of 1934. In addition to over-the - air broadcast television and radio stations, this includes commercial mobile (i.e., mobile phone) services, amateur radio, citizen 's band radio, theatrical wireless microphone installations, and a very wide variety of other services. Use of radio spectrum by U.S. federal government agencies is coordinated by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency within the Department of Commerce.
Commercial mobile radio service (CMRS) providers, including all mobile phone carriers, are subject to spectrum and wireless regulations under Title III (similar to broadcasters) as well as common carrier regulations under Title II (similar to wireline telephone carriers), except as provided by the FCC.
Beginning in 1994, the FCC has usually assigned commercial spectrum licenses through the use of competitive bidding, i.e., spectrum auctions. These auctions have raised tens of billions of dollars for the U.S. Treasury, and the FCC 's auction approach is now widely emulated throughout the world. The FCC typically obtains spectrum for auction that has been reclaimed from other uses, such as spectrum returned by television broadcasters after the digital television transition, or spectrum made available by federal agencies able to shift their operations to other bands.
Normally, any intentional radio transmission requires an FCC license pursuant to Title III. However, in recent decades the FCC has also opened some spectrum bands for unlicensed operations, typically restricting them to low power levels conducive to short - range applications. This has facilitated the development of a very wide range of common technologies from wireless garage door openers, cordless phones, and baby monitors to Wi - Fi and Bluetooth among others. However, unlicensed devices -- like most radio transmission equipment -- must still receive technical approval from the FCC before being sold into the marketplace, including to ensure that such devices can not be modified by end users to increase transmit power above FCC limits.
"White spaces '' are radio frequencies that went unused after the federally mandated transformation of analog TV signal to digital. On October 15, 2008, FCC Chairman Kevin Martin announced his support for the unlicensed use of white spaces. Martin said he was "hoping to take advantage of utilizing these airwaves for broadband services to allow for unlicensed technologies and new innovations in that space. ''
Google, Microsoft and other companies are vying for the use of this white - space to support innovation in Wi - Fi technology. Broadcasters and wireless microphone manufacturers fear that the use of white space would "disrupt their broadcasts and the signals used in sports events and concerts. '' Cell phone providers such as T - Mobile USA have mounted pressure on the FCC to instead offer up the white space for sale to boost competition and market leverage.
On November 4, 2008, the FCC commissioners unanimously agreed to open up unused broadcast TV spectrum for unlicensed use.
Amateur radio operators in the United States must be licensed by the FCC before transmitting. While the FCC maintains control of the written testing standards, it no longer administers the exams, having delegated that function to private volunteer organizations. No amateur license class still requires examination in Morse code; neither the FCC nor the volunteer organizations still test code skills for amateur licenses (commercial license examiners do test code skills for the Radiotelegraph Operator license).
An FCC database provides information about the height and year built of broadcasting towers in the US. It does not contain information about the structural types of towers or about the height of towers used by Federal agencies, such as most NDBs, LORAN - C transmission towers or VLF transmission facilities of the US Navy, or about most towers not used for transmission like the BREN Tower. These are instead tracked by the Federal Aviation Administration as obstructions to air navigation.
The FCC has been criticized for ignoring international open standards, and instead choosing proprietary closed standards, or allowing communications companies to do so and implement the anticompetitive practice of vendor lock - in, thereby preventing a free market.
In the case of digital TV, it chose the ATSC standard, even though DVB was already in use around the world, including DVB - S satellite TV in the U.S. Unlike competing standards, the ATSC system is encumbered by numerous patents, and therefore royalties that make TV sets and DTV converters much more expensive than in the rest of the world. Additionally, the claimed benefit of better reception in rural areas is more than negated in urban areas by multipath interference, which other systems are nearly immune to. It also can not be received while in motion for this reason, while all other systems can, even without dedicated mobile TV signals or receivers.
For digital radio, the FCC chose proprietary HD Radio, which crowds the existing FM broadcast band and even AM broadcast band with in - band adjacent - channel sidebands, which create noise in other stations. This is in contrast to worldwide DAB, which uses unused TV channels in the VHF band III range. This too has patent fees, while DAB does not. While there has been some effort by iBiquity to lower them, the fees for HD Radio are still an enormous expense when converting each station, and this fee structure presents a potentially high cost barrier to entry for community radio and other non-commercial educational stations when entering the HD Radio market.
Satellite radio (also called SDARS by the FCC) uses two proprietary standards instead of DAB - S, which requires users to change equipment when switching from one provider to the other, and prevents other competitors from offering new choices as stations can do on terrestrial radio. Had the FCC picked DAB - T for terrestrial radio, no separate satellite receiver would have been needed at all, and the only difference from DAB receivers in the rest of the world would be the need to tune S band instead of L band.
In mobile telephony, the FCC abandoned the "any lawful device '' principle decided against AT&T landlines, and has instead allowed each mobile phone company to dictate what its customers can use.
As the public interest standard has always been important to the FCC when determining and shaping policy, so too has the relevance of public involvement in U.S. communication policy making. The FCC Record is the comprehensive compilation of decisions, reports, public notices, and other documents of the FCC, published since 1986.
In the 1927 Radio Act, which was formulated by the predecessor of the FCC (the Federal Radio Commission), section 4 (k) stipulated that the commission was authorized to hold hearings for the purpose of developing a greater understanding of the issues for which rules were being crafted. Section 4 (k) stated that:
Thus, it is clear that public consultation, or at least consultation with outside bodies was regarded as central to the Commission 's job from early on. Though it should not be surprising, the Act also stipulated that the Commission should verbally communicate with those being assigned licenses. Section 11 of the Act noted:
As early as 1927, there is evidence that public hearings were indeed held; among them, hearings to assess the expansion of the radio broadcast band. At these early hearings, the goal of having a broad range of viewpoints presented was evident, as not only broadcasters, but also radio engineers and manufacturers were in attendance. Numerous groups representing the general public appeared at the hearings as well, including amateur radio operators and inventors as well as representatives of radio listeners ' organizations. Interestingly,
Including members of the general public in the discussion was regarded (or at least articulated) as very important to the Commission 's deliberations. In fact, FCC Commissioner Bellows noted at the time that "it is the radio listener we must consider above everyone else. '' Though there were numerous representatives of the general public at the hearing, some expressing their opinions to the commission verbally, overall there was not a great turnout of everyday listeners at the hearings.
Though not a constant fixture of the communications policy - making process, public hearings were occasionally organized as a part of various deliberation processes as the years progressed. For example, seven years after the enactment of the Radio Act, the Communications Act of 1934 was passed, creating the FCC. That year the Federal Government 's National Recovery Agency (associated with the New Deal period) held public hearings as a part of its deliberations over the creation of new broadcasting codes.
A few years later, the FCC held hearings to address early cross-ownership issues; specifically, whether newspaper companies owning radio stations was in the public interest. These "newspaper divorcement hearings '' were held between 1941 and 1944, though it appears that these hearings were geared mostly towards discussion by industry stakeholders. Around the same time, the Commission held hearings as a part of its evaluation of the national television standard, and in 1958 held additional hearings on the television network broadcasting rules. Though public hearings were organized somewhat infrequently, there was an obvious public appeal. In his now famous "vast wasteland '' speech in 1961, FCC Chairman Newton Minow noted that the commission would hold a "well advertised public hearing '' in each community to assure broadcasters were serving the public interest, clearly a move to reconnect the Commission with the public interest (at least rhetorically).
|
when was the last time the drinking age was 18 | U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
|
when was the first time america was effected by the limits of natural resources | Territorial Evolution of North America since 1763 - wikipedia
The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the major war known by Americans as the French and Indian War and by Canadians as the Seven Years ' War / Guerre de Sept Ans, or by French - Canadians, La Guerre de la Conquête. It was signed by Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. Preferring to keep Guadeloupe, France gave up Canada and all of its claims to territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain. With France out of North America this dramatically changed the European political scene on the continent.
At first only the imperial powers of Europe had the resources to support and expand settlements in North America. As time went on the colonies became more powerful and sought independence from the Old World. These demands for more autonomy sparked several wars, including the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783) and the Mexican War of Independence (1810 -- 1821). The last major colonial power on the continent, the United Kingdom, granted dominion status to Canada in 1867 and slowly turned over its remaining land to that country over the next 100 years, with the last land transfer being the Dominion of Newfoundland in 1949. Throughout this period, France maintained the small North American territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of the island of Newfoundland.
From independence, the United States expanded rapidly to the west, acquiring the massive Louisiana territory in 1803 and fighting a war with Mexico to push west to the Pacific. At the same time, British settlement in Canada increased. US expansion was complicated by the division between "free '' and "slave '' states, which led to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Likewise, Canada faced tensions between settlers, including French and English communities, and the colonial administration that led to the outbreak of civil strife in 1837. Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English - speaking region of Texas, which declared itself the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845 Texas joined the United States and in 1867 the United States acquired Alaska from Russia. The last major territorial change occurred when Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949, but there have been a number of small adjustments like the Boundary Treaty of 1970 where the city of Rio Rico, Texas, was ceded to Mexico.
By the Royal Proclamation of 1763, King George III of Great Britain created the Province of Quebec in the St. Lawrence valley, the part of the former French province of Canada that was settled by people of French descent. The Great Lakes basin was barred to European settlement, reserved as exclusive "hunting grounds '' for the "several nations or tribes of Indians '' under the king 's "protection. ''
By the Quebec Act, the territory of the Province of Quebec was expanded to take over part of the Indian Reserve, including much of what is now southern Ontario, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota.
To ensure their claim on the Pacific coast the Spanish sent Bruno de Hezeta and Francisco Mourelle in the Santiago and Sonora sailed to what is now Vancouver Island and then south along the coast before continuing north as far as modern day Alaska.
In 1778 Saint Pierre and Miquelon were attacked by a force led by Newfoundland 's Governor John Montagu and then population deported by the British as retaliation for French support of the American Revolutionary War. The residents were sent to France and their homes were destroyed.
In another attempt to assert Spanish authority over the Pacific coast the Spanish sent Ignatio de Arteaga in La Princesa to what is now Prince of Wales Island and as far north and west as Unalaska.
Great Britain surrendered East Florida and West Florida to Spain; British inhabitants had 18 months from the date of ratification to leave.
The 1783 Treaty of Paris formally ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States of America, which had rebelled against British rule. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic, had separate agreements, known as the Peace of Paris (1783). The Kingdom of Great Britain recognized the territory south of what is now Canada, east of the Mississippi and north of Florida as American property. Vermont remained independent until 1791. France regained Saint Pierre and Miquelon in 1783 after the Peace of Paris and some residents returned to the islands.
In 1784, Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov, who later set up the Russian - Alaska Company that colonized early Alaska, arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island with two ships, the Three Saints and the St. Simon. The indigenous Koniag harassed the Russian party and Shelikhov responded by killing hundreds and taking hostages to enforce the obedience of the rest. Having established his authority on Kodiak Island, Shelikhov founded the second permanent Russian settlement in Alaska (after Unalaska) on the island 's Three Saints Bay.
Delegates from the North Carolina counties of Washington, Sullivan, Spencer (now Hawkins) and Greene -- all in present - day Tennessee -- convened in the town of Jonesborough and declared the lands the State of Frankland, independent of North Carolina. A constitution modeled on that of North Carolina was adopted with few changes, and the state name was changed to "Franklin ''. By 1790, the state government had collapsed entirely and the territory was again firmly under the control of North Carolina.
In 1789 in attempt to assert its sovereignty over the Pacific coast the Spanish seized British ships in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. This action sparked an international incident that resulted in the Nootka Convention which was signed on October 28, 1790. The conventions stated that the English had the right to found settlements anywhere on the Pacific claimed by Spain but never settled by Spain. As a result claims of sovereignty on the Pacific were determined by settlement or feet on the ground as opposed to claims based on prior discovery.
The Vermont Republic, which included land claimed by New York and New Hampshire and, while unrecognized by the United States, was a de facto independent country, was admitted to the US as the 14th state, Vermont.
The Province of Quebec was divided into two parts, Lower Canada and Upper Canada. The Province of Upper Canada (French: province du Haut - Canada) was a British colony located in what is now the southern portion of the Province of Ontario in Canada. Upper Canada officially existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841. Its name reflected its position higher up the river or closer to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than that of Lower Canada, present - day southern Quebec. The division was effected so that Loyalist American settlers and British immigrants in Upper Canada could have English laws and institutions, and the French - speaking population of Lower Canada could maintain French civil law and the Catholic religion.
The US federal government sold the Erie Triangle to Pennsylvania.
The western counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains were split off and admitted to the US as the 15th state, Kentucky.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon saw action during the French Revolution when France had declared war on the United Kingdom as part of the War of the First Coalition. This led to a British attack on the islands under Captain William Affleck of Halifax who captured the islands in May 1793.
The Southwest Territory was admitted to the US as the 16th state, Tennessee.
Pinckney 's Treaty, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, settled the northern border of West Florida as the 31st parallel.
Sitka was originally settled by the native Tlingit people. Old Sitka was founded in 1799 by Alexandr Baranov, the governor of Russian America. Baranov arrived under the auspices of the Russian - American Company, a "semi-official '' colonial trading company chartered by Tsar Paul I.
Indiana Territory was formed from the western portion of Northwest Territory. It corresponded to present - day Illinois, Indiana, northeastern Minnesota, and Wisconsin, as well as the western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan and all but the eastern tip of the Upper Peninsula. Northwest Territory was left with only most of Ohio and the rest of Michigan.
In the secretly negotiated Third Treaty of San Ildefonso (formally titled the Preliminary and Secret Treaty between the French Republic and His Catholic Majesty the King of Spain, Concerning the Aggrandizement of His Royal Highness the Infant Duke of Parma in Italy and the Retrocession of Louisiana), Spain returned the colonial territory of Louisiana to France.
The Kingdom of Great Britain or Great Britain changed its name to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland or United Kingdom on January 1, 1801 due to the Act of Union 1800.
Amiens Treaty of 1802 specified that Saint Pierre and Miquelon would again be returned to France. Although it took until 1816 for the British to honor the Treaty and allow the French to return.
The southeastern portion of Northwest Territory was admitted to the US as the 17th state, Ohio. The remainder of Northwest Territory was transferred to Indiana Territory.
The Louisiana Purchase was made, expanding the United States west of the Mississippi River. There was a dispute with West Florida over how much land east of the Mississippi River it included. The purchase extended slightly north of the modern borders, as it was defined only as the watershed of the Mississippi River. The purchase consisted of the whole of present - day Arkansas, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma, and portions of Colorado, Louisiana, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming. It also included the southernmost portions of the present - day Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. The cost was 60 million francs ($11,250,000) plus cancellation of debts worth 18 million francs ($3,750,000). Including interest, the U.S. finally paid $23,213,568 (US $379,361,287 in 2018) for the Louisiana territory.
The North West Company organized an overland expedition from Montreal to James Bay and a second expedition by sea. In September 1803, the overland party met the company 's ship at Charlton Island in what is now Nunavut. There, they lay claim to the territory that drained into the Arctic in the name of the North West Company.
Michigan Territory was split from Indiana Territory, including the whole of the lower peninsula of present - day Michigan but only that eastern tip of the upper peninsula which was held by the Northwest Territory after Indiana Territory had been split from it.
The District of Louisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory.
Illinois Territory was split from Indiana Territory. Illinois Territory included present - day Illinois, northeastern Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Indiana Territory included the present - day borders of Indiana, with its western and eastern borders continuing northward; thus, it also included the central portion of the upper peninsula of Michigan, as well as Door Peninsula of present - day Wisconsin.
The short - lived Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain.
US President James Madison proclaimed the annexation of the Baton Rouge and Mobile Districts of West Florida, declaring them part of the Louisiana Purchase. The US Army occupied the capital, St. Francisville, on December 6 and Baton Rouge on December 10, bringing an end to the Republic of West Florida after 90 days.
The southern portion of Indiana Territory was admitted as the 19th state, Indiana. The remainder became unorganized.
Alabama Territory was split from Mississippi Territory; both correspond to their present - day counterparts.
Mississippi Territory was admitted to the US as the 20th state, Mississippi.
The Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel north west of the Lake of the Woods as the border with British - held lands, and Oregon Country was established as a shared land between the United States and United Kingdom. Oregon Country consisted of most of present - day Idaho and Oregon, all of Washington, and a portion of Montana, as well as the southern part of the unorganized British territory which became British Columbia. The treaty transferred the Red River Basin to the United States, consisting of northwestern Minnesota, northeastern North Dakota, and the northeastern tip of South Dakota.
The southern portion of Illinois Territory was admitted as the 21st state, Illinois. The remainder was reassigned to Michigan Territory. The unorganized lands which had been a part of Indiana Territory prior to the admission of Indiana as a state were also assigned to Michigan Territory.
The Adams - Onís Treaty or Transcontinental Treaty was signed in Washington, establishing a defined border between the United States and New Spain. The treaty ceded Spain 's claims to Oregon Country to the United States and American claims to Texas to Spain; moved portions of present - day Colorado, Oklahoma, and Wyoming, and all of New Mexico and Texas, to New Spain; and all of Spanish Florida as well as a small portion of modern day Colorado to the United States. The new borders intruded on Arkansaw Territory 's Miller County, created on April 1, 1820, which dipped below the Red River and into land ceded to Spain. However, the remoteness of the region caused no serious conflict with Spain.
The southern part of Missouri Territory was organized as Arkansaw Territory, consisting of present - day Arkansas as well as part of Oklahoma. It was not officially spelled Arkansas until later.
Alabama Territory was admitted to the US as the 22nd state, Alabama.
The Maine District of Massachusetts was split off and admitted to the US as the 23rd state, Maine, as part of the Missouri Compromise.
In 1821, the North West Company of Montreal and the Hudson 's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was further extended by a license to the watershed of the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase.
The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted, creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823. The constitution organized the country into 19 states and four territories. In the aftermath of the end of the empire, Central American regions mostly voted not to stay a part of Mexico, with Chiapas, formerly part of Guatemala, being the only area that favored remaining in Mexico. However, rebels in one part of Chiapas, Soconusco, proclaimed its separation from Mexico on July 24, 1824, and it was formally annexed by the Federal Republic of Central America on August 18, 1824.
Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western portion becoming unorganized.
The Treaty of Saint Petersburg of 1825, also known as the Anglo - Russian Convention of 1825, defined the boundaries between Russian America and British claims and possessions in the Pacific Northwest of North America at 54 degrees 40 minutes north latitude.
Arkansas Territory was shrunk further, attaining the present - day borders of Arkansas, with the remainder again becoming unorganized, excepting the land it still claimed as Miller County.
The state of Sonora y Sinaloa was split into two states, Sinaloa and Sonora.
The territory of Aguascalientes was split from the state of Zacatecas.
A large portion of unorganized land was added to Michigan Territory, corresponding to present - day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota.
Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the 25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with increasing irrelevance.
Due to disapproval of the government of Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Tejas region of the state of Coahuila y Tejas declared independence. The remainder was renamed simply Coahuila. The Treaties of Velasco signified the end of the Texas Revolution on May 14, 1836, creating the Republic of Texas.
Wisconsin Territory was split off from Michigan Territory, consisting of present - day Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and eastern North and South Dakota. As an inducement to give up its claim over the Toledo Strip to Ohio, the whole of the present - day upper peninsula was assigned to Michigan Territory, giving it the present - day borders of Michigan.
Michigan Territory was admitted to the US as the 26th state, Michigan.
The Platte Purchase added a small area of land to Missouri, giving it its present - day boundaries.
Iowa Territory was split off from Wisconsin Territory, consisting of present - day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota, leaving Wisconsin Territory with northeastern Minnesota and Wisconsin.
Voicing the same concerns as Texas, the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas declared independence from Mexico as the Republic of the Rio Grande; since the border of Texas was never conclusively decided, they claim a northern border of the Nueces River, while Texas claims a southern border of the Rio Grande. The rebellion lasted until November 6, 1840. The nation was never fully established, and only existed in the minds of a few.
The Province of Canada or the United Province of Canada was created by combining Lower Canada and Upper Canada. It was a British colony in North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham in the Report on the Affairs of British North America following the Rebellions of 1837. The Province of Canada ceased to exist at Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, when it was redivided into the modern Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec.
The Russians were forced to sell Fort Ross due to its economic failure. A private investor, John Sutter, agreed to pay $30,000 (US $711,677 in 2018) over a three - year period.
The district of Soconusco rejoined Mexico as part of the state of Chiapas.
The Webster - Ashburton Treaty settled the border between the United States and lands held by the United Kingdom east of the Rocky Mountains, ending the disputes over the northern border of the state of Maine and northeastern border of Wisconsin Territory, which today resides in present day Minnesota.
Florida Territory was admitted to the US as the 27th state, Florida.
The Republic of Texas was admitted to the US as the 28th state, Texas. The United States Congress passed the joint resolution of annexation on March 1, 1845, but Texas did not agree to join the union for some time after. Although the annexation resolution avoided specifying Texas 's boundaries, the U.S. inherited Texas 's unenforced claims to South Texas, West Texas, over half of New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small parts of Oklahoma, Kansas and Wyoming. With Texas joining the union, Arkansas finally gave up its claim on Miller County.
The state of Yucatán declares independence, for the same reasons as the Republic of Texas and Republic of the Rio Grande, forming the Republic of Yucatán.
The California Republic, also called the Bear Flag Republic, was proclaimed by settlers in Sonoma in the then - Mexican province of California. Declared during the Mexican -- American War, the republic lasted less than a month.
The Oregon Treaty established the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods as the continental border (so it did not include Vancouver Island) with the lands held by the United Kingdom. The sharing of Oregon Country ended, and the American portion becomes unorganized territory.
The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was admitted to the US as the 29th state, Iowa. The remainder became unorganized.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican -- American War. Mexico ceded the Texas - claimed areas as well as a large area of land consisting of all of present - day California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona, and portions of Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
The Republic of Yucatán rejoined Mexico after the Caste War of Yucatán forced them to seek outside help.
The southeastern portion of Wisconsin Territory was admitted to the US as the 30th state, Wisconsin. The remainder became unorganized.
Oregon Territory was organized, including present - day Idaho, northwestern Montana, Oregon, Washington, and western Wyoming.
Colony of Vancouver Island is formed as a British crown colony.
Minnesota Territory was organized, consisting of present - day Minnesota, and eastern portions of North Dakota and South Dakota.
The Compromise of 1850 divided the Mexican Cession and land claimed by Texas but ceded to the federal government in exchange for taking on its debts. The western portion was admitted to the US as the 31st state, California, most of the rest was organized as Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory, and a small portion became unorganized land. New Mexico Territory consisted of most of present - day Arizona and New Mexico, as well as a southern portion of Colorado and the southern tip of Nevada. Utah Territory consisted of present - day Utah, most of Nevada, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming.
Washington Territory was split from Oregon Territory, consisting of present - day Washington, northern Idaho, and the western tip of Montana, leaving Oregon Territory with all of Oregon, southern Idaho and a portion of Wyoming.
The Gadsden Purchase added some land to New Mexico Territory, corresponding to the southernmost areas of present - day Arizona and New Mexico.
Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory were organized; the remaining unorganized land colloquially became known as Indian Territory. Kansas Territory consisted of present - day Kansas and eastern Colorado. Nebraska Territory consisted of present - day Nebraska, and parts of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Indian Territory corresponds to eastern Oklahoma.
A peculiarity appeared at this time, when a small strip of land north of Texas was not officially assigned by any state or territory; this came to be called the Neutral Strip or "No Man 's Land '', which corresponds to the present - day panhandle of Oklahoma.
The 1857 Constitution of Mexico was adopted, reorganizing some states. Nuevo León is merged into Coahuila; Aguascalientes, Colima, and Tlaxcala all had their status changed from territory to state; and the state of Guerrero was created from portions of México and Puebla.
The Colony of British Columbia was a crown colony in British North America from 1858 until 1871.
The eastern portion of Minnesota Territory was admitted to the US as the 32nd state, Minnesota. The remainder became unorganized.
The western portion of Oregon Territory was admitted to the US as the 33rd state, Oregon. The remainder was assigned to Washington Territory.
A boundary commission was set up to delineate the border between Vancouver Island and the Washington State coast. The commission could not come to agreement on where the middle of the Strait was so in 1859 things came to a head during the bloodless Pig War.
The eastern portion of Kansas Territory was admitted as the 34th state, Kansas. The western portion was added to Colorado Territory on February 28, 1861, but for the month between statehood for Kansas and the formation of Colorado Territory, it appears to have had no official status.
The Confederate States of America (CSA) was formed. The Southern states seceded at different dates and joined the CSA at different dates; to simplify the map, only the final form of the CSA is shown here. There were rebel governments as well as Union governments in Kentucky and Missouri, and the CSA had full control over Indian Territory. To view a detailed animated map depicting the various state secessions see CSA states evolution.
Colorado Territory was organized, with land from Utah, New Mexico, and Nebraska Territories, as well as the land left over from Kansas Territory; it corresponded already to present - day Colorado. Also, the eastern tip of Washington Territory was transferred to Nebraska Territory.
Due to its nature as a mining and grazing area, land started to be added to Nevada Territory to accommodate these activities. Its eastern border was moved eastward from the 39th meridian west from Washington, to the 38th meridian west from Washington, transferring the land from Utah Territory.
The Mexican state of Campeche was split from Yucatán.
The Union created its own Arizona Territory, splitting it off from New Mexico Territory, making both territories correspond to their present - day states, except for Arizona Territory including the southern tip of present - day Nevada.
Idaho Territory was created from portions of Washington, Dakota, and Nebraska Territories, consisting of present - day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming. Nebraska and Washington Territories were left corresponding to their present - day counterparts.
Several counties of northwestern Virginia who did not want to be part of the Confederacy split off and were admitted to the US as the 35th state, West Virginia.
The Mexican state of Nuevo León was re-split from Coahuila.
Montana Territory was split from Idaho Territory, which also had some land transferred to Dakota Territory. Montana Territory corresponded to present - day Montana, Idaho Territory consisted of Idaho and western Wyoming, and Dakota Territory included both North and South Dakota, and most of Wyoming.
Nevada Territory was admitted to the US as the 36th state, Nevada; it was a bit smaller than it is today, lacking area in both the east and south.
The Confederate States of America surrendered. The process of Reconstruction and readmission to the union would take several years; to simplify the map, they are shown as already readmitted. To view a detailed animated map depicting the various state readmission during Reconstruction see CSA states evolution.
Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia merge to form United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia
Nevada 's eastern border was moved from the 38th meridian west from Washington, to the 37th meridian west from Washington, transferring land to it from Utah Territory. Also, the northwestern corner of Arizona Territory was transferred to the state of Nevada, giving it its present - day borders.
Nebraska Territory was admitted to the US as the 37th state, Nebraska.
Canada was formed from three provinces of British North America: the Province of Canada, which was split into the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
At this time, though, Canada did not become independent according to the modern meaning of the word. The Statute of Westminster 1931 made Canada much closer to being independent, but not completely.
The United States purchased Alaska from Russia; it was designated the Department of Alaska, and corresponds, except for a boundary dispute, to present - day Alaska. The United States Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 (US $126,068,571.43 in 2018) on April 9, 1867.
Wyoming Territory was formed from portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah Territories, corresponding to the present - day borders of Wyoming. Idaho Territory then corresponds to present day Idaho, and Utah Territory to present - day Utah.
The Mexican state of Hidalgo was split from the state of México.
The Mexican state of Morelos was split from the state of México.
The United Kingdom ceded most of its remaining land in North America to Canada, with Rupert 's Land and the North - Western Territory becoming the North - West Territories. The Rupert 's Land Act 1868 transferred the region to Canada as of 1869, but it was only consummated in 1870 when £ 300,000 were paid to the Hudson 's Bay Company. At this time, the Manitoba Act took effect, and a small square of the newly acquired region surrounding the city of Winnipeg was made the province of Manitoba.
Unlike what this map shows, the actual border between Newfoundland & Quebec is still unknown. Mapmakers have mostly made their own guesses until 1927, pretending that the border was more known than it really was. The problem did n't stop in 1927 (see 1927).
The British colony of British Columbia joined Canada as the sixth province. British Columbia joined the Canadian confederation following The Great Confederation Debates in the spring of 1870 and the Confederation Negotiations of the following summer and winter.
The San Juan Islands were awarded to the US, formally ending the Pig War with Britain.
The British colony of Prince Edward Island joined Canada as the seventh province by an Act of Parliament (and, as part of the terms of union, was guaranteed a ferry link, a term which was deleted upon completion of the Confederation Bridge in 1997).
The borders of Ontario were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed to eventually reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean. With Canada 's acquisition of Rupert 's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of the new areas it was interested in were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north.
The District of Keewatin was created by the passage of the Keewatin Act on April 12, 1876 in a central separate strip from the North - West Territories, in order to provide government for the growing area north of Manitoba and west of Ontario.
Colorado Territory was admitted to the US as the 38th state, Colorado.
Arenas Key is claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act
The United Kingdom ceded its Arctic Islands to Canada, and they were made part of the North - West Territories.
The Western Triangle Islands are claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act.
Manitoba 's borders were expanded to a larger postage stamp province taking land easterly from the District of Keewatin to the western boundary of Ontario. Since the province 's eastern border was defined as the "western boundary of Ontario '', the exact definition of which was still unclear, Ontario disputed a portion of the new region.
The part of Dakota Territory south of 43 ° north and north of the Keya Paha and Niobrara Rivers was transferred to Nebraska.
The Islands of Perez Chica and Pajora of the Alacrene Islands in the bay of Campeche are claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act.
The Mexican territory of Tepic was split from the state of Jalisco.
The southwestern border of the District of Keewatin was adjusted to conform to the boundaries of the new provisional districts of the North - West Territories created in 1882, returning some land to the North - West Territories. The provisional districts were the District of Alberta, the District of Athabasca, District of Assiniboia and the District of Saskatchewan, which all remained administrative areas of the North - West Territories, unlike the District of Keewatin.
Dakota Territory was split in two, and it was admitted to the US as the 39th state, North Dakota, and 40th state, South Dakota.
Montana Territory was admitted to the US as the 41st state, Montana.
Washington Territory was admitted to the US as the 42nd state, Washington.
The dispute between Manitoba and Ontario ended as Ontario 's borders were finalized in accordance with the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889, which extended the province west to the Lake of the Woods and north to the Albany River.
Oklahoma Territory was organized from the western portion of Indian Territory, and included the Neutral Strip, corresponding to the western half of present - day Oklahoma.
Idaho Territory was admitted to the US as the 43rd state, Idaho.
Wyoming Territory was admitted to the US as the 44th state, Wyoming.
The American claims over the Western Triangle, Areaas, Perez, Chica, Pajoras, and Arenas Keys are all waived by the American government in favor of Mexico.
Keewatin covered the portion of the North - West Territories north of Manitoba on the mainland, and all islands within Hudson, James, and Ungava Bays. The portion between the District of Keewatin, Ontario, and Hudson Bay was not in a district, and was assigned to the District of Keewatin by an Order of Council. Four additional provisional districts of the North - West Territories were formed, the District of Yukon, the District of Ungava, the District of Mackenzie, and the District of Franklin.
Utah Territory was admitted to the US as the 45th state, Utah.
A Supreme Court ruling officially assigns Greer County to Oklahoma Territory.
The borders of the District of Keewatin were adjusted. Southampton Island, Coats Island, Mansel Island, Akimiski Island, and other islands were transferred to Keewatin.
Yukon Territory was created from the District of Yukon in the northwestern part of the North - West Territories, and the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 expanded the borders of Quebec north to the Eastmain River.
The eastern border of Yukon Territory was adjusted to the eastern edge of the Peel River watershed, and also to include some more islands.
The Mexican territory of Quintana Roo was split from the state of Yucatán.
The Alaska Boundary Dispute was a territorial dispute between the United States and Canada (then a British Dominion with its foreign affairs controlled from London), and at a subnational level between Alaska on the US side and British Columbia and the Yukon on the Canadian side. It was resolved by arbitration in 1903, generally favoring the American claim.
The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created from the North - West Territories. Saskatchewan 's western border and Alberta 's eastern border run concurrent with the 4th meridian or the 110 ° W longitude. Saskatchewan 's eastern border is not a meridian, but instead follows a staircase - shaped Dominion Land Survey range line. Alberta 's southern and northern borders are the same as Saskatchewan 's: the southern border is the Canada -- United States border or the 49th parallel and the northern border is the 60th parallel. Alberta 's western border runs along peaks of the Rocky Mountain ridge and then extends north to the 60th parallel. The District of Keewatin became an administrative unit of the Northwest Territories.
In 1906, the American Rio Grande Land and Irrigation Company performed an unauthorized diversion of the Rio Grande, which moved a 413 - acre (167 ha) tract of land, including the American village of Rio Rico, south of the river. Since the 1845 Border Treaty all land south of the Rio Grande was Mexican. Mexican authorities unknowingly assumed control of the area, which became known as the Horcón Tract.
The Dominion of Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 (before which the territory had the status of a British colony, self - governing from 1855) to 1949. The Dominion of Newfoundland was situated in northeastern North America along the Atlantic coast and comprised the island of Newfoundland and Labrador on the mainland.
Newfoundland never became independent according to the modern meaning of the word. The Statute of Westminster 1931 would have made Newfoundland much closer to being independent, but not completely. However, the government of Newfoundland did not ratify it, and furthermore, abolished itself in 1934 because of bankruptcy.
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were combined and admitted to the US as the 46th state, Oklahoma.
New Mexico Territory was admitted to the US as the 47th state, New Mexico.
Arizona Territory was admitted to the US as the 48th state, Arizona.
Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec were all expanded into their present - day boundaries. The Northwest Territories is now only situated north of the 60th parallel (except Hudson Bay and James Bay islands) with three districts, Keewatin, Mackenzie and Franklin.
With the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico, the territory of Tepic had its name and status changed to the state of Nayarit.
The dispute over a square mile between Delaware and Pennsylvania, The Wedge, is finally resolved in favor of Delaware.
A decision of the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council of 1927 decided the issue of the border between the Dominion of Newfoundland and Canada in favour of Newfoundland. The issue had been the precise boundary between the Canadian province of Quebec and Labrador, part of Newfoundland. The boundary ruling clarified that a large area of the disputed land belonged to Newfoundland, not to Canada.
Maps prior to 1927 wildly disagreed on the actual position of the border, instead of agreeing upon marking the area as being disputed. Maps after 1927 tended to agree with the decision, but due to protests, some mapmakers in Quebec still disagreed. In the 60 's, logos of the two biggest political parties of Quebec (PLQ & UN) both included the shape of the province as including all of Labrador. Disagreements persist even today (to a lesser extent), as Quebec insists on including the rest of the gulf 's basin in its maps, separated with a dotted line saying 1927 border, non-final. Newfoundland complains in 2014, even though older electoral maps showed the same.
Norway asserted its claim of sovereignty over the Sverdrup Islands. The islands are named after Norwegian explorer Otto Sverdrup, who explored and mapped them from 1898 to 1902 with the vessel Fram, although some were previously inhabited by Inuit people. Sverdrup claimed the islands for Norway, but the Norwegian government showed no interest in pursuing the claim until 1928. At that point, the Norwegian government raised the claim, primarily to use the islands as bargaining chips in negotiations with the United Kingdom over the status of the Arctic island Jan Mayen and the Antarctic Bouvet Island.
Sverdrup Islands are ceded to Canada by Norway, in exchange for British recognition of Norway 's sovereignty over Jan Mayen.
The Mexican Baja California Territory was split into North Territory of Baja California and South Territory of Baja California.
Statute of Westminster 1931 allows dominions to become independent. Dominion of Canada decides to become almost independent, whereas Newfoundland does not sign (see 1934).
The Dominion of Newfoundland, because of financial difficulties, was obliged to give up its self - governing status and the Commission of Government took its place.
Air Force Island, Prince Charles Island, and Foley Island are discovered and added to Northwest Territories.
The Dominion of Newfoundland and its dependency of Labrador joined Canada as the tenth province, named Newfoundland as proclaimed by the British North America Act 1949.
The North Territory of Baja California changed its status and became the state of Baja California.
Alaska Territory was admitted to the US as the 49th state, Alaska.
The city of Rio Rico, Texas, was ceded to Mexico in the Boundary Treaty of 1970. The handover officially took place in 1977 and the city was added to the Mexican state of Tamaulipas.
The territory of Quintana Roo changed into a state status. The South Territory of Baja California changed its status and became the state of Baja California Sur, giving Mexico its present - day configuration.
The Canadian territory of Nunavut was created from the Northwest Territories. The provisional districts are no longer administrative areas of the Northwest Territories.
|
how did the iron brigade get its name | Iron Brigade - wikipedia
Five regiments: 2nd Wisconsin Infantry Regiment 6th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment 7th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment 19th Indiana Infantry Regiment
American Civil War
The Iron Brigade, also known as The Black Hats, Black Hat Brigade, Iron Brigade of the West, and originally King 's Wisconsin Brigade was an infantry brigade in the Union Army of the Potomac during the American Civil War. Although it fought entirely in the Eastern Theater, it was composed of regiments from three Western states that are now within the region of the Midwest. Noted for its strong discipline, its unique uniform appearance, and its tenacious fighting ability, the Iron Brigade suffered the highest percentage of casualties of any brigade in the war.
The nickname "Iron Brigade '', with its connotation of fighting men with iron dispositions, was applied formally or informally to a number of units in the Civil War and in later conflicts. The Iron Brigade of the West was the unit that received the most lasting publicity in its use of the nickname.
The Iron Brigade initially consisted of the 2nd, 6th, and 7th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiments, the 19th Indiana, Battery B of the 4th U.S. Light Artillery, and was later joined by the 24th Michigan. This particular composition of men, from the three Western states, led it to be sometimes referred to as the "Iron Brigade of the West ''. They were known, throughout the war, as the "Black Hats '', because of the black, 1858 model Hardee hats issued to Army regulars, rather than the blue kepis worn by most other Union Army units.
The all - Western brigade, composed of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Indiana troops, earned their famous nickname, while under the command of Brig. Gen. John Gibbon, who led the brigade into its first battle. On August 28, 1862, during the preliminary phases of the Second Battle of Bull Run, it stood up against attacks from a superior force under Maj. Gen Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson on the Brawner farm. The designation "Iron Brigade '' is said to have originated during the brigade 's action at Turners Gap, during the Battle of South Mountain, a prelude to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862. Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, commanding I Corps, approached Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, seeking orders. As the Western men advanced up the National Road, forcing the Confederate line all the way back to the gap, McClellan asked, "What troops are those fighting in the Pike? '' Hooker replied, "(Brigadier) General Gibbon 's brigade of Western men. '' McClellan stated, "They must be made of iron. '' Hooker said that the brigade had performed even more superbly at Second Bull Run; to this, McClellan said that the brigade consisted of the "best troops in the world ''. Hooker supposedly was elated and rode off without his orders. There are a few stories related to the origin, but the men immediately adopted the name, which was quickly used in print after South Mountain.
The unit that eventually became known as the Iron Brigade was activated on October 1, 1861, upon the arrival in Washington, D.C., of the 7th Wisconsin. It was combined into a brigade with the 2nd and 6th Wisconsin, and the 19th Indiana, under the command of Brig. Gen. Rufus King and were originally known as King 's Wisconsin Brigade. The governor of Wisconsin, Alexander Randall, had hoped to see the formation of an entirely Wisconsin brigade, but the Army unwittingly frustrated his plans by transferring the 5th Wisconsin from King 's brigade and including the Hoosiers instead. This brigade was initially designated the 3rd Brigade of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell 's division of the Army of the Potomac, and then the 3rd Brigade, I Corps.
McDowell 's I Corps did not join the bulk of the Army of the Potomac in the Peninsula Campaign. In June 1862 it was redesignated the III Corps of Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia. Now under the command of John Gibbon, a regular Army officer from North Carolina who chose to stay with the Union, King 's brigade was designated the 4th Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps, and it saw its first combat in the Northern Virginia Campaign. Almost immediately following the Union defeat in the Second Battle of Bull Run, the III Corps was transferred back to the Army of the Potomac and redesignated the I Corps, under the command of Joseph Hooker; Gibbon 's brigade became the 4th Brigade, 1st Division, I Corps.
The 24th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment joined the brigade on October 8, 1862, prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg in December. On February 27, 1863, the brigade, now under the command of Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith, was redesignated the 1st Brigade, 1st Division, I Corps.
The brigade commanders, disregarding temporary assignments, were:
Brig. Gen. Rufus King: September 28, 1861 -- May 7, 1862 Brig. Gen. John Gibbon: May 7, 1862 -- November 4, 1862 Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith: November 25, 1862 -- July 1, 1863 (wounded at Gettysburg)
The Iron Brigade lost its all - Western status on July 16, 1863, following its crippling losses at Gettysburg, when the 167th Pennsylvania was incorporated into it. However, the brigade that succeeded it, which included the survivors of the Iron Brigade, was commanded by:
Col. William W. Robinson (of the 7th Wisconsin): July 1, 1863 -- March 25, 1864 Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler (6th Wisconsin): March 25, 1864 -- May 6, 1864 Col. William W. Robinson: May 6, 1864 -- June 7, 1864 Brig. Gen. Edward S. Bragg (6th Wisconsin): June 7, 1864 -- February 10, 1865 Col. John A. Kellogg (6th Wisconsin): February 28, 1865 -- April 27, 1865 Col. Henry A. Morrow (24th Michigan): April 27, 1863 -- June 5, 1865
In June 1865, the units of the surviving brigade were separated and reassigned to the Army of the Tennessee.
The brigade fought in the Second Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Mine Run, Overland, Richmond - Petersburg, and Appomattox campaigns.
The brigade took pride in its designation, "1st Brigade, 1st Division, I Corps '', under which it played a prominent role in the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863. It repulsed the first Confederate offensive through Herbst 's Woods, capturing much of Brig. Gen. James J. Archer 's brigade, and Archer himself. The 6th Wisconsin (along with 100 men of the brigade guard) are remembered for their famous charge on an unfinished railroad cut north and west of the town, where they captured the flag of the 2nd Mississippi and took hundreds of Confederate prisoners.
The Iron Brigade, proportionately, suffered the most casualties of any brigade in the Civil War. For example, 61 % (1,153 out of 1,885) were casualties at Gettysburg. Similarly, the 2nd Wisconsin, which suffered 77 % casualties at Gettysburg, suffered the third highest total throughout the war; it was third behind the 24th Michigan (also an Iron Brigade regiment) as well as the 1st Minnesota in total casualties at Gettysburg. The Michigan regiment lost 397 out of 496 soldiers, an 80 % casualty rate. The 1st Minnesota Regiment actually suffered the highest casualty percentage of any Union regiment in a single Civil War engagement during the battle of Gettysburg, losing 216 out of 262 men (82 %).
The last surviving member of the Iron Brigade, Josiah E. Cass, of Eau Claire, Wisconsin, died 2 December 1947, at age 100, of a fractured hip suffered in a fall.
There have been other brigades known by the same name. Another brigade in the Army of the Potomac had previously been known as the Iron Brigade, later the "Iron Brigade of the East '' or "First Iron Brigade '', to avoid confusion. This unit was the 1st Brigade, 1st Division, I Corps, prior to Meredith 's brigade getting that designation. It consisted of the 22nd New York, 24th New York, 30th New York, 14th Regiment (New York State Militia), and 2nd U.S. Sharpshooters. Although this Iron Brigade of the East served in the same infantry division as the Iron Brigade of the West, press attention focused primarily on the latter. Most of the Eastern regiments were mustered out before the Battle of Gettysburg, where the remaining Eastern Iron Brigade Regiments and the Iron Brigade of the West arguably achieved their greatest fame.
Recent scholarship identifies two other brigades referred to by their members or others as "The Iron Brigade '': 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps (17th Maine, 3rd Michigan, 5th Michigan, 1st, 37th, and 101st New York) Reno 's Brigade from the North Carolina expedition (21st and 35th Massachusetts, 51st Pennsylvania, and 51st New York)
Shelby 's Iron Brigade was a Confederate cavalry brigade also known as the "Missouri Iron Brigade ''. The Confederate Iron Brigade was part of the division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Joseph O. "Jo '' Shelby, in the Army of Arkansas and fought in Maj. Gen. Sterling Price 's Missouri Expedition, in 1864.
The 2nd Brigade of the U.S. Army 's 1st Armored Division has carried the Iron Brigade moniker since 1985 and was previously called the "Black Hat '' Brigade.
The 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division was known as the Iron Brigade from its formation in 1917 through World War I, World War II and Vietnam, until some time in the early 2000s when, for reasons that are still unclear, the name was changed to Duke Brigade. The unit crest was an Iron Cross in a triangle, it appears that that was also changed. The 3rd Brigade of the 4th Infantry Division is also known as the Iron Brigade. Its unit crest is similar to the medals issued to veterans of the both Western and the Eastern Iron Brigades of the Army of the Potomac. The 1st Heavy Brigade Combat Team of the 2nd Infantry Division (United States) is known as the Iron Brigade as well. Located at Camp Casey, South Korea, the brigade has a critical role of military deterrence on the Korean Peninsula.
The 2nd Brigade of the 3rd Armored Division (Spearhead), formerly stationed on Coleman Kaserne in Gelnhausen, Germany.
The 157th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade, also known as the Iron Brigade, is based out of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It was formerly known as the 57th Field Artillery Brigade, at which time its subordinate organizations included the 1st Battalion, 126th Field Artillery Regiment and the 1st Battalion, 121st Field Artillery Regiment from the Wisconsin Army National Guard, plus the 1st Battalion, 182nd Field Artillery Regiment of the Michigan Army National Guard. Not to be confused with the famous "Iron Brigade '' of the Civil War, the 57th Field Artillery Brigade is also known as the "Iron Brigade, '' a nickname traditionally given to crack artillery units in the Civil War. It was during World War I that the 57th Field Artillery Brigade earned its nickname as it spent many hours at the front and fired more artillery rounds than any brigade in the American Army.
The 32nd Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army National Guard that fought primarily during World War I and World War II. It was formed with units from the states of Wisconsin and Michigan. With roots as the Iron Brigade in the American Civil War, the division 's ancestral units came to be referred to as the Iron Jaw Division. The division was briefly called up during the Berlin Crisis in 1961. In 1967, the division was deactivated and reconstituted the 32nd Infantry Brigade of the Wisconsin Army National Guard only to be reorganized in 2007 as the 32nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team. The shoulder sleeve insignia currently worn is a red line shot through with a red arrow, giving them the nickname Red Arrow Brigade, which was earned in World War I where the 32nd Division was fighting the Germans alongside the French, who noted the unit 's tenacity by punching through the German lines, like an arrow and calling the unit Les Terribles, meaning The Terrors.
The name "Iron Brigade '' has also, been used to describe the offensive line of the University of Wisconsin Badger Football Team. The line is known for its size, strength, and dedication to the protection of the backfield. The Badgers play in Camp Randall Stadium, a site used to train Wisconsin volunteers during the Civil War.
The uniform of the Iron brigade differed some what to the standard uniform of the Union army at the time. It was designed to be more of a dress uniform that resembled a suit rather than the more common infantry men 's kit. It consisted of:
A Hardee black hat: A tall blocked, brimmed black hat, featuring a brass infantry bugle, a red Corp circle patch and brass numbers / letters of the front to indicate units and companies. A brass eagle badge on the side used to hold the brim up in a slouch, and finally an ostrich feather plume.
Union Frock coat.: A long, dark blue coat that came down to the mid thighs, resembling that of an officers coat. Fitted with a single breasted row of 9 brass buttons, each with the federal eagle on them. The cuffs and collars had light blue trimming. And 2 smaller brass buttons on the cuffs. The inside of the coat was also lined with cotton to make a better fit.
Light / dark blue trousers: depending on the period of the war and unit, trousers versed from light, sky blue to a dark blue the same colour as the coat. The trouser extended from the mid waist down to the ankles and had a pocket on either side.
White canvas gaiter: white canvas leggings with leather straps to prevent stones and dirt getting into the shoes whilst in the field.
All other equipment not mentioned is simply the standard field equipment of the Union army consisting of canteens, belts, cartridge box, Bayonet and scabbard, haversack and other various items of kit.
See Lorenz rifle
"On the Union side, continental European firearms were mostly distributed to the Western armies -- as such, the Lorenz Rifle was relatively uncommon in the Army of the Potomac (although two regiments of the famous Iron Brigade carried them) but heavily used by the Army of the Cumberland and Army of Tennessee. ''
|
who is known as light of asia answer | The Light of Asia - wikipedia
The Light of Asia, subtitled The Great Renunciation, is a book by Sir Edwin Arnold. The first edition of the book was published in London in July 1879.
In the form of a narrative poem, the book endeavours to describe the life and time of Prince Gautama Buddha, who after attaining enlightenment became The Buddha, The Awakened One. The book presents his life, character, and philosophy, in a series of verses. It is a free adaptation of the Lalitavistara.
A few decades before the book 's publication, very little was known outside Asia about the Buddha and Buddhism, the religion which he founded, and which had existed for about twenty - five centuries. Arnold 's book was one of the first successful attempts to popularize Buddhism for a Western readership.
The book has been highly acclaimed from the time it was first published and has been the subject of several reviews. It has been translated into several languages, including Hindi.
A film adaptation of the poem directed by Franz Osten and Himansu Rai was made in 1928, titled Prem Sanyas (The Light of Asia in English). Dudley Buck used the book as the basis for an oratorio, The Light of Asia, first performed in 1887.
In the 1945 movie version of Oscar Wilde 's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), as the protagonist turns to a life of depravity, a friend tries to turn him back to a good life by lending him a copy of The Light of Asia.
The first six chapters deal with the early part of Buddha 's life -- his birth as Siddhartha, prince of Kapilavastu; his gaining first - hand knowledge of the sufferings of mankind; his resorting to meditation; and his ultimate transformation as the "Enlightened One '' after long years of meditation. The subsequent chapters speak of the Buddha 's travels and the important elements of the message he spread are discussed -- for instance, that suffering is a built - in aspect of existence; that craving for sensuality and identity is the root of suffering, and that suffering can be ended. It calls for right understanding; right thought; right speech; right action; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness; and right concentration. Throughout his peregrinations, mostly in eastern India, Gautama Buddha was joined by thousands of disciples and admirers from all walks of life.
Clausen, C., "Sir Edwin Arnold 's Light of Asia and Its Reception, '' Literature East and West, XVII (1973), 174 - 191.
|
bon jovi livin on a prayer guitar effect | Talk box - wikipedia
A talk box is an effects unit that allows musicians to modify the sound of a musical instrument by shaping the frequency content of the sound and to apply speech sounds (in the same way as singing) onto the sounds of the instrument. Typically, a talk box directs sound from the instrument into the musician 's mouth by means of a plastic tube adjacent to their vocal microphone. The musician controls the modification of the instrument 's sound by changing the shape of the mouth, "vocalizing '' the instrument 's output into a microphone.
A talk box is usually an effects pedal that sits on the floor and contains a speaker attached with an airtight connection to a plastic tube; however, it can come in other forms, including homemade, usually crude, versions, and higher quality custom - made versions. The speaker is generally in the form of a compression driver, the sound - generating part of a horn loudspeaker with the horn replaced by the tube connection.
The box has connectors for the connection to the speaker output of an instrument amplifier and a connection to a normal instrument speaker. A foot - operated switch on the box directs the sound either to the talk box speaker or to the normal speaker. The switch is usually a push - on / push - off type. The other end of the tube is taped to the side of a microphone, extending enough to direct the reproduced sound in or near the performer 's mouth.
When activated, the sound from the amplifier is reproduced by the speaker in the talk box and directed through the tube into the performer 's mouth. The shape of the mouth filters the sound, with the modified sound being picked up by the microphone. The shape of the mouth changes the harmonic content of the sound in the same way it affects the harmonic content generated by the vocal folds when speaking.
The performer can vary the shape of the mouth and position of the tongue, changing the sound of the instrument being reproduced by the talk box speaker. The performer can mouth words, with the resulting effect sounding as though the instrument is speaking. This "shaped '' sound exits the performer 's mouth, and when it enters a microphone, an instrument / voice hybrid is heard.
The sound can be that of any musical instrument, but the effect is most commonly associated with the guitar. The rich harmonics of an electric guitar are shaped by the mouth, producing a sound very similar to voice, effectively allowing the guitar to appear to "speak ''.
The effect produced by talk boxes and vocoders are often conflated by listeners. However, they have radically different mechanisms for achieving the effect. Talk boxes send the carrier signal into the singer 's mouth, where it is then modulated by the singer themselves. On the other hand, vocoders process both the carrier and the modulator signal integrally, producing the output as a separate electric signal. In addition, they are also more common in different genres: a talk box is often found in rock music due to its typical pairing with a guitar, whereas vocoders are almost always paired with synthesizers, and as such, are ubiquitous in electronic music.
In 1939, Alvino Rey, amateur radio operator W6UK, used a carbon throat microphone wired in such a way as to modulate his electric steel guitar sound. The mic, originally developed for military pilot communications, was placed on the throat of Rey 's wife Luise King (one of The King Sisters), who stood behind a curtain and mouthed the words, along with the guitar lines. The novel - sounding combination was called "Singing Guitar '', and employed on stage and in the movie Jam Session, as a "novelty '' attraction, but was not developed further.
Rey also created a somewhat similar "talking '' effect by manipulating the tone controls of his Fender electric guitar, but the vocal effect was less pronounced.
Another early voice effect using the same principle of the throat as a filter was the Sonovox, invented by Gilbert Wright in 1939. Instead of a throat microphone modulating a guitar signal, it used small transducers attached to the performer 's throat to pick up voice sounds. The Sonovox was marketed and promoted by the Wright - Sonovox company, an affiliate of the Free & Peters advertising agency.
The Sonovox was used in many radio station IDs and jingles produced by JAM Creative Productions and the PAMS advertising agency of Dallas, Texas. Lucille Ball made one of her earliest film appearances during the 1930s in a Pathé Newsreel demonstrating the Sonovox.
The first use in music was a score by Ernst Toch in the Paramount Picture "The Ghost Breakers '', in June 1940. The Sonovox also appeared in the 1940 film You 'll Find Out starring Kay Kyser and his orchestra, Bela Lugosi, Boris Karloff, and Peter Lorre. Lugosi uses the Sonovox to portray the voice of a dead person during a seance.
The Sonovox was used in films such as A Letter to Three Wives (1949), Possessed (1947), The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (1947), The Good Humor Man (1950), the voice of Casey Junior the train in Dumbo (1941) and The Reluctant Dragon (1941).
It was heard on the piano in Sparky 's Magic Piano, and the airplane in Whizzer The Talking Airplane (1947). The Sonovox was also used to give the impression instruments "talking '' in the children 's album Rusty in Orchestraville (1949).
British rock band The Who included a piece on their 1967 album, The Who Sell Out, that consisted of the days of the week "spoken '' by electric guitar chords using the Sonovox. This recording was in fact a radio jingle created by PAMS.
Pete Drake, a Nashville mainstay on the pedal steel guitar, used a talk box on his 1964 album Forever, in what came to be called his "talking steel guitar ''. The following year Gallant released three albums with the box, Pete Drake & His Talking Guitar, Talking Steel and Singing Strings, and Talking Steel Guitar. Drake 's device consisted of an 8 - inch paper cone speaker driver attached to a funnel from which a clear tube brought the sound to the performer 's mouth. It was only loud enough to be useful in the recording studio.
The Kustom Electronics device, "The Bag '', was the first mass market talk box and was housed in a decorative bag slung over the shoulder like a wine bottle. It used a 30 - watt driver and was released to the mass music market in early 1969, two years before Bob Heil 's Talk Box became widely available. The Bag is claimed to have been designed by Doug Forbes, who states that exactly the same concept (speaker attached to a plastic tube and inserted into the mouth) had previously been patented as an artificial larynx.
John Kay of Steppenwolf used the Kustom Electronics Talk Box (The Bag) in studio recordings and live performances beginning in 1969. On the album Steppenwolf Live recorded in January 1970, the Kustom Bag talk box can clearly be heard on the tracks "From Here To There Eventually '', "Hey Lawdy Mama '' and "Twisted ''. John Kay was observed using a Kustom Electronics talk box on stage in Charlotte, North Carolina in June 1970 and at two shows in New Jersey (Wildwood and Cherry Hill) in 1971. Steppenwolf appeared on the live music TV shows The Midnight Special and Don Kirshner 's Rock Concert and lead guitarist Bobby Cochran as well as John Kay used the Kustom Bag. Two other early examples of a Kustom Electronics talk box being used on studio recordings are Sly and the Family Stone 's "Sex Machine '' from their album Stand! and Al Kooper with Shuggie Otis ' "One Room Country Shack '' from their album Kooper Session, both released in 1969.
The band Iron Butterfly used a talk box in the song "Butterfly Bleu '' from the album Metamorphosis in 1970. Alvin Lee used a talk box for the Ten Years After song "I Say Yeah '' from the album Watt in 1970. Young - Holt Unlimited featured a talk box on their song "Wah - Wah Man '', also released in 1970, on the album Born Again. Stevie Wonder first used a talk box on his album Music of My Mind in early 1972. The Osmonds used a talk box on their 1972 track "Hold Her Tight ''. John Rebourn used a talk box on the song "Back on the Road Again '' in 1972 on his "Faro Annie '' album. The Crusaders featured a talk box on the album "Southern Comfort '' in 1974 -- notably on the song "Greasy Spoon ''. Jeff Beck used the Kustom Bag talk box on "She 's A Woman '' from his 1975 release Blow by Blow, and was seen using it for the song on BBC television program "Five Faces of the Guitar '' in 1974 in which he also explains its use to the host of the show.
The first high - powered Talk Box was developed by Bob Heil. Heil came up with the first high - powered Talk Box that could be reliable when used on high - level rock stages. His first Heil Talk Box was built for Joe Walsh 's Barnstorm tour. Heil and Walsh, both avid ham radio operators (K9EID and WB6ACU, respectively), along with Walsh 's guitar tech "Krinkle '', combined a 250 - watt JBL driver and suitable hi - pass filter which was used for Walsh 's single "Rocky Mountain Way ''. Walsh gives credit to Bill West, an electrical engineer, Nashville steel guitarist and first husband of country music legend Dottie West, for inventing the talk box for him in the May 2012 issue of Guitar World magazine.
Pete Townshend, in his 2012 autobiography Who I Am, claimed to have invented a version of the Talk Box during a Who tour of the USA in 1976. "I built a speaker in a small box, attached a tube and put the tube in my mouth, allowing me to speak music. ''
In 1988, Heil sold the manufacturing rights to Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc., which currently builds the Heil Talk Box to the exact standards that Heil designed in 1973.
The 1974 hit single "Tell Me Something Good '', performed by Rufus and Chaka Khan and written by Stevie Wonder, which peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, was among the earliest hits to use the guitar talk box.
In an interview for the 1999 DVD Live in Detroit, Peter Frampton says he first heard the talk box in 1970 while sitting in on sessions for George Harrison 's All Things Must Pass. While he sat next to Pete Drake in the album sessions at Abbey Road studio, he heard Pete using it with a pedal steel guitar. Frampton said in the same interview that the sound it produced reminded him of an audio effect he loved listening to on Radio Luxembourg in the later 1960s. Frampton acquired one as a Christmas present from Bob Heil in 1974. It was a hand - built Talk Box in a fiberglass box using a 100 - watt high - powered driver. This was the Heil Talk Box used for the Frampton Comes Alive tour and album. He then promptly locked himself away in a practice space for two weeks, and came out with some mastery of it. Due to the success of the albums Frampton and Frampton Comes Alive!, and particularly the hit singles "Do You Feel Like We Do '' and "Show Me the Way '', Frampton has become somewhat synonymous with the talk box.
Peter Frampton also now sells his own line of custom - designed "Framptone '' products, including a talk box.
In 1972 Todd Rundgren used a Talk Box on the album Something / Anything? on the instrumental track, "Breathless ''. Over a synthesized background his VCS3 synthesizer repeatedly "sings '' the words "I am so breathless '', which can be taken as a reference to the Talk Box. In 1975, Nazareth lead singer Dan McCafferty used a talk box in the popular single "Hair of the Dog ''. In 1975, Aerosmith guitarist Joe Perry used a talk box in the band 's highly popular singles "Sweet Emotion '' and "Walk This Way '', both on the album Toys in the Attic. He also used it in the theme song from the Spider - Man 90 's cartoon. In 1976, Steely Dan guitarist Walter Becker recorded the talk box effect atop an already - recorded Dean Parks solo in "Haitian Divorce '', on the album The Royal Scam. It was also used in a solo section of "East St. Louis Toodle - Oo '', on Steely Dan 's 1974 album Pretzel Logic. Ronnie Montrose used a talk box on the title track from his 1976 album Jump On It. Also in 1976, the band Ruby (featuring Tom Fogerty) used a talk box on the track "Running Back To Me ''. David Gilmour of Pink Floyd used the talk box on "Pigs (Three Different Ones) '' from their 1977 Animals album, and on "Keep Talking '' from 1994 's The Division Bell. The band Stillwater used a talkbox on their song "Mind Bender '' in 1977. Also from 1977, the Meters used one on their track "Funkify Your Life ''. Roger Troutman, lead singer of the R&B group Zapp, used the talk box (first with a Minimoog synthesizer, and later a Yamaha DX100) on the group 's first hit single in 1980, "More Bounce to the Ounce '', and in numerous other songs including Tupac Shakur 's "California Love ''.
Matthias Jabs, lead guitarist for Scorpions, has used the talk box in many of their songs, most notably the 1980 song "The Zoo ''. Joe Walsh used a talk box in the song "Space Age Whiz Kids '' on the 1983 album You Bought It You Name It, in "I Broke My Leg '' on the 1985 album The Confessor, and also in "Half of the Time '' on the 1987 album Got Any Gum?. Walsh, along with Don Felder, did a dual talk box guitar solo in the song "Those Shoes '' from their 1979 album, The Long Run. The 1986 Daryl Hall hit "Foolish Pride '' features the talk box played by English guitarist Richard Morcombe.
Bon Jovi guitarist Richie Sambora used the Heil Talk box in many of the band 's songs, including 1986 's "Livin ' on a Prayer '' from Slippery When Wet, 2000 's "It 's My Life '' from Crush, 2002 's "Everyday '' from Bounce, 2007 's "We Got it Goin ' On '' (Lost Highway) and 2009 's "Bullet '' (The Circle). Lead guitarist Slash of the hard rock band Guns N ' Roses used a talk box in "Anything Goes '' off their album Appetite for Destruction, released in 1987, and in "Dust and Bones '', from their following record, Use Your Illusion I. Mötley Crüe 's Mick Mars used a talk box in "Kickstart My Heart '' off their 1989 release, Dr. Feelgood.
Brian May was asked in an interview whether the song "Delilah '' was recorded using a talk box on Queen 's 1991 Innuendo record. May answered: "Yes, I finally succumbed and used one... I suppose there 's no other way to make the meow sounds, meow, meow, meow. '' Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine used a talk box on their song "Wake Up '' in 1992. Bob Hartman, from Petra, used the talk box during the 1993 song "Underneath the Blood '', from their Wake - Up Call album. Metallica used a talk box during the solo on "The House Jack Built '', from the 1996 album Load. The Foo Fighters ' Dave Grohl used a talk box during their song "Generator '' off their 1999 release, There Is Nothing Left To Lose; his use of the device was partly inspired by Grohl 's admiration of Peter Frampton and Joe Walsh. Dream Theater guitarist John Petrucci used the talk box for live performances of the song "Home '', from the band 's 1999 album Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory. Avenged Sevenfold vocalist M. Shadows used a talk box in their song "Lost '' off their 2007 self - titled album, Avenged Sevenfold. In Godsmack 's cover of the Joe Walsh song "Rocky Mountain Way '', frontman Sully Erna used a talk box.
Alice in Chains, Adam Jones of Tool, Slash, the Eagles, Chromeo, plus dozens of other groups continue to keep the Heil Talk Box in their song sets.
The talk box was used in Elton John 's 1975 album Rock of the Westies, on the song "Dan Dare (Pilot of the Future) '', as played by Davey Johnstone.
A talk box connected to an iPad running an effects program was used to create the voice of the character BB - 8 in Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
|
what is the religious significance of the hijab | Hijab - wikipedia
A hijab (/ hɪˈdʒɑːb /, / hɪˈdʒæb /, / ˈhɪ. dʒ æb / or / hɛˈdʒɑːb /; Arabic: حجاب ḥijāb, pronounced (ˈħɪˌdʒæːb) or (ˈħeˌɡæːb) (dialectal)) is a veil worn by some Muslim women in the presence of any male outside of their immediate family, which usually covers the head and chest. The word ḥijāb in the Quran refers not to women 's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain. The term can refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to a certain standard of modesty. Hijab can also be used to refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, or it may denote a metaphysical dimension, for example referring to "the veil which separates man or the world from God ''.
Most often, it is worn by Muslim women as a symbol of modesty and privacy. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty in the Quran concerns both men 's and women 's "gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia. '' The Qur'an instructs Muslim women to dress modestly. Some Islamic legal systems define this type of modest clothing as covering everything except the face, hands up to wrists, and feet. These guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur'an but, according to some, are derived from the verses (ayahs) referencing hijab in the Qur'an. Some believe that the Qur'an itself does not mandate that women wear hijab.
In the Qur'an, the term hijab refers to a partition or curtain in the literal or metaphorical sense. The verse where it is used literally is commonly understood to refer to the curtain separating visitors to Muhammad 's house from his wives ' lodgings. This had led some to argue that the mandate of the Qur'an to wear hijab applied to the wives of Muhammad, and not women generally.
In recent times, wearing hijab in public has been required by law in Saudi Arabia (for Muslims), Iran and the Indonesian province of Aceh. Other countries, both in Europe and in the Muslim world, have passed laws banning some or all types of hijab in public or in certain types of locales. Women in different parts of the world have also experienced unofficial pressure to wear or not wear hijab.
The Quran instructs both Muslim men and women to dress in a modest way, but there is disagreement on how these instructions should be interpreted. The verses relating to dress use the terms khimār (head cover) and jilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather than ḥijāb. In the Quran, there are over 6,000 verses and only about half a dozen refer specifically to the way a woman should dress or walk in public.
The clearest verse on the requirement of modest dress is surah 24: 30 -- 31, telling women to draw their khimār over their bosoms.
And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their khimār over their breasts and not display their beauty except to their husband, their fathers, their husband 's fathers, their sons, their husbands ' sons, their brothers or their brothers ' sons, or their sisters ' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.
In Surah 33: 59 Muhammad is commanded to ask his family members and other Muslim women to wear outer garments when they go out, so that they are not harassed:
Those who harass believing men and believing women undeservedly, bear (on themselves) a calumny and a grievous sin. O Prophet! Enjoin your wives, your daughters, and the wives of true believers that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): That is most convenient, that they may be distinguished and not be harassed.
The word ḥijāb in the Quran refers not to women 's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain. Sometimes its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad 's wives from the visitors to his house (33: 53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42: 51), wrongdoers and righteous (7: 46, 41: 5), believers and unbelievers (17: 45), and light from darkness (38: 32).
The interpretation of the ḥijāb as separation can be digested in three ways: as a visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. The visual barrier has the opportunity to hide something from sight which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary (for example, between the Prophet 's family and the surrounding community). The physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals such as the female elite. The ethical barrier, is known to make something forbidden such as the ' purity of hearts ' in reference to the Prophet 's wives and the Muslim men who visit them.
The Arabic word jilbab is translated as "cloak '' in the following passage. Contemporary Salafis insist that the jilbab (which is worn over the Kimaar and covers the body from head to toe) worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the hadith; other translators have chosen to use less specific terms:
Traditionally, Muslims have recognized many different forms of clothing as satisfying the demands of hijab. Debate focused on how much of the male or female body should be covered. Different scholars adopted different interpretations of the original texts.
Detailed scholarly attention has focused on prescribing female dress in conformity with hijab. The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) hold that the entire body of the woman, except her face and hands -- though a few clerics say face, hands -- must be covered during prayer and in public settings (see Awrah). There are those who allow the feet to be uncovered as well as the hands and face.
It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body: either modest forms of western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbāb, a high - necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles. Some scholars encourage covering the face, while some follow the opinion that it is not obligatory to cover the face and the hands but only mustahab (Highly recommended). Other scholars oppose face covering, particularly in the West, where the woman may draw more attention as a result. These garments are very different in cut from most of the traditional forms of ħijāb, and they are worn worldwide by Muslims.
Many Muslim scholars believe that it is a basic requirement of Islamic law that women keep their hair and bodies covered in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members (those close enough to be forbidden to marry -- see mahram). These include the Iraqi Shia Marja ' (Grand Ayatollah) Ali al - Sistani; the Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia; and others. According to some interpretations, these requirements extend to non-Muslim women as well. Some believers go so far as to specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In some cases, this is everything but the eyes, but most require that women cover everything but the face and hands. In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a ħijāb. There is not a single agreed age when a woman should begin wearing a ħijāb -- but in many Muslim cultures, puberty is the dividing line.
In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.
It has become tradition that Muslims in general, and Salafis in particular, believe the Qur'an demands women wear the garments known today as jilbāb and khumūr (the khumūr must be worn underneath the jilbāb). However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning, such as veils, head - coverings and shawls. Ghamidi argues that verses teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence he considers head - covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).
Some Muslims take a relativist approach to hijab. They believe that the commandment to maintain modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest or daring in one society might not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve.
Along with scriptural arguments, Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an. Head - covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled.
Ahmed argues for a more liberal approach to hijab. Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them '' and "guard their private parts... and drape down khimar over their breasts (when in the presence of unrelated men) '', they urge modesty. The word khimar refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head, or headscarf. While the term "hijab '' was originally anything that was used to conceal, it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.
Other verses do mention separation of men and women.
Abide still in your homes and make not a dazzling display like that of the former times of ignorance.
And when ye ask of them (the wives of the Prophet) anything, ask it of them from behind a curtain.
According to at least three authors (Karen Armstrong, Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed), the stipulations of the hijab were originally meant only for Muhammad 's wives, and were intended to maintain their inviolability. This was because Muhammad conducted all religious and civic affairs in the mosque adjacent to his home:
People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day. When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad, they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard, just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad 's wives slept. And new emigrants who arrived in Yatrib would often stay within the mosque 's walls until they could find suitable homes.
According to Ahmed:
By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep.
They argue that the term darabat al - hijab ("taking the veil '') was used synonymously and interchangeably with "becoming Prophet Muhammad 's wife '', and that during Muhammad 's life, no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad 's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers '' in Islam, and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C.E. '' in the Muslim community.
Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire.
The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world.
An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan 's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim - majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women 's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public. The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly - or loosely - fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. In Saudi Arabia 63 % gave preference to the niqab face veil; in Pakistan the niqab, the full - length chador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all.
The survey found "no significant difference '' in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favored conservative women 's dress. However, women more strongly support women 's right to choose how to dress. People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women 's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.
Some fashion - conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans. While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it can not be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed.
According to a Pew Research Center survey, among the roughly 1 million Muslim women living in the U.S., 43 % regularly wear headscarves, while about a half do not cover their hair. In another Pew Research Center poll (2011), 36 % of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24 % saying they wear it most or some of the time, while 40 % said they never wore the headcover.
In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state - mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention. The Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months.
In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian peasant women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called türban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60 % of Turkish women covered their head outside home, though only 11 % wore a türban. The ban was lifted from universities in 2008, from government buildings in 2013, and from schools in 2014.
There are several types of veils which cover the face in part or in full.
The burqa (also spelled burka) is a garment that covers the entire body, including the face. It is commonly associated with the Afghan chadri, whose face - veiling portion is typically a piece of netting that obscures the eyes but allows the wearer to see out.
The niqab is a term which is often incorrectly used interchangeably with burqa. It properly refers to a garment that covers a woman 's upper body and face, except for her eyes. It is particularly associated with the style traditionally worn in the Arabian Peninsula, where the veil is attached by one side and covers the face only below the eyes, thereby allowing the eyes to be seen.
Only a minority of Islamic scholars believe that covering the face is mandatory, and the use of niqab beyond its traditional geographic strongholds has been a subject of political controversy.
In a 2014 survey of men and women in seven Muslim - majority countries, the Afghan burqa was the preferred form of woman 's dress for 11 % of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 4 % in Iraq, 3 % in Pakistan, 2 % in Lebanon, and 1 % or less in Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey. The niqab face veil was the preferred option for 63 % of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 32 % in Pakistan, 9 % in Egypt, 8 % in Iraq, and 2 % or less in Lebanon, Tunisia, and Turkey.
Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE. Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman 's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so. Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between ' respectable ' women and those who were publicly available ''.
Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 B.C.E, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.
It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty (tzniut). Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in the Greco - Roman and later in the Babylonian society. According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair, although the surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices. According to Fadwa El Guindi, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their head and face.
There is archeological evidence suggesting that early Christian women in Rome covered their heads. Writings of Tertullian indicate that a number of different customs of dress were associated with different cults to which early Christians belonged around 200 CE. The best known early Christian view on veiling is the passage in 1 Corinithians (11: 4 - 7), which states that "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head ''. This view may have been influenced by Roman pagan customs, such as the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta (Vestal Virgins), rather than Jewish practices. In turn, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature have been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice.
Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.
Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam. '' Ahmed interprets veiling and segregation of sexes as an expression of a misogynistic view of shamefulness of sex which focused most intensely on shamefulness of the female body and danger of seeing it exposed.
Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighboring countries such as Syria and Palestine. Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status. In the early Islamic texts, term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either "veil '' or "curtain ''. The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women 's clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and throw a scarf over their heads to their bosoms in the presence of men. The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the "verse of the hijab '' descended upon the community in 627 CE. Now documented in Sura 33: 53, the verse states, "And when you ask (his wives) for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts ''. This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad 's wives. As Muhammad 's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives ' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers. During Muhammad 's lifetime the term for donning the veil, darabat al - hijab, was used interchangeably with "being Muhammad 's wife ''.
The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires. Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad 's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet 's egalitarian reforms ''.
Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. Veiling gradually spread to upper - class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities. Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields. Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle. ''
By the 19th century, upper - class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth). The name of this garment, harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself. Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization ''.
Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s. For example, in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, many liberal women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, flared trousers, and went out in public without the hijab. This changed following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback. There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979, after the hijab law was brought in, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house.
In 1953 Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college - and she does n't wear a headscarf or anything! Why do n't you make her wear the headscarf? So you ca n't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it? ''
The late - twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith. This movement was named the Sahwah, or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code. The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al - Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al - jilbāb -- an unfitted, long - sleeved, ankle - length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric -- and al - khimār, a head cover resembling a nun 's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back ''. In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al - niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.
Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women 's equality, many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.
Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it. Many instances, such as a period of forced veiling for women in Iran, brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people.
As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty and Islamic identity towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Islamic nationalism and to resist western influences. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice. They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment. Many people (both Muslim and non-Muslim) are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations, works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically, and have many other problems with the practice. This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject, both emotional and academic, which continues today.
Ever since September 11, 2001, the discussion and discourse on the hijab has intensified. Many nations have attempted to put restrictions on the hijab, which has led to a new wave of rebellion by women who instead turn to covering and wearing the hijab in even greater numbers.
Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab, including physical attacks.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women have to wear a full - body garment. Saudi women commonly wear the traditional abaya robe, while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat. These regulations are enforced by the religious police and vigilantes. In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab, which resulted in 15 deaths.
Iran went from banning all types of veils in 1936 to restoring original dress code between 1980 and 1984. Practical decisions started with the Iranian Cultural Revolution in April 1980, when it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would observe the veil. The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab (hijab shar'ee), leaving the definition of proper hijab ambiguous. The same period witnessed tensions around the definition of proper hijab, which sometimes resulted in vigilante harassment of women who were perceived to wear improper clothing. The government felt obliged to address this situation, and in 1984 Tehran 's public prosecutor announced that a stricter dress - code should observed in public establishments, while clothing in other places should correspond to standards observed by the majority of the people. A new regulation issued in 1988 by the Ministry of the Interior based on the 1983 law further specified what constituted violations of hijab. Iran 's current penal code stipulates a fine or 10 days to two months in prison as punishment for failure to observe hijab in public, without specifying its form. The dress code has been subject of alternating periods of relatively strict and relaxed enforcement over the years, with many women pushing its boundaries, and its compulsory aspect has been a point of contention between conservatives and the current president Hassan Rouhani. In governmental and religious institutions, the dress code requires khimar - type headscarf and overcoat, while in other public places women commonly wear a loosely tied headscarf (rousari). Iranian government endorses and officially promotes stricter types of veiling, praising it by invoking both Islamic religious principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.
The Indonesian province of Aceh requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public. Indonesia 's central government granted Aceh 's religious leaders the right to impose Sharia in 2001, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.
The tradition of veiling hair in Iranian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins, but the widespread custom was forcibly ended by Reza Shah 's regime in 1936, as he claimed hijab to be incompatible with his modernizing ambitions and ordered "unveiling '' act or Kashf - e hijab. The police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it, and these policies outraged the Shi'a clerics, and ordinary men and women, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Many women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah 's police. In 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.
Turkey, Tunisia, and Tajikistan are Muslim - majority countries where the law prohibits or recently prohibited the wearing of hijab in government buildings, schools, and universities. In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s more restrictions were put in place. In 2008 the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country 's Constitutional Court. In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities, government buildings and schools.
On March 15, 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation '' in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006. On July 13, 2010, France 's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public, becoming the first European country to ban the full - face veil in public places.
Belgium banned the full - face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas. In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places. In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress. In 2016, Bosnia - Herzegovina 's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40 % of the country. In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a costumer can not ask employees to remove the clothing item.
In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab. Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism '', and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police. Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini. Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice. The Nice mayor 's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation '' of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack.
Psychologists in Belgium investigated whether the Western majority 's discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the public sphere, is motivated by the defense of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia / ethnic prejudice and by antireligious sentiments. Consistently across two studies, it was found that hostility toward the veil was predicted by (a) xenophobia / subtle ethnic prejudice as well as by (b) general antireligious sentiments (jointly or independently) and not by the defense of the liberal values of autonomy and equality.
Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama ' al - Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used "a mixture of consent and coercion '' to "' restore ' hijab '' on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s.
Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestine. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a "return '' to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women. Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy. In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn "just to avoid problems on the streets ''.
Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The Taliban required women to cover not only their head but their face as well, because "the face of a woman is a source of corruption '' for men not related to them.
In Srinagar, the capital of Indian - administered Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar - e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.
In 2006, radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress.
In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves.
After the initial 1936 ban on hijab in Iran, the rules of dress code were relaxed, and after Reza Shah 's abdication in 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. According to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, between 1941 and 1979, wearing hijab was no longer offensive, but still considered it to be a real hindrance to climbing the social ladder, a badge of backwardness and a marker of class. A headscarf, let alone the chador, prejudiced the chances of advancement in work and society not only of working women but also of men, who were increasingly expected to appear with their wives at social functions.
In recent years, women wearing hijab have been subject of verbal and physical attacks in Western countries, particularly following terrorist attacks. Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend. Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction even when they are urged to do so for self - protection.
Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.
In 2015 authorities in Uzbekistan organized a "deveiling '' campaign in the capital city Tashkent, during which women wearing hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation '', while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley.
In 2016 in Kyrgyzstan the government has sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.
World Hijab Day is an annual event that takes place on February 1. The first World Hijab Day was celebrated in 2013. Founded by Nazma Khan, it is a worldwide event that encourages Muslim and non-Muslim women to wear the hijab to experience the life of a hijabi woman.
|
what do you mean by artificial neural network | Artificial neural network - Wikipedia
Artificial neural networks (ANN) or connectionist systems are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn '' to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task - specific rules. For example, in image recognition, they might learn to identify images that contain cats by analyzing example images that have been manually labeled as "cat '' or "no cat '' and using the results to identify cats in other images. They do this without any prior knowledge about cats, e.g., that they have fur, tails, whiskers and cat - like faces. Instead, they automatically generate identifying characteristics from the learning material that they process.
An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit a signal from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it.
In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called ' edges '. Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer), to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.
The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis.
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943) created a computational model for neural networks based on mathematics and algorithms called threshold logic. This model paved the way for neural network research to split into two approaches. One approach focused on biological processes in the brain while the other focused on the application of neural networks to artificial intelligence. This work led to work on nerve networks and their link to finite automata.
In the late 1940s, D.O. Hebb created a learning hypothesis based on the mechanism of neural plasticity that became known as Hebbian learning. Hebbian learning is unsupervised learning. This evolved into models for long term potentiation. Researchers started applying these ideas to computational models in 1948 with Turing 's B - type machines.
Farley and Clark (1954) first used computational machines, then called "calculators '', to simulate a Hebbian network. Other neural network computational machines were created by Rochester, Holland, Habit and Duda (1956).
Rosenblatt (1958) created the perceptron, an algorithm for pattern recognition. With mathematical notation, Rosenblatt described circuitry not in the basic perceptron, such as the exclusive - or circuit that could not be processed by neural networks at the time.
In 1959, a biological model proposed by Nobel laureates Hubel and Wiesel was based on their discovery of two types of cells in the primary visual cortex: simple cells and complex cells.
The first functional networks with many layers were published by Ivakhnenko and Lapa in 1965, becoming the Group Method of Data Handling.
Neural network research stagnated after machine learning research by Minsky and Papert (1969), who discovered two key issues with the computational machines that processed neural networks. The first was that basic perceptrons were incapable of processing the exclusive - or circuit. The second was that computers did n't have enough processing power to effectively handle the work required by large neural networks. Neural network research slowed until computers achieved far greater processing power.
Much of artificial intelligence had focused on high - level (symbolic) models that are processed by using algorithms, characterized for example by expert systems with knowledge embodied in if - then rules, until in the late 1980s research expanded to low - level (sub-symbolic) machine learning, characterized by knowledge embodied in the parameters of a cognitive model.
A key trigger for renewed interest in neural networks and learning was Werbos 's (1975) backpropagation algorithm that effectively solved the exclusive - or problem and more generally accelerated the training of multi-layer networks. Backpropagation distributed the error term back up through the layers, by modifying the weights at each node.
In the mid-1980s, parallel distributed processing became popular under the name connectionism. Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) described the use of connectionism to simulate neural processes.
Support vector machines and other, much simpler methods such as linear classifiers gradually overtook neural networks in machine learning popularity. However, using neural networks transformed some domains, such as the prediction of protein structures.
In 1992, max - pooling was introduced to help with least shift invariance and tolerance to deformation to aid in 3D object recognition. In 2010, Backpropagation training through max - pooling was accelerated by GPUs and shown to perform better than other pooling variants.
The vanishing gradient problem affects many - layered feedforward networks that used backpropagation and also recurrent neural networks (RNNs). As errors propagate from layer to layer, they shrink exponentially with the number of layers, impeding the tuning of neuron weights that is based on those errors, particularly affecting deep networks.
To overcome this problem, Schmidhuber adopted a multi-level hierarchy of networks (1992) pre-trained one level at a time by unsupervised learning and fine - tuned by backpropagation. Behnke (2003) relied only on the sign of the gradient (Rprop) on problems such as image reconstruction and face localization.
Hinton et al. (2006) proposed learning a high - level representation using successive layers of binary or real - valued latent variables with a restricted Boltzmann machine to model each layer. Once sufficiently many layers have been learned, the deep architecture may be used as a generative model by reproducing the data when sampling down the model (an "ancestral pass '') from the top level feature activations. In 2012, Ng and Dean created a network that learned to recognize higher - level concepts, such as cats, only from watching unlabeled images taken from YouTube videos.
Earlier challenges in training deep neural networks were successfully addressed with methods such as unsupervised pre-training, while available computing power increased through the use of GPUs and distributed computing. Neural networks were deployed on a large scale, particularly in image and visual recognition problems. This became known as "deep learning ''.
Computational devices were created in CMOS, for both biophysical simulation and neuromorphic computing. Nanodevices for very large scale principal components analyses and convolution may create a new class of neural computing because they are fundamentally analog rather than digital (even though the first implementations may use digital devices). Ciresan and colleagues (2010) in Schmidhuber 's group showed that despite the vanishing gradient problem, GPUs makes back - propagation feasible for many - layered feedforward neural networks.
Between 2009 and 2012, recurrent neural networks and deep feedforward neural networks developed in Schmidhuber 's research group won eight international competitions in pattern recognition and machine learning. For example, the bi-directional and multi-dimensional long short - term memory (LSTM) of Graves et al. won three competitions in connected handwriting recognition at the 2009 International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR), without any prior knowledge about the three languages to be learned.
Ciresan and colleagues won pattern recognition contests, including the IJCNN 2011 Traffic Sign Recognition Competition, the ISBI 2012 Segmentation of Neuronal Structures in Electron Microscopy Stacks challenge and others. Their neural networks were the first pattern recognizers to achieve human - competitive or even superhuman performance on benchmarks such as traffic sign recognition (IJCNN 2012), or the MNIST handwritten digits problem.
Researchers demonstrated (2010) that deep neural networks interfaced to a hidden Markov model with context - dependent states that define the neural network output layer can drastically reduce errors in large - vocabulary speech recognition tasks such as voice search.
GPU - based implementations of this approach won many pattern recognition contests, including the IJCNN 2011 Traffic Sign Recognition Competition, the ISBI 2012 Segmentation of neuronal structures in EM stacks challenge, the ImageNet Competition and others.
Deep, highly nonlinear neural architectures similar to the neocognitron and the "standard architecture of vision '', inspired by simple and complex cells, were pre-trained by unsupervised methods by Hinton. A team from his lab won a 2012 contest sponsored by Merck to design software to help find molecules that might identify new drugs.
As of 2011, the state of the art in deep learning feedforward networks alternated between convolutional layers and max - pooling layers, topped by several fully or sparsely connected layers followed by a final classification layer. Learning is usually done without unsupervised pre-training.
Such supervised deep learning methods were the first to achieve human - competitive performance on certain tasks.
Artificial neural networks were able to guarantee shift invariance to deal with small and large natural objects in large cluttered scenes, only when invariance extended beyond shift, to all ANN - learned concepts, such as location, type (object class label), scale, lighting and others. This was realized in Developmental Networks (DNs) whose embodiments are Where - What Networks, WWN - 1 (2008) through WWN - 7 (2013).
An artificial neural network is a network of simple elements called artificial neurons, which receive input, change their internal state (activation) according to that input, and produce output depending on the input and activation. The network forms by connecting the output of certain neurons to the input of other neurons forming a directed, weighted graph. The weights as well as the functions that compute the activation can be modified by a process called learning which is governed by a learning rule.
A neuron with label j (\ displaystyle j) receiving an input p j (t) (\ displaystyle p_ (j) (t)) from predecessor neurons consists of the following components:
Often the output function is simply the Identity function.
An input neuron has no predecessor but serves as input interface for the whole network. Similarly an output neuron has no successor and thus serves as output interface of the whole network.
The network consists of connections, each connection transferring the output of a neuron i (\ displaystyle i) to the input of a neuron j (\ displaystyle j). In this sense i (\ displaystyle i) is the predecessor of j (\ displaystyle j) and j (\ displaystyle j) is the successor of i (\ displaystyle i). Each connection is assigned a weight w i j (\ displaystyle w_ (ij)).
The propagation function computes the input p j (t) (\ displaystyle p_ (j) (t)) to the neuron j (\ displaystyle j) from the outputs o i (t) (\ displaystyle o_ (i) (t)) of predecessor neurons and typically has the form
The learning rule is a rule or an algorithm which modifies the parameters of the neural network, in order for a given input to the network to produce a favored output. This learning process typically amounts to modifying the weights and thresholds of the variables within the network.
Neural network models can be viewed as simple mathematical models defining a function f: X → Y (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f: X \ rightarrow Y) or a distribution over X (\ displaystyle \ textstyle X) or both X (\ displaystyle \ textstyle X) and Y (\ displaystyle \ textstyle Y). Sometimes models are intimately associated with a particular learning rule. A common use of the phrase "ANN model '' is really the definition of a class of such functions (where members of the class are obtained by varying parameters, connection weights, or specifics of the architecture such as the number of neurons or their connectivity).
Mathematically, a neuron 's network function f (x) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f (x)) is defined as a composition of other functions g i (x) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle g_ (i) (x)), that can further be decomposed into other functions. This can be conveniently represented as a network structure, with arrows depicting the dependencies between functions. A widely used type of composition is the nonlinear weighted sum, where f (x) = K (∑ i w i g i (x)) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f (x) = K \ left (\ sum _ (i) w_ (i) g_ (i) (x) \ right)), where K (\ displaystyle \ textstyle K) (commonly referred to as the activation function) is some predefined function, such as the hyperbolic tangent or sigmoid function or softmax function or rectifier function. The important characteristic of the activation function is that it provides a smooth transition as input values change, i.e. a small change in input produces a small change in output. The following refers to a collection of functions g i (\ displaystyle \ textstyle g_ (i)) as a vector g = (g 1, g 2,..., g n) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle g = (g_ (1), g_ (2), \ ldots, g_ (n))).
This figure depicts such a decomposition of f (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f), with dependencies between variables indicated by arrows. These can be interpreted in two ways.
The first view is the functional view: the input x (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x) is transformed into a 3 - dimensional vector h (\ displaystyle \ textstyle h), which is then transformed into a 2 - dimensional vector g (\ displaystyle \ textstyle g), which is finally transformed into f (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f). This view is most commonly encountered in the context of optimization.
The second view is the probabilistic view: the random variable F = f (G) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle F = f (G)) depends upon the random variable G = g (H) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle G = g (H)), which depends upon H = h (X) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle H = h (X)), which depends upon the random variable X (\ displaystyle \ textstyle X). This view is most commonly encountered in the context of graphical models.
The two views are largely equivalent. In either case, for this particular architecture, the components of individual layers are independent of each other (e.g., the components of g (\ displaystyle \ textstyle g) are independent of each other given their input h (\ displaystyle \ textstyle h)). This naturally enables a degree of parallelism in the implementation.
Networks such as the previous one are commonly called feedforward, because their graph is a directed acyclic graph. Networks with cycles are commonly called recurrent. Such networks are commonly depicted in the manner shown at the top of the figure, where f (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f) is shown as being dependent upon itself. However, an implied temporal dependence is not shown.
The possibility of learning has attracted the most interest in neural networks. Given a specific task to solve, and a class of functions F (\ displaystyle \ textstyle F), learning means using a set of observations to find f ∗ ∈ F (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f ^ (*) \ in F) which solves the task in some optimal sense.
This entails defining a cost function C: F → R (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C: F \ rightarrow \ mathbb (R)) such that, for the optimal solution f ∗ (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f ^ (*)), C (f ∗) ≤ C (f) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C (f ^ (*)) \ leq C (f)) ∀ f ∈ F (\ displaystyle \ textstyle \ forall f \ in F) -- i.e., no solution has a cost less than the cost of the optimal solution (see mathematical optimization).
The cost function C (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C) is an important concept in learning, as it is a measure of how far away a particular solution is from an optimal solution to the problem to be solved. Learning algorithms search through the solution space to find a function that has the smallest possible cost.
For applications where the solution is data dependent, the cost must necessarily be a function of the observations, otherwise the model would not relate to the data. It is frequently defined as a statistic to which only approximations can be made. As a simple example, consider the problem of finding the model f (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f), which minimizes C = E ((f (x) − y) 2) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C = E \ left ((f (x) - y) ^ (2) \ right)), for data pairs (x, y) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (x, y)) drawn from some distribution D (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (\ mathcal (D))). In practical situations we would only have N (\ displaystyle \ textstyle N) samples from D (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (\ mathcal (D))) and thus, for the above example, we would only minimize C ^ = 1 N ∑ i = 1 N (f (x i) − y i) 2 (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (\ hat (C)) = (\ frac (1) (N)) \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (N) (f (x_ (i)) - y_ (i)) ^ (2)). Thus, the cost is minimized over a sample of the data rather than the entire distribution.
When N → ∞ (\ displaystyle \ textstyle N \ rightarrow \ infty) some form of online machine learning must be used, where the cost is reduced as each new example is seen. While online machine learning is often used when D (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (\ mathcal (D))) is fixed, it is most useful in the case where the distribution changes slowly over time. In neural network methods, some form of online machine learning is frequently used for finite datasets.
While it is possible to define an ad hoc cost function, frequently a particular cost (function) is used, either because it has desirable properties (such as convexity) or because it arises naturally from a particular formulation of the problem (e.g., in a probabilistic formulation the posterior probability of the model can be used as an inverse cost). Ultimately, the cost function depends on the task.
A DNN can be discriminatively trained with the standard backpropagation algorithm. Backpropagation is a method to calculate the gradient of the loss function (produces the cost associated with a given state) with respect to the weights in an ANN.
The basics of continuous backpropagation were derived in the context of control theory by Kelley in 1960 and by Bryson in 1961, using principles of dynamic programming. In 1962, Dreyfus published a simpler derivation based only on the chain rule. Bryson and Ho described it as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method in 1969. In 1970, Linnainmaa finally published the general method for automatic differentiation (AD) of discrete connected networks of nested differentiable functions. This corresponds to the modern version of backpropagation which is efficient even when the networks are sparse. In 1973, Dreyfus used backpropagation to adapt parameters of controllers in proportion to error gradients. In 1974, Werbos mentioned the possibility of applying this principle to Artificial neural networks, and in 1982, he applied Linnainmaa 's AD method to neural networks in the way that is widely used today. In 1986, Rumelhart, Hinton and Williams noted that this method can generate useful internal representations of incoming data in hidden layers of neural networks. In 1993, Wan was the first to win an international pattern recognition contest through backpropagation.
The weight updates of backpropagation can be done via stochastic gradient descent using the following equation:
where, η (\ displaystyle \ eta) is the learning rate, C (\ displaystyle C) is the cost (loss) function and ξ (t) (\ displaystyle \ xi (t)) a stochastic term. The choice of the cost function depends on factors such as the learning type (supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement, etc.) and the activation function. For example, when performing supervised learning on a multiclass classification problem, common choices for the activation function and cost function are the softmax function and cross entropy function, respectively. The softmax function is defined as p j = exp (x j) ∑ k exp (x k) (\ displaystyle p_ (j) = (\ frac (\ exp (x_ (j))) (\ sum _ (k) \ exp (x_ (k))))) where p j (\ displaystyle p_ (j)) represents the class probability (output of the unit j (\ displaystyle j)) and x j (\ displaystyle x_ (j)) and x k (\ displaystyle x_ (k)) represent the total input to units j (\ displaystyle j) and k (\ displaystyle k) of the same level respectively. Cross entropy is defined as C = − ∑ j d j log (p j) (\ displaystyle C = - \ sum _ (j) d_ (j) \ log (p_ (j))) where d j (\ displaystyle d_ (j)) represents the target probability for output unit j (\ displaystyle j) and p j (\ displaystyle p_ (j)) is the probability output for j (\ displaystyle j) after applying the activation function.
These can be used to output object bounding boxes in the form of a binary mask. They are also used for multi-scale regression to increase localization precision. DNN - based regression can learn features that capture geometric information in addition to serving as a good classifier. They remove the requirement to explicitly model parts and their relations. This helps to broaden the variety of objects that can be learned. The model consists of multiple layers, each of which has a rectified linear unit as its activation function for non-linear transformation. Some layers are convolutional, while others are fully connected. Every convolutional layer has an additional max pooling. The network is trained to minimize L error for predicting the mask ranging over the entire training set containing bounding boxes represented as masks.
Alternatives to backpropagation include Extreme Learning Machines, "No - prop '' networks, training without backtracking, "weightless '' networks, and non-connectionist neural networks.
The three major learning paradigms each correspond to a particular learning task. These are supervised learning, unsupervised learning and reinforcement learning.
Supervised learning uses a set of example pairs (x, y), x ∈ X, y ∈ Y (\ displaystyle (x, y), x \ in X, y \ in Y) and the aim is to find a function f: X → Y (\ displaystyle f: X \ rightarrow Y) in the allowed class of functions that matches the examples. In other words, we wish to infer the mapping implied by the data; the cost function is related to the mismatch between our mapping and the data and it implicitly contains prior knowledge about the problem domain.
A commonly used cost is the mean - squared error, which tries to minimize the average squared error between the network 's output, f (x) (\ displaystyle f (x)), and the target value y (\ displaystyle y) over all the example pairs. Minimizing this cost using gradient descent for the class of neural networks called multilayer perceptrons (MLP), produces the backpropagation algorithm for training neural networks.
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of supervised learning are pattern recognition (also known as classification) and regression (also known as function approximation). The supervised learning paradigm is also applicable to sequential data (e.g., for hand writing, speech and gesture recognition). This can be thought of as learning with a "teacher '', in the form of a function that provides continuous feedback on the quality of solutions obtained thus far.
In unsupervised learning, some data x (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x) is given and the cost function to be minimized, that can be any function of the data x (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x) and the network 's output, f (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f).
The cost function is dependent on the task (the model domain) and any a priori assumptions (the implicit properties of the model, its parameters and the observed variables).
As a trivial example, consider the model f (x) = a (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f (x) = a) where a (\ displaystyle \ textstyle a) is a constant and the cost C = E ((x − f (x)) 2) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C = E ((x-f (x)) ^ (2))). Minimizing this cost produces a value of a (\ displaystyle \ textstyle a) that is equal to the mean of the data. The cost function can be much more complicated. Its form depends on the application: for example, in compression it could be related to the mutual information between x (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x) and f (x) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle f (x)), whereas in statistical modeling, it could be related to the posterior probability of the model given the data (note that in both of those examples those quantities would be maximized rather than minimized).
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of unsupervised learning are in general estimation problems; the applications include clustering, the estimation of statistical distributions, compression and filtering.
In reinforcement learning, data x (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x) are usually not given, but generated by an agent 's interactions with the environment. At each point in time t (\ displaystyle \ textstyle t), the agent performs an action y t (\ displaystyle \ textstyle y_ (t)) and the environment generates an observation x t (\ displaystyle \ textstyle x_ (t)) and an instantaneous cost c t (\ displaystyle \ textstyle c_ (t)), according to some (usually unknown) dynamics. The aim is to discover a policy for selecting actions that minimizes some measure of a long - term cost, e.g., the expected cumulative cost. The environment 's dynamics and the long - term cost for each policy are usually unknown, but can be estimated.
More formally the environment is modeled as a Markov decision process (MDP) with states s 1,..., s n ∈ S (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (s_ (1),..., s_ (n)) \ in S) and actions a 1,..., a m ∈ A (\ displaystyle \ textstyle (a_ (1),..., a_ (m)) \ in A) with the following probability distributions: the instantaneous cost distribution P (c t s t) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle P (c_ (t) s_ (t))), the observation distribution P (x t s t) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle P (x_ (t) s_ (t))) and the transition P (s t + 1 s t, a t) (\ displaystyle \ textstyle P (s_ (t + 1) s_ (t), a_ (t))), while a policy is defined as the conditional distribution over actions given the observations. Taken together, the two then define a Markov chain (MC). The aim is to discover the policy (i.e., the MC) that minimizes the cost.
Artificial neural networks are frequently used in reinforcement learning as part of the overall algorithm. Dynamic programming was coupled with Artificial neural networks (giving neurodynamic programming) by Bertsekas and Tsitsiklis and applied to multi-dimensional nonlinear problems such as those involved in vehicle routing, natural resources management or medicine because of the ability of Artificial neural networks to mitigate losses of accuracy even when reducing the discretization grid density for numerically approximating the solution of the original control problems.
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of reinforcement learning are control problems, games and other sequential decision making tasks.
This is a learning method specially designed for cerebellar model articulation controller (CMAC) neural networks. In 2004 a recursive least squares algorithm was introduced to train CMAC neural network online. This algorithm can converge in one step and update all weights in one step with any new input data. Initially, this algorithm had computational complexity of O (N). Based on QR decomposition, this recursive learning algorithm was simplified to be O (N).
Training a neural network model essentially means selecting one model from the set of allowed models (or, in a Bayesian framework, determining a distribution over the set of allowed models) that minimizes the cost. Numerous algorithms are available for training neural network models; most of them can be viewed as a straightforward application of optimization theory and statistical estimation.
Most employ some form of gradient descent, using backpropagation to compute the actual gradients. This is done by simply taking the derivative of the cost function with respect to the network parameters and then changing those parameters in a gradient - related direction. Backpropagation training algorithms fall into three categories:
Evolutionary methods, gene expression programming, simulated annealing, expectation - maximization, non-parametric methods and particle swarm optimization are other methods for training neural networks.
The Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH) features fully automatic structural and parametric model optimization. The node activation functions are Kolmogorov - Gabor polynomials that permit additions and multiplications. It used a deep feedforward multilayer perceptron with eight layers. It is a supervised learning network that grows layer by layer, where each layer is trained by regression analysis. Useless items are detected using a validation set, and pruned through regularization. The size and depth of the resulting network depends on the task.
A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a class of deep, feed - forward networks, composed of one or more convolutional layers with fully connected layers (matching those in typical Artificial neural networks) on top. It uses tied weights and pooling layers. In particular, max - pooling is often structured via Fukushima 's convolutional architecture. This architecture allows CNNs to take advantage of the 2D structure of input data.
CNNs are suitable for processing visual and other two - dimensional data. They have shown superior results in both image and speech applications. They can be trained with standard backpropagation. CNNs are easier to train than other regular, deep, feed - forward neural networks and have many fewer parameters to estimate. Examples of applications in computer vision include DeepDream and robot navigation.
Long short - term memory (LSTM) networks are RNNs that avoid the vanishing gradient problem. LSTM is normally augmented by recurrent gates called forget gates. LSTM networks prevent backpropagated errors from vanishing or exploding. Instead errors can flow backwards through unlimited numbers of virtual layers in space - unfolded LSTM. That is, LSTM can learn "very deep learning '' tasks that require memories of events that happened thousands or even millions of discrete time steps ago. Problem - specific LSTM - like topologies can be evolved. LSTM can handle long delays and signals that have a mix of low and high frequency components.
Stacks of LSTM RNNs trained by Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC) can find an RNN weight matrix that maximizes the probability of the label sequences in a training set, given the corresponding input sequences. CTC achieves both alignment and recognition.
In 2003, LSTM started to become competitive with traditional speech recognizers. In 2007, the combination with CTC achieved first good results on speech data. In 2009, a CTC - trained LSTM was the first RNN to win pattern recognition contests, when it won several competitions in connected handwriting recognition. In 2014, Baidu used CTC - trained RNNs to break the Switchboard Hub5'00 speech recognition benchmark, without traditional speech processing methods. LSTM also improved large - vocabulary speech recognition, text - to - speech synthesis, for Google Android, and photo - real talking heads. In 2015, Google 's speech recognition experienced a 49 % improvement through CTC - trained LSTM.
LSTM became popular in Natural Language Processing. Unlike previous models based on HMMs and similar concepts, LSTM can learn to recognise context - sensitive languages. LSTM improved machine translation, language modeling and multilingual language processing. LSTM combined with CNNs improved automatic image captioning.
Deep Reservoir Computing and Deep Echo State Networks (deepESNs) provide a framework for efficiently trained models for hierarchical processing of temporal data, while enabling the investigation of the inherent role of RNN layered composition.
A deep belief network (DBN) is a probabilistic, generative model made up of multiple layers of hidden units. It can be considered a composition of simple learning modules that make up each layer.
A DBN can be used to generatively pre-train a DNN by using the learned DBN weights as the initial DNN weights. Backpropagation or other discriminative algorithms can then tune these weights. This is particularly helpful when training data are limited, because poorly initialized weights can significantly hinder model performance. These pre-trained weights are in a region of the weight space that is closer to the optimal weights than were they randomly chosen. This allows for both improved modeling and faster convergence of the fine - tuning phase.
Large memory storage and retrieval neural networks (LAMSTAR) are fast deep learning neural networks of many layers that can use many filters simultaneously. These filters may be nonlinear, stochastic, logic, non-stationary, or even non-analytical. They are biologically motivated and learn continuously.
A LAMSTAR neural network may serve as a dynamic neural network in spatial or time domains or both. Its speed is provided by Hebbian link - weights that integrate the various and usually different filters (preprocessing functions) into its many layers and to dynamically rank the significance of the various layers and functions relative to a given learning task. This grossly imitates biological learning which integrates various preprocessors (cochlea, retina, etc.) and cortexes (auditory, visual, etc.) and their various regions. Its deep learning capability is further enhanced by using inhibition, correlation and its ability to cope with incomplete data, or "lost '' neurons or layers even amidst a task. It is fully transparent due to its link weights. The link - weights allow dynamic determination of innovation and redundancy, and facilitate the ranking of layers, of filters or of individual neurons relative to a task.
LAMSTAR has been applied to many domains, including medical and financial predictions, adaptive filtering of noisy speech in unknown noise, still - image recognition, video image recognition, software security and adaptive control of non-linear systems. LAMSTAR had a much faster learning speed and somewhat lower error rate than a CNN based on ReLU - function filters and max pooling, in 20 comparative studies.
These applications demonstrate delving into aspects of the data that are hidden from shallow learning networks and the human senses, such as in the cases of predicting onset of sleep apnea events, of an electrocardiogram of a fetus as recorded from skin - surface electrodes placed on the mother 's abdomen early in pregnancy, of financial prediction or in blind filtering of noisy speech.
LAMSTAR was proposed in 1996 (A U.S. Patent 5,920,852 A) and was further developed Graupe and Kordylewski from 1997 -- 2002. A modified version, known as LAMSTAR 2, was developed by Schneider and Graupe in 2008.
The auto encoder idea is motivated by the concept of a good representation. For example, for a classifier, a good representation can be defined as one that yields a better - performing classifier.
An encoder is a deterministic mapping f θ (\ displaystyle f_ (\ theta)) that transforms an input vector x into hidden representation y, where θ = (W, b) (\ displaystyle \ theta = \ ((\ boldsymbol (W)), b \)), W (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (W))) is the weight matrix and b is an offset vector (bias). A decoder maps back the hidden representation y to the reconstructed input z via g θ (\ displaystyle g_ (\ theta)). The whole process of auto encoding is to compare this reconstructed input to the original and try to minimize the error to make the reconstructed value as close as possible to the original.
In stacked denoising auto encoders, the partially corrupted output is cleaned (de-noised). This idea was introduced in 2010 by Vincent et al. with a specific approach to good representation, a good representation is one that can be obtained robustly from a corrupted input and that will be useful for recovering the corresponding clean input. Implicit in this definition are the following ideas:
The algorithm starts by a stochastic mapping of x (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (x))) to x ~ (\ displaystyle (\ tilde (\ boldsymbol (x)))) through q D (x ~ x) (\ displaystyle q_ (D) ((\ tilde (\ boldsymbol (x))) (\ boldsymbol (x)))), this is the corrupting step. Then the corrupted input x ~ (\ displaystyle (\ tilde (\ boldsymbol (x)))) passes through a basic auto - encoder process and is mapped to a hidden representation y = f θ (x ~) = s (W x ~ + b) (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (y)) = f_ (\ theta) ((\ tilde (\ boldsymbol (x)))) = s ((\ boldsymbol (W)) (\ tilde (\ boldsymbol (x))) + b)). From this hidden representation, we can reconstruct z = g θ (y) (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (z)) = g_ (\ theta) ((\ boldsymbol (y)))). In the last stage, a minimization algorithm runs in order to have z as close as possible to uncorrupted input x (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (x))). The reconstruction error L H (x, z) (\ displaystyle L_ (H) ((\ boldsymbol (x)), (\ boldsymbol (z)))) might be either the cross-entropy loss with an affine - sigmoid decoder, or the squared error loss with an affine decoder.
In order to make a deep architecture, auto encoders stack. Once the encoding function f θ (\ displaystyle f_ (\ theta)) of the first denoising auto encoder is learned and used to uncorrupt the input (corrupted input), the second level can be trained.
Once the stacked auto encoder is trained, its output can be used as the input to a supervised learning algorithm such as support vector machine classifier or a multi-class logistic regression.
A deep stacking network (DSN) (deep convex network) is based on a hierarchy of blocks of simplified neural network modules. It was introduced in 2011 by Deng and Dong. It formulates the learning as a convex optimization problem with a closed - form solution, emphasizing the mechanism 's similarity to stacked generalization. Each DSN block is a simple module that is easy to train by itself in a supervised fashion without backpropagation for the entire blocks.
Each block consists of a simplified multi-layer perceptron (MLP) with a single hidden layer. The hidden layer h has logistic sigmoidal units, and the output layer has linear units. Connections between these layers are represented by weight matrix U; input - to - hidden - layer connections have weight matrix W. Target vectors t form the columns of matrix T, and the input data vectors x form the columns of matrix X. The matrix of hidden units is H = σ (W T X) (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (H)) = \ sigma ((\ boldsymbol (W)) ^ (T) (\ boldsymbol (X)))). Modules are trained in order, so lower - layer weights W are known at each stage. The function performs the element-wise logistic sigmoid operation. Each block estimates the same final label class y, and its estimate is concatenated with original input X to form the expanded input for the next block. Thus, the input to the first block contains the original data only, while downstream blocks ' input adds the output of preceding blocks. Then learning the upper - layer weight matrix U given other weights in the network can be formulated as a convex optimization problem:
which has a closed - form solution.
Unlike other deep architectures, such as DBNs, the goal is not to discover the transformed feature representation. The structure of the hierarchy of this kind of architecture makes parallel learning straightforward, as a batch - mode optimization problem. In purely discriminative tasks, DSNs perform better than conventional DBN s.
This architecture is a DSN extension. It offers two important improvements: it uses higher - order information from covariance statistics, and it transforms the non-convex problem of a lower - layer to a convex sub-problem of an upper - layer. TDSNs use covariance statistics in a bilinear mapping from each of two distinct sets of hidden units in the same layer to predictions, via a third - order tensor.
While parallelization and scalability are not considered seriously in conventional DNNs, all learning for DSN s and TDSN s is done in batch mode, to allow parallelization. Parallelization allows scaling the design to larger (deeper) architectures and data sets.
The basic architecture is suitable for diverse tasks such as classification and regression.
The need for deep learning with real - valued inputs, as in Gaussian restricted Boltzmann machines, led to the spike - and - slab RBM (ss RBM), which models continuous - valued inputs with strictly binary latent variables. Similar to basic RBMs and its variants, a spike - and - slab RBM is a bipartite graph, while like GRBMs, the visible units (input) are real - valued. The difference is in the hidden layer, where each hidden unit has a binary spike variable and a real - valued slab variable. A spike is a discrete probability mass at zero, while a slab is a density over continuous domain; their mixture forms a prior.
An extension of ss RBM called μ - ss RBM provides extra modeling capacity using additional terms in the energy function. One of these terms enables the model to form a conditional distribution of the spike variables by marginalizing out the slab variables given an observation.
Compound hierarchical - deep models compose deep networks with non-parametric Bayesian models. Features can be learned using deep architectures such as DBNs, DBMs, deep auto encoders, convolutional variants, ssRBMs, deep coding networks, DBNs with sparse feature learning, RNNs, conditional DBNs, de-noising auto encoders. This provides a better representation, allowing faster learning and more accurate classification with high - dimensional data. However, these architectures are poor at learning novel classes with few examples, because all network units are involved in representing the input (a distributed representation) and must be adjusted together (high degree of freedom). Limiting the degree of freedom reduces the number of parameters to learn, facilitating learning of new classes from few examples. Hierarchical Bayesian (HB) models allow learning from few examples, for example for computer vision, statistics and cognitive science.
Compound HD architectures aim to integrate characteristics of both HB and deep networks. The compound HDP - DBM architecture is a hierarchical Dirichlet process (HDP) as a hierarchical model, incorporated with DBM architecture. It is a full generative model, generalized from abstract concepts flowing through the layers of the model, which is able to synthesize new examples in novel classes that look "reasonably '' natural. All the levels are learned jointly by maximizing a joint log - probability score.
In a DBM with three hidden layers, the probability of a visible input ν is:
where h = (h (1), h (2), h (3)) (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (h)) = \ ((\ boldsymbol (h)) ^ ((1)), (\ boldsymbol (h)) ^ ((2)), (\ boldsymbol (h)) ^ ((3)) \)) is the set of hidden units, and ψ = (W (1), W (2), W (3)) (\ displaystyle \ psi = \ ((\ boldsymbol (W)) ^ ((1)), (\ boldsymbol (W)) ^ ((2)), (\ boldsymbol (W)) ^ ((3)) \)) are the model parameters, representing visible - hidden and hidden - hidden symmetric interaction terms.
A learned DBM model is an undirected model that defines the joint distribution P (ν, h 1, h 2, h 3) (\ displaystyle P (\ nu, h ^ (1), h ^ (2), h ^ (3))). One way to express what has been learned is the conditional model P (ν, h 1, h 2 h 3) (\ displaystyle P (\ nu, h ^ (1), h ^ (2) h ^ (3))) and a prior term P (h 3) (\ displaystyle P (h ^ (3))).
Here P (ν, h 1, h 2 h 3) (\ displaystyle P (\ nu, h ^ (1), h ^ (2) h ^ (3))) represents a conditional DBM model, which can be viewed as a two - layer DBM but with bias terms given by the states of h 3 (\ displaystyle h ^ (3)):
A deep predictive coding network (DPCN) is a predictive coding scheme that uses top - down information to empirically adjust the priors needed for a bottom - up inference procedure by means of a deep, locally connected, generative model. This works by extracting sparse features from time - varying observations using a linear dynamical model. Then, a pooling strategy is used to learn invariant feature representations. These units compose to form a deep architecture and are trained by greedy layer-wise unsupervised learning. The layers constitute a kind of Markov chain such that the states at any layer depend only on the preceding and succeeding layers.
DPCNs predict the representation of the layer, by using a top - down approach using the information in upper layer and temporal dependencies from previous states.
DPCNs can be extended to form a convolutional network.
Integrating external memory with Artificial neural networks dates to early research in distributed representations and Kohonen 's self - organizing maps. For example, in sparse distributed memory or hierarchical temporal memory, the patterns encoded by neural networks are used as addresses for content - addressable memory, with "neurons '' essentially serving as address encoders and decoders. However, the early controllers of such memories were not differentiable.
Apart from long short - term memory (LSTM), other approaches also added differentiable memory to recurrent functions. For example:
Neural Turing machines couple LSTM networks to external memory resources, with which they can interact by attentional processes. The combined system is analogous to a Turing machine but is differentiable end - to - end, allowing it to be efficiently trained by gradient descent. Preliminary results demonstrate that neural Turing machines can infer simple algorithms such as copying, sorting and associative recall from input and output examples.
Differentiable neural computers (DNC) are an NTM extension. They out - performed Neural turing machines, long short - term memory systems and memory networks on sequence - processing tasks.
Approaches that represent previous experiences directly and use a similar experience to form a local model are often called nearest neighbour or k - nearest neighbors methods. Deep learning is useful in semantic hashing where a deep graphical model the word - count vectors obtained from a large set of documents. Documents are mapped to memory addresses in such a way that semantically similar documents are located at nearby addresses. Documents similar to a query document can then be found by accessing all the addresses that differ by only a few bits from the address of the query document. Unlike sparse distributed memory that operates on 1000 - bit addresses, semantic hashing works on 32 or 64 - bit addresses found in a conventional computer architecture.
Memory networks are another extension to neural networks incorporating long - term memory. The long - term memory can be read and written to, with the goal of using it for prediction. These models have been applied in the context of question answering (QA) where the long - term memory effectively acts as a (dynamic) knowledge base and the output is a textual response. A team of electrical and computer engineers from UCLA Samueli School of Engineering has created a physical artificial neural network. That can analyze large volumes of data and identify objects at the actual speed of light.
Deep neural networks can be potentially improved by deepening and parameter reduction, while maintaining trainability. While training extremely deep (e.g., 1 million layers) neural networks might not be practical, CPU - like architectures such as pointer networks and neural random - access machines overcome this limitation by using external random - access memory and other components that typically belong to a computer architecture such as registers, ALU and pointers. Such systems operate on probability distribution vectors stored in memory cells and registers. Thus, the model is fully differentiable and trains end - to - end. The key characteristic of these models is that their depth, the size of their short - term memory, and the number of parameters can be altered independently -- unlike models like LSTM, whose number of parameters grows quadratically with memory size.
Encoder -- decoder frameworks are based on neural networks that map highly structured input to highly structured output. The approach arose in the context of machine translation, where the input and output are written sentences in two natural languages. In that work, an LSTM RNN or CNN was used as an encoder to summarize a source sentence, and the summary was decoded using a conditional RNN language model to produce the translation. These systems share building blocks: gated RNNs and CNNs and trained attention mechanisms.
Multilayer kernel machines (MKM) are a way of learning highly nonlinear functions by iterative application of weakly nonlinear kernels. They use the kernel principal component analysis (KPCA), as a method for the unsupervised greedy layer-wise pre-training step of deep learning.
Layer l + 1 (\ displaystyle l + 1) learns the representation of the previous layer l (\ displaystyle l), extracting the n l (\ displaystyle n_ (l)) principal component (PC) of the projection layer l (\ displaystyle l) output in the feature domain induced by the kernel. For the sake of dimensionality reduction of the updated representation in each layer, a supervised strategy selects the best informative features among features extracted by KPCA. The process is:
Some drawbacks accompany the KPCA method as the building cells of an MKM.
A more straightforward way to use kernel machines for deep learning was developed for spoken language understanding. The main idea is to use a kernel machine to approximate a shallow neural net with an infinite number of hidden units, then use stacking to splice the output of the kernel machine and the raw input in building the next, higher level of the kernel machine. The number of levels in the deep convex network is a hyper - parameter of the overall system, to be determined by cross validation.
Neural architecture search (NAS) uses machine learning to automate the design of Artificial neural networks. Various approaches to NAS have designed networks that compare well with hand - designed systems. The basic search algorithm is to propose a candidate model, evaluate it against a dataset and use the results as feedback to teach the NAS network.
Using Artificial neural networks requires an understanding of their characteristics.
ANN capabilities fall within the following broad categories:
Because of their ability to reproduce and model nonlinear processes, Artificial neural networks have found many applications in a wide range of disciplines.
Application areas include system identification and control (vehicle control, trajectory prediction, process control, natural resource management), quantum chemistry, game - playing and decision making (backgammon, chess, poker), pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, signal classification, object recognition and more), sequence recognition (gesture, speech, handwritten and printed text recognition), medical diagnosis, finance (e.g. automated trading systems), data mining, visualization, machine translation, social network filtering and e-mail spam filtering.
Artificial neural networks have been used to diagnose cancers, including lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer and to distinguish highly invasive cancer cell lines from less invasive lines using only cell shape information.
Artificial neural networks have been used to accelerate reliability analysis of infrastructures subject to natural disasters.
Artificial neural networks have also been used for building black - box models in geoscience: hydrology, ocean modelling and coastal engineering, and geomorphology, are just few examples of this kind.
Many types of models are used, defined at different levels of abstraction and modeling different aspects of neural systems. They range from models of the short - term behavior of individual neurons, models of how the dynamics of neural circuitry arise from interactions between individual neurons and finally to models of how behavior can arise from abstract neural modules that represent complete subsystems. These include models of the long - term, and short - term plasticity, of neural systems and their relations to learning and memory from the individual neuron to the system level.
The multilayer perceptron is a universal function approximator, as proven by the universal approximation theorem. However, the proof is not constructive regarding the number of neurons required, the network topology, the weights and the learning parameters.
A specific recurrent architecture with rational valued weights (as opposed to full precision real number - valued weights) has the full power of a universal Turing machine, using a finite number of neurons and standard linear connections. Further, the use of irrational values for weights results in a machine with super-Turing power.
Models ' "capacity '' property roughly corresponds to their ability to model any given function. It is related to the amount of information that can be stored in the network and to the notion of complexity.
Models may not consistently converge on a single solution, firstly because many local minima may exist, depending on the cost function and the model. Secondly, the optimization method used might not guarantee to converge when it begins far from any local minimum. Thirdly, for sufficiently large data or parameters, some methods become impractical. However, for CMAC neural network, a recursive least squares algorithm was introduced to train it, and this algorithm can be guaranteed to converge in one step.
Applications whose goal is to create a system that generalizes well to unseen examples, face the possibility of over-training. This arises in convoluted or over-specified systems when the capacity of the network significantly exceeds the needed free parameters. Two approaches address over-training. The first is to use cross-validation and similar techniques to check for the presence of over-training and optimally select hyperparameters to minimize the generalization error. The second is to use some form of regularization. This concept emerges in a probabilistic (Bayesian) framework, where regularization can be performed by selecting a larger prior probability over simpler models; but also in statistical learning theory, where the goal is to minimize over two quantities: the ' empirical risk ' and the ' structural risk ', which roughly corresponds to the error over the training set and the predicted error in unseen data due to overfitting.
Supervised neural networks that use a mean squared error (MSE) cost function can use formal statistical methods to determine the confidence of the trained model. The MSE on a validation set can be used as an estimate for variance. This value can then be used to calculate the confidence interval of the output of the network, assuming a normal distribution. A confidence analysis made this way is statistically valid as long as the output probability distribution stays the same and the network is not modified.
By assigning a softmax activation function, a generalization of the logistic function, on the output layer of the neural network (or a softmax component in a component - based neural network) for categorical target variables, the outputs can be interpreted as posterior probabilities. This is very useful in classification as it gives a certainty measure on classifications.
The softmax activation function is:
A common criticism of neural networks, particularly in robotics, is that they require too much training for real - world operation. Potential solutions include randomly shuffling training examples, by using a numerical optimization algorithm that does not take too large steps when changing the network connections following an example and by grouping examples in so - called mini-batches. Improving the training efficiency and convergence capability has always been an ongoing research area for neural network. For example, by introducing a recursive least squares algorithm for CMAC neural network, the training process only takes one step to converge.
No neural network has solved computationally difficult problems such as the n - Queens problem, the travelling salesman problem, or the problem of factoring large integers.
A fundamental objection is that they do not reflect how real neurons function. Back propagation is a critical part of most artificial neural networks, although no such mechanism exists in biological neural networks. How information is coded by real neurons is not known. Sensor neurons fire action potentials more frequently with sensor activation and muscle cells pull more strongly when their associated motor neurons receive action potentials more frequently. Other than the case of relaying information from a sensor neuron to a motor neuron, almost nothing of the principles of how information is handled by biological neural networks is known.
The motivation behind Artificial neural networks is not necessarily to strictly replicate neural function, but to use biological neural networks as an inspiration. A central claim of Artificial neural networks is therefore that it embodies some new and powerful general principle for processing information. Unfortunately, these general principles are ill - defined. It is often claimed that they are emergent from the network itself. This allows simple statistical association (the basic function of artificial neural networks) to be described as learning or recognition. Alexander Dewdney commented that, as a result, artificial neural networks have a "something - for - nothing quality, one that imparts a peculiar aura of laziness and a distinct lack of curiosity about just how good these computing systems are. No human hand (or mind) intervenes; solutions are found as if by magic; and no one, it seems, has learned anything ''.
Biological brains use both shallow and deep circuits as reported by brain anatomy, displaying a wide variety of invariance. Weng argued that the brain self - wires largely according to signal statistics and therefore, a serial cascade can not catch all major statistical dependencies.
Large and effective neural networks require considerable computing resources. While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a simplified neuron on von Neumann architecture may compel a neural network designer to fill many millions of database rows for its connections -- which can consume vast amounts of memory and storage. Furthermore, the designer often needs to transmit signals through many of these connections and their associated neurons -- which must often be matched with enormous CPU processing power and time.
Schmidhuber notes that the resurgence of neural networks in the twenty - first century is largely attributable to advances in hardware: from 1991 to 2015, computing power, especially as delivered by GPGPUs (on GPUs), has increased around a million-fold, making the standard backpropagation algorithm feasible for training networks that are several layers deeper than before. The use of parallel GPUs can reduce training times from months to days.
Neuromorphic engineering addresses the hardware difficulty directly, by constructing non-von - Neumann chips to directly implement neural networks in circuitry. Another chip optimized for neural network processing is called a Tensor Processing Unit, or TPU.
Arguments against Dewdney 's position are that neural networks have been successfully used to solve many complex and diverse tasks, ranging from autonomously flying aircraft to detecting credit card fraud to mastering the game of Go.
Technology writer Roger Bridgman commented:
Neural networks, for instance, are in the dock not only because they have been hyped to high heaven, (what has n't?) but also because you could create a successful net without understanding how it worked: the bunch of numbers that captures its behaviour would in all probability be "an opaque, unreadable table... valueless as a scientific resource ''.
In spite of his emphatic declaration that science is not technology, Dewdney seems here to pillory neural nets as bad science when most of those devising them are just trying to be good engineers. An unreadable table that a useful machine could read would still be well worth having.
Although it is true that analyzing what has been learned by an artificial neural network is difficult, it is much easier to do so than to analyze what has been learned by a biological neural network. Furthermore, researchers involved in exploring learning algorithms for neural networks are gradually uncovering general principles that allow a learning machine to be successful. For example, local vs non-local learning and shallow vs deep architecture.
Advocates of hybrid models (combining neural networks and symbolic approaches), claim that such a mixture can better capture the mechanisms of the human mind.
Artificial neural networks have many variations. The simplest, static types have one or more static components, including number of units, number of layers, unit weights and topology. Dynamic types allow one or more of these to change during the learning process. The latter are much more complicated, but can shorten learning periods and produce better results. Some types allow / require learning to be "supervised '' by the operator, while others operate independently. Some types operate purely in hardware, while others are purely software and run on general purpose computers.
A single - layer feedforward artificial neural network. Arrows originating from x 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle x_ (2)) are omitted for clarity. There are p inputs to this network and q outputs. In this system, the value of the qth output, y q (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle y_ (q)) would be calculated as y q = K ∗ (∑ (x i ∗ w i q) − b q) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle y_ (q) = K * (\ sum (x_ (i) * w_ (iq)) - b_ (q)))
A two - layer feedforward artificial neural network.
An artificial neural network.
An ANN dependency graph.
A single - layer feedforward artificial neural network with 4 inputs, 6 hidden and 2 outputs. Given position state and direction outputs wheel based control values.
A two - layer feedforward artificial neural network with 8 inputs, 2x8 hidden and 2 outputs. Given position state, direction and other environment values outputs thruster based control values.
Parallel pipeline structure of CMAC neural network. This learning algorithm can converge in one step.
|
which of the following is a true statement regarding the federal reserve system | Federal Reserve System - Wikipedia
The Federal Reserve System (also known as the Federal Reserve or simply the Fed) is the central banking system of the United States of America. It was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act, after a series of financial panics (particularly the panic of 1907) led to the desire for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate financial crises. Over the years, events such as the Great Depression in the 1930s and the Great Recession during the 2000s have led to the expansion of the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System.
The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long - term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate. Its duties have expanded over the years, and currently also include supervising and regulating banks, maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions. The Fed conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the Beige Book and the FRED database.
The Federal Reserve System is composed of several layers. It is governed by the presidentially appointed Board of Governors or Federal Reserve Board (FRB). Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, located in cities throughout the nation, regulate and oversee privately owned commercial banks. Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in, and can elect some of the board members of, the Federal Reserve Bank of their region. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) sets monetary policy. It consists of all seven members of the Board of Governors and the twelve regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents, though only five bank presidents vote at a time (the president of the New York Fed and four others who rotate through one - year voting terms). There are also various advisory councils. Thus, the Federal Reserve System has both public and private components. It has a structure unique among central banks, and is also unusual in that the United States Department of the Treasury, an entity outside of the central bank, prints the currency used.
The federal government sets the salaries of the board 's seven governors. The federal government receives all the system 's annual profits, after a statutory dividend of 6 % on member banks ' capital investment is paid, and an account surplus is maintained. In 2015, the Federal Reserve made a profit of $100.2 billion and transferred $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury. Although an instrument of the US Government, the Federal Reserve System considers itself "an independent central bank because its monetary policy decisions do not have to be approved by the President or anyone else in the executive or legislative branches of government, it does not receive funding appropriated by the Congress, and the terms of the members of the Board of Governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms. ''
The primary motivation for creating the Federal Reserve System was to address banking panics. Other purposes are stated in the Federal Reserve Act, such as "to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes ''. Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises. A particularly severe crisis in 1907 led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to ensuring the stability of the financial system.
Current functions of the Federal Reserve System include:
Banking institutions in the United States are required to hold reserves -- amounts of currency and deposits in other banks -- equal to only a fraction of the amount of the bank 's deposit liabilities owed to customers. This practice is called fractional - reserve banking. As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors. On rare occasions, too many of the bank 's customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating; this is called a bank run. Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems. The Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a lender of last resort when a bank run does occur. Many economists, following Milton Friedman, believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to small banks during the bank runs of 1929.
Because some banks refused to clear checks from certain other banks during times of economic uncertainty, a check - clearing system was created in the Federal Reserve System. It is briefly described in The Federal Reserve System -- Purposes and Functions as follows:
By creating the Federal Reserve System, Congress intended to eliminate the severe financial crises that had periodically swept the nation, especially the sort of financial panic that occurred in 1907. During that episode, payments were disrupted throughout the country because many banks and clearinghouses refused to clear checks drawn on certain other banks, a practice that contributed to the failure of otherwise solvent banks. To address these problems, Congress gave the Federal Reserve System the authority to establish a nationwide check - clearing system. The System, then, was to provide not only an elastic currency -- that is, a currency that would expand or shrink in amount as economic conditions warranted -- but also an efficient and equitable check - collection system.
In the United States, the Federal Reserve serves as the lender of last resort to those institutions that can not obtain credit elsewhere and the collapse of which would have serious implications for the economy. It took over this role from the private sector "clearing houses '' which operated during the Free Banking Era; whether public or private, the availability of liquidity was intended to prevent bank runs.
Through its discount window and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short - term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals. Longer term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances. The rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate (officially the primary credit rate).
By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day - to - day fluctuations in reserve demand and supply. This contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates. For example, on September 16, 2008, the Federal Reserve Board authorized an $85 billion loan to stave off the bankruptcy of international insurance giant American International Group (AIG).
In its role as the central bank of the United States, the Fed serves as a banker 's bank and as the government 's bank. As the banker 's bank, it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system. As the government 's bank or fiscal agent, the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars. Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank, the U.S. Treasury keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve, through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled. As part of this service relationship, the Fed sells and redeems U.S. government securities such as savings bonds and Treasury bills, notes and bonds. It also issues the nation 's coin and paper currency. The U.S. Treasury, through its Bureau of the Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing, actually produces the nation 's cash supply and, in effect, sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost, and the coins at face value. The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways. During the Fiscal Year 2013, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 6.6 billion notes at an average cost of 5.0 cents per note.
Federal funds are the reserve balances (also called Federal Reserve Deposits) that private banks keep at their local Federal Reserve Bank. These balances are the namesake reserves of the Federal Reserve System. The purpose of keeping funds at a Federal Reserve Bank is to have a mechanism for private banks to lend funds to one another. This market for funds plays an important role in the Federal Reserve System as it is what inspired the name of the system and it is what is used as the basis for monetary policy. Monetary policy is put into effect partly by influencing how much interest the private banks charge each other for the lending of these funds.
Federal reserve accounts contain federal reserve credit, which can be converted into federal reserve notes. Private banks maintain their bank reserves in federal reserve accounts.
The Federal Reserve regulates private banks. The system was designed out of a compromise between the competing philosophies of privatization and government regulation. In 2006 Donald L. Kohn, vice chairman of the Board of Governors, summarized the history of this compromise:
Agrarian and progressive interests, led by William Jennings Bryan, favored a central bank under public, rather than banker, control. But the vast majority of the nation 's bankers, concerned about government intervention in the banking business, opposed a central bank structure directed by political appointees.
The legislation that Congress ultimately adopted in 1913 reflected a hard - fought battle to balance these two competing views and created the hybrid public - private, centralized - decentralized structure that we have today.
The balance between private interests and government can also be seen in the structure of the system. Private banks elect members of the board of directors at their regional Federal Reserve Bank while the members of the Board of Governors are selected by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate.
The Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, enacted in 1978 as Public Law 95 - 320 and 31 U.S.C. section 714 establish that the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Reserve banks may be audited by the Government Accountability Office (GAO).
The GAO has authority to audit check - processing, currency storage and shipments, and some regulatory and bank examination functions, however, there are restrictions to what the GAO may audit. Under the Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, 31 U.S.C. section 714 (b), audits of the Federal Reserve Board and Federal Reserve banks do not include (1) transactions for or with a foreign central bank or government or non-private international financing organization; (2) deliberations, decisions, or actions on monetary policy matters; (3) transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee; or (4) a part of a discussion or communication among or between members of the Board of Governors and officers and employees of the Federal Reserve System related to items (1), (2), or (3). See Federal Reserve System Audits: Restrictions on GAO 's Access (GAO / T - GGD - 94 - 44), statement of Charles A. Bowsher.
The Board of Governors in the Federal Reserve System has a number of supervisory and regulatory responsibilities in the U.S. banking system, but not complete responsibility. A general description of the types of regulation and supervision involved in the U.S. banking system is given by the Federal Reserve:
The Board also plays a major role in the supervision and regulation of the U.S. banking system. It has supervisory responsibilities for state - chartered banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System, bank holding companies (companies that control banks), the foreign activities of member banks, the U.S. activities of foreign banks, and Edge Act and "agreement corporations '' (limited - purpose institutions that engage in a foreign banking business). The Board and, under delegated authority, the Federal Reserve Banks, supervise approximately 900 state member banks and 5,000 bank holding companies. Other federal agencies also serve as the primary federal supervisors of commercial banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency supervises national banks, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation supervises state banks that are not members of the Federal Reserve System.
Some regulations issued by the Board apply to the entire banking industry, whereas others apply only to member banks, that is, state banks that have chosen to join the Federal Reserve System and national banks, which by law must be members of the System. The Board also issues regulations to carry out major federal laws governing consumer credit protection, such as the Truth in Lending, Equal Credit Opportunity, and Home Mortgage Disclosure Acts. Many of these consumer protection regulations apply to various lenders outside the banking industry as well as to banks.
Members of the Board of Governors are in continual contact with other policy makers in government. They frequently testify before congressional committees on the economy, monetary policy, banking supervision and regulation, consumer credit protection, financial markets, and other matters.
The Board has regular contact with members of the President 's Council of Economic Advisers and other key economic officials. The Chair also meets from time to time with the President of the United States and has regular meetings with the Secretary of the Treasury. The Chair has formal responsibilities in the international arena as well.
The board of directors of each Federal Reserve Bank District also has regulatory and supervisory responsibilities. If the board of directors of a district bank has judged that a member bank is performing or behaving poorly, it will report this to the Board of Governors. This policy is described in United States Code:
Each Federal reserve bank shall keep itself informed of the general character and amount of the loans and investments of its member banks with a view to ascertaining whether undue use is being made of bank credit for the speculative carrying of or trading in securities, real estate, or commodities, or for any other purpose inconsistent with the maintenance of sound credit conditions; and, in determining whether to grant or refuse advances, rediscounts, or other credit accommodations, the Federal reserve bank shall give consideration to such information. The chairman of the Federal reserve bank shall report to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System any such undue use of bank credit by any member bank, together with his recommendation. Whenever, in the judgment of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, any member bank is making such undue use of bank credit, the Board may, in its discretion, after reasonable notice and an opportunity for a hearing, suspend such bank from the use of the credit facilities of the Federal Reserve System and may terminate such suspension or may renew it from time to time.
The Federal Reserve plays an important role in the U.S. payments system. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services to depository institutions and to the federal government. For depository institutions, they maintain accounts and provide various payment services, including collecting checks, electronically transferring funds, and distributing and receiving currency and coin. For the federal government, the Reserve Banks act as fiscal agents, paying Treasury checks; processing electronic payments; and issuing, transferring, and redeeming U.S. government securities.
In the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980, Congress reaffirmed that the Federal Reserve should promote an efficient nationwide payments system. The act subjects all depository institutions, not just member commercial banks, to reserve requirements and grants them equal access to Reserve Bank payment services. The Federal Reserve plays a role in the nation 's retail and wholesale payments systems by providing financial services to depository institutions. Retail payments are generally for relatively small - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's retail clients -- individuals and smaller businesses. The Reserve Banks ' retail services include distributing currency and coin, collecting checks, and electronically transferring funds through the automated clearinghouse system. By contrast, wholesale payments are generally for large - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's large corporate customers or counterparties, including other financial institutions. The Reserve Banks ' wholesale services include electronically transferring funds through the Fedwire Funds Service and transferring securities issued by the U.S. government, its agencies, and certain other entities through the Fedwire Securities Service.
The Federal Reserve System has a "unique structure that is both public and private '' and is described as "independent within the government '' rather than "independent of government ''. The System does not require public funding, and derives its authority and purpose from the Federal Reserve Act, which was passed by Congress in 1913 and is subject to Congressional modification or repeal. The four main components of the Federal Reserve System are (1) the Board of Governors, (2) the Federal Open Market Committee, (3) the twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and (4) the member banks throughout the country.
The seven - member Board of Governors is a federal agency. It is charged with the overseeing of the 12 District Reserve Banks and setting national monetary policy. It also supervises and regulates the U.S. banking system in general. Governors are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate for staggered 14 - year terms. One term begins every two years, on February 1 of even - numbered years, and members serving a full term can not be renominated for a second term. "(U) pon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified. '' The law provides for the removal of a member of the board by the President "for cause ''. The board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.
The Chair and Vice Chair of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President from among the sitting Governors. They both serve a four - year term and they can be renominated as many times as the President chooses, until their terms on the Board of Governors expire.
The current members of the Board of Governors are as follows:
Indicates the date of term expiration for the individual nominated to this vacant position.
In late December 2011, President Barack Obama nominated Jeremy C. Stein, a Harvard University finance professor and a Democrat, and Jerome Powell, formerly of Dillon Read, Bankers Trust and The Carlyle Group and a Republican. Both candidates also have Treasury Department experience in the Obama and George H.W. Bush administrations respectively.
"Obama administration officials (had) regrouped to identify Fed candidates after Peter Diamond, a Nobel Prize - winning economist, withdrew his nomination to the board in June (2011) in the face of Republican opposition. Richard Clarida, a potential nominee who was a Treasury official under George W. Bush, pulled out of consideration in August (2011) '', one account of the December nominations noted. The two other Obama nominees in 2011, Yellen and Raskin, were confirmed in September. One of the vacancies was created in 2011 with the resignation of Kevin Warsh, who took office in 2006 to fill the unexpired term ending January 31, 2018, and resigned his position effective March 31, 2011. In March 2012, U.S. Senator David Vitter (R, LA) said he would oppose Obama 's Stein and Powell nominations, dampening near - term hopes for approval. However Senate leaders reached a deal, paving the way for affirmative votes on the two nominees in May 2012 and bringing the board to full strength for the first time since 2006 with Duke 's service after term end. Later, on January 6, 2014, the United States Senate confirmed Yellen 's nomination to be Chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; she is slated to be the first woman to hold the position and will become Chair on February 1, 2014. Subsequently, President Obama nominated Stanley Fischer to replace Yellen as the Vice Chair.
In April 2014, Stein announced he was leaving to return to Harvard May 28 with four years remaining on his term. At the time of the announcement, the FOMC "already is down three members as it awaits the Senate confirmation of... Fischer and Lael Brainard, and as (President) Obama has yet to name a replacement for... Duke... Powell is still serving as he awaits his confirmation for a second term. ''
Allan R. Landon, former president and CEO of the Bank of Hawaii, was nominated in early 2015 by President Obama to the board.
In July 2015, President Obama nominated University of Michigan economist Kathryn M. Dominguez to fill the second vacancy on the board. The Senate had not yet acted on Landon 's confirmation by the time of the second nomination.
Daniel Tarullo submitted his resignation from the board on February 10, 2017, effective on or around April 5, 2017.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) consists of 12 members, seven from the Board of Governors and 5 of the regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The FOMC oversees and sets policy on open market operations, the principal tool of national monetary policy. These operations affect the amount of Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions, thereby influencing overall monetary and credit conditions. The FOMC also directs operations undertaken by the Federal Reserve in foreign exchange markets. The FOMC must reach consensus on all decisions. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is a permanent member of the FOMC; the presidents of the other banks rotate membership at two - and three - year intervals. All Regional Reserve Bank presidents contribute to the committee 's assessment of the economy and of policy options, but only the five presidents who are then members of the FOMC vote on policy decisions. The FOMC determines its own internal organization and, by tradition, elects the Chair of the Board of Governors as its chair and the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as its vice chair. Formal meetings typically are held eight times each year in Washington, D.C. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion. The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in telephone consultations and other meetings are held when needed.
The Federal Advisory Council, composed of twelve representatives of the banking industry, advises the board on all matters within its jurisdiction.
There are 12 Federal Reserve Banks, each of which is responsible for member banks located in its district. They are located in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. The size of each district was set based upon the population distribution of the United States when the Federal Reserve Act was passed.
The charter and organization of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and can not be altered by the member banks. Member banks, do however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks ' boards of directors.
Each regional Bank has a president, who is the chief executive officer of their Bank. Each regional Reserve Bank 's president is nominated by their Bank 's board of directors, but the nomination is contingent upon approval by the Board of Governors. Presidents serve five - year terms and may be reappointed.
Each regional Bank 's board consists of nine members. Members are broken down into three classes: A, B, and C. There are three board members in each class. Class A members are chosen by the regional Bank 's shareholders, and are intended to represent member banks ' interests. Member banks are divided into three categories: large, medium, and small. Each category elects one of the three class A board members. Class B board members are also nominated by the region 's member banks, but class B board members are supposed to represent the interests of the public. Lastly, class C board members are appointed by the Board of Governors, and are also intended to represent the interests of the public.
The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax - exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA (the Federal Tort Claims Act), but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations. '' The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes. '' Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.
Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written that:
... the "ownership '' of the Reserve Banks by the commercial banks is symbolic; they do not exercise the proprietary control associated with the concept of ownership nor share, beyond the statutory dividend, in Reserve Bank "profits. ''... Bank ownership and election at the base are therefore devoid of substantive significance, despite the superficial appearance of private bank control that the formal arrangement creates.
A member bank is a private institution and owns stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. All nationally chartered banks hold stock in one of the Federal Reserve Banks. State chartered banks may choose to be members (and hold stock in their regional Federal Reserve bank) upon meeting certain standards.
The amount of stock a member bank must own is equal to 3 % of its combined capital and surplus. However, holding stock in a Federal Reserve bank is not like owning stock in a publicly traded company. These stocks can not be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. From the profits of the Regional Bank of which it is a member, a member bank receives a dividend equal to 6 % of its purchased stock. The remainder of the regional Federal Reserve Banks ' profits is given over to the United States Treasury Department. In 2015, the Federal Reserve Banks made a profit of $100.2 billion and distributed $2.5 billion in dividends to member banks as well as returning $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury.
About 38 % of U.S. banks are members of their regional Federal Reserve Bank.
The GAO and an outside auditor regularly audit the Board of Governors, the Federal Reserve banks, and individual member banks. Audits do not cover "most of the Fed 's monetary policy actions or decisions, including discount window lending (direct loans to financial institutions), open - market operations and any other transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee ''... (nor may the GAO audit) "dealings with foreign governments and other central banks. ''
As of August 27, 2012, the Federal Reserve Board has been publishing unaudited financial reports for the Federal Reserve banks every quarter. This is an expansion of prior financial reporting practices. Greater transparency is offered with more frequent disclosure and more detail.
November 7, 2008, Bloomberg L.P. News brought a lawsuit against the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System to force the board to reveal the identities of firms for which it has provided guarantees during the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008. Bloomberg, L.P. won at the trial court and the Fed 's appeals were rejected at both the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the U.S. Supreme Court. The data was released on March 31, 2011.
The term "monetary policy '' refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, to influence the availability and cost of money and credit to help promote national economic goals. What happens to money and credit affects interest rates (the cost of credit) and the performance of an economy. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave the Federal Reserve authority to set monetary policy in the United States.
The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the federal funds rate, which is the rate of interbank lending of excess reserves. The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the interbank market and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the three "tools '' of monetary policy described in the Tools section below. The federal funds rate is a short - term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer - term interest rates throughout the economy. The Federal Reserve summarized its monetary policy in 2005:
The Federal Reserve implements U.S. monetary policy by affecting conditions in the market for balances that depository institutions hold at the Federal Reserve Banks... By conducting open market operations, imposing reserve requirements, permitting depository institutions to hold contractual clearing balances, and extending credit through its discount window facility, the Federal Reserve exercises considerable control over the demand for and supply of Federal Reserve balances and the federal funds rate. Through its control of the federal funds rate, the Federal Reserve is able to foster financial and monetary conditions consistent with its monetary policy objectives.
Effects on the quantity of reserves that banks used to make loans influence the economy. Policy actions that add reserves to the banking system encourage lending at lower interest rates thus stimulating growth in money, credit, and the economy. Policy actions that absorb reserves work in the opposite direction. The Fed 's task is to supply enough reserves to support an adequate amount of money and credit, avoiding the excesses that result in inflation and the shortages that stifle economic growth.
There are three main tools of monetary policy that the Federal Reserve uses to influence the amount of reserves in private banks:
The Federal Reserve System implements monetary policy largely by targeting the federal funds rate. This is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed. This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed. The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate by adding or subtracting from the money supply through open market operations. The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25 % or 0.50 % at a time.
Open market operations allow the Federal Reserve to increase or decrease the amount of money in the banking system as necessary to balance the Federal Reserve 's dual mandates. Open market operations are done through the sale and purchase of United States Treasury security, sometimes called "Treasury bills '' or more informally "T - bills '' or "Treasuries ''. The Federal Reserve buys Treasury bills from its primary dealers. The purchase of these securities affects the federal funds rate, because primary dealers have accounts at depository institutions.
The Federal Reserve education website describes open market operations as follows:
Open market operations involve the buying and selling of U.S. government securities (federal agency and mortgage - backed). The term ' open market ' means that the Fed does n't decide on its own which securities dealers it will do business with on a particular day. Rather, the choice emerges from an ' open market ' in which the various securities dealers that the Fed does business with -- the primary dealers -- compete on the basis of price. Open market operations are flexible and thus, the most frequently used tool of monetary policy.
Open market operations are the primary tool used to regulate the supply of bank reserves. This tool consists of Federal Reserve purchases and sales of financial instruments, usually securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, Federal agencies and government - sponsored enterprises. Open market operations are carried out by the Domestic Trading Desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York under direction from the FOMC. The transactions are undertaken with primary dealers.
The Fed 's goal in trading the securities is to affect the federal funds rate, the rate at which banks borrow reserves from each other. When the Fed wants to increase reserves, it buys securities and pays for them by making a deposit to the account maintained at the Fed by the primary dealer 's bank. When the Fed wants to reduce reserves, it sells securities and collects from those accounts. Most days, the Fed does not want to increase or decrease reserves permanently so it usually engages in transactions reversed within a day or two. That means that a reserve injection today could be withdrawn tomorrow morning, only to be renewed at some level several hours later. These short - term transactions are called repurchase agreements (repos) -- the dealer sells the Fed a security and agrees to buy it back at a later date.
To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply, the desk engages in repurchase agreements (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short - term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer 's reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral. When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer 's reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days.
The Federal Reserve System also directly sets the "discount rate '', which is the interest rate for "discount window lending '', overnight loans that member banks borrow directly from the Fed. This rate is generally set at a rate close to 100 basis points above the target federal funds rate. The idea is to encourage banks to seek alternative funding before using the "discount rate '' option. The equivalent operation by the European Central Bank is referred to as the "marginal lending facility ''.
Both the discount rate and the federal funds rate influence the prime rate, which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate.
Another instrument of monetary policy adjustment employed by the Federal Reserve System is the fractional reserve requirement, also known as the required reserve ratio. The required reserve ratio sets the balance that the Federal Reserve System requires a depository institution to hold in the Federal Reserve Banks, which depository institutions trade in the federal funds market discussed above. The required reserve ratio is set by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The reserve requirements have changed over time and some history of these changes is published by the Federal Reserve.
As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions ' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC.
In order to address problems related to the subprime mortgage crisis and United States housing bubble, several new tools have been created. The first new tool, called the Term Auction Facility, was added on December 12, 2007. It was first announced as a temporary tool but there have been suggestions that this new tool may remain in place for a prolonged period of time. Creation of the second new tool, called the Term Securities Lending Facility, was announced on March 11, 2008. The main difference between these two facilities is that the Term Auction Facility is used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term Securities Lending Facility is used to inject treasury securities into the banking system. Creation of the third tool, called the Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF), was announced on March 16, 2008. The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now the Fed is able to lend directly to primary dealers, which was previously against Fed policy. The differences between these three new facilities is described by the Federal Reserve:
The Term Auction Facility program offers term funding to depository institutions via a bi-weekly auction, for fixed amounts of credit. The Term Securities Lending Facility will be an auction for a fixed amount of lending of Treasury general collateral in exchange for OMO - eligible and AAA / Aaa rated private - label residential mortgage - backed securities. The Primary Dealer Credit Facility now allows eligible primary dealers to borrow at the existing Discount Rate for up to 120 days.
Some measures taken by the Federal Reserve to address this mortgage crisis have not been used since the Great Depression. The Federal Reserve gives a brief summary of these new facilities:
As the economy has slowed in the last nine months and credit markets have become unstable, the Federal Reserve has taken a number of steps to help address the situation. These steps have included the use of traditional monetary policy tools at the macroeconomic level as well as measures at the level of specific markets to provide additional liquidity.
The Federal Reserve 's response has continued to evolve since pressure on credit markets began to surface last summer, but all these measures derive from the Fed 's traditional open market operations and discount window tools by extending the term of transactions, the type of collateral, or eligible borrowers.
A fourth facility, the Term Deposit Facility, was announced December 9, 2009, and approved April 30, 2010, with an effective date of June 4, 2010. The Term Deposit Facility allows Reserve Banks to offer term deposits to institutions that are eligible to receive earnings on their balances at Reserve Banks. Term deposits are intended to facilitate the implementation of monetary policy by providing a tool by which the Federal Reserve can manage the aggregate quantity of reserve balances held by depository institutions. Funds placed in term deposits are removed from the accounts of participating institutions for the life of the term deposit and thus drain reserve balances from the banking system.
The Term Auction Facility is a program in which the Federal Reserve auctions term funds to depository institutions. The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12, 2007, and was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets. The reason it was created is that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window. Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back. Banks refused to go to the discount window because it is usually associated with the stigma of bank failure. Under the Term Auction Facility, the identity of the banks in need of funds is protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure. Foreign exchange swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to U.S. dollars. Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke briefly described this facility to the U.S. House of Representatives on January 17, 2008:
the Federal Reserve recently unveiled a term auction facility, or TAF, through which prespecified amounts of discount window credit can be auctioned to eligible borrowers. The goal of the TAF is to reduce the incentive for banks to hoard cash and increase their willingness to provide credit to households and firms... TAF auctions will continue as long as necessary to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets, and we will continue to work closely and cooperatively with other central banks to address market strains that could hamper the achievement of our broader economic objectives.
It is also described in the Term Auction Facility FAQ
The TAF is a credit facility that allows a depository institution to place a bid for an advance from its local Federal Reserve Bank at an interest rate that is determined as the result of an auction. By allowing the Federal Reserve to inject term funds through a broader range of counterparties and against a broader range of collateral than open market operations, this facility could help ensure that liquidity provisions can be disseminated efficiently even when the unsecured interbank markets are under stress.
In short, the TAF will auction term funds of approximately one - month maturity. All depository institutions that are judged to be in sound financial condition by their local Reserve Bank and that are eligible to borrow at the discount window are also eligible to participate in TAF auctions. All TAF credit must be fully collateralized. Depositories may pledge the broad range of collateral that is accepted for other Federal Reserve lending programs to secure TAF credit. The same collateral values and margins applicable for other Federal Reserve lending programs will also apply for the TAF.
The Term Securities Lending Facility is a 28 - day facility that will offer Treasury general collateral to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York 's primary dealers in exchange for other program - eligible collateral. It is intended to promote liquidity in the financing markets for Treasury and other collateral and thus to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. Like the Term Auction Facility, the TSLF was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank. The resource allows dealers to switch debt that is less liquid for U.S. government securities that are easily tradable. The currency swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were increased.
The Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF) is an overnight loan facility that will provide funding to primary dealers in exchange for a specified range of eligible collateral and is intended to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. This new facility marks a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now primary dealers can borrow directly from the Fed when this used to be prohibited.
As of October 2008, the Federal Reserve banks will pay interest on reserve balances (required and excess) held by depository institutions. The rate is set at the lowest federal funds rate during the reserve maintenance period of an institution, less 75 bp. As of October 23, 2008, the Fed has lowered the spread to a mere 35 bp.
The Term Deposit Facility is a program through which the Federal Reserve Banks will offer interest - bearing term deposits to eligible institutions. By removing "excess deposits '' from participating banks, the overall level of reserves available for lending is reduced, which should result in increased market interest rates, acting as a brake on economic activity and inflation. The Federal Reserve has stated that:
Term deposits will be one of several tools that the Federal Reserve could employ to drain reserves when policymakers judge that it is appropriate to begin moving to a less accommodative stance of monetary policy. The development of the TDF is a matter of prudent planning and has no implication for the near - term conduct of monetary policy.
The Federal Reserve initially authorized up to five "small - value offerings are designed to ensure the effectiveness of TDF operations and to provide eligible institutions with an opportunity to gain familiarity with term deposit procedures. '' After three of the offering auctions were successfully completed, it was announced that small - value auctions would continue on an ongoing basis.
The Term Deposit Facility is essentially a tool available to reverse the efforts that have been employed to provide liquidity to the financial markets and to reduce the amount of capital available to the economy. As stated in Bloomberg News:
Policy makers led by Chairman Ben S. Bernanke are preparing for the day when they will have to start siphoning off more than $1 trillion in excess reserves from the banking system to contain inflation. The Fed is charting an eventual return to normal monetary policy, even as a weakening near - term outlook has raised the possibility it may expand its balance sheet.
Chairman Ben S. Bernanke, testifying before House Committee on Financial Services, described the Term Deposit Facility and other facilities to Congress in the following terms:
Most importantly, in October 2008 the Congress gave the Federal Reserve statutory authority to pay interest on balances that banks hold at the Federal Reserve Banks. By increasing the interest rate on banks ' reserves, the Federal Reserve will be able to put significant upward pressure on all short - term interest rates, as banks will not supply short - term funds to the money markets at rates significantly below what they can earn by holding reserves at the Federal Reserve Banks. Actual and prospective increases in short - term interest rates will be reflected in turn in higher longer - term interest rates and in tighter financial conditions more generally...
As an additional means of draining reserves, the Federal Reserve is also developing plans to offer to depository institutions term deposits, which are roughly analogous to certificates of deposit that the institutions offer to their customers. A proposal describing a term deposit facility was recently published in the Federal Register, and the Federal Reserve is finalizing a revised proposal in light of the public comments that have been received. After a revised proposal is reviewed by the Board, we expect to be able to conduct test transactions this spring and to have the facility available if necessary thereafter. The use of reverse repos and the deposit facility would together allow the Federal Reserve to drain hundreds of billions of dollars of reserves from the banking system quite quickly, should it choose to do so.
When these tools are used to drain reserves from the banking system, they do so by replacing bank reserves with other liabilities; the asset side and the overall size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet remain unchanged. If necessary, as a means of applying monetary restraint, the Federal Reserve also has the option of redeeming or selling securities. The redemption or sale of securities would have the effect of reducing the size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet as well as further reducing the quantity of reserves in the banking system. Restoring the size and composition of the balance sheet to a more normal configuration is a longer - term objective of our policies. In any case, the sequencing of steps and the combination of tools that the Federal Reserve uses as it exits from its currently very accommodative policy stance will depend on economic and financial developments and on our best judgments about how to meet the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate of maximum employment and price stability.
In sum, in response to severe threats to our economy, the Federal Reserve created a series of special lending facilities to stabilize the financial system and encourage the resumption of private credit flows to American families and businesses. As market conditions and the economic outlook have improved, these programs have been terminated or are being phased out. The Federal Reserve also promoted economic recovery through sharp reductions in its target for the federal funds rate and through large - scale purchases of securities. The economy continues to require the support of accommodative monetary policies. However, we have been working to ensure that we have the tools to reverse, at the appropriate time, the currently very high degree of monetary stimulus. We have full confidence that, when the time comes, we will be ready to do so.
The Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (ABCPMMMFLF) was also called the AMLF. The Facility began operations on September 22, 2008, and was closed on February 1, 2010.
All U.S. depository institutions, bank holding companies (parent companies or U.S. broker - dealer affiliates), or U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks were eligible to borrow under this facility pursuant to the discretion of the FRBB.
Collateral eligible for pledge under the Facility was required to meet the following criteria:
On October 7, 2008, the Federal Reserve further expanded the collateral it will loan against to include commercial paper using the new Commercial Paper Funding Facility (CPFF). The action made the Fed a crucial source of credit for non-financial businesses in addition to commercial banks and investment firms. Fed officials said they 'll buy as much of the debt as necessary to get the market functioning again. They refused to say how much that might be, but they noted that around $1.3 trillion worth of commercial paper would qualify. There was $1.61 trillion in outstanding commercial paper, seasonally adjusted, on the market as of October 1, 2008, according to the most recent data from the Fed. That was down from $1.70 trillion in the previous week. Since the summer of 2007, the market has shrunk from more than $2.2 trillion. This program lent out a total $738 billion before it was closed. Forty - five out of 81 of the companies participating in this program were foreign firms. Research shows that Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) recipients were twice as likely to participate in the program than other commercial paper issuers who did not take advantage of the TARP bailout. The Fed incurred no losses from the CPFF.
A little - used tool of the Federal Reserve is the quantitative policy. With that the Federal Reserve actually buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions. This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business. The bursting of the United States housing bubble prompted the Fed to buy mortgage - backed securities for the first time in November 2008. Over six weeks, a total of $1.25 trillion were purchased in order to stabilize the housing market, about one - fifth of all U.S. government - backed mortgages.
The first attempt at a national currency was during the American Revolutionary War. In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills "Continentals ''. The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War. Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly. This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states ' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28.
In 1791, the government granted the First Bank of the United States a charter to operate as the U.S. central bank until 1811. The First Bank of the United States came to an end under President Madison because Congress refused to renew its charter. The Second Bank of the United States was established in 1816, and lost its authority to be the central bank of the U.S. twenty years later under President Jackson when its charter expired. Both banks were based upon the Bank of England. Ultimately, a third national bank, known as the Federal Reserve, was established in 1913 and still exists to this day.
The first U.S. institution with central banking responsibilities was the First Bank of the United States, chartered by Congress and signed into law by President George Washington on February 25, 1791, at the urging of Alexander Hamilton. This was done despite strong opposition from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, among numerous others. The charter was for twenty years and expired in 1811 under President Madison, because Congress refused to renew it.
In 1816, however, Madison revived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States. Years later, early renewal of the bank 's charter became the primary issue in the reelection of President Andrew Jackson. After Jackson, who was opposed to the central bank, was reelected, he pulled the government 's funds out of the bank. Jackson was the only President to completely pay off the debt. The bank 's charter was not renewed in 1836. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank. From 1846 to 1921, an Independent Treasury System ruled. From 1863 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act during which series of bank panics, in 1873, 1893, and 1907 occurred
The main motivation for the third central banking system came from the Panic of 1907, which caused renewed demands for banking and currency reform. During the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States economy went through a series of financial panics. According to many economists, the previous national banking system had two main weaknesses: an inelastic currency and a lack of liquidity. In 1908, Congress enacted the Aldrich -- Vreeland Act, which provided for an emergency currency and established the National Monetary Commission to study banking and currency reform. The National Monetary Commission returned with recommendations which were repeatedly rejected by Congress. A revision crafted during a secret meeting on Jekyll Island by Senator Aldrich and representatives of the nation 's top finance and industrial groups later became the basis of the Federal Reserve Act. The House voted on December 22, 1913, with 298 voting yes to 60 voting no. The Senate voted 43 -- 25 on December 23, 1913. President Woodrow Wilson signed the bill later that day.
The head of the bipartisan National Monetary Commission was financial expert and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich. Aldrich set up two commissions -- one to study the American monetary system in depth and the other, headed by Aldrich himself, to study the European central banking systems and report on them.
In early November 1910, Aldrich met with five well known members of the New York banking community to devise a central banking bill. Paul Warburg, an attendee of the meeting and longtime advocate of central banking in the U.S., later wrote that Aldrich was "bewildered at all that he had absorbed abroad and he was faced with the difficult task of writing a highly technical bill while being harassed by the daily grind of his parliamentary duties ''. After ten days of deliberation, the bill, which would later be referred to as the "Aldrich Plan '', was agreed upon. It had several key components, including a central bank with a Washington - based headquarters and fifteen branches located throughout the U.S. in geographically strategic locations, and a uniform elastic currency based on gold and commercial paper. Aldrich believed a central banking system with no political involvement was best, but was convinced by Warburg that a plan with no public control was not politically feasible. The compromise involved representation of the public sector on the Board of Directors.
Aldrich 's bill met much opposition from politicians. Critics charged Aldrich of being biased due to his close ties to wealthy bankers such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Aldrich 's son - in - law. Most Republicans favored the Aldrich Plan, but it lacked enough support in Congress to pass because rural and western states viewed it as favoring the "eastern establishment ''. In contrast, progressive Democrats favored a reserve system owned and operated by the government; they believed that public ownership of the central bank would end Wall Street 's control of the American currency supply. Conservative Democrats fought for a privately owned, yet decentralized, reserve system, which would still be free of Wall Street 's control.
The original Aldrich Plan was dealt a fatal blow in 1912, when Democrats won the White House and Congress. Nonetheless, President Woodrow Wilson believed that the Aldrich plan would suffice with a few modifications. The plan became the basis for the Federal Reserve Act, which was proposed by Senator Robert Owen in May 1913. The primary difference between the two bills was the transfer of control of the Board of Directors (called the Federal Open Market Committee in the Federal Reserve Act) to the government. The bill passed Congress on December 23, 1913, on a mostly partisan basis, with most Democrats voting "yea '' and most Republicans voting "nay ''.
Key laws affecting the Federal Reserve have been:
The Federal Reserve records and publishes large amounts of data. A few websites where data is published are at the Board of Governors Economic Data and Research page, the Board of Governors statistical releases and historical data page, and at the St. Louis Fed 's FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) page. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) examines many economic indicators prior to determining monetary policy.
Some criticism involves economic data compiled by the Fed. The Fed sponsors much of the monetary economics research in the U.S., and Lawrence H. White objects that this makes it less likely for researchers to publish findings challenging the status quo.
The net worth of households and nonprofit organizations in the United States is published by the Federal Reserve in a report titled Flow of Funds. At the end of the third quarter of fiscal year 2012, this value was $64.8 trillion. At the end of the first quarter of fiscal year 2014, this value was $95.5 trillion.
The most common measures are named M0 (narrowest), M1, M2, and M3. In the United States they are defined by the Federal Reserve as follows:
The Federal Reserve stopped publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, saying that the data cost a lot to collect but did not provide significantly useful information. The other three money supply measures continue to be provided in detail.
The Personal consumption expenditures price index, also referred to as simply the PCE price index, is used as one measure of the value of money. It is a United States - wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption. Using a variety of data including United States Consumer Price Index and U.S. Producer Price Index prices, it is derived from the largest component of the gross domestic product in the BEA 's National Income and Product Accounts, personal consumption expenditures.
One of the Fed 's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed 's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long - term measure of their success. Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent. There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific inflation targeting policy.
Most mainstream economists favor a low, steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities.
One of the stated goals of monetary policy is maximum employment. The unemployment rate statistics are collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and like the PCE price index are used as a barometer of the nation 's economic health.
The Federal Reserve is self - funded. The vast majority (90 % +) of Fed revenues come from open market operations, specifically the interest on the portfolio of Treasury securities as well as "capital gains / losses '' that may arise from the buying / selling of the securities and their derivatives as part of Open Market Operations. The balance of revenues come from sales of financial services (check and electronic payment processing) and discount window loans. The Board of Governors (Federal Reserve Board) creates a budget report once per year for Congress. There are two reports with budget information. The one that lists the complete balance statements with income and expenses as well as the net profit or loss is the large report simply titled, "Annual Report ''. It also includes data about employment throughout the system. The other report, which explains in more detail the expenses of the different aspects of the whole system, is called "Annual Report: Budget Review ''. These detailed comprehensive reports can be found at the Board of Governors ' website under the section "Reports to Congress ''
One of the keys to understanding the Federal Reserve is the Federal Reserve balance sheet (or balance statement). In accordance with Section 11 of the Federal Reserve Act, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System publishes once each week the "Consolidated Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks '' showing the condition of each Federal Reserve bank and a consolidated statement for all Federal Reserve banks. The Board of Governors requires that excess earnings of the Reserve Banks be transferred to the Treasury as interest on Federal Reserve notes.
Below is the balance sheet as of July 6, 2011 (in billions of dollars):
NOTE: The Fed balance sheet shown in this article has assets, liabilities and net equity that do not add up correctly. The Fed balance sheet is missing the item "Reserve Balances with Federal Reserve Banks '' which would make the figures balance.
In addition, the balance sheet also indicates which assets are held as collateral against Federal Reserve Notes.
The Federal Reserve System has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1913. Critique of the organization and system has come from sources such as writers, journalists, economists, and financial institutions as well as politicians and various government employees. Criticisms include transparency, doubt of efficacy due to what is seen by some as poor historical performance and traditionalist concerns about the debasement of the value of the dollar. From the beginning, the Federal Reserve has been the subject of many popular conspiracy theories, that typically link the Fed to numerous other supposed conspiracies.
Bundled references
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.